Nikah marriage wedding impact of sex education on student family health

International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Research. Special issue Vol 1(1), February2014

International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Research. Special issue Vol 1(1), 560-569, 2014

Available online at http: //www. Ijpbrjournal.com ISSN 2322-4002 ©2014 Victor Quest Publication

Impact of sex education on family health of students Fariborz Jabbari Fard*1, Hamid Reza Saeidi Aboeshghi2, Shiva Kad Khoda Zadeh3 4

Soheila Massoudi

1-MA in psychology, University of Medical Sciences of Shahr-e-Kord, Iran 2- MA in Family Counseling, Tehran University, Tehran, Iran 3-MA in psychology, Isfahan University, Isfahan, Iran 4- Social worker,lordegan

Abstract

Sex education can help people learn ideas and skills. Nowadays, human’s life has undergone rapid and dramatic changes in all aspects. Marriage, married life and sexual relationship are no exception. Sex education provides the opportunity to learn about sex and to prevent some of the relevant problems. People experience different problems due to various reasons, including insufficient knowledge of each other, sexuality, and spousal relationship. Sex education provides people with sexual information and awareness needed for creating a common goal, satisfying the needs, and balancing personal, family and social life. Investigating the effects of sex education on the prevention of sexual disorders, healthy sexual behavior, health behaviors, mental health, family health, and gender identity are of the objectives of the present study. This study is a quasi-experimental research and of posttest study with one group. Statistical sample of the study consists of 122 individuals (46 females and 76 males) of students in Applied-Scientific University of Lordegan, who were selected by stratified random sampling method. The tool to gather data was a questionnaire based on a five-point Likert scale. The reliability of tool was calculated

by Cronbach's alpha method (=85%). Results indicated that, sex education is effective in safe and healthy sexual behavior, mental health and preventing from sexual disorders, family health and appropriate gender identity. Furthermore, effect of sex education is not different between male and female students (p<0.0001).

Overall, sex education can be used to prevent sexual disorders, mental health, health behavior and gender identity appropriate for different social levels, especially the youth.

Keywords: sex education, family health, students

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International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Research. Special issue Vol 1(1), February2014

Introduction

Sexual behavior is an important aspect of quality of marital relations and means a combination of concepts, attitudes, experiences, activities, feelings and thoughts associated with it (Dennerstein, 2001). Sexual activity is physically beneficial to the health in marital relations. Sexual activity increases the testosterone secretion, helps muscles and bones strengthened, facilitates the endorphin secretion, and decreases physical pains (Vander Zanden, 1997). Such activity is also associated with couple’s tranquility, closeness, intimacy, increased satisfaction, reduced depression symptoms, and enhanced self-confidence (Buga, 1996). In today’s society, human life has changed rapidly and dramatically in all aspects. Marriage, married life, and sex are no exception. Sex education provides the opportunity to learn sexuality and sexual issues and to prevent some problems. People experience several problems because of various reasons, including inadequate knowledge of each other, sexuality, and spousal relationship. Sex education and family planning can help people achieve information, ideas and skills. Sex education provides people information about sexual subjects necessary for a common purpose, satisfies the needs and balances personal, family, and social life. Comprehensive sex education programs can be effective in preventing from sexual disorders, healthy sexual behavior, increasing healthy behaviors, providing mental health, gender identity and establishing family health (Berryman et al, 2002; Franken, 2002).

Sexual health education has faced with many challenges in most of cultures. Despite the fact that adolescents know the sexual health education as one of the most important educational needs, however, it is often controversial. School administrators indicate the fear of disapproval of parents or community as a major roadblock to provide sexual health education (Weaver et al, 2002). Many people, including teachers, principals and education officials are still not convinced about the need for sex education and preclude that such trainings are not able to teach sexual issues because they lack the necessary skills for such trainings. There are very few people around the world prepared for their sex life and it contributes to their vulnerability to rape, sexual abuse, pregnancy, sexually transmitted disease and AIDS (UNESCO, 2009). Most people around the world start their sexual activity at early adolescence. Reduction in age of sexual maturity and increase in age of marriage result in the increased the possibility of engaging in premarital sexual activity, and this may result in a lower age of onset of sexual activity and exposes them to various risks (Khakbazan, 2008).In our society and because of cultural and not religious reasons, most youth and adolescents don’t get proper information about the physical and psychological changes during the puberty and perhaps due to the acquisition of such information from uncertain and unsafe resources and encounter with serious sexual and psychological problems during their family life (Malek Afzali, 2009).

Despite this popular belief that sexual health education encourages adolescents to have sexual relations, the results from various studies show that the absence of sex education doesn’t prevent only the sexual relations, but establishes and forms wrong beliefs and improper views among Iranian youths. In the absence of sex education, young people come to provocative magazines, websites and TV programs to receive sexual information (Refaei Shirpak, 2007). In Iran, studies on parents’ views toward the sex education to adolescents and young adults have shown mixed results.

Some studies indicate the parents’ consent (Statistics center of Iran) and the other represents the parents’ negative attitude to such teachings to youths (Jalali Aria, 2010). According to the reports from World Health Organization, sexual education programs are considered as a necessity both for people who have not yet started their sexual activity and for those who have started it.

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Comprehensive sex education both reduces the number of unwanted and unplanned births and prevents diseases that are transmitted through sexual activity and sexual relationship.

Considering the content of a comprehensive sex education, it should be discussed six areas: 1) human development, including the anatomy and physiology of human reproduction, 2) relationships, including relationships with friends and family, and marital relations, 3) personal skills, including values, decision making, communication and negotiation with others, 4) sexual behavior, including sexual desire and prevention of sexual relations, 5) sexual health, including preventive methods for pregnancy, HIV, sexual abuse and sexually transmitted diseases, 6) culture and society, including gender roles, gender and religion (Reis and Herz, 1989). Since most cases of mortalities, sexual diseases and abnormalities in mothers and their babies are preventable, and most of disorders result from the lack of information by mothers on various fields of women health, thus mothersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; unawareness of sexual issues before, during and after the childbirth, child care and family planning is the problem which directly affects the development of every country (Saberi, 1999). Sex education programs and family planning are the discussions proposed to enhance the publicâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s knowledge and awareness of family health and decrease sexual risks at all social levels, so it is natural that the procedure of sex education and family planning depends on the knowledge and awareness of every particular social group.

The sex education will vary in schools, universities and industries in terms of content and format. Education for students in different disciplines in universities is considered as important training, because they can transfer and teach these training methods and skills to others in the community (Zanjani et al, 2000). The objective of sex education is to provide healthy behaviors in order to preserve the health of the society and to confront sexual risks and sexually transmitted diseases (Bhuiya et al, 2000). Baron & Byrne as well as Reis & Herz pointed out that adolescents and young adults need accurate and proper information on sexual issues. Cultural forms and social attitudes should be given attention in sex education. Education in this field should be proportional to age, cultural and social conditions, and gender (Berryman et al, 2002). In sex education, the cognitive processes and the level of understanding of individuals can be important in avoiding risky behaviors.

People with higher cognitive ability can adopt better health strategies to prevent sexual problems (Pinkerton, 1992). In this study, it is meant by the family health that family problems in terms of sexual issues are minimized in different dimensions after the sex education.

According to previous theories, six hypotheses were proposed and tested in this study: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6)

Sex education will be effective in health behavior.

Sex education will be effective in healthy sexual behavior.

Sex education will be effective in mental health and prevention of sexual disorders.

Sex education will be effective in family health.

Effect of sex education will be different between male and female students.

Sex education will be effective in gender identity.

Method and materials The present study is a quasi-experimental research and of posttest study with one group.

From among 550 students who were volunteers to participate in the research, 122 students (46 girls and 76 boys) in Applied-Scientific University of Lordegan were selected using stratified random sampling. The students came from various fields such as public relations, accounting, and information technology and were studying at Masters or bachelor level. Their average age was between 19 and 28. After obtaining a written consent, 122 selected students were divided into two groups: a 46-female student group and a 76-male student group. Each group was taught the content of sex education by a

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International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Research. Special issue Vol 1(1), February2014

physician (male) and two male and female psychologists (teaching for men and women separately) in 5 weeks and received a weekly 2-hour session at the University of Applied-Scientific University of Lordegan. The education consisted of lecture, educational movies, and power points. The research samples responded to the questionnaire and data collection tools after the sex education program.

To gather data, a questionnaire on sex information was used. In addition to demographic characteristics and personal information, this questionnaire measures the effect of sex education on the prevention of sexual disorder and is scored on five-point Likert scale. The questionnaire consists of 20 items, and the subjects expressed their views on sex education by choosing the answers as very high (5 points), high (4 points), to some extent (3 points), low (2 points) and very low (1 point).

The maximum and minimum scores on this scale are 100 and 20, respectively. The questionnaire measured the effect of sex education on health behavior, healthy sexual behavior, mental health and prevention of sexual disorders, family Health, and appropriate gender identity by 3, 4, 5, 5, and 3 questions, respectively. The expert panel was used to determine the content validity, and its criterion validity was determined by its conformity with the objectives of sex education. Mahmoudi & et al indicated the reliability of the questionnaire to be .84, using Cronbach's Alpha method.

Results and findings At first, the research hypotheses are represented here, and then the results are examined.

Hypothesis 1- Sex education will be effective in health behavior (Table 1).

As seen in Table 1, since the calculated t (t=10.072) at a confidence level of 99% (α=1%) and degree of freedom df=91 is greater than t in the critical table (t=2.617), so the null hypothesis is rejected and the research hypothesis is confirmed, indicating that sex education has effect on health behavior.

Hypothesis 2- Sex education will be effective in healthy sexual behavior.

Since the calculated t (t=12.125) at a confidence level of 99% (α=1%) and degree of freedom df=91 is greater than t in the critical table (t=2.617), so the null hypothesis is rejected and the research hypothesis is confirmed, indicating that sex education is effective in healthy sexual behavior.

Hypothesis 3- Sex education will affect mental health and prevents sexual disorders.

Since the calculated t (t=9.851) at a confidence level of 99% (α=1%) and degree of freedom df=91 is greater than t in the critical table (t=2.617), so the research hypothesis is confirmed, indicating that sex education is effective in mental health and prevention of sexual disorders.

Hypothesis 4- Sex education will be effective in family Health.

Table (1) shows the results of testing the fourth hypothesis. Since the calculated t (t=8.520) at a confidence level of 99% (α=1%) and degree of freedom df=91 is greater than t in the critical table (t=2.617), so it is confirmed that sex education is effective in family Health.

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International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Research. Special issue Vol 1(1), February2014

Hypothesis 5- Sex education will be effective in gender identity.

As shown in Table (1), the calculated t (t=8.184) at a confidence level of 99% (α=1%) and degree of freedom df=91 is greater than t in the critical table (t=2.617), so the null hypothesis is rejected and the research hypothesis is confirmed, indicating that sex education is effective in gender identity.

Hypothesis 6- Effect of sex education will be different between male and female students.

Table 1- Summary of statistical analysis of effect of sex education Index Number

Mean

Standard Deviation

Standard Error

t

1

122

3.92

0.651

0.074

10.072

2

122

3.81

0.778

0.81

12.125

3

122

4.01

0.775

0.080

9.851

4

122

3.79

0.786

0.083

8.520

5

122

3.75

1.746

0.181

8.184

Degree of Freedom

Significance Level

91

0.0001

hypothesis

Table 2- Summary of statistical analysis of the different effect of sex education on boys and girls Index Number

Mean

Standard Deviation

Standard Error

Boy

76

18.2225

3.6

0.48393

Girl

46

18.5521

3.07

0.50251

Degree of Freedom

Significance Level

90

0.001

t

Groups

0.654

Results in Table (2) shows that since the calculated t (t=0.654) at a confidence level of 99% (α=1%) and degree of freedom df=91 is smaller than t in the critical table (t=2.617), so the null hypothesis is confirmed and the research hypothesis, indicating that effect of sex education isn’t different between male and female students, is rejected.

Discussion and conclusion

Sexual desire is of human inherent needs so that Maslow (1976, cited in Vandermassen, 2004) classified it as a physical need or primary vital need. It can be also said on sexuality that although

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International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Research. Special issue Vol 1(1), February2014

married happiness is just partly associated with sexual relations; however, this relation may be of the most important reasons for married happiness or married unhappiness in life (Vandermassen, 2004).

Along with the global changes, Iranian society has faced considerable cultural and social changes, thus, sex education to adolescents and youths remains inevitable (21 articles). Results from the studies in the country on lack of knowledge and accurate attitudes of adolescents and youths toward sexual health issues show that adolescents’ and youths’ awareness and knowledge of sexuality is low and such knowledge and attitude can be improved by educational interventions (Zare et al, 2006; Olfati and Aligholi, 2008; Ghahremani et al, 2008).

A study by Maalek & et al in Iran showed that students consider their friends as the first resource for sex information and the family stands at sixth rank (Malek et al, 2010). It is while for Tanzanian youths, the first resource for sex information is personnel of health organizations, then parents, and their belief in the accuracy of sex information from their friends is at low level (Masatu, 2003).

One of the reasons for the necessity of sex education is social damaging conditions, resulted from cultural and social changes and developments. Nowadays, premarital free relationship between girls and boys is a new phenomenon which didn’t exist before in any period with such extensiveness both at behavioral and attitudinal levels (Movahhed and Abbasi Shavazi, 2006).

Expansion of such relations can increasingly make marriage and family structure face fundamental challenges (Teachman, 2003). Increase in sexual issues among adolescents is another reason stated for the necessity of sex education. According to Garmaroudi & et al. (2010), the rate of sexual relation between high school students in Tehran, both girls and boys, was estimated as 20% (Garmaroudi, 2010). Unmet needs of adolescents around the world in having access to contraceptive methods is estimated more than twice the adults. High rates of pregnancy and unsafe abortion is another evidence of widespread unmet need for contraceptive methods among this group. According to the UN Population Fund, at least a quarter of the twenty million unsafe abortions, which is performed each year across the world are related to 19-15 years old girls (UNFPA, 2008). Of other sexual health problems among adolescents and young adults is an increase in cases of HIV infection through sexual intercourse. Recent reports from Iran indicate an increase in cases of HIV infection through sexual contact (Iranian Students’ News Agency).

The results from the first hypothesis showed that sex education has an effect on health behavior. This result is consistent with the results by other researchers. Pinkerton and Abramson (Pinkerton and Abramson, 1992) in their study showed that sex education is effective in health behaviors. Hassanzadeh & et al. (2005) have proved the effect of sex education on health behaviors, healthy sexual behavior, mental health and the prevention of sexual disorders, family health, and gender identity (Hasan Zadeh, 2005). The results from the second hypothesis indicated that sex education is effective in healthy sexual behavior. This result is consistent with the results and findings by other researchers such as Baron and Byrne (2004) and Rahmani (2008). Differences in sexual behavior between men and women are determined greatly through sexual roles and cultural variables (Khamseh, 2006). Sex education if delivered in time and appropriately can play role in controlling improper sexual desires, providing healthy sexual behaviors, reducing sex problems and preventing sexually transmitted diseases.

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International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Research. Special issue Vol 1(1), February2014

The results from the third hypothesis showed that sex education is effective in mental health and prevention of sexual disorders. According to reliable literature, after meeting human mental needs, sexual relation is formed and consequently proper mental and emotional relations are developed securing the family health (Navabinejad, 2002). Other studies have reached similar conclusions. The results from the studies by researches also indicate that, sex education plays role not only in physical and sexual health but also in mental health and prevention of sexual disorders.

Moreover, comprehensive sex education as well as family planning play important role in mental health, prevention of sexual perversion, prevention of unwanted and unplanned pregnancy, awareness of risky behaviors, and choosing suitable contraceptive methods (Bhuiya, 2000).

The results from the fourth hypothesis suggest that sex education is effective in family health.

A study accentuated the importance and plenteous effect of sexual relations and couplesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; marital relations on family health (Danesh and Nejabatian, 2005). The findings of the research conducted by Baron and Byrne are consistent with the results from the hypothesis of this study. The results from this study also suggest that sex education plays an important role in family health, reduction of sexual violence in the family, prevention of sexually transmitted diseases, a positive attitude towards sexuality, sexual pleasure, reduction of conflicts in the family, and trying sexual pleasurable experiences.

The results from the fifth hypothesis showed that sex education is effective in gender identity.

Anderson believes that sexual desire is a formative procedure consisting of biological processes and social structures developed at individual and group levels in order to create gender identity (Wischmann, 2005). The result of this hypothesis is consistent with the one by Santrock. He also pointed out in his research that sex education is essential for proper gender identity (Santrock, 1997).

In fact, motivation for sex education is not the existence of sexual problems such as ADIS, hepatitis, and unwanted pregnancy, but because humans are human and some parts of their individual and social identity are directly related to the sexual issues, the sex education should be given to them (Howra 2005).

The results from the sixth hypothesis showed that the effect of sex education isn't different between male and female students. However, the reports indicate that because the sex education is a necessity for all persons, whether male or female, therefore, sex education program should be a comprehensive model. Such education should be appropriate to their gender, age, level of knowledge, sociocultural background, and be presented at the appropriate time. Sex activity and gender is an important part of life. Maybe in the past, such behaviors occurred based on trial and error and not based on true knowledge. But now, in order for a successful marriage to be realized, the sex education is considered as an important determinant. Considering the spread of sexual diseases, an increase in sexual disorders increased the rate of sexually transmitted diseases through sexual activities, AIDS, etc and it is necessarily focused on sex education (Teachman, 2003).

Sex education can play an important role in the prevention of unwanted pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases, development of gender identity and sexual behavior, and healthy social performance. Since efforts in Iran to target issues related to fertility health according to religious values can serve as important modeling for other Muslims and religious countries, the results of this study may be useful in designing sex education programs in those countries (DeJong et al, 2005).

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Acknowledgments

We appreciate greatly the cooperation of the staff of Applied-Scientific University of Lordegan and students from different disciplines who participated in this research.

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International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Research. Special issue Vol 1(1), 570-576, 2014

Available online at http: //www. Ijpbrjournal.com ISSN 2322-4002 ©2014 Victor Quest Publication

The effectiveness of problem solving skill training in couples’ psychological well-being and conflicts 1

Ommolbanin Baghernejad*

1- M.A. of Clinical Psychology, Islamic Azad University, Sari Branch, Mazandaran, Iran

Abstract The present study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of problem solving skill training in couples’ psychological well-being and conflicts, living in Babol city, Mazandaran, Iran, in the year 2013. Hence, the study employed a quasi-experimental study with pre-test, post-test and control group design. The population of the study included all the women with marital problems who referred to counseling centers of Babol. A sample of 30 individuals was randomly drawn from these three counseling centers and was assigned to two control and experimental groups, each of which included 15 participants. The measurement instruments included problem-solving skill training package, Reef's psychological well-being questionnaire and marital adjustment scale (DAS) which were completed by all of the subjects in both groups in the pre-test and post-test phases. The participants in the experimental group underwent one month of 120-minute problem solving skill training sessions, while the control group didn't receive any intervention. The findings of this study showed no significant difference between the two groups under the study in the pre-test phase regarding the subscales of couples' satisfaction, couples' relationship, couples' agreement and couples' expression of love. However, significant difference was observed between the two groups after receiving the intervention and post-test. It was also found that problem solving skill training had a significant impact on couples' adjustment.

Keywords: Problem solving skill, psychological well-being, couple’s conflict Introduction Family is the first and the most important biological-humanistic unit in different human societies. Emotional space, fundamental values and the dominant ways of communicating in the family have profound impact on the formation of personality cylindrical of its members.

Family as a packed interactive system is relatively dependent on its environment and in constant connection and mutual influence of the environment. In the past, the formation of a new family was counted as a ring of a pervasive communication circle, i.e. extended family. However, nowadays a nuclear family is based on the couple's relationship and they must find a solution to overcome the crisis in a discussing process and providing practical solutions (Piramrdi, 2000). Hence, family adaptation has fundamental importance in the family. One of the most common concepts is adjustment and marital satisfaction for determining and demonstrating the relationship between happiness and the stability extent of a relationship. Marital adjustment is a condition in which the

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International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Research. Special issue Vol 1(1), February2014

couples feel happiness and satisfaction with each other most of the time (Ahmadi, 2005). Satisfying relationships among couples can be measured by considering the mutual interest, the level of caring for each other, acceptance and understanding each other. Marital satisfaction actually provides an overall assessment of the current situation.

This component is a developmental process that occurs over a couple's life and its requirements include tastes' adaptation, personal attributes' identification, establishing rules of behavior and communication patterns (Olia, 2006). Marital adjustment helps enhance the person's overall adjustment. That means that couples who have high marital adjustment have higher selfsteam and are more compatible in social relationships. Marital adjustment is the result of marital process and includes factors such as expression of love, mutual respect, satisfactory sex, attitude's similarity, adequate ways of communication and problem solving. Family is a healthy tissue for growth and repairment and its main duty is to protect individuality and at the same time creating a sense of belonging among its members (Minoochin, 2002; Minoochin and Fishman, 2002). In fact, every person is born and educated in the family's social matrix and it is only in this empirical framework that one becomes mature and stable (Ackerman,1 982). Minoochin, Montaloo, Gorni, Rozman and Shomer (1997, cited in Goldenberg & Goldenberg, 2003) attributes some characteristics to the poorfunctioning families including intertwined families, discrete families, families with a marginal man, families where both parents have an emotional connection, and finally families with young parents.

But the key point that shows up regarding the mentioned characteristics of the pleasant and unpleasant functioning families is the complementary functioning of the couples for matching and quality of the two-strain-bilateral relationship.

These are the two factors that determine the level of life satisfaction and marital adjustment which are also the key factors for the performance of family harmony (Mousavi, 2003; Pruchaskavnorkras, 2002, Hale, 2002; Minoochin, 2002). Much research has been done on the compatibility of the couples, from which we can mention the study by Goudarzi (2012) entitled "a systematic review of the effectiveness of behavioral-systematic marital therapy to increase marital adjustmentâ&#x20AC;?. The results of this study showed that behavioral-systematic marital therapy is effective in the levels of marital maladjustment. The results of this study indicate the effects of systemic couple therapy - treatment on the amount of inconsistency of marital influences. Arab Baferany (2012) in his study entitled "The effectiveness of neural - verbal planning in marital adjustment", concluded that this training was effective in the marital adjustment of couples, and no significant difference was observed between the two groups. Shahmohamadi Qaharreh (2012) in his investigation on the effectiveness of communication skills training in increasing the marital adjustment, concluded that communication skills training has positive effect on the overall adjustment and also that communication skills training has positive impact on the variables of mutual agreement and love expression and leads to the increase in each of the mentioned indicators.

Different psychological perspectives have dealt with this variable from various perspectives and have also explained the maladjustment and attempted to improve the marital adjustment.

Considering this issue, one of the methods of marital adjustment is the ability of problem-solving skills. Problem solving is a cognitive - behavioral process that is self-directed and tries to find effective and adaptive solutions for everyday life's problems. Thus, problem solving is a conscious, rational, effortful and purposeful process (Zoril, 2001). Adding the adjective "social" to problem solving, means dealing with any kind of problem that occurs in the context of human's social life, like financial problems, personal problems (e.g. cognitive, emotional, behavioral and health) inter-personal problems (e.g. marital, family) and social problems (e.g. crime and social harm), all of which have social aspects and require knowledge of social problem solving skill (Zoril, 2001). Problem's solution is a coping response. When a person tries to find a solution to a problem, he actually does a deal.

This dealing can be effective or ineffective.

A Confrontation is effective for solving a problem, but of course it is solved in a way that the maximum positive results are obtained and the minimum negative consequences occur. When people

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International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Research. Special issue Vol 1(1), February2014

face a problem, they do not always see it as a problem. Sometimes people see their problems as difficulty or an unsolvable problem. Such an approach to the problem is the first obstacle to solve the problem (Fata & Mohammad Khani, 2011). Problem solving skills training highlights the importance of cognitive operations in understanding, mediation and conflict resolution within and between the individuals. Successful coping and adaptation to the social environment requires a set of interpersonal problem solving skills that cannot be measured with the use of conventional IQ tests and personality tests (Fata, Mohammad Khani, 2012). Training problem-solving process involves adopting complex and interdependent skills training strategies. Various definitions of these strategies have been presented, but there are common elements in all of these definitions that will form the basis of the method of problem solving training.

Firstly, the person learns sensitivity and orientation towards the problem. The other component is identifying, defining and facing the problem (Fata, 2012; Blak Hersen, cited in Izadi, 2005). In this phase, one evaluates the problem and identifies the factors that can cause a problematic situation and determines the specific and realistic goals. The third component is related to the production of alternative solutions. During this procedure, valuable potential solutions will be identified and several different options will be characterized using a fluid mind. The individual takes out a new idea from what he has and tries to look at the issue from different dimensions. The fourth component involves decision making. In this phase one chooses a specific solution that can effectively alter the problem or solve it. Finally, the person is trained to choose the solution that has the most positive outcome. Producing solution brings us to the final phase which involves applying the solution and observing and evaluating its consequences. In the final stage of problem solving training, the individual implements the behavior which is essential for problem solving and observes and evaluates the results obtained from applying the solution (Fata and Mohammad Khani, 2012).

Considering the conducted studies on the effectiveness of problem solving skills we can refer to the investigation conducted by Khodabakhsh et al. (2012) on the effectiveness of training life skills in increasing the couples' adjustment. In that study, they found that training life skills can significantly increase women's marital adjustment, while no change was observed in the control group. Farsani et al (2012), in their study on the impact of life skills training on marital satisfaction and adjustment of married women after the intervention reached the conclusion that there is a significant difference between the two groups of control and experimental in terms of couple's satisfaction and adjustment and the degree of marital satisfaction and adjustment of the experimental group in comparison to the pre-test and the control group increased significantly. Haji Abulzadeh. (2007) in his research showed that communication skills training improves marital satisfaction, adjustment and love expression between the couplea. Farahbakhsh (2004) also showed that there is a deep connection among the behavioral skills, problem solving skills, and marital adjustment. Research suggests that spouses experiencing marital conflicts and maladjustments have defects in life skills and ineffective communication patterns (Laver, 2005).

If a couple doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t learn life skills such as problem-solving skills and conflict resolution, conflict will continue to exist in verbal and then behavioral forms and then the gradual destruction of the compatibility of the couple begins (Douglas, 1995). The other factors that affect the optimum functioning of the couples are psychological well-being and life satisfaction. Feeling of happiness and well-being throughout the life is one of the positive attitude components of people in where they live.

In fact, experiencing happiness and life satisfaction are the ultimate goals of living in this world, and feeling sad and unsatisfied are the common obstacles in the way of doing the task (Anas, 1993; cited in Lagin & Hubener,2001). Feeling a sense of well-being means the one's overall assessment of his life that is formed based on one's personal goals and the extent of accessing them. This factor is considered as one of the most important psychological needs of human life. Thatâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s why it has a major impact on the formation of human's character and in general, human's life. It always affects one's performance at different levels (Huebner, Funk and Gilman, 2000). Considering what was mentioned above, this study aimed to find whether or not problem solving skills training can significantly affect mental well-being and marital adjustment of couples and increase the mental well-being of the couples and reduce the incompatibility?

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International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Research. Special issue Vol 1(1), February2014

Method and materials This study is a quasi-experimental study, with pretest - posttest and control group design.

The population consisted of all women with marital problems who referred to Babol's counseling centers. The population of the study included all the women with marital problems who referred to counseling centers of Babol. A sample of 30 individuals was randomly drawn from these three counseling centers and was assigned to two control and experimental groups, each of which included 15 participants. Measurement instruments included the package of problem solving skills training, Reef's psychological well-being questionnaire (RSPWB-18) and also marital adjustment scale (DAS) questionnaire that were filled out by the participants in both groups and during pre-test and post-test phases. The participants in the experimental group underwent one month of 120-minute problem solving skill training sessions, while the control group didn't receive any intervention.

Marital Adjustment Scale (DAS) was developed by Spinner (1976) to measure the adjustment between the couple or any two partners who live together. It consists of 32 items to assess the marital quality from the perspective of the couple or any two people who live together. Factor analysis showed that this scale measures the four dimensions of a relationship: marital satisfaction, marital cohesion, consensus, and marital love. The total score of the sum of the scores is from zero to 151.

Higher scores indicate greater consistency and better relationship and scores below average, reflect lower level of adjustment (Sanayi, 2000). Spinner (1976) estimated the validity of this scale in the total score to be equal to .96, which represents a remarkable estimated internal consistency. He has also estimated the subscales' internal consistency, from good to excellent, which includes marital satisfaction, marital cohesion, marital agreement and love expression to be equal to .94, .81,.90 and 0.73 (Abbasi, 2004).

Reefâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s psychological well-being (RSPWB-18) questionnaire was designed and developed in the past decade. Reef and Kiz introduced the psychological well-being pattern which was widely investigated by the researchers. Psychological well-being is a multi-componential concept which includes self-reception, positive relations with others, autonomy, mastering the environment, purposeful living, and personal growth. This questionnaire which is designed for adults, consists of 18 items that is scored on a 6-point Likert scale (from 1 = totally disagree to 6= totally agree). To obtain the total score, the scores for each item are summed up, and overall psychological well-being score is obtained from the sum of the scores of 18 items. The internal consistency coefficient of the subscales was reported to be .50.

Implementation of the independent variable (teaching problem solving skills): In this study, an intervention program of group problem solving skills training is considered as the independent variable and the extent of psychological well-being and marital adjustment are considered as dependent variables. After administrating the pre-test on the experimental and the control group, the participants in the experimental group participated four 120-minute sessions of problem-solving skills training and received the necessary training, while the control group did not receive any training and skills. The first session was devoted to introduction and familiarity with the group and expressing the rules and discussing the importance of problem solving skills, people's orientation toward solving the problem and identifying the problem-focused or emotion-focused ways of solving problems. Second session was devoted to strengthening the orientation, training people to identify the ways of confronting the problems, explaining the negative automatic thoughts, identifying the negative and positive thoughts in relation to that problem. Third session was devoted to giving an exact definition of the problem, prioritizing the problem, making a list of various solutions without any prejudice or prejudgment, evaluating the proposed solutions and choosing the best solution. Fourth session was devoted to decision-making and the implementation of the selected solution, emphasizing on a goalmean thinking and evaluation. Fifth Session offered summarizing the contents and reviewing the processes before finishing decision-making (Fata and Mohammad Khani, 2012). And finally, the psychological well-being and marital adjustment questionnaires (post-test) were administered to subjects and covariance analysis was used to analyze the data.

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International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Research. Special issue Vol 1(1), February2014

Results and findings Subjects included 30 women referred to psychological centers in Babol who were assigned into two groups of control and experimental with informed consent. The subjects were with the mean age of 25 years, the minimum age of 20 years and the maximum age of 39 years.

Table 1- Results of multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) on pre-test scores between the control and experimental groups on psychological well-being scale and compatibility of couples Variables

Average Experiment Control

Standard deviation Experiment Control

F

sig

Sum of Total

54.9

58.4

8.2

10.6

1.03

.318

Sexual Satisfaction

23.2

24.6

6.5

6.2

.393

.533

Marital Relationship

.8

7.8

4.3

1.8

.017

.896

Marital Agreement

20.5

22.5

6.3

8.4

.537

.470

Expression of Love Psychological WellBeing

3.2 66

3.4 72.6

2.5 13.8

2.6 12.7

.045 1.88

.833 .181

Control group, n = 15, Experiment group, n=15 As shown in Table 1, the average of the two groups in the scale of marital adjustment is 58.4 ± 54.9; 24.6 ± 23.2 in the marital satisfaction scale; 24.6 ± 8 in marital solidarity; 22.5 ± 20.5 in marital agreement component; 3.4 ± 3.2 in love expression component, and 72.6 ± 66 in the psychological well-being. No significant difference was observed between control and experimental groups in other scales.

Table 2- Results of multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) on post-test scores Between the control and experimental groups on psychological well-being scale and compatibility of couples Variables Sum of Total

Average Experiment Control 3.143 3.63

Standard deviation Experiment Control 6.11 7.11

F

sig

3.349

000

Sexual Satisfaction

6.46

6.25

1.6

7.6

5.93

000

Marital Relationship

21

5.10

5.1

4.1

6.384

000

Marital Agreement

4.64

5.23

8.6

4.7

4.328

000

Expression of Love

2.11

4.4

.941

8.1

3.158

000

Psychological WellBeing

9.83

8.69

8.14

7.11

64.8

.005

Control group, n = 15, Experiment group, n=15 As Table 2 illustrates, the average of the two groups in the scale of marital adjustment is 63.3 ± 143.3; 25.06 ± 46.6 in the marital satisfaction scale; 10.5 ± 21 in marital solidarity; 23.5 ± 64.4 in marital agreement component; 4.4 ± 11.2 in love expression component and 69.8 ± 83.9 in the psychological well-being. Significant differences have been observed between control and experimental groups in other scales. This indicates that, problem solving training succeeded in improving the psychological well-being and adjustment skills of spouses.

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International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Research. Special issue Vol 1(1), February2014

Discussion and conclusion This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of problem solving skills in psychological wellbeing and marital adjustment of women who referred to counseling centers in Babol city in the year 2013. The attempt was taken to find whether or not problem solving skill can improve the psychological well-being and marital adjustment of women in their marital lives or no? Findings of this study didn't show a significant difference in pre-test and the difference in the mean was not significant.

However, after applying the independent variables, i.e., the problem-solving skills training in post-test, significant differences were observed in all the scales. As tables 1 and 2 show, the mean of psychological well-being and marital adjustment scores of the experimental group improved from 66 to 83.9, respectively, before and after the training. Moreover, the mean of marital adjustment has improved from 143.3 to 54.9 and this difference is significant between the analyses of covariance with the removal of the pre-test effect at the level of .05. However, little difference was observed in the scores of psychological well-being and marital compatibility between the pre-test, post- test in control group. Not much improvement was observed in the post-test. In general, it was concluded that the problem solving skills can be effective in psychological well-being and marital adjustment of women and may improve these components.

The findings of this study are consistent with the results obtained by Khodabakhsh et al.

(2012), Farsani et al. (2012), Haji Abulzadeh (2007), Farahbahsh (2004), Shahmohammady Qahareh (2012), Arab Baferany (2012) and Goudarzi (2012), which showed that life skills training can be effective in psychological well-being and decrease of marital conflicts and maladjustments and improvement of couples' satisfaction. The findings of this study can be interpreted regarding the problem solving and psychological well-being improvement in marital life, which emphasizes the importance of the knowledge of skills and the reasons of the emergence of problems and helps people learn the skills that enable them to solve their problems. This study attempted to provide trainings that enable spouses to overcome their problems and marital maladjustments, and ultimately, increase the emotional adjustment of couples.

Learning problem solving skills training provides effective solutions while confronting a problem, thus, it increases the satisfaction and happiness of the couples in their marital lives.

Womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s dominance on problem solving skills, not only makes the family more resilient in confronting the unpleasant challenges and opportunities, but also increases their abilities in troubleshooting and resolving the stressful events. It is recommended that, this type of research be conducted on larger groups and also on men, to obtain similar and more generalizable results.

References Ackerman N, 1982. The family approach to marital disorder in the strength of family therapy. Selected paper of N. W. Ackerman; Edited by: D. Bloch & R. Simon, NY: Brunner-Mazel.

Ahmadi H, Fathi Ashtiani A, Navabi-Nejad S, 2005. Underlying factors, personal and effective bilateral communication on marital adjustment. Journal of Family Research. 1(3): 231-237.

Arab Baferany H, et al, 2012. Effectiveness of the training program in marital couples counseling centers in Isfahan city. Quarterly of New Research in Psychology. 28.

Abbasi F, 2004. Effect of a cognitive approach on teaching communication skills - behavioral marital adjustment in Bushehr city. Master's thesis consulting, Islamic Azad University, Rudehen.

Blak Alan S, Hersen M, 2005. Culture and health behavior practices. Translated by S. Izadi and F. Maher. Tehran: Roshd Publication.

Douglass I V, Frazier M and Douglass R. 1995. The Marital Problems Questionnaire MPQ, A short screening instrument for marital therapy. Journal of Family Issues, 17: 386-407.

Farahbakhsh K, 2004. Comparison of the effectiveness of couple therapy techniques of Ellis and Glasser theories and their combination in the decrease of marital conflict. PhD thesis.

Allameh Tabatabai University, Tehran.

Fata L S, Mohammad Khani 2012. Learning life skills. Tehran:Miankoshak pblication .

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Goldnberg A, Goldnberg H, 2003. Family therapy, translated by H. Hussein Shahi Brovati, S. Naqshbandi. Arjmand E. Tehran: Ravan Publication.

Farsani Z, et al. 2012, The impact of life skills education on marital satisfaction and adjustment of married women living in Farsan. Journal of Counseling and Family Therapy. 2(3).

Goudarzi M, Boustanipour A, 2012. Effectiveness of couple therapy system â&#x20AC;&#x201C; behavioral in the increase of marital adjustment. Journal of Family Psychotherapy Counseling. 2(3).

Hey Lee J, 2002. Family Psychotherapy: Introduction and translation Sanaei. Tehran: Amir Kabir Publication.

Huebner E S, Funk B A, Gilman R, 2000. Cross-sectional and longitudinal psychosocial correlates of adolescent life satisfaction reports. Canadian Journal of School Psychology. 16: 53-64.

Haji Abulzadeh N, 2007. The effect of communication skills training, cognitive approach, Master's thesis, Faculty of Humanities, University of Isfahan.

Khodabakhsh et al, 2012. Effectiveness Life skills training group style in the increase marital adjustment of married women in Tehran. Journal of Culture - Education for Women and Families. 5(20).

Loughin J E, Huebner E S, 2001. Life experience locus of control and school satisfaction in adolescence. Social Indicators Research. 55: 156-183.

Lower L M, 2005 .Couples with young children. In: M. Harway. Handbook of couplesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; therapy. New York: Wiley. 6- 78.

Minoochin S, 2002. Families and family therapy: introduction and practice. Translated by Bagher Sanaei, Tehran: Amir Kabir Publication.

Minoochin S, Fishman Ch, 2002. Family therapy techniques. Translated by Farshad Bahari & Farah Sya ehran: Roshd Publication.

Mousavi A S, 2003. Functional family therapy: the systems approach, Tehran: Center for Women's Studies. Al-zahra University.

Olia N, 2006. Effect of marital enrichment on satisfaction of couples living in Isfahan city. Master's thesis. Education and Psychology Faculty, Isfahan University.

Prvchashka J, Nvrkras, 2002. Theories of psychotherapy, translated by Y. Seyyed Mohammadi, Tehran: Roshd Publication.

Piramrdi S, 2000. Key theoretical concepts in family therapy. Isfahan: Homam.

Sanayi B, 2000. Measures of family and marriage. Tehran: Besat Publication.

Shahmohamadi Qaharreh, A., Darvizeh, Z. 2012. Effectiveness of communication skills training in increasing the marital adjustment of couples. Journal of Addiction Research.

Zoril T J, Nezu A M, 2001. Problem-solving therapies. In K.S. Dobson. Handbook of cognitivebehavioral therapies. New York: The Guilford Press.

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International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Research. Special issue Vol 1(1), 577-582, 2014

Available online at http:// www. ijpbrjournal.com ISSN 2322-4002 ©2014 Victor Quest Publication

The prediction of risky Behaviors based on personality factors among HIV+ persons 1

2

3

Karimzadeh Sharifi , Majid Mahmood Aliloo , Hamid Por Sharifi 1. Clinical Psychology 2. Department of Psychology, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Tabriz 3. Department of psychology, University of Tabriz

Abstract Abstract

Researchers believe that there is an interaction between personality and risky behaviors. The purpose of this study is predicting the risky behaviors based on personality in HIV (Human Immunodeficiency virus) positive people. This research is a field research that included population of HIV-positive individuals with behavioral health records in medical centers in Tabriz, Urmia and Ardebil cities. 77 patients from the population are enrolled voluntarily with personal satisfaction for this study. The questionnaire of high-risk behaviors and the NEO PI-R personality inventory were used to collect data. Results showed that regarding the basis of personality factors among HIV+ individuals, prediction of high-risk behaviors is possible. So that, OCD can express 0.59% of the changes in risky behaviors directly and positively, agreeableness has meaningful role in the determination of changes in risky behaviors; Moreover flexibility is capable to explain 0.33% of positive change risky behaviors directly. Extraversion is capable to determine 0.39% of positive change risky behavior directly; while, conscience can explain 0.44% risky behaviors reversely. Risky behaviors can be predicted on the basis of deep character factors; In other words, people at risk of behavioral disorders, can be early identified and diagnosed by personality traits and factors.

However regarding the personality traits of people who are infected with HIV and their high-risk behaviors, psychological approaches can reduce the risk of transmission in the community.

Keywords: HIV-positive people, personality factors, risk behaviors

Introduction HIV infection and AIDS due to its nature and effects, as a social, economic, psychological fact is one of the most fundamental of health risks and impacts in all aspects of human life. This disease due to its high rate of incidence, prevalence, case fatality rate, windows period and long incubation has been one of the social and health priorities around the world and struggling with it is an urgent.

In Iran, according to the latest figures, more than 20.000 people with HIV and AIDS have been identified; but it is estimated that the real cases are more than 80.000. The growth of cases is required attention of authorities and institutions. According to the declaration of commitment on HIV/AIDS which was signed by presidents of 189 countries at special session of the United Nations General Assembly in June 2001, “vulnerable to HIV/AIDS should be a priority.”

Consequences of AIDS disease on populations and communities is an extensive research which has been conducted by the World Health Organization. The results of this study indicate that disease has arrived a serious injury on families and communities, as statistics suggests that communities which are seriously affected by the scourge of AIDS lose an average of 1-2% of their

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International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Research. Special issue Vol 1(1), February2014

annual economic growth. This study by pointing to the efficient manpower crisis on the results state that AIDS causes severe loss of skilled workers needed by governments to provide public services, so that the countries affected by AIDS, are increasingly unable to meet their social obligations.

The results of survey also indicate that most women in these countries face of an extreme adverse economic, social and cultural situation and it makes them more vulnerable against this disease. The researchers point out in their findings that in many countries, women are producers and heads of household life and bear the greatest burden of HIV. In a research conducted by Johnson, it has been showed that psychiatric disorders in patients with AIDS include adjustment disorders, reaction depression and also personality disorders.

Perkins findings indicate that personality disorders are seen significantly in patients with HIV. These patients show reaction by using defense mechanism of denial and not using coping skills in relation to the threats of AIDS. Ellis results suggest that borderline personality disorder in AIDSâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; patients has been significantly high; Also these patients differ significantly from the control group in terms of self-ill-assumption, depression, hysteria, psychopathic, mental fatigue, mental breakdown and mania. Kaplan and colleagues showed that delirium, anxiety disorders, adjustment disorders, depression, drug abuse and suicide are among the symptoms of AIDS .

Gasparity results suggest that different aspects of psychology such as motivation, emotion and cognition factors play a major role in organizing this disease. In fact, personality patterns and factors such as poor coping skills, self-esteem, lack of strength and weakness in social communication skills may consciously or unconsciously, lead a person to drug abuse or homosexuality. Moreover, the results of Nakhjavan and Vatankhah in 1383 indicate that a wide variety of psychiatric and neurological disorders in patients with AIDS may occur that the most common of these disorders is called AIDS dementia complex. The Other psychiatric syndromes due to AIDS include: Delirium, anxiety disorders, depression, drug abuse and suicide .Perkins in a group of HIV-positive homosexuals found that 33% of them have at least one diagnose in axis II of diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders third revised edition.

Jakubsberg and colleagues in a group of 220 HIV-positive patients realized that 39% of them suffer from at least one personality disorder and antisocial personality disorder with 18% of the cases is the most common personality pattern among this people.Turina and colleagues found that in 36% of HIV-positive patients of their study, the ((low failed tolerance)) property is seen. This finding in very important because this property is one of the common traits among antisocial and borderline personality disorders .Pendu and colleagues in their study on a group of homosexual men and intravenous drug users found that neuroticism which is characterized by depression, anxiety, rage and low self-esteem is associated with low quality life of these patients .

Bruner and colleagues showed that the presence of antisocial personality pattern is directly related to sharing injecting tools among addicts, a problem which is considered as one of the main risky behaviors in prevalence of infection by HIV . In addition, Gill and colleagues found that HIV infected individuals with antisocial personality compared to that infected group without antisocial personality have started sexual relations at lower ages and have greater number of sexual partners and have been more involved in anti-social behaviors such as prostitution. Moreover, these people suffer from intravenous drug use and it has been reported that they often use shared needles .

Kempton and colleagues obtained similar results with cocaine. Their results showed that antisocial personality disorder is associated with the low age of onset in injecting behaviors and sexually transmitted diseases, including AIDS. These researchers have concluded that antisocial personality disorder and related to AIDS overlap in two aspects of personality-irresponsibility and impulsivity .

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International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Research. Special issue Vol 1(1), February2014

Perkins and colleagues (1993) have showed that in general personality disorders are significantly

more common in the AIDS positive people compared with healthy people(33% vs. 15%) and mood disturbance, high scores on scales of anxiety, Hamilton depression, hopelessness and despair are common phenomena in infected peoples. They concluded that because of these problems, the more likely that AIDS patients with the disease are treated as irresponsible and maladaptive with their problem and so they declare that it is essential to identify the personality aspects of AIDS patients for developing sensitive, efficient and comprehensive preventive and health care. Of the three dimensions of Eysenck's personality, there has been a consistent correlation between temperament psychosis and sexual behavior but the results have been always confused about extraversion and mental weak convergence .

Research findings indicate that personality traits can affect a person's coping strategies they use to influence life and it seems that between personality characteristics, Neurosis is the main cause that coping strategies character and emotion-focused coping strategies has a significant relationship in HIV positive patients .

There seems to be a personal gateway to the HIV infection, which is consistent with psychotic features NEUROTICISM orientation and Eysenck's theory. It is so important to identify the antecedents and personality correlates associated with AIDS and HIV in terms of planning and health policies. Attention to low education and poor employment will be essential for effective preventive measures and effective against HIV infection and AIDS . Given the evidence cited above, the present study examined the hypothesis that it could be predicted of risky behavior based on personality traits among HIV+. So, the following five hypotheses formulated and studied in this research: 1) Neuroticism personality factors can predict risky behaviors in HIV+ persons.

2) Conscience can predict risky behaviors in HIV+ persons.

3) Agreeableness personality factors can predict risky behaviors in HIV+ persons.

4) Flexibility personality factors can predict risky behaviors in HIV+ persons, and 5) Extroversion personality factor can predict risky behaviors in HIV+ persons.

Methods This study is a descriptive study that aimed to investigate the relationship between risky behavior and personality variables. In this study, predictor variable is personality factors and the criterion variable (dependent) is a high-risk behaviors, Which is run on a group of volunteers who are HIV positive in the case of conduct disorder centers in East and West Azerbaijan and Ardabil provinces whose are covered by these centers. Demographic characteristics of respondents are presented in Table 1.

Data for this study were collected using two questionnaires: 1) Measuring inventory personality five traits (NEO): Inventory NEO is one of the newest personality inventory relevant to assessing the construction outlook based on factor analysis.

2) Inventory risky behaviors: This inventory is designed based on risky behavior inventory (YRBSS) America's for control and prevention disease center (CDC).

Results Results showed that based on personality factors among HIV+ individuals, prediction of high-risk behaviors is possible, Whereas OCD is capable to convey 0/59% of positive change risky behaviors directly; Agreeableness has meaningful role in the determination of changes in risky behaviors; Flexibility is capable to explain 0/33% of positive change risky behaviors directly; Extraversion is capable to determine 0/39% of positive change risky behavior directly and Conscience is capable to explain 0/44 percent risky behaviors reversely.

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International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Research. Special issue Vol 1(1), February2014

Table 1: Variables explanatory indicators Number of trials

Standard deviation

Average

Variable

12/73

24/41

High-risk behaviors

77

5/66

26/64

OCD

77

6/05

27/06

Extraversion

77

3/16

24/49

Flexibility

77

5/43

30/37

Conscience

77

4/90

27/50

Agreeableness

77

Table 2: covariance matrix of characteristics and risk behaviors Agreeableness

Conscience

Flexibility

Extraversion

OCD

High-risk B

Variable

-

-

-

-

-

5/36

High-risk B

-

-

-

-

4/59

3/81

OCD

-

-

-

3/29

-0/83

2/42

Extraversion

-

-

2/61

0/58

-0/67

2/35

Flexibility

-

3/81

0/52

0/63

-0/72

-3/15

Conscience

4/20

0/73

0/61

0/42

-0/49

-1/46

Agreeableness

Table 3: Indicators of model with experimental data measured NFI

AGFI

GFI

CFI

P

F

0/94

0/95

0/97

0/96

0/002

21

RMSEA 109/21

0/04

Discussion The results of the five hypotheses are consistent and in line with the findings of Perkins (2004) (3), Ellis (2004) (22), Kaplan (2001) (5), Jacobsberg and colleagues (1994) (9), Penedo et al (2003) (11), Brunner and colleagues (1993) (12), Gill et al (1992) (13). Fatemeh Rahmati's study (2009) (21) came to the conclusion that it is necessary for further instructions or advices regarding the transfer and disclosure to improve social conditions. Based on the results Beirami (1389) (22) is a special character that them vulnerable to problems such as high-risk sexual behaviors and consequently HIV

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International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Research. Special issue Vol 1(1), February2014

infection and in patients with high-risk sexual behavior is characteristic of the intense. High risk individuals are using condoms with a smaller percentage. It also appears that characters are important and affecting factors adopt sanitary or unsanitary methods in high-risk or low-risk sexual relations. Illicit sex is associated with emotional instability which can in this people who indicates a wide gamut of personality disorders, anxiety and mood disorders.

Acknowledgment Chief and Colleagues of Behavioral Diseases Consultation Center of East Azarbaijan, West Azerbaijan and Ardabil is gratefully acknowledged.

References Beirami,M, Sexual risk factors and personality traits compared to those with normal,Journal of Medical Tabriz University of Medical Sciences,1998;32,3.Z:13-17.

Brooner R K, Herbst JH, Schmidt CW, Bigelow G. E. Costa PT. Antisocial personality disorder among drug abusers: Relations to other personality diagnoses and the five factor model of personality. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease,1993; 181, 313-319.

Compton WM, Cottler LB, shilington AM. Price RK. Is antisocial personality disorder associated with increased HIV risk behaviors in cocaine user? Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 1995; 37, 37-43.

Ellis A,King R.who has AIDS? Journal of AIDS 2004.2q(2-3):143-9.

Farazadi H(2007):Study of aspects Psycho-Social and strategy checking to diseass in two group having contracted AIDS. Master thesis of psychology. Tehran.Department of psychiatry University of Medidical Sciences,Iran;p.82-91 Gill K, Nolimal D, Crowley TT. Antisocial personality disorder, HIV risk behavior and retention in methadone maintenance therapy. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 1992; 30, 247-252.

Jacobsberg L, Frances A, perry S. AxisII diagnoses among volunteers for HIV testing and counseling. American Journal of psychiatry,1995; 152, 1222-1224.

Kaplan H.Helping HIV/AIDS sufferers with psychodynamic approach 2001Nov[cited 2003 feb 12],2(2):[12 screens].Available from:URL:http://www.uraids.org.

Mamoud Alilou M,Arji A,Bakhshipour A,Shahjooii T,2011, Relationship between personality traits and coping strategies of HIV-positive drug users.Medical Journal of Tabriz University of Medical Sciences and Health Services; 31(3):49-55. (Persian) Mamoud Alilou M,Esmeali A.The study of personality variables in HIV positive patients.Med J Tab Uni Med Sc 2007;29(2):125-130.(Persian).

Newsletter Management Center communicable diseases and risk behaviors in HIV and AIDS, Summer 1390, Project Red Ribbon Prison ,Hidden damage;PP:9.(Persian) Penedo JF, Gonzales JS, Dahn JR, Antoni M, Malow R, costa P, et al, Personality, quality of life and Haart adherence among men and women living with HIV/AIDS. Journal of psychosomatic Research, 2003; 54, 271-278.

Perkins A.Psychological distress and banout arnong buddies:demographic,situation and motivational factorors.Journal of pathology of AIDS 200 4;2:175-90.

Perkins DO, lesserman J, Murphy C. Evans DL. Psychosocial predictors of high â&#x20AC;&#x201C; risk sexual behavior among HIV â&#x20AC;&#x201C; negative homosexual men. AIDS Education and prevention, 1993; 5, 141-152.

Rahmati,F, The factors leading to the adoption of HIV risk behaviors, Journal of payesh,2011;10,2,Z:205-215.

Rooney G.Psychology in patients with HIV/AIDS and psychiatry services in world. Journal of who 2005:6q(12):192-8.

Trobest KK,Herbst JH,Masters HL,Costa PT. Personality pathways to unsafe sex: personality, condom use, and HIV risk behaviors. Journal of Research in Personality, 2002;36:117-133.

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Turrina C, fiorazzo A, Turano A, Cacciani P, Regini C, Castelli f, et al. Depressive disorders and personality variables in HIV positive and negative intravenous drug users. Journal of Affective Disorders, 2001; 65, 4553.

Vatankhah,M, Personality disorders in AIDS patients with high-risk behaviors,Jurnal of Blood Research,2009;Z:292-300.

Vatankhah M.(2006).Study of correlation betveen AIDS and personality disorders and psychological problems to high risk behavior. Master Thesis of psychology. Tehran Department of psychiatry University of Medical sciences,Iran;p.68-76.

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International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Research. Special issue Vol 1(1), 583-593, 2014

Available online at http:// www. ijpbrjournal.com ISSN 2322-4002 ©2014 Victor Quest Publication

Challenges Faced in Applying Modern Techniques of Electronic Learning (Mobile and Ubiquitous Learning) in Education and Presenting Solutions for that Mohammad Zare1,Raheleh Sarikhani2 Mostafa Salari3, moslem azarbakhsh4 1- Young Researchers and Elites Club, North Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran 2- B.A. student of Educational Technology of Malayer University, Malayer, Iran 3- M.A. student of Educational Technology Allameh Tabatabaee University, Tehran, Iran 4- M.A. student of Curriculum Planning, Tabriz University, Tabriz,,Iran

Abstract Purpose: The main purpose of this research is to investigate the confronted challenges of the application of modern techniques of electronic learning (mobile and ubiquitous Learning), and to present solutions for removing worries from it, and to promote cooperation in society, particularly training and education society, in this regard.

Methodology: In respect to practical purpose and methodology, this research employs a descriptive- correlational method. Subjects of this research are 300 teachers of Malayer universities, from which 160 were randomly selected.

Instruments: a researcher-made questionnaire was applied for data collection, named "Challenges and Solutions in Applying Mobile and Ubiquitous Learning in Education".

Reliability coefficient of the questionnaire was calculated to be 84 %, using Kronbakh's Alpha technique. SPSS software was used for data analysis Conclusion: The result derived from data analysis identifies 7 challenges: human, pedagogic, administrative and support infrastructures, cultural, social and ethical system, management and leadership, technological and economical are considered to be the challenges of the application of mobile and ubiquitous learning. These 7 infrastructures explain 61.8 % of the whole variance related to the confronted challenges of the application of mobile and ubiquitous learning in education.

KeyWords: Electronic Learning, Mobile Learning, Ubiquitous Learning, challenge Introduction Human knowledge is growing continuously and rapidly and therefore achieving the whole bulk of the knowledge isn't possible for anyone. As a result, education is becoming one of the toughest professions of the modern society; still modern technology has provided excellent opportunities for learning and education. Knowing and employing new technologies in educational activities requires a change in the educational environment of teachers and students (Shabani, 2011). Traditional training classes are not highly effective because they are dependent on a specific time and place and do not provide a real and suitable context for learning. Printed texts being no more than a text, picture and graph and having certain limitations are problematic as well. (Razavi, 2007).

Two decades ago, Pariz and Niuman (1990) cited that education systems should educate students in such a way that they can guide themselves in the enormous world of knowledge by the independence of thought. Training centers should design programs to benefit from new information and communication technologies in education and learning. By implementing these methods, teacherbased method turns to student-based method, teacher’s interest turns to student’s interest, and consolidating training methods turn to automatic and self-developing ones. ICT can turn passive

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International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Research. Special issue Vol 1(1), February2014

learners to active ones and carriers of information to critical thinkers who have the ability to make changes and become of the most influential people in their lifetime (Shabani, 2007).

In the past few decades, information and communication technology has been greatly improved and computers have become popular. As a result, educators are looking for different means to take advantage of the technology. Computer-based training was one of the initial steps that led to virtual learning and e-learning in the mid-1990s. E-Learning offered new ways of access to numerous sources to students. It was an upheaval in education leading to a better management of training in universities and distance education (zare and sarikhani, 2011). During the recent years, virtual learning was being established through the innovation of versatile and powerful hardware within the country and with the development of internet the required infrastructure is provided for its global advancement (Fardanesh, 2009). The following facilities are present in such teaching - learning environments: holding live distance classes, simulating class environment, two-way audio-visual communication, competent management of the class, use of electronic boards, sending and receiving homework and giving exams and providing students with the necessary feedbacks. (Amirteimoury, 2010).

Review of the researches related to online education shows that this method is as effective as real classes and studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; attitude towards the new method and the conventional classroom method is the same (Matthew et al, 2009). Integration of ICT in education cuased the following: facile contact between students, access to a wide range of learning resources, providing educational programs proper to the learners' needs, securing equal potential opportunities for all learners, promotion of the social and cultural level of communities through access to wireless Internet and converting e-learning into mobile learning (Marsaee, 2010). This type of education has provided a suitable environment for those who cannot participate in traditional classes due to their work or personal commitments, all over the world. Today many problems of the present educational system such as high cost of traditional training, shortage of qualified teachers, lack of access to education and Internet networks at all the times and everywhere and also unaccountability of traditional teaching methods with regard to the increasing demands for education (lack of flexibility of the learning process) made the experts to make use of ICT and innovate new educational methods by which a larger population of learners can be covered with a better quality. (Yordanovak, 2007).

Mobile learning; Mobile learning is independent of time and place. Mobile learning is new technology allowing individuals to participate in learning activities, without being bound to a fixed location. It also equips users with easy and flexible access to learning resources at any time and place (Monahan et al, 2009). Mobile learning is a phenomenon that can be effective for the creation of equal learning opportunities in all sectors of society. Mobile learning seeks personalized learning; an approach that is based on the principles of constructivism (Mileva et al, 2008).

Mobile learning is based on a constructivist theory and appealing to its principles seeks to achieve the learning goals of how to learn and lifelong learning (Nili et al, 2012).

Mobile learning as a model of e-learning refers to the acquisition of knowledge, attitudes and skills by utilizing mobile technology (arzegar, 2012) Mobile learning is an immediate and exciting method of curriculum which is increasingly used in many learning environments (Mileva et al, 2008).

Learning principles in mobile learning and ubiquitous learning are based on constructionism. This view is based on the studies of Bartlett, Gestalt psychology, Piaget, Bruner, Vigoteski, and John Dewey's educational philosophy (Seif, 2010).

In Constructionism emphasize is on constructing knowledge through linking new pre-learned materials. The main element of this theory is that learners try to actively construct their knowledge, compare new information with previous information and use all the required materials for learning.

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International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Research. Special issue Vol 1(1), February2014

The purpose of education in constructionism is not to transfer information but to encourage the formation of knowledge and to focus on the meta-knowledge processes for judgment, to organize and to attempt to obtain new information (Razavi et al, 2011).

Future of mobile learning is ubiquitous learning which occurs as a result of the emergence of networked mobile technologies. In ubiquitous learning environments attempts are made to maintain balance between educational demands and IT facilities. It is hoped that the creation of well-developed infrastructures provide the grounds for the establishment of such learning environments.

Ubiquitous learning Recent advances in wireless and sensors technology led to the development of learning environments which are called "ubiquitous learning environment with knowledge awareness". This technology is able to sense the state of the learner and provide compatible support.

During the recent years E-learning researchers realized that the progress of wireless communication and sensing technologies turned e-learning research issues into mobile learning and now mobile learning is improved to ubiquitous learning.

Following are some of the notable features of ubiquitous learning which differentiates it from mobile learning: direct services (immediate), context-aware services and compatible services. New advances in wireless and sensing technology led to a change in learning environments which are called "ubiquitous learning environment with framework knowledge" that can sense the state of the learner and provide compatible support.

Up until now researchers had different views toward “ubiquitous learning”. One viewpoint is "learning in any place and at any time". According to this definition, every learning environment that allows students to access learning content in any place and at any time can be called a ubiquitous learning environment, whether wireless or mobile communication devices be used or not. The above discussion clearly suggests that ubiquitous learning is not the same as inclusive learning using ubiquitous computer technology because ubiquitous learning not only emphasizes the use of wireless communications, but also the sensor technology (Hwang et al, 2008).

Another viewpoint defines ubiquitous learning in terms of computer technology (Jalil, 2010). While learning with computer technology is more appropriate for mobile learning. To distinguish ubiquitous learning from the concept of mobile learning, the term “context aware” is used. Therefore, ubiquitous learning can be defined as a model of new learning that uses ubiquitous computer technology and required infrastructure to make learning about anything at any time and place possible. (Monahan et al, 2009).

Havang et al (2008), define ubiquitous learning as "ubiquitous learning with knowledge of the background and context" which is more appropriate to ubiquitous learning (Hwang et al, 008).

Characteristics of Ubiquitous Learning; Chen et al (2002), name six feature which are some of the characteristics of ubiquitous learning; Essential characteristics require learning, creative knowledge acquisition, mobile learning context, interactive learning process, the success of education activity and integration of education content (Mileva et al, 008).

Kertis [2002), names three characteristics for learning which are persistence (permanent), accessibility and direct (without intermediaries) (Hwang et al,2008).

Chio et al (2008), recognize knowledge of the field and ubiquitous computer technology which creates motivation and performance in learners as one of the characteristics of ubiquitous learning (Mileva et al, 2008).

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International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Research. Special issue Vol 1(1), February2014

Hens (2008),finds ubiquitous learning features as following; Urgent need of learning, creative knowledge acquisition, interactive learning process, the success of the educational activity, awareness of the context and framework, providing personal activity services, self-organized learning, integrating of consistent thematic content learning and group learning (Hwang et al, 2008).

Review of the Literature; Piskurich (2003), enumerates nine matters as factors and barriers of the development of elearning: 1- fear of failure; 2- feelings of inadequacy of E-learning and recognizing it as inappropriate; 3- Complex working issues; 4 - unknown or unidentified educational needs; 5 - intensive management control during the training 6 - time 7- lack of management support, 8- financial problems and 9- work and activity being middle of process.

Darkwa and Zibako (2008), express some of the limitations of distance education: 1) lack of highlevel support in the field of distance learning from the investors 2) lack of knowledge about distance education in public service units for a better evaluation of the staff, 3) lack of access to trained professional staff 4,), lack of supportive and backup programs 5) limited budget 6) poor infrastructure of homes.

Salimabadi(2006), in a research mentioned the main barriers to the development of e-learning and internet technology in education system of Iran as social, cultural and economic factors.

Hosseini et al (2006), in their research about the investigation of present barriers for the development of electronic education in higher education system conclude that the following are the most basic barriers to the development of electronic education in Iran respectively; cultural, economic, legal, educational, strategic and technical.

Shayan and Bidkhuri (2006), in their research about necessary infrastructure for electronic education in rural areas of Iran, list the following barriers: -

General weakness of villagers in using computers and digital devices Fear of modern technologies and concerns about the modern lifestyle Unfamiliarity to international languages to benefit from science of the day Problems of access to many remote villages The high cost of electronic digital devices such as computers, satellites and internet Natural disasters such as flood, earthquake and landslide which cut the village from the outside world and destroy communicative devices.

Karimi (2007) reviewed and rated the readiness of Iranian universities for holding e-learning courses from the viewpoint of students, faculties, and administrators by using a questionnaire. Results respectively showed that human resource preparation, cultural preparation, political preparation, security preparation, legal preparation, software preparation, preparation of content and hardware are more important than preparation in other areas and faculty members were more optimistic than students and administrators about the readiness of Iranian universities for holding e-learning courses.

Walsh and Dillon (1992), investigated faculty member issues and concluded that reward and motivation are two key issues which matter to the participation of teachers in e-learning course.

According to Mishra and Panda research (2007), low access to the Internet and lack of training for e-learning which is the reason of the policy of e-learning programs, are the most important barriers to e-learning development.

Mungania in a research(2003), pointed to seven barriers: individual or personal mood barrier, learning method, learning barriers, barriers related to the status, organizational barriers, appropriateness of content, content, barriers related to technology and the changing nature of technology and perceives them as e-learning barriers.

Miller and Mei-Yan (2003), express lack of experience in technology, refusing to participate in online courses in the past, lack of in-place social support, lack of resources and digital gap as the barriers to the development of e-learning.

Shea et al survey (2005), demonstrated that the major barriers to the participation of faculty members for teaching in e-learning courses are as follows: Time restrictions, inadequate remuneration, the issue of the ownership of courses and lessons and the amount of the authority of

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International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Research. Special issue Vol 1(1), February2014

teachers in training, excessive work for the production of electronic course contents, technical problems, unpreparedness to play new roles and professional duties and inadequate training and support in the field.

Schoepp (2005), In another study presents the main barriers to the use of information and communication technologies in university environments as: executive support, poor hardware and software, problems of the integration of curriculum, attitudes and knowledge of the teacher about computer, lack of technical support, barriers related to the internet connection and intellectual property and concern about losing freedom and personal life.

Kalantari et al (2012), in a research on the challenges of using mobile learning in Iran concluded that the need for skillful content writers, lack of face-to-face interaction in teaching, unfamiliarity of learners to this method, lack of the access of some areas to this method and inappropriateness of this methods for teaching to children are the most important challenges of using mobile learning in Iran.

Methodology This study is conducted by a descriptive correlation method. Because as for nature it is quantitative, as for the control rate variable is non-experimental and as for in type of research is applied. In this research, by examining the scientific and individual characteristics of samples, challenges and strategies for the application of mobile and ubiquitous learning in education from the viewpoint of the university professors of Malayer was identified and the effects of challenges to the application of mobile and ubiquitous learning was analyzed. The target population of this study is consisted of 300 university professors of Malayer University of which 160 were randomly chosen and it seems to be sufficient to conduct the study. The required data collection instrument is a questionnaire composed of three main parts: scientific and individual characteristics of samples (including closed questions and short answers), challenges and strategies for the application of mobile and ubiquitous learning in education (in the form of Likert). Validity of the questionnaire was confirmed by several professors.

Then to determine the reliability of the questionnaire Cronbach's alpha method was used which was calculated as 84%. SPSS software, version 15, was used for the data analysis of descriptive statistics (average, exponent, frequency, percentage of standard deviation) and inferential statistics (factor analysis and correlation analysis).

Results The number of teachers participating in the research can be seen in Table 1, divided according to the university.

Table1. The number of teachers participating in the research university Divided according to the university National University Malayer 80

payamenour university Malayer 30

Free University Malayer 50

Total 160

Prioritization of the challenges of the application of mobile and ubiquitous learning in education from the perspective of university professors of Malayer; Results showed that most of the expressed challenges, the challenges of the application of mobile and ubiquitous learning in education, have an average of 3; This means that teachers estimated the intensity of the challenges between average to high. High cost of media used for these methods with an average of 4.09, unfamiliarity of officials to these techniques with an average of 4.07, teachers resistance against entrance of ICT in teaching with an average of 4.05, sporadic and diverse issues and data and the lack of integrated application of the information, with an average of 3.98, low attention to development of personality and moral aspects with an average of 3.95 are the first five prior challenges of the application of mobile learning and inclusive education from the perspective of university professors of Malayer.

Table2. Prioritization of the perspective of university professors of Malayer about challenges of the application of mobile and ubiquitous learning in education

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International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Research. Special issue Vol 1(1), February2014

Items

Priority

Average

Standard deviation

The high cost of the media applied in these methods

1

4/09

0.88

unfamiliarity of officials to these techniques

2

4/07

0.91

Teachers resistance against entrance of ICT in teaching

3

4/05

0.87

sporadic and diverse issues and data and the lack of integrated application of the information

4

3/98

0.91

Low attention to the development of personality and moral aspects

5

3/95

0.87

Low software and hardware facilities

6

3/91

0.9

Lack of participatory, dynamic and far-sighted management

7

3/9

0.83

Unfamiliarity of the addressee to the new methods and resistance against them.

8

3/86

1/03

Lack of Internet Service Providers (low bandwidth, etc.)

9

3/86

0.91

Limited and insufficient resources.

10

3/86

4/15

Problems of moving from teacher-oriented method to studentoriented method.

11

3/76

0.95

Reconstruction of roles and relationships

12

3/74

0.93

Lack of equal access to digital services.

13

3/71

1/01

The need for planning experts

14

3/59

1/04

The need for technical designers

15

3/57

1

Lack of organizational and technical support for practitioners

16

3/54

1/15

Lack of support and required telecommunication companies.

17

3/51

1/02

inexistence of an electronic administration system

18

3/35

1/2

Learners being disinterested to instruments

19

3/16

1/17

Development of weakness in the social maturity of learners

20

3/01

1/26

management

from

the

*Scale: very low = 1, low = 2, medium = 3, high = 4 Very much = 5 (Average =3/72 deviation= 0.56)

Standard

Factor analysis of the challenges of the application of mobile and ubiquitous learning in education from the viewpoint of the university professors of Malayer: In order to identify the challenges and barriers of mobile and ubiquitous learning in education, the determined challenges (variables) were entered into the factor analysis. According to the obtained data, the amount of KMO is 0.808 and the amount of constant is 2294.651 which were meaningful in the level of 1% and shows that the data are suitable for factor analysis.

Table 3 - infrastructural barriers of the application of mobile and ubiquitous learning in education Row

1

588

Infrastructure

First Infrastructure

Specific quantity

determined variance percent

Cumulative Variance Percent

4.160

11.554

11.554

International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Research. Special issue Vol 1(1), February2014

2 3 4 5 6 7

Second Infrastructure Third Infrastructure Forth Infrastructure Fifth Infrastructure Sixth Infrastructure Seventh Infrastructure

4.023 3.881 3.198 2.906 2.545 1.538

11.176 10.780 8.884 8.072 7.070 4.273

22.720 33.510 42.394 50.466 57.536 61.809

As can be seen in Table 3, the highest specific quantity is related to the first infrastructure and is about 4.160. In fact it is equal to 11.554 percent of the variance explained by this infrastructure. Also, the amount of the explained cumulative variance by these seven infrastructures is totally 61.809 that shows the challenges (variables) of these seven infrastructure make up 62% of the challenges related to the application of mobile and ubiquitous learning in education from the viewpoint of university professors of Malayer and the remaining variance is related to the factors not predicted in this study.

In the next step, infrastructures were turned by applying Varimax method and the challenges (variables) related to the each infrastructure were identified and named. Results are presented in Table 4.

Table 4 - Characteristics of infrastructural barriers of the application of mobile and ubiquitous learning in education Infrastructure

Human infrastructure

Pedagogical Infrastructure

Administrative and supporting system infrastructure

cultural, social and ethical Infrastructure

Management and Leadership Infrastructure

589

Variable

Load Factor

The need for technical designers

0.816

The need for planning experts

0.763

Reconstruction of roles and relationships

0.553

Unfamiliarity of the addressee with the new methods and resistance against it.

0.703

lack of education techniques

0.723

officials

familiarity

with

these

Teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; resistance against entrance of ICT in teaching

0.715

Problems of moving from teacher-oriented method to student-oriented method.

0.737

Lack of organizational practitioners

and

technical

support

for 0.674

Lack of equal access to digital services.

0.776

inexistence of an electronic administration system

0.832

Learners being disinterested to instruments

0.582

Development of weakness in the social maturity of learners

0.568

Low attention to the development of personality and moral aspects

0.744

Lack of support and required management from the telecommunication companies.

0.590

Lack of participatory, dynamic and far-sighted management

0.635

sporadic and diverse issues and data and the lack of integrated application of the information

0.635

International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Research. Special issue Vol 1(1), February2014

IT Infrastructure

Low software and hardware facilities

0.713

Lack of Internet Service Providers (low bandwidth, ..)

0.623

Limited and Insufficient resources

0.748

The high cost of the media applied in these methods

0.629

Economic infrastructure

Prioritization of the viewpoint of the university professors of Malayer about guidelines on the application of mobile and ubiquitous learning in education Results about the guidelines on the application of mobile and ubiquitous learning in education from the viewpoint of university professors of Malayer city shows that providing mobile and ubiquitous learning courses as supplementary to conventional teaching to enhance the quality of learning is the first priority with an average of 4.29, running mobile and ubiquitous learning courses in domestic universities with an average of 4.21 is the second priority, providing centralized mobile and ubiquitous learning courses in centers and branches with an average of 4.02 is the third priority, dual pattern (some majors mobile and ubiquitous and some of them conventional) with an average of 3.89 is the fourth priority, Integrated pattern (mobile and ubiquitous learning be applied to only some of courses) with an average of 3.89 is the fifth priority. Teachers' viewpoint average is 3.7 , Table 5 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Prioritization of the viewpoint of the university professors of Malayer about guidelines on the application of mobile and ubiquitous learning in education Items

Priority

Average

Standard deviation

providing mobile and ubiquitous learning courses as supplementary to conventional teaching to enhance the quality of learning

1

4/29

0.72

running mobile and ubiquitous learning courses in domestic universities

2

4/21

0.85

providing centralized mobile and ubiquitous learning courses in centers and branches

3

4/02

0.88

dual pattern (some majors mobile and ubiquitous and some of them conventional)

4

3/89

0.85

Integrated pattern (mobile and ubiquitous learning be applied to only some of courses)

5

3/81

0.88

optional Integrated pattern ( lessons are offered both as mobile and ubiquitous and conventional and students have the option to choose)

6

3/66

1/07

Providing independent general mobile and ubiquitous learning courses.

7

3/64

0.85

Providing mobile and ubiquitous learning courses only during in-service courses

8

3/17

1/07

Providing mobile and ubiquitous learning courses only for private education

9

3/05

1/12

Single pattern (the center provides all the majors only in form of mobile and ubiquitous learning)

10

2/78

1/17

Investigating the relationship between Challenges and strategies for the application of mobile and ubiquitous learning in education;

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International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Research. Special issue Vol 1(1), February2014

According to the research findings, with 95% confidence, from the viewpoint of university professors of Malayer, there is a meaningful negative correlation (r = -./239) Between human infrastructure and the solutions of the application of mobile and ubiquitous learning in education. It means that the inconsistencies between mobile and ubiquitous learning and conventional teaching structures have negatively affected the approaches taken for the application of mobile and ubiquitous learning in education. Also, from the viewpoint of university professors of Malayer, in the level of one percent, there is a meaningful negative correlation (r= 0.319) between values, cultural and social infrastructures in the application of mobile learning and ubiquitous learning in education. This means that if the ethical, cultural and social infrastructures are not ready, application of mobile and ubiquitous learning in education will face difficulties.

Table 6 - Correlation of infrastructures barriers to the development of mobile and ubiquitous learning and strategies for its application in education R

P

Programs and strategies for the application of mobile and ubiquitous learning

*-0.239

0.017

Pedagogical Infrastructure

Programs and strategies for the application of mobile and ubiquitous learning

0.042

0.677

Administrative and support system infrastructure

Programs and strategies for the application of mobile and ubiquitous learning

0.177

0.078

Ethical, cultural and social Infrastructure

Programs and strategies for the application of mobile and ubiquitous learning

**-0.319

0.001

Management and Leadership Infrastructure

Programs and strategies for the application of mobile and ubiquitous learning

-0.145

0.151

IT Infrastructure

Programs and strategies for the application of mobile and ubiquitous learning

0.193

0.045

Economic infrastructure

Programs and strategies for the application of mobile and ubiquitous learning

0.051

0.616

Independent variable

Dependent variable

Human infrastructure

In the level of five percent *

In the level of one percent ** Conclusion

As it was mentioned, E-Learning has its own position and identity in today's information age. On the other hand, utilizing its new methods in education (mobile and ubiquitous learning), is faced with challenges which needs to be identified, resolved and the appropriately developed.

The results obtained from the factor analysis of inhibitory factors show that human infrastructure, pedagogical infrastructure and administrative and support system infrastructure are known as the first three most important challenges, from the viewpoint of the respondents, and these results are in consistence with those of Psikorich (2003) and Draco Zibako (2000 ), Mangana (2003), Miller and Me Yan (2003), Eschob (2005), Kalantari, et al (2012).

Also, ethical, cultural and social infrastructure, management and leadership infrastructure, technology infrastructure and economic infrastructure as the fourth to seventh most important challenges from the viewpoint of the respondents indicating consistency with those by Pasikvrych studying (2003), Salim Abadi (1385), Hossein et al (2007), Shayan and Bidkhoari (2007), Panda and Mishra (2007), Miller and me Yan (2003), Kalantari, et al (2012).

Prioritization of the viewpoints of professors about strategies for the application of mobile and ubiquitous learning in education indicated that providing mobile and ubiquitous learning courses as supplementary to conventional teaching to enhance the quality of learning, running mobile and ubiquitous learning courses in domestic universities and providing centralized mobile and ubiquitous learning courses in centers and branches are the top three strategies.

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Hosseini, M., Mir Arab Razi, Reza Rezaei, Saeed (2007). Review of barriers to the development of elearning in Iran e-learning education system. In Proceedings of the Second Conference on ELearning (University of Sistan and Baluchestan, 25-23 ).

Hwang,G-j,Tsai,c-c,&yang,s.j,h,(2008). Criteria,strategies and research issues of contextaware ubiquitous learning. Educational technology& society,11(2),81-91. Yahya, s. ahmad, A. e. kalantari, haniyeh, Zare, Mohammad, Ahmadloo, Meysam, Maleki, Sasan (2012), challenges in cell phone learning application in iran, Global journal on Technology, vol 1,48-52.

Karimi, A.(2006); Evaluation and Qualitive Analyze of E-learning Capacities in Iran Higher Education System; M. A. Thesis of Tarbiat Modarres University, Tehran (in Persian).

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International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Research. Special issue Vol 1(1), 594-597, 2014

Available online at http:// www. ijpbrjournal.com ISSN 2322-4002 Š2014 Victor Quest Publication

Domestic Violence and Its Effects on Ilam City Women Fathollah Mohammadian1,Faghrodeen Taghinezhad 2,Fereshteh Shiri 3 1-PhD Health Psychology Student of Ilam Medical Science University 2-Bachelor of Nursing in Ilam Medical Science University 3-Bachelor of Family Health in Ilam Medical Science University

Abstract Violence against women in families is the most common form of violence against them. Results of studies imply that probability of injury, rape, and murder of women by their husbands is more than anything else. The purpose of this study is to determine the prevalence of wife abuse and its effects on married women of Ilam City. In this descriptive-sectional research 344 individuals of referring married women to medical health centers of Ilam City were selected by random sampling method and after their acceptance for study, their required information was extracted by 46-item questionnaire and then they were analyzed by SPSS software. General prevalence of studied domestic violence against women was 62 percent in which emotional violence has been more prevalent than other kinds of violence. There is a meaningful relationship between low levels of education in women and their husbands, early marriage, more children, being a housewife, and unemployment of their husbands with violence against women in the family.High prevalence of wife abuse in Ilam women especially emotional violence because of low levels of education of women and their husbands, early marriage, more children, being a housewife, and unemployment of their husbands could be a serious threat for health of women and other family members and it could lead to consequent social harms such as suicide.

Keywords: Domestic Violence, Women, Ilam.

Introduction Anger is a natural emotion that everybody experience and it is considered as a natural aspect of marriage life. Actually, it seems that the more the relationships would be, the more the opportunities for anger emergence would appear. But, if this natural emotion would not be controlled, it could lead to emergence of verbal and physical violence, to harm intimate relationships, and finally to marriage non-satisfaction and even separation and divorce (Fathali Lavasani, 2008).

Wife abuse which is a kind of domestic abuse implies on doing any misbehavior and abuse from sexual partner and includes emotional, physical, and sexual misbehavior (Bolheri and Ghahari, 2003).

Violence against women and daughters is important issue in human health and right. At least one in every five female population of the world is physically abused in her life by a man or group of men (Global Health Organization, 2001).

In all countries, nonetheless the social, economic, religious or cultural differences, husband violence occurs. In 48 population studies all over the world, 10-69 percent of women have reported that they are sexually abused by their husband or one of intimate men (Global Harm Organization, 2002).

Researches in Iran have a range of 28 to 55 percent misbehavior and abuse against women (Boulheri and Ghahari, 2008). Various personal, communicative, and social factors could play a role in men violence against women (Global Health Organization, 2002).

Non-fatal consequents of violence against women could be physical injuries or emotional shocks.

Fatal consequent could be: Death because of murder, injuries or AIDS. Concerning emotional shock, women could attempt suicide as their last way to become free from violence (Global Health Organization, 2001). In addition to women, children and adolescents of these families could harm,

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International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Research. Special issue Vol 1(1), February2014

too. Many threatening factors and situations for children and adolescents such as poverty, violence and family problems could lead to emotional and behavioral problems in them (Richards and Baoom, 2011).

Therefore, considering this introduction and high prevalence of suicide in Ilam City women, this research aims to determine the prevalence rate of wife abuse and its influencing factors in married women in Ilam City.

Method This study is descriptive-sectional which its statistic population includes all married women who were referred to Ilam City medical health centers during research period. Research sample includes 366 married women and it was determined by Cochran formula. Finally, 344 married women remained in the study and 22 individuals were excluded for different reasons. Sampling method was simple random. Research tool includes a 46-item questionnaire which is created by using scientific books, similar researches and converging with social and cultural environment of Ilam City and its content smoothness and durability was achieved.

Questionnaires were completed referring individuals who were supervised by female, experienced of at least pre-high school examiners after receiving confirmation from individuals and after collecting the data, information were analyzed by SPSS software using descriptive statistic, x2 test, and Fisher test.

Finding Descriptive results of this research showed that 78.4 percent of research sample were 20-40 years old, 4.5 percent were <20 years old and the rest were >40 years old. 6 percent of them were illiterate, 28 percent were had diploma education, 40 percent had diploma degree and 26 percent had university degree. 72 percent of research sample were householder and 72.5 percent had unemployed husbands. About 72 percent of studied women had family relationship with their husband but only 28 percent were living with their husband's parents.

5 percent of husbands of sample were illiterate, 24 percent had under diploma education, 35 percent had diploma degree and 36 percent had university percent. 83 percent of research sample considered their husband as loyal to ethical manners and only 2 percent told that their husbands are addicted.

70 percent of the sample reported that average monthly income of their family is less than 3.000.000 Rials, but 67 percent reported that they have their own house.

Analytic results showed that totally 62 percent of studied women are violated by their husbands. Data analysis shows that 33.8 percent physically, 54.2 percent emotionally, and 23.7 percent were sexually violated (Table 1) which about 50 percent of these women have reported that wife abuse have had various physical and psychological complications.

Results of this research showed that highest percent rate of wife abuse were occurred for women with lower than diploma education or illiterate and this is statistically a meaningful relationship and the higher the women education, the lesser the wife abuse would be (Diagram 1).

Conclusion of this research showed that the less the marriage age, the more the violence against them in family would be, so that this is a meaningful relationship, statistically. Results of this study showed that there is a meaningful relationship between violence against women and marriage duration. This means that the less the duration of marriage, the less the violence prevalence would be.

In lights of children number and wife abuse prevalence, results showed that the more the number of children, the more the wife abuse would be.

There is a meaningful relationship between the kinds of women job with domestic violence against them, so that most wife abuse cases were among housewife and educating women and the least cases were among retired and employed women (Diagram 2).

Table 1: Frequency distribution of wife abuse prevalence of its types in studied women Abuse type Physical Harm

Mental Harm

Physical Harm

79

181

113

General prevalence of wife abuse

Frequency

Number

595

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23.7

54.2

33.8

62

Percent

Diagram 1: Prevalence percent of wife abuse in lights of education level in studied sample

80 70 60 50 40

spouse abuse

30

non spouse abuse

20 10 0 illterate

high school

diploma

academic educational

Diagram 2: Prevalence percent of wife abuse in lights of job type of studied women in Ilam City

120 100 80 Wife Abuse

60

Non-Wife Abuse

40 20 0 Employed

596

Retired

Householder

Student

International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Research. Special issue Vol 1(1), February2014

Also, unemployed men showed more violence against their wives than employed men, although this relationship was not statistically meaningful. Prevalence of domestic violence against women with family relationship with their husband was less.

Another result showed that the lesser the men education, the more their violence against their wives would be and this is statistically meaningful.

Conclusion Most of studied women were: young, literate, having family relationship with their husband, housewife, having their own house, poor economic status and having their husband loyal to ethical manners.

Of every ten women of this research 6 individuals had reported wife abuse history by their husbands and this finding is more than the result of Mousavi and Eshaghian (2002) who claimed violence prevalence as 36.8 percent and it was a little more than studies in Iran which show 28 to 58 percent range of misbehavior and harm (Boulheri and Ghahari, 2008), but it was lesser that violence prevalence rate in Khoram Abad which was 91.9 percent (Malekshahi, Farhadi, 2001), in Shahrekord with 67.5 percent (Salehi and Mehralian, 2003), in Tonekabon with 93.6 percent (Ghahremani and Atef Vahid, 2005), and in Yasoog 78.4 percent (Joekar, 2003), but it was in a good agreement with violence prevalence rate in Tehran with 60.6 percent (Jahanfar, 2003) and results of 48 studies in the world that claimed wife abuse in range of 10 to 69 percent (Global Health Organization. 2002).

The studied women were emotionally violated more than sexual or physical violence and this could be because of fear of legal consequences.

One of salient results of this research was the effect of education on wife abuse prevalence, so that having diploma education level and higher in both men and women could act as a supportive factor against violence that its rational could be the role of education level in promotion of attitudes in men and experienced behaviors in life.

According to the results of studies on early marriage which sometimes occurs because of traditional standpoints, this could create the basis for more violence in family violence against women. Having a lot of children with inefficient economic status could be grounding factor for wife abuse.

According to the results of this research, unemployment of men and being a housewife could be related to wife abuse and this finding is in agreement with opinion of Doctor Bolheri and Ghahri (2008) that considers unemployment, having low levels of educations and low income of men as violence factors against women.

Finally, we could say that high prevalence of wife abuse in Ilam women especially emotional violence because of low levels of education of women and men, early marriage, more children, inefficient economic status, unemployed men and housewife women could be a serious threat for women health and other members of the family and this could be a grounding factor for other social harms such as suicide and this issue must be firmly studied in legal, religious, and cultural standpoints.

References: 1 - Bolhari , J & qhahary , SH , 2008. life Skills for violated women. Tehran, Danzheh Press Publication .First Edition , 16,15,13 .

2 - Jaokar, A, 2003 . Abuse prevalence and associated factors in women referred to health centers of Yasooj (unpublished ).

3 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Jahanfar,SH, & et al ,2003 .Assess the prevalence of domestic violence in pregnant women referring to Tehran University of Medical Sciences . Iran Journal of Nursing . 15,16. (32,33) , 93-99 4 - The World Health Organization ,2001 . Global report on violence and health. Translated into persian by Parsinia S& Rafii SH . Tehran campus publication. Printing, pages : 29 , 43-44 .

5 - The World Health Organization , 2002. Global report on violence and health. Translated by Eftekhary,M & et al. Tehran, publishing Tandise, first edition, 169, 170 ,184. , 77-72 .

7 - Ali Lavasani , F, 2008. Marital skills training guide . Tehran . Publication of Danzheh - printing. 56 .

8 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Ghahramany,SH & Atef vaheed , MK, 2005 . Study of wife abuse in the University Student Branch in 2003. Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences . 15( 50), 83-89.

9 - Malekshahi , F & Farhady,A , 2004 . Study of wife abuse and its influencing factors on female spouses were covered by health centers in Tehran in 2001 . Quarterly Journal of Fundamentals of Mental Health . SPECIAL Internet 's 1 . 103-112.

10 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Mousavian,SM and Es'haghian . A, 2001. Evaluation of spouse abuse in married women .

Journal of Forensic Medicine , 2 , 41-48 .

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International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Research. Special issue Vol 1(1), 598-602, 2014

Available online at http:// www. ijpbrjournal.com ISSN 2322-4002 Š2014 Victor Quest Publication

Relationship between Personality Characteristics, stress, and coping styles with suicide in Ilam City Fathollah Mohammadian 1, Zahra Shahrivar 2, Fereshteh Shiri 3 1-PhD Health Psychology Student of Ilam Medical Science University 2-Pediatrician - Tehran Medical Science University 3-Bachelor of Family Health in Ilam Medical Science University

Abstract This research studied the relationship between personality characteristics, stress, and coping styles with suicide in two groups (one with suicide history and one without suicide history) by a caseevidence-based approach aiming to recognize the factors influencing on suicide in Ilam City. Each group including 56 male and female individuals were converged based on five variables of age, gender, marital status, education level, and employment status. Research data were collected by Eysenck personality questionnaires, Pickels life event inventory, and Billings & Mouse coping styles.

Results showed that suicidal individuals have introversion, psychosis, and neuroticism characteristics, so that with 95% confidence interval it is a meaningful different comparing to control group (P<%1).

Also, Suicidal individuals face more stressful events. There is a meaningful difference between suicidal group (472) and control group (381) in 95% confidence interval which was achieved by t-test.

It had an overestimation of mental stress which considering t-test and 95% confidence interval, it was a meaningful difference. The this group used lower problem solving coping style (P<%1). General results showed that suicide in Ilam City occurs because of a number of unique personality characteristics and inefficient experience of different life stresses in addition to inefficient coping style with suicidal individual.

Keywords: Suicide, Personality Characteristics, Stress, Coping Styles.

Introduction Humans during different eras have always desired to have their own right to live or to die. By reviewing human life history, we could identify suicide factors in different civilizations, communities, and countries and the important thing is the global feature of suicide tendency all over the history and in different communities (Mourn, 1975).

Currently, suicide is the No. 8 death reason in the U.S (Sadouck and Kaplan, 1995). According to the Global Health Organization in 2001 death rate in Lithuania, Russian Federation, and Hungary is 41.9, 35.5, and 33.1 percent per thousand, respectively (Goldsmith, 2002). In 2003-2004 period, suicide among young females increased and since 2005 suicide was the No. 3 death reason among all over 10 years individuals (Barner, Golden, and Peterson 2010).

In western countries such as Greece, Mexico, and the U.S suicide among males is 3 to 5 times more than females which this rate in Asian countries is 2 times. But Chine is the only country in which female suicide is more than males (Goldsmith, 2002). In North America and Europe about 4 to 5 percent of people who are 15 and older have suicide history or successful suicide or suicide with injury purpose (Global Heath Organization, 1993). Currently, in advanced countries in order to prevent

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International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Research. Special issue Vol 1(1), February2014

and confront with this problem and its consequences huge investments are made and this brings high costs and expense for engaged institutions and organizations. Structural change and increasingly younger suicide individuals have worsened these problems. In this situation, not only the society loses its productive forces, but also incurs the maintenance cost and expenses relating to providing special cares in long-term because of diseases, disabilities and social and mental injuries originating from this issue. On the other hand, suicide threatens the mental health of family members, affects social life environment, and increases the possibility of its occurrence in family and society environment (Welfare Organization, 1996).

In suicide etiology, different factors such as internal and external factors or medical, social and ecological factors are mentioned as the grounding and revealing factors. In this research, personality characteristics and life chronic stresses are considered as grounding factors in suicide and factors such as recent life stresses and coping styles are considered as revealing factors.

Studies have showed that some of personality characteristics help some people with their coping process so that can respond better to stressful effect than others (Lazarous, 1993).

Since 1992 researchers and scholars such as Clark and Keybones have expressed that it is better to take away the attention from suicide history and focus on genetic, mental-social, and personality characteristics because these factors could create the ground for suicide (Ferdousi, 1997).

Research results showed that some stresses such as mental stress relating to parents, lack of adults support, physical injury and harassment from parents, being away from family, lack of academic progress, hard and unfair rules in home environment (Russell, 1998), low economic-social status, lack of family support (Warheit and Zierman 1996) could lead to suicide and overall, we could say that since life stressful events are important in creating depression so this situation could create suicide thought, suicide action or suicide leading to death (contrada and Baum, 2011).

The results of studies in Iran also showed that factors such as unemployment (Yasemi, Sane'e, et.al., 1993), family dispute (Haidary Pahlavian, 2007), being controlled and supervised, dishonoring, immigration, and low income (Mohseni Tabrizi, 1993) are related to suicide.

Also, the comparison of controls and individuals with suicide history showed that suicidal individuals perform weaker than controls in interpersonal problems in lights of number, solutions, and dimensions and they show less flexibility in facing the problems (Keykhavani, 1996).

Method This research is a post-event study and it is casual-descriptive and it tries to determine the relationship between personality characteristics, life stressful events and coping styles with suicide in individuals with suicide history in Ilam City.

This research is conducted in two experimental and original stages. The purpose of conducting experimental stage was to determine the research instruments and site. In the Original stage, all those individuals who had suicide history in second-half of 2000 to late-September of 2001 were selected as research population. In the next stage, research sample was selected through random sampling and among them (69% female and 31% male) 60 individuals were randomly selected and for the control group this same number was selected randomly and they were converged in lights of age, gender, marital status, academic level, employments status with suicidal groups. Following tools were used in order to achieve required information: 1. Personal and family specifications researcher-made questionnaire: In which in addition to personal specifications, disease and psychological, and suicide history among family members, and behavioral signs before suicide, suicide tool were embedded.

2. Life events inventory: In this research, Pickels, et.al, (1972) life events inventory was used. This inventory was modified according to cultural considerations by Mohajer and coworkers (1886) and total life events reached 65 events.

3. Eysenck Personality questionnaire: This questionnaire includes 90 items which evaluates four aspects of extraversion, psychosis, neuroticism, and lying. This questionnaire was normalized by Brahani and other researchers on some of 18-16 years old Iranian boys and girls and 18-12 years Old Tehran boys and Girls (PourShahbaz, 1993).

4. Coping Styles Questionnaire: This questionnaire which is prepared by Billings and Mouse (1981) includes 19 items. This exam studies two coping styles of problems solving and emotion-based coping styles. In research of PourShahbaz (1993) the stability of this questionnaire was evaluated by song methods and it was calculated Spearman and Brown Correction Formula which had a coefficient of 78%.

In final stage of research, individuals of both groups were invited to refer to the respective health center and this was facilitated through the health centers and health assistances. After their visit,

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International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Research. Special issue Vol 1(1), February2014

beside full explanation about research goals, all research tool were given to them and then these were collected.

Tor data analysis, descriptive and deductive statistics were used.

Finding Results of this research are summarized in two parts: First part includes research preliminary findings.

In the second part, data relating to research hypothesis are presented. Following results in first part are more important and they are summarized as follow: non-tendency to marriage in individuals with suicide history, high privilege of psychological disorders among family members and individual with suicide history which all of them were significantly different than control group (P<%5).

23% of individuals with suicide history had attempted suicide two times or more. Most suicide rates were in daylight time so that 66% of people had attempted suicide during 6:00 am to 18:00 pm. More than 50% of individuals with suicide history were predicted the second suicide, 37.4% used selfburning, and 53.6% had attempted suicide by medications and behavioral signs during 24 hour before suicide attempt in frequency order are dispute with family members, aggression, sadness, anorexia, and headache.

Results of second part showed that individuals with suicide history are significantly different than control groups in lights of personal characteristics of extraversion, psychosis, and neuroticism (P<%1). So that individuals with suicide history have introversion characteristics; their psychosis features are more than control group and also neuroticism features in individuals with suicide history are more than control group. But in both group no significant difference in lying scale were reported (Table 1).

Another result of this research showed that there is a meaningful relationship between these two groups in experiencing recent and chronic stressful events (P<%5). Therefore, individuals with suicide history before suicide attempt (recent stresses), before two years than suicide attempt (chronic attempt) have experienced stressful events. And in recent stresses, individuals with suicide history have experienced stresses such as physical punishment by family members or spouse, increase of life expenses, dispute with family members, dispute with spouse, too much control and supervision more than control group. But in chronic stresses, individuals with suicide history have experienced events such as insufficient pay and income, dispute with family members, physical punishment, dishonoring, school leaving, job loss and force marriage more than control group (Table 2).

Also, concerning the evaluation of pressure of life events, individuals with suicide history have reported their stresses as more intense in respect with control group so that this difference is meaningful (Table 4).

Another result of this research showed that there is a meaningful relationship between these two groups in lights of problems solving coping style, so that individuals with suicide history use less problem-solving coping style. But there wasnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t a meaningful relationship between emotion-based coping styles, although individuals with suicide history have used this approach more than the control group.

Table 1: Comparison of personality characteristic in individuals with suicide history and control group Research Groups Statistic

Controls

Number Average

Individual with suicide history 56 10

SD t-test

4.1 -3.85

3.3 P<%1

Number

56

56

Average

8

5.9

SD

3.8

2.5

t-test

3/66

P<%1

Personality Characteristics

Extraversion

5.6 12.7

psychosis

600

International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Research. Special issue Vol 1(1), February2014

Neuroticism

Number

56

56

Average

16.58

13.3

SD

3.83

4.2

t-test

4/37

P<%1

Number

56

Average

12.81

56 12.82 3.8

SD

4.18

t-test

%13

Lying

Table 2: Comparison of stressful events in individuals with suicide history and group control Recent Stresses Research Groups Individuals history Controls

with

suicide

Chronic Stresses

Frequency

Percent

Frequency

Percent

472

8.43

371

8.43

381

6.8

278

6.8

Table 3: Comparison of coping style method in individuals with suicide history and control group Research Groups Individuals with Individuals without T suicide history suicide history Coping Styles Average SD Average SD Problem Solving Emotion-based *P<%1

-1.38 1.35

1.12 1.47

1.84 1.21

98% 1.15

-2/55* 61%

Conclusion Results of this research about the relationship of suicide and personality disorders are in good agreement with other studies. For example, in a study that was performed on 5588 suicide cases their results showed that 22 percent of them have neuroticism and personality disorders (Global Health Organization, 1993).

Findings of this research about the relationship of stress with suicide are in a good agreement with literatures. For example, results show that stresses such as work problems, family dispute, financial problems, unemployment, separation (Marti, 1992) and factors such as marriage problems, family problems (Mohseni Tabrizi 1993) in Iran are correlated with suicide attempt.

Also, results of a research titled "Age and different personality characteristics in successful relationships" showed that: there exists features such as neuroticism, extraversion and loyalty in this group (Paul and Binkers, 1994).

Personality characteristics such as insomnia, exhaustion, and timidity exist among individuals with suicide history (Ralf, 1998).

About the coping styles, results are in good agreement with literature. For instance, Salkoskis (1990) found out that since difficulties in problem solving lead to problems in effective coping style, therefore individuals with suicide history are unable to used suitable coping style methods. Also, individuals with suicide history perform weaker in interpersonal problems in lights of solutions, diversity and dimensions than control group and they show less flexibility in facing problems (Keykhavani, 2006).

General results of current research showed that suicide in Ilam City have occurred because of some of grounding and revealing factors. So that individuals with suicide history have attempted suicide because of grounding (isolationism, humility, inconsistency with acceptable society customs, non-

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International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Research. Special issue Vol 1(1), February2014

coordination between wishes and realities, unpreparedness for consistency with changes in life environment, emotional instability, nervousness, anxiety, quick response to mental stress and experience of chronic stresses such insufficiency of income and compensation, dispute with family members, physical punishment, forced marriage, dishonoring) and revealing factors (recent stressful events such as physical punishment, dispute with family members, increase of life expense). Also, factors such as early marriage, non-tendency to marriage, prevalence of mental disorders among family members and the individual could play a role in suicide attempt which must be taken into consideration.

References: 1 - Pour Shahbaz , A, 1993 . The relationship between stressful life events and personality assessment in patients with leukemia, master's thesis in clinical psychology . Tehran Psychiatric Institute.

2 - Heydari Pahloian , A, 1997. Mental state - social suicide attempters in the city of Hamadan, Journal , Year III , 1 & 2. . 19-31.

3 - Zolfaghari , F and colleagues ,1997. Coping , perceived self- efficacy and attitudes to life events and normal groups Neuroblastoma tick Iran, Journal , 3(3), 43-53 .

4 - The Welfare organization of iran ,1996 . Suicide Prevention Project in Ilam province .

5 - Kykhavny S, 1996 . Evaluation and utilization of social support and coping skills in individuals 2515 years old suicidal Ilam , master's thesis in clinical psychology . Welfare and Rehabilitation Sciences University, Tehran .

7 - Mohseni- Tabrizi , A. 1993 . Study of factors influencing the increase in the rate of suicide in Ilam, Tehran University .

8 - Moroni , Pierre , 1996. Suicide , translated by Sahand Maziar . Tehran: Khayyam .

9 - Yasami MT ; Sanei , N. & et al ,1993 . Geological Survey of epidemiology of attempted suicide in the city of Kerman . Kerman University of Medical Sciences , Journal , 4(12) , 15-27.

10-Barnes D.H & Golden R.N & Peterson F.L,2010.the trust about suicide. By Dwjbooksllc.New York, 181.

11-Contrada J.R & Baum .A,2011. the handbook of stress science. Spting publishing company. New York,241, 284.

12-Goldsmith S.K & et al,2002.reducing suicide. The national academies press.

Washingtone,D.C.154.

13- lazarrus R S.1993 . from psychological stress to the emotion: A history of changing out look ; Annual revive of psychology , 1-21,44.

14- Martti , E H,1992. Recent life event , social support and auicide , Acta psychiatria Scandinavia ,15-46,81.

15. Paul R D & Binks N W,1994. Age difference in the personality characteristic of suicide completors ; psychiatry interpersonal and Biological process , 57 ,213-224.

16-Racel, AV,1998. Risk factor to suicidal behavior among male and female adoles cent, journal of youth Adolescense.66(4),813-822.

17- Ralph S P,1992. psychiatry activity and personality characteristic associated with depression and suicide in American college man . Acta psychiatric scandinavica ,98,16-22.

18- Sadock B j& Kaplan H I,1995. comprehensive text book of psychiatry (Gthed);Baltimore: willams and wilkins .421.

19- Warheit G J & zimmerman R S,1996. disaster related stress , depressive sings and symptoms and suicidal ideation among adolescents . Journal of youth and adolescnte , 25,401-416.

20- World Health organization(1993). Guideline for the primary prevention of mental , neurological and psychosocial disorder; suicide .

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International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Research. Special issue Vol 1(1), 603-612, 2014

Available online at http:// www. ijpbrjournal.com ISSN 2322-4002 ©2014 Victor Quest Publication

Investigating the Influence of Big Five Personality Traits on Psychological Hardiness (Subjects: Women as Heads of Households in Yasouj City) 1

2

3

4

Reza Fallahchaei , Ataallah Paghoosh , Ali Nedaei , and Saeed Ahmadi Nasrabad 1. Assistant Professor; Department of Counseling & Psychology, University of Hormozgan, Bandar Abbas, Iran 2- M.A. Student of Family Counseling, University of Hormozgan, Bandar Abbas, Iran 3- M.A. in Family Counseling, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran 4- M.A. student of Family Counseling, University of Hormozgan, Bandar Abbas, Iran

Abstract The present research aims at investigating the influence of the Big Five personality traits on the psychological hardiness of women as heads of households. To this aim, 100 women as heads of households in the city of Yasouj were selected as sample size by means of accessible sampling method. Research instruments in this research were Costa and McCrae’s NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO- FFI) and Ahwaz Psychological Hardiness Scale. Correlation and step-by-step regression analyses were used to investigate the relationships between variables and to analyze the influence of NEO on hardiness. Results of the analyses showed that there is a negative and significant relationship between psychological hardiness and neuroticism sub-construct in p<0.01 level. Further, there is a positive and significant relationship between psychological hardiness and conscientiousness in p<0.01 level. Results of the research also indicated that there is no significant relationship between psychological hardiness and ‘extroversion’ and ‘openness’ sub-constructs. A positive and significant relationship between psychological hardiness and agreeableness was also observed in p<0.01 level. These results support the idea that psychological hardiness is a sign of healthy character and also indicate a consistent and direct relationship between psychological hardiness and the Big Five Personality traits.

Keywords: Big Five personality traits, Psychological Hardiness, Women as Heads of Households in Yasouj City Introduction The term “women as heads of households” refers to women who are responsible for subsisting or managing their family’s affairs, either temporarily or permanently. Women as heads of households are among vulnerable social groups, and become vulnerable as a result of factors such as divorce, husband’s death or addiction, becoming disable and being abandoned by their husbands. Woman and family are two inseparable concepts and women as heads of households are an important concept within the family welfare (NazokTabar and Veisi, 2007). Women as heads of households carry heavy economic and social burdens: They both play maternal and paternal roles. Facts in the society reveal that, in spite of various declarations as well as international institutions and organizations established to protect women’s rights, it is very difficult, in some cases, and even impossible for the women to meet their burdensome responsibilities and the family’s expenses. Even if they are met, they impose an acutely painful and arduous life on these paternal women. These groups of women, which are called “women as heads of households” or “self-supporting women”, face

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numerous problems and hardships in their lives. Even imagining the fact that their situation in the society may be patriarchal and traditional is also painful. Unfortunately, women’s lives in our society are accompanied with a lot of ambiguities and dangers after they are abandoned by their husbands.

These include care of the children on their own, economic problems, living in loneliness and depression, and wrong attitude of the society towards divorced women and widows, which cause numerous problems for them in their social relationships and their presence in the society. Meaningful looks, people’s bitter words, loss of emotional support by the husband, economic poverty and tendency to live alone and save their face and personality are some examples of this stratum’s difficulties. Exact and comprehensive investigation of the problems of women as heads of households in the society and provision of appropriate solutions are important duties of social service organizations in any country. This social problem needs to receive more attention than it does at present.

In the last three decades, the concept of ‘hardiness’ has received much attention by researchers (Zhang, 2011). “Psychological hardiness” is one of the new concepts in psychology, in which psychologists have become interested and have studied it in different areas. Psychological hardiness was received attention first by Kobasa (1979) who considered it as a combination of personality traits which acts like an armor against difficulties of life (ShakeriNia, 2009). People who are blessed with this positive trait can effectively fight against challenges and stresses of life. When this concept was introduced by Kobasa, researchers started to study it widely (Attari, Neisi, Yousefi and Nabavi, 2004; Azmoudeh, 2004; Sharifi, Arizi and Namdari, 2005). Psychological hardiness acts as an adjusting agent towards relationships among tension and psychological and physical diseases. Many research evidences have supported Kobasa's (1979) argument that hardiness is a disposition of a healthy personality (Maddi, 1997; Ramanaiah, Sharpe, & Byravan, 1999). Additionally, studies reveal that hardiness has positive influence on psychological and physical wellbeing of individuals (Alexander & Klein, 2001). The concept of hardiness has also received a lot of attention in Asian countries. For instance, Chun (2003) concluded that hardiness can act as a safeguarding factor against undesirable health-related outcomes (such as occupational stress and career burnout) in prospective teachers in Hong Kong.

Individuals who have strong psychological hardiness are less possible to be hurt physically or psychologically when responding to tension compared to those who have little psychological hardiness. Empirical results also verify the role of hardiness in decreasing side pressures of tension (Brannon & Feist, 1997; Sharifi, Arizi and Namdari, 2005). Characteristics of psychological hardiness include: 1. considerable sense of curiosity; 2. tendency to have interesting and meaningful experiences; 3. belief in the effectiveness of what has been imagined; 4. belief in the naturalness of change and the fact that each significant stimulant may cause growth and progress; 5. self-expression and mightiness; and, 6. ability to resist. These characteristics can be helpful in confronting with tense events of life (Kobasa, Marry and Poketi, 1982; as quoted from Kiamarsi et al., 1998).

The rationale behind selecting these characteristics is optimistic cognitive evaluations which may result in individual’s natural understanding of the characteristics, however tense the events are.

Consequently, decisive decision-making can result in their unity in future experiences. Therefore, hardy individuals convert tense events into tolerable ones (Kiamarsi et al, 1998).

“In the past three decades, scholars have discussed hardiness in several lines of their investigations.

In the first line of investigations, researchers examined the life events experienced by hardy and nonhardy individuals. It was generally concluded that hardy individuals do not experience life events that are qualitatively different from those experienced by non-hardy individuals. (Alexander & Klein, 2001; Kobasa, 1982).

The second line of studies focused on the relationship between hardiness and positive attributes. For example, Bernard, Hutchison, and Lavin (1996) showed that hardiness has a positive relationship with higher level factors such as self-esteem, self-efficacy and optimism. Similarly, the third line of these studies focused on the relationship between hardiness and unhealthy personality traits like depression, anxiety, guilt and self-hate, and negative occupational factors like career burnout (Alexander and Kelin, 2001; Murray, 2005)” (As quoted from Li-fang Zhang, 2011: 110). Studies showed that individuals with lower levels of hardiness tend to have more unhealthy personality traits

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and experience more psychological distress. Put together, it can be concluded that hardiness has a positive relationship with healthy traits and a negative relationship with unhealthy traits. In other words, results of previous studies verify the claim that hardiness is a sign of healthy personality condition.

Psychological hardiness is a kind of personality style which includes commitment, control and challenge, and encourages life development and growth (Zhang, 2011). In Kobasa’s opinion (1993), a hardy person is one who has three general characteristics: a) belief in his ability to control and affect events (control); b) ability to feel deep involvement or commitment to activities (commitment); and, c) expecting change as an exciting challenge for more growth and an ordinary element in life (challenge). Kobasa (1979) coined the concept of hardy personality and defined it using present theories about personality as a combination of beliefs in oneself and the world which is originated from the consistent act of commitment, control and challenge. Individuals who have low level of hardiness express severe emotional reactions towards life problems, and suffer the most harm from psychological pressure in the long run. On the other hand, individuals who have a high level of hardiness stay healthy in spite of confrontation with problems which are intolerable and hurtful for others (Kobasa, 1979). Maddi (2007) also believes that hardiness is definable as a factor for maintaining health and increasing performance in stressful conditions.

According to the above discussion, a factor which is expected to significantly influence on the psychological hardiness is the five-factor model of personality presented by McCrae and Costa. Fivefactor model of personality is the result of several factor analyses conducted among different sample groups with different languages and cultures (McCrae& Costa, 1987; Watson et al, 1944). Five factors of this model include neuroticism versus emotion stability, extraversion versus introversion, openness, and agreeableness and conscientiousness. Each of these five factors are comprised of 6 facets or sub-constructs with a wide range of personality and behavioral traits, which can contribute to the clarification of convergent or discriminant communications by another personality structure (Costa and McCrae, 1992a, b). For example, neuroticism includes anxiety, angry hostility, depression, selfconsciousness, vulnerability and weakness against psychological pressure. The next factor in the five-factor model of personality is extroversion. This factor includes gregariousness, activity and tendency to positive emotions (Costa and McCrae, 1992b).

The third factor of NEO is conscientiousness, which is regarded as tendency to organization, efficacy, trustability, restraint, logicality, and reflection (HaghShenas, 2008). Preference for organization and hardiness are important characteristics of conscientious individuals (MacCann et al, 2009). Another factor of the five-factor model of personality is openness. This factor involves accepting fantasy, feelings, ideas and values. The last factor of five-factor model of personality is agreeableness, which is an inter-individual construct and includes the facets of trust, altruism, acceptance and humbleness.

Many studies have been conducted to investigate the relationship between hardiness and five-factor model of personality McCrae and Costa (1992), i.e. neuroticism, extroversion, openness, agreeableness and conscientiousness. For example, DeNeve and Cooper (1998) conducted a research to analyze the relationships between personality traits and mental well-being. They classified personality traits into 137 groups based on the Big Five personality traits. Hardiness was classified as a personality trait in extroversion. Another example is the work of Ramanaiah et al (1999) who experimented the relationship between Big Five personality traits as a measuring scale by means of NEO’s revised questionnaire (Costa and McCrae, 1992) and evaluated hardiness by Disposition Resilience Scale (which is also known as Dispositional Hardiness Scale; Bartone, Ursano, Wright & Ingraham, 1989). The authors found that, among 241 students of Psychology in an American university, those in the high-hardiness group scored significantly higher on openness, conscientiousness, and extraversion, but lower on neuroticism compared to the students in the low hardiness group. As a final example, Maddi et al. (2002) investigated the relationship between hardiness (as assessed by the Personal Views Survey II (Maddi, 1997)) and the Big Five personality traits (as measured by the NEO Five-Factor Inventory (Costa & McCrae, 1992)) among 102 staff and faculty members in the University of Southern California in the United States. The authors found that, while hardiness has a negative relationship with neuroticism, it has a positive relationship with the other four personality traits.

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Zhang (2011) conducted a research on Chinese students and reported that hardiness has a relationship with Big Five personality traits: Three dimensions of hardiness (commitment, control and challenge) have significant and negative relationship with neuroticism and have positive and significant relationship with the other four factors (extroversion, openness, agreeableness and conscientiousness). Ghafouri Varnosfaderani et al (2008) conducted a research to investigate the simple and multiple relationships between motivation for progress along with psychological hardiness and sensation seeking and responsibleness among the employees of Bank Maskan branches in Isfahan, Iran. The results showed that there is a relationship between the two personality traits (motivation for progress and psychological hardiness) and the two important variables (responsibleness and sensation seeking).

Now, the question arises as to whether psychological hardiness and the Big Five personality traits have any relationship with differences in cultures and ethnicities in Iran, and how much sex is influential.

No study has been conducted to investigate relationship between psychological hardiness and the Big Five personality traits (all factors at once) up to now in Iran. The present research can, therefore, be very important, pave the way for future studies, and complement incomplete previous studies in this area because it is the first research conducted on the relationship between psychological hardiness and the Five Big personality traits.

Method The present research is a descriptive and correlation study. Statistical population of this research includes all women as heads of households in Yasouj during 2013-2014. Accessible sampling method was used to pick up 100 sample members who were identified in the parks, mosques, production factories and packaging workshops, etc., and were given the questionnaires.

In the present research, data were collected, codified, and entered in a computer. SPSS-18 was used to analyze the data. In order to do so, statistical indices and methods including mean, standard deviation, correlation coefficient and step-by-step regression were used.

Main hypothesis: there is a relationship between psychological hardiness and personality traits dimensions of women as heads of households.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

There is a negative relationship between psychological hardiness and neuroticism dimension.

There is a positive relationship between psychological hardiness and extroversion dimension.

There is a positive relationship between psychological hardiness and openness dimension.

There is positive relationship between psychological hardiness and agreeableness dimension.

There is positive relationship between psychological hardiness and conscientiousness dimension.

Research Instruments

NEO-Five Factor Inventory: This questionnaire is an instrument for measuring personality on a fivepoint Likert Scale ranging from “completely disagree” to “completely agree” with 60 questions. This questionnaire evaluates five main dimensions of personality which include: neuroticism (N), extroversion (E), Openness (O), agreeableness (A) and Conscientiousness (C). (Fathi Ashtiyani and Dastani, 2009).Validity of this instrument was verified in Costa and McCrae’s research (1992) and reliability coefficients were reported as 0.90 for neuroticism, 0.78 for extroversion, 0.76 for openness, 0.86 for agreeableness, and 0.90 for Conscientiousness (Costa and McCrae, 1992).

Garousi Farshi (2001) translated this questionnaire into Persian and normalized it on Iranian students.

Reliability coefficients obtained for various factors were 0.79, 0.79, 0.80, 0.75 and 0.83, respectively.

Ahwaz Hardiness Scale: this is a self-reporting pencil-paper 27-item scale. Points range from zero to 108 in this questionnaire. The greater the point, the higher the psychological hardiness level. In Kiamarsi’s research, Cronbach’s alpha was obtained as 0.76 for all respondents, 0.74 for female

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respondents and 0.76 for male respondents (Abolghasemi and Narimani, 2006), which indicates suitable reliability of the test.

Results a) Descriptive Results of Research Variables

Big Five factors

Table 1: descriptive indices of the Big Five personality traits and psychological hardiness variables Variable Mean Standard Deviation neuroticism 27.38 5.98 extroversion 33.94 5.19 openness 33.51 5.39 agreeableness 36.92 4.86 conscientiousness 34.80 6.25 psychological hardiness 51.59 8.54 As it can be seen in Table 1, the greatest mean belongs to agreeableness (36.92) and the lowest mean belongs to neuroticism (27.38). Psychological hardiness also has a mean of 51.59. b) Correlation Between Variables: First hypothesis: There is a negative relationship between psychological hardiness and neuroticism dimension.

Table 2: correlation coefficient between psychological hardiness and neuroticism variables Dependent Variable Psychological Hardiness Independent Variable

Correlation Coefficient

Significance Level

Neuroticism **P<0.01 *P<0.05

0.57**-

0.000

As it can be seen in Table 2, neuroticism has a strong negative and significant relationship with psychological hardiness in 0.01 level. Therefore, the first hypothesis is verified and H0 is rejected.

Second hypothesis: There is a positive relationship between psychological hardiness and extroversion dimension.

Table 3: correlation coefficient between psychological hardiness and extroversion variables Dependent Variable Psychological Hardiness Independent Variable

Correlation Coefficient

Significance Level

Extroversion

0.16

0.107

**P<0/01 *P <0/05 Table 3 shows that extroversion and psychological hardiness do not have any significant relationship.

Therefore, the third hypothesis is rejected and H0 is verified.

Third hypothesis: There is a positive relationship between psychological hardiness and openness dimension.

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Table 4: correlation coefficient between psychological hardiness and openness variables Dependent Variable Psychological Hardiness Independent Variable

Correlation Coefficient

Significance Level

Openness **P<0/01 *P <0/05

0.11

0.251

Results of Table 4 show that there is no significant relationship between openness and psychological hardiness, so the third hypothesis is rejected.

Fourth hypothesis: There is a positive relationship between psychological hardiness and agreeableness dimension.

Table 5: correlation coefficient between psychological hardiness and agreeableness variables Dependent Variable Psychological Hardiness Independent Variable Agreeableness **P<0/01 *P <0/05

Correlation Coefficient

Significance Level

0.41**

0.000

Correlation coefficient 0.41** between the two variables shows that there is a significant positive relationship between them. The fourth hypothesis is, therefore, verified.

Fifth hypothesis: There is a positive relationship between psychological hardiness and conscientiousness dimension.

Table 6: correlation coefficient between psychological hardiness and conscientiousness variables Dependent Variable Psychological Hardiness Independent Variable

Correlation Coefficient

Significance Level

conscientiousness **P<0/01 *P <0/05

0.29**

0.003

Considering the significance level obtained in 0.01 level between conscientiousness and psychological hardiness, the fifth hypothesis is supported.

Step-by-step multiple regression analysis was used to investigate the share of the Big Five personality factors in explaining psychological hardiness. In order to use regression, it is necessary to use its preconditions.

Table 7: summary of regression analysis coefficients and its steps for independent variables Steps Independe β T Signific F R R2 Adj.R2 nt ance Level

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First Step

Neuroticis m

-0.54

-6.46

0.000

Neuroticis m Agreeable ness

-0.46

-5.57

0.000

Second Step

0.29

3.41

41.78

0.547

0.299

0.292

29

0.612

0.374

0.361

0.001

Results of Table 7 show that neuroticism and agreeableness have been able to predict 36% of psychological hardiness variance in two steps (R2=0.36). Therefore, two of five factors are considered as strong predictors of psychological hardiness and other factors are eliminated from the regression model due to insignificant explanation and overlap.

Discussion Psychological hardiness is a new concept in psychology which has attracted researchersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; attention.

Individuals who have strong psychological hardiness are less possible to be hurt physically or psychologically when confronting with tension (Branon and Feist, 1997). As it was mentioned, psychological hardiness indicates healthy personality conditions. Many studies have been conducted to investigate the relationship between psychological hardiness and the Big Five personality traits introduced by McCrae & Costa (1992): neuroticism, extroversion, openness, agreeableness and conscientiousness. However, this issue has not received attention in Iran. The present research, therefore, aimed at investigating the relationship between psychological hardiness and the Big Five personality traits in women as heads of households. Results of Table 1 shows descriptive statistical indices of the variables, where the greatest mean belonged to agreeableness and the smallest mean belonged to neuroticism. Having a mean of above 50%, hardiness variable reveals that women as heads of households in this study expressed good resistance against tense events of life. This can be explained by referring to the type of environment, culture, and ethnicity of the statistical population: because of cultural and social limitations and stereotypes, a widow or a divorced woman should head herself and her family as much as possible, and carries the burden of life.

Results of Table 2 showed that there is a significant and negative relationship between psychological hardiness and neuroticism. This supports the results of the studies conducted by Kardum et al (2012), Maddi et al (2002), Ramanaiah et al (1999) and Maddi (1997). These researchers have referred to negative and significant correlation between psychological hardiness and neuroticism. It can be said that â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;hardinessâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; is viewed as a positive personality trait in all societies, and has a negative relationship with negative and unhealthy traits.

Results of Tables 3 and 4 showed that there is no significant relationship between psychological hardiness and extroversion and openness dimensions. This result does not match the results of studies conducted by Kardum et al (2012), Maddi et al (2002), Ramanaiah et al (1999) and Maddi (1997), because they reported a strong positive relationship between the variables. This contradiction can be attributed to the cultural and environmental differences of respondents, monosexuality of them in the present study, and utilization of a mere self-reporting instrument.

Table 5 showed that there is a positive and significant relationship between psychological hardiness and agreeableness sub-construct, and this result matches the results of Kardum et al (2012), Maddi et al (2002), Ramanaiah et al (1999) and Maddi (1997). These researchers also reported a positive and significant relationship between psychological hardiness and agreeableness.

According to the Fifth hypothesis, conscientiousness was expected to have influence on increasing psychological hardiness. This hypothesis was verified according to the results, and Table 6 indicated a positive and significant relationship between psychological hardiness and conscientiousness. This result also corresponds to the results of Kardum et al (2012), Hajlou et al (2011), Maddi et al (2002),

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Ramanaiah et al (1999) and Maddi (1997). According to Piedmont's opinion (1998), one of the attributes of conscientiousness is self-order, which refers to the individuals' ability to start their tasks and duties and continue them in spite of difficulties and distractions. A high point in this attribute shows individuals' ability to stimulate them. Individuals who have low points in this attribute fail to start and continue their tasks, and do not bother themselves. Therefore, conscientious individuals practice hardiness in order to overcome their barriers. Individuals who are highly conscientious are motivated to reach their goals (Digman and Inouye, 1986; costa and McCrae, 1992). Further, conscientious individuals can postpone their rewards and are determined to reach their ambitions (William and Johnson, 2005). These two traits are seen in hardy individuals (Bouffard et al, 1983; Raynor and Entin, 1983).

One of the other benefits of this research is its novelty in a way that it can be a guide for future professors, researchers and students. It is also a warning against the absence of studies on the relationship between the variables in the area of Counseling, Psychology, and Health. This research hopes to be an introduction for conducting future studies in this ground.

Although authors tried a lot to find domestic literature on the subject, they failed to find any research conducted in Iran about the relationship between psychological hardiness and the Five Big personality factors (all at once). Therefore, this research had restrictions concerning enough literature review because of the absence of any available foreign scientific websites. And as the present researchers felt the gap of investigating these variables inside Iran, they launched this study. Other restrictions ahead of the present research are as follows: Firstly, since this research made use of self-reporting scales like NEO's personality questionnaire, the validity of this scale is very dependent on the culture of respondents. Future studies can eliminate this limitation by reporting other strata of the society or through observational plans. Secondly, other variables such as emotional intelligence, environmental conditions and social culture may affect the relationship between variables. Future studies can take into account these factors as well. Thirdly, the present research was conducted on women as heads of households (with different social classes) and the results cannot be simply generalized to other strata and male individuals. Future researchers are advised to focus on other strata and classes of the society. Finally, the research methodology was correlation and the relationships cannot be considered as causal relationships. In spite of the above methodological limitations, it can be said that the results of the present research supports previous studies and provides useful hints about the nature of psychological hardiness and personality traits. The results to some extent revealed the relationship between psychological hardiness variables and personality traits. Therefore, the authorities are suggested to support women as heads of households and thereby reduce their problems so that they can act like a strong armor against life tensions and stresses by means of physical health and psychological well-being.

Acknowledgment The authors express their gratitude to all those who took part in this research and cooperated with them.

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International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Research. Special issue Vol 1(1), 613-621, 2014

Available online at http:// www. ijpbrjournal.com ISSN 2322-4002 Š2014 Victor Quest Publication

Effect of Fordyce Happiness Training on the Emotion Regulation Difficulties in the Adolescents under Support of Social Welfare 1

2

3

Sahar Narmashiri , Mahvash Raghibi , Mehrdad Mazaheri

1- M.A. Student in Psychology, University of Sistan and Baluchestan, Zahedan, Iran 2- Associate Professor, Department of Psychology, University of Sistan and Baluchestan, Zahedan, Iran 3- Assistant Professor; Department of Psychology, University of Sistan and Baluchestan, Zahedan, Iran

Abstract

The current study is aimed to investigate the effect of Fordyce happiness training on quality of life, emotion regulation difficulties, and irrational beliefs in adolescent girls under the support of Social Welfare of Zahedan. This is a semi-experimental study with two-group design with pre-test and posttest. The considered sample consisted of 24 adolescent girls under the support of Social Welfare of Zahedan who were selected randomly and assigned randomly to experimental and control groups (in each group N=12). To collect data, the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS; Gratz and Roemer) was used. Fordyce happiness training program was only implemented on the experimental group in 8, 90-minute sessions for 8 weeks. For analyzing data, covariance analysis was applied.

The results indicated that the Fordyce happiness training had a significant role in reducing the emotion regulation difficulties.

Key words: Fordyce Training, Emotion Regulation Difficulty, Adolescents

Introduction

Adolescence is an intense and very important period of life. During this critical period, life faces a major change. Compatibility with such fundamental changes is associated with an increase in all types of vulnerabilities, social, psychological and biological pressures in life and as a result, it is associated with reduced coping skills. Therefore, problems such as school dropout, unemployment and reluctance to marriage, antisocial behaviors such as participating in crimes and drug dealing as well as being arrested by police may occur. Moreover, the adolescents who live in round the clock care and supportive centers are encountered with stresses and so many problems. In this case, identifying the skills and the effective adaptive strategies to overcome the difficulties can meet to adolescentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; emotional needs and also assist their cognitive and mental development. Adolescents play an important role in the future of the country. They

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are the future managers of our country, so their physical and mental well-being is directly correlated with public health and the future of our country.

Regulating the emotion is accounted as the process of initiating, maintaining, modifying, or changing the incidence, severity or the persistence of inner feelings and the emotions associated with social- psychological and physical processes to accomplish an individual’s objectives (Vimz and Pina, 2010).

In general, regulating and controlling the emotions is one of the basic elements of welfare and successful functioning, playing a key role in coping with the life events causing stress. The successful regulation of emotion is associated with good outcomes including physical health, happiness, appropriate academic and job performance, improvement of social relationships and interpersonal performance (Gross, 1999; Brackett and Salovey, 2004; John and Gross, 2004).

Conversely, difficulties in the emotion regulation is associated with mental disorders to the extent that inappropriate regulation of emotions plays a role in the different patterns of specific psychological pathology such as borderline personality disorder (Aldao, Nolen-Hoeksema and Schweizer 2010; Lynch et al, 2007; Garnefski, N et al, 2002), major depression disorder (Rottenberg, Gross and Gotlib, 2005; Nolen-Hoeksema et al, 2008), bipolar disorder (Johnson, 2005) , anxiety disorders (Gross, 2007; Sandler, Tein, West, 1994), social anxiety disorder (Kashdan and Breen, 2008), eating disorder (Bydlowski et al, 2005; Polivy and Herman, 2002; Clyne and Blampied, 2004), alcohol-related disorders (Sher and Grekin, 2007) and disorders related with substance abuse (Fox et al., 2007) as well as physical problems such as heart, vascular and gastric diseases (Begley, 1994).

Hence, one’s ability to control emotions is one of the key capabilities that must be learned. Emotional problems and their impact on the individual’s overall performance (individual, family, work, and social) have attracted some researchers’ attention. Moreover, previous studies indicated that emotional problems involved a high percentage of population in different societies (Salehi, Baghban, Bahrami, and Ahmadi, 2011).

The first approaches were accepted based on bio-neurology in which the scientists argued that different emotions are produced by the nervous system exclusive messages, i.e., the lateral system. However, this idea was revised based on the cotemporary approaches and emotion is no longer defined as a single functional domain that is clearly distinct from cognition (Tettamanti et al, 2012).

Many other psychological studies reported that the emotional process has an interaction with other aspects of cognition such that emotional stimulus affect a wide range of cognitive processes and also influence humans’ ability to use cognitive mechanisms in regulating their emotive responses (Ray and Zald, 2012).Therefore, to determine the effect of emotion regulation on the cognitive variables such as memory, concentration, problem solving and thoughts, various studies have been conducted (Rezven and Bahrami, 2006).The general concept of cognitive regulation of emotions indicates the cognitive method of information manipulation related to that emotion (Thompson, 1994).

Most children apply simple and basic methods to overcome environmental challenges. But, as they grow up, they develop their confronting methods and their simple external strategies change into cognitive and internal methods. This is why early adolescence is considered as one of the most important periods for the development of cognitive coping skills; since in this period, their cognitive confronting skills change considerably (Aldwin, 1994).

Therefore, thoughts and recognitions of the ability of managing, regulating and controlling the feelings and emotions, after experiencing a stressful events, play a significant role (Garnefski et al, 2001).

Considering the significance of adolescence and problems that are resulted from the difficulty in regulating the emotions, using Fordyce Happiness Intervention method based on the behavioral-cognitive method in order to restructure the positive thought and cognition is important in decreasing the difficulty in regulating the emotions.

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Lybomirsky, Sheldon and Schkade (2005) considered happiness as experiencing the good feeling, satisfaction, contentment and having the feeling that your life is good, meaningful and valuable. Based on this definition, it is clear that happiness is a mental and internal phenomenon.

Happiness has emotional, social and cognitive elements. The emotional elements help an individual to be happy and satisfied. The social elements develop the social relations with others and also increase one’s social support. The cognitive elements aid an individual to access an especial thought and information processing and interpret the daily events such that it leads to his/her optimistic approach (Myers and Diener, 1995).

Fordyce (1977), through presenting his plan for increasing happiness, achieved impressive results in creating happiness and increasing mental health. Moreover, the results reported by Lytchr et al. (1980) and Fava et al. (1998), demonstrating that Fordyce happiness training had an impact on increasing happiness and life satisfaction, indicated the effectiveness of this method on increasing happiness. Fordyce happiness training program causes changes in individual’s cognitive and emotional structure and help them have a more positive attitude toward current events of life, aiding them to respond more positively and adaptively to circumstances and events. It also helps them to have less stress and a stronger immune system.

To investigate the effectiveness of this training on increasing happiness, various studies conducted in different societies including Bakhtiar Nasr Abadi (2012), Abedi and Mirzaei (2006) and Abedi (2001) whom indicated that Fordyce training is effective on increasing happiness. In addition, the study of Kashani Nasab and Allhverdiani (2012), Frzadfar, Molavi and Atashpour (2006) and Mansour (2005) showed that Fordyce happiness training model reduces the symptoms of depression. Among researchers that were carried out to examine the effectiveness of Fordyce happiness training on other mental and physical elements, indicating the effectiveness of Fordyce cognitive-behavioral method, Raeesi (2003) under the title of “Blood Pressure Reduction”, Hosseinian, Kolaei, Yahya Abadi (2007) under the title of “Reducing Occupational Burnout”, Mirzaee Tashniri, Pourshahriari, Sheibani (2009) under the title of “Reducing Depression in High School Students”, Farzadfar, Molavi, Atashpour (2006) titled “Decreasing Depression in Unaccompanied Women”, Kajibaf, Aghaee, Mahmoudi (2011), under the title of “ Improving Couples’ Quality of Life”, Samadzade, Shahbazzadegan, Abbasi (2013) titled “ Improving Quality of Life of Dialysis Patients and Patients with Cancer” can be mentioned.

Method

The present study is a semi-experimental study with intervention (control group and experimental group with pre-test and post-test). Sampling: A corpus of 24 adolescent girls under the support of 1 Social Welfare of Zahedan (2013) were selected randomly, using a simple random sampling method and were divided into two groups including experimental (N = 12) and control (N = 12). Intervention program was only carried out on the experimental group.

Research tools: A 36-item scale of the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation (DERS) designed by Gratz and Roemer (2004) was created. This sub-scale indicates the level of difficulty in emotion regulation using a combination of scores in six subscales: - (1): Lack of acceptance of emotional responses, 1

With emphasis Welfare organization (due to confidentiality), Statistical Society is not possible to give exact statistics.

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- (2): Difficulty in handling the targeted behavior, - (3): Difficulties in impulse control, - (4): Lack of emotional awareness, - (5): Limited access to strategies of emotion regulation, - (6): Lack of emotional clarity.

Gratz and Roemer (2004) reported the validity and reliability of the questionnaire, based on Cronbach's alpha, about 0.93 to 0.80. In studies carried out by Asgari, Pasha, Aminian (2009) and Heydari and Iqbal (2011), its reliability was calculated in accordance with Cronbach's alpha and splithalf method which was about 0.86, 0.80, and 0.91, 0.85, representing acceptable coefficients of Emotion Regulation Questionnaire. Also, in another study conducted by Azizi (2010), Cronbach's alpha of this scale was about 0.92. The experimental group received 8, 90-minute sessions training during 8 weekly sessions.

At the end of training sessions, both groups completed the questionnaires again. In order to test the hypotheses and answer the research questions, along with the descriptive indices such as mean and standard variance, the analysis of covariance was used. To facilitate the calculations, SPSS (21) statistical software was applied.

Fordyce Happiness Training Program Fordyce (1977), in his instructional practices, used an approach of training that is both cognitive and behavioral. In the cognitive part, he studied the thematic discussions about certain thoughts and behaviors which are involved in creating happiness. However, in the behavioral part, he considered the various collection of techniques and strategies resulted from the cognitive and behavioral therapies which he believed that their application can be useful for each principles of life. Fourteen cognitive and behavioral elements of Fordyce program (6 behavioral elements and 8 cognitive ones) for increasing happiness are as follows:              

Increasing activity, Increasing social interaction, Increasing creativity, Planning and organizing, Decreasing concerns, Reducing expectations, Increasing the positive thinking and optimism , Living in the present, Fostering a healthy personality, Fostering a social personality, Considering yourself, Eliminating the negative emotions, Fostering the close relationships and Prioritizing the happiness.

Results

Some of the descriptive indicators related to difficulties in emotion regulation based on the results of research tools on the considered sample were presented in Table 1.

Table 1: Descriptive Indices Related to the Total Score of Difficulties in Emotion Regulation (In the Stages of Pre- and Post-Test for experimental group and control group separately)

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Variable

Groups

N

Mean

SD

Pre-test

Control

12

91.57

14.57

Experimental

12

91.25

18.66

Control

12

88.41

13.23

Experimental

12

65.75

16.64

Post-test

Table 1 represents the descriptive indicators of variables. The results of this table demonstrate that in the experimental group, the mean and standard deviation in the pre-test and post-test are M = 91.25, SD = 18.86 and M = 65.75, SD = 16.64, respectively. It is clear that in the mean of pre- test and post- test scores, a significant difference was observed. Also, in the control group in the stage of pre-test and post-test, the mean and standard deviation are M = 91.75, SD = 14.57 and SD = 13.23, M = 88.41, respectively which indicates a slight difference between the mean of scores.

Hypothesis The effect of Fordyce happiness training decreases the difficulties in emotion regulation in adolescents under the support of Social Welfare. In order to test this hypothesis, the covariance analysis was used and its results are presented in Table 2.

Table 2: Analysis of Covariance Related to the Effect of Fordyce Happiness Training on the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation in the Studied Groups Source

Fd

Mean Square

F

Sig.

Pre-test

1

181.80

0.79

0.38

Group

1

3058.61

13.40

0.001

Partial Eta squared 0.03 0.39

Observed Power 0.13 0.93

As it is evident from Table 2, Fordyce happiness training has a significant positive effect on decreasing the difficulties in emotion regulation; F (13, 40) = 1, p < .01.

Discussion Emotion regulation is a significant factor in initiating, evaluating and organizing adaptive behaviors and is also considered as an avoiding element in incidence of negative emotions and maladaptive behaviors (Garnefski et al., 2002). The present study aimed to investigate the impact of Fordyce happiness training on reducing the difficulties of emotion regulation. The results of covariance analysis (Table 2) showed that Fordyce happiness training was effective on reducing the difficulties of emotion regulation (F (13, 40) =1, p<.01). This finding is consistent with the study of Yousefi et al. (2010) regarding the effect of training on the mental health and emotional intelligence. Also, the results are in line with Lytchr et al. (1980) and Fava et al. (1998) studies, indicating the effect of Fordyce happiness training on increasing happiness and life satisfaction. Raeesi (2003) under the title of “Blood Pressure Reduction”, Hosseinian, Kolaei, Yahya Abadi (2007) under the title of “Reducing Occupational Burnout”, Mirzaee Tashniri, Pourshahriari, Sheibani (2009) under the title of

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“Reducing Depression in High School Students”, Farzadfar, Molavi, Atashpour (2006) titled “Decreasing Depression in Unaccompanied Women”, Kajibaf, Aghaee, Mahmoudi (2011), under the title of “ Improving Couples’ Quality of Life”, Samadzade, Shahbazzadegan, Abbasi (2013) are other studies that demonstrated the effectiveness of Fordyce happiness training on other physical and mental elements, indicating the effectiveness of Fordyce cognitive-behavioral training.

In recent years, great attention has been allocated to the happiness. In addition to the definition of happiness and methods to achieve it, various instruments were designed to measure the level of happiness of people around the world. Moreover, the researchers attempt to increase people’s happiness. To this end, different training methods were designed and implemented for increasing happiness. One of the training methods that attracted Iranian many researchers in recent years is Fordyce Happiness Training Method. So, based on different studies, the effectiveness of this method on increasing happiness was proved. Other studies determined the effectiveness of this behavioral-cognitive method on other psychological factors.

Fordyce cognitive-behavioral training is a kind of rehabilitation cognitive which has materials in training that enhance the cognitive functions. What is certain is that all methods of Fordyce happiness including reducing the level of expectations and desires, removing the concerns, reinforcing the positive and optimistic thinking, living in the present time, prioritizing the happiness, removing the negative feelings and problems, fostering the social and extroverted personality are counterpart with difficulties in regulation of emotions and when an individual considers them, his/her physical and psychological health will improve.

In facing with stressful situations, people use different methods and strategies to control, direct, and regulate their emotions. Emotion regulation is defined as attempts applied by an individual to protect, manage, and enhance his/her emotion experience and expression (Robertin, Dofn, Box, 2012) Although emotions have a biological basis, individuals are able to express their emotions and control them.

In general, emotion regulation is one the main factors of welfare and successful functionality and has an important role in coping with the stressful events of life. The successful emotion regulation is associated with good results such as being health, appropriate academic and job performance. On the contrary, the failure in emotion regulation is associated with mental and personality disorders and anxiety disorders (Aldao, NolenHoeksema and Schweizer, 2010; Gratz and Roemer Lynch, 2004; Garnefski et al, 2002).

Need to be approved by others, unwillingness to work with others and feel embarrassed among the peers or in other words, low social performance and fatigue status during the training sessions were observed frequently among the sample. Considering the deprivations of adolescents under support of social welfare, an intervention in order to improve their psychological welfare can be really effective.

After holding each training session and teaching each of the components of the training, participants showed greater abilities in the following cases;        

 

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Discuss and negotiate, Prepare themselves to continue their education, Express their readiness and ability to participate in the classes of sport, art and the domains of their interest (improving the preparedness for participating in the collective activities), The ability for accomplishing the long-term and short-term plans in order to achieve the goals, Express the feeling of vitality and transfer the feeling of happiness to others, Recommend suggestions and transfer their learning(s) or what they have learned during this eight sessions to their friends and family, The ability to understand the importance of their excitements, The ability to identify the effective strategies in order to deal with situations which were difficult for them (for example, expressing concern about being in a group, inability to respond and concerns toward the favorite activities), Increase the physical activities, improve the physical situation, and Express the optimism to people and environment and what is happening around us.

International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Research. Special issue Vol 1(1), February2014

Since the training was conducted only on the adolescents under the support of Social Welfare, so it is not possible to generalize the results to other age groups under the support of Social Welfare of Zahedan. Few studies have been carried out on the impact of Fordyce happiness training on adolescents. Thus, other researchers can accomplish this study by the cooperation of staffs of Social Welfare, Education, Training Association organizations and other organizations that are associated with adolescents to develop and equip the happiness training workshop for adolescents, performing effective and constructive measures for improving their mental health.

Also, completing this study in other cities and within the various classes of society can be a great help for increasing individuals’ happiness and mental health.

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International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Research. Special issue Vol 1(1), 622-635, 2014

Available online at http:// www. ijpbrjournal.com ISSN 2322-4002 ©2014 Victor Quest Publication

A Comparative Study of Educational Games Impacts on Learning the Mathematical Qualitative Concepts by the Pre-elementary School Children with Attention Deficit/ Hyperactive Disorder Batool Sabzeh Ph.D. student of Curriculum Planning, Islamic Azad University of Science and Research of Tehran

Abstract Prelude: Attention deficit/ hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is of the frequent behavioral disorders in pre-elementary school children which becomes chronic and persistent over time and will be a dangerous main factor for learning and behavioral dilemmas. Mathematical learning disorder is relatively common among such children and the use of educational purposeful games as a consistent method with pre-elementary school children’s characteristics will be beneficial in teaching the mathematical qualitative concepts to them. Thus, the objective of this research is a comparative study of the impacts of educational games on learning the mathematical qualitative concepts by preelementary school children with ADHD. Methodology: Using the semi-empirical research methodology, a sample consisting of 30 male children was selected by convenience sampling from among 5 to 6 years old children from the 5th district of Tehran and arranged randomly in experimental (15 persons) and control (15 persons) groups.

Findings: Results indicated that the attention duration of the children who have received educational mathematical qualitative concepts games was greater than the children who have not received such games. It was also revealed that the mean for learning educational mathematical qualitative concept including spatial and local concepts, similarities and diversities recognition, communication, classification, arranging and the one-by-one correspondence among the children with ADHD who have received educational games was higher than the children who have not received such games.

Results: Educational games turn out to be effective in teaching different mathematical qualitative concepts to pre-elementary school children, and also are considered to be effective items in the treatment of ADHD in children.

Keywords: Educational Games, Mathematical Qualitative Concepts, Pre-elementary School Children, Attention Deficit/ Hyperactivity.

Introduction Most of psychologists and education professionals believe that the first years of child’s life to be the most important period of their development. What occurs in this period is so influential on is growth. In fact, the recognition of the importance of the pre-elementary school education for creation of welfare

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International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Research. Special issue Vol 1(1), February2014

for children has been increasingly emphasized in the past decades. Since the basis for personality of the individual is formed in the pre-elementary school period, the effective education in this period is absolutely essential for the subsequent development of the child (Talebzadeh Nobariyan, 2006) Mathematics teaching as a powerful, credible, and clear communication tool as well as an item for determination and prediction of various sciences is of great importance and realizes the logical thinking in children (Mahdipour, 2008). According to Stafford, mathematics has surrounded all around us and children are involved with the mathematical concepts and phenomena in their environment since the very beginning of their childhood (Stafford, 2010). One of the issues which is highly taken into consideration nowadays is teaching the elementary and preliminary concepts of mathematics, for the mathematics can be taught in higher levels just when these concepts could become objective for children, in order for them to completely understand the concepts. Otherwise, it can never be expected that such children would learn the advanced mathematics in higher levels (Torkaman, 2007, cited in Ghasemtabar and Mofidi, and Zade Mohammadi and Ghasemtabar, 2011) During pre-elementary school period, mathematics has a crucial role in the knowledge learning and its association with other learning and life skills. Thus, the overall purpose of teaching mathematics for the pre-elementary school period is to make the necessary preparations for the child in any dimensions of life, which can be consisted of capability for simple calculation in daily life, capability for thinking properly, capability for application of the learnings in life, capability for solving daily issues and developing creative minds.

Since during the pre-elementary school period, teaching of simple and qualitative mathematical concepts- which is the prelude for understanding the complex and quantitative ones- are vital for learning, and also the child-centered methods involving the various strategies are used given the individual characteristics and abilities of children in the form of stories, games, paintings, crafts, children's plays and poems, various opportunities are provided for different groups of children in order for them to be experienced by their active participation, to understand mathematical concepts, and to develop their logical and mathematical knowledge as well. Therefore, the acquaintance of child and how mathematics is taught can have a very important role in higher levels of education (Ghasemtabar and Mofidi and Zadeh Mohammadi and Ghasemtabar, 2011) Different research findings show that educational games are of effective methods in teaching mathematical concepts to children. Educational games can improve different social skills (Ball, 1976) and facilitate the learning of mathematical concepts (Adams, 1973, heastad, 1991). Different recent studies have also emphasized the role of such games on children learning, introduced them as powerful educational tools, and also assumed them a healing tool which should be taken into consideration in experiment and research (Lau Whelan D., 2005).

Thus, as we are dealing with different groups of children in terms of intelligence, talents, interests, capabilities, and mental and emotional features and also with children having different behavioral disorders such as aggression, isolation, depression and hyperactivity during pre-elementary school, we are required to use different methods such as games for teaching children including hyperactive children.

ADHD is one of the most frequent problems for children and adolescents and a main reason for referring to psychiatrist and clinical specialists or advisors. The disorder begins at the age of about 2 to 4 (Conner, 2002) and is one of the frequent neurological - behavioral disorders of childhood which has been influenced a great part of population (3 to 8 %) of children (American Psychiatric Association, 2000; Faraone, Sergeant, Gillberg, Biederman, 2005). Having deep impacts on the life of thousands of children and their families, the disorder has such symptoms as hyperactivity, attention deficit and impulsivity (Faraone and Biederman, 2005). Males probably suffer attention deficit or hyperactivity three times more than females and are referred to advisors more than them (Klassen A/F/Miller A/Fine, 2004).

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ADHD has three subdivisions including: (a) ADHD-I, where the attention disorder is the main aspect and even in some cases is considered as Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD), with the patient usually without the symptoms of impulsivity and hyperactivity; (b) ADHD-HI, which has lessattention deficit and the main aspects are hyperactivity and impulsivity; and (c) ADHD-C, in which the symptoms of all the three disorders, i.e. attention deficit, hyperactivity, impulsivity are observed (Sandra Rieff, 2008).

Emerging in the years before school, the ADHD is chronic and persistent over time and is a very dangerous factor for consequent behavioral and learning failures during elementary school years (Dali, 2006). Children with hyperactivity and attention deficit symptoms are exposed to different kinds of problem such as educational failures, behavioral disorders as well as the dangers associated with other disorders. According to researches, this disorder affects cognitive, social, emotional and familial performances of the children and also their occupation and marital life later in their adulthood.

(Alizadeh et al, 2008; Gilbert, 2003). ADHD is associated with educational problems such as poor school performance, school dropout, poor family and friends relations, nervousness, depression, aggression, early drug abuse, and law- breaking behaviors. In addition, this disorder may consist of other disorders like aggression in adolescence or stubbornness and defiance. Study results have indicated that 71% of children with ADHD have learning difficulties and 26% of them have certain mathematical problems. These findings suggest the requirement for a deeper understanding of the relationship between ADHD and mathematical difficulties. (Mayes and Calhon, 2006; cited in Sheikhizadeh and Alizadeh and Ghobari Bonab, 2012). In a study regarding 476 hyperactive children in school years in order to investigate the learning disorders it was revealed that mathematical problems in children with ADHD are relatively high, and mostly associated with reading problems (Capano L, Minden D, Chen SX, Schacher RJ, Lckowicz A, 2008). Of few studies so far regarding mathematical performance improvements, Sheikhizadeh, Alizadeh and Ghobari Bonab (2012), applying the Token economy in performance improvement in dictation and mathematics assignments of children with ADHD has shown that the Token economy is effective in performance improvement of dictation and mathematics assignments and the multi-line basis approach contributes much to the simultaneous doing dictation and mathematics assignments. Also, in a study regarding behavioral management and educational strategies of students with ADHD, methods for the behavioral management of children and adolescents with this disorder are known to be positive and negative reinforcement, transformation of behavior, modeling, adjacency, exclusion and cognitive behavior therapy (Nouri, 2011). In addition, in study involving 40 third year elementary school students in the city of Tabriz by Moradi, Hashemi, Farzad, Keramati, Beirami and Kavousian (2008), the results show that teaching self- control strategies of motivational behavior and verbal self-training have positive meaningful impacts on self-efficacy understanding of students with attention deficit disorder accompanied with hyperactivity. It is also presented that the teaching self-control strategies of attention behaviors have positive meaningful impacts on mathematical performance of students with attention deficit disorder accompanied with hyperactivity.

Moreover, in a study regarding 57 children with attention deficit represented that teaching memorization has some effects on children mathematics progress and their mathematics performance improves after 5 weeks of teaching (Karin I.E Dahlin, 2013). The results also show that given the special character of ADHD, educational involvements should be done based on multidimensional education patterns, that is, patterns emphasizing on individual, environment, and educational materials (Shokouhi yekta, Motevalipour and Prand, 2010). Educational games are of the tools taking all the three categories into consideration and realizing an easy, effective, and more persistent learning in children.

Given the findings and discussions, thus, the overall aim of the present study is to reveal educational games impacts on qualitative learning concept of mathematics in the students with ADHD during preelementary school years and to provide recommendations and solutions based on the study results for curriculum planners, trainers and practitioners in teaching the children with attention deficit disorder in pre-elementary years.

Minor objectives

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1) Exploring the duration of attention for children receiving educational games concerning mathematical qualitative concepts, in comparison with children without such games; 2) Exploring the educational games impacts concerning recognition of local and spatial concepts on learning in pre-elementary school children with ADHD; 3) Exploring the educational games impacts concerning recognition of similarities and diversities on learning in pre-elementary school children with ADHD; 4) Exploring the educational games impacts concerning communication on learning in preelementary school children with ADHD; 5) Exploring the educational games impacts concerning classification on learning rate in preelementary school children with ADHD; 6) Exploring the educational games impacts concerning arranging on learning in pre-elementary school children with ADHD; and 7) Exploring the educational games impacts concerning one-by-one correspondence on learning in pre-elementary school children with ADHD. Research assumptions 1) Attention duration for children receiving educational games concerning mathematical qualitative concepts is greater than that of children without such games.

2) Learning rate for the recognition of local and spatial concepts in children receiving such educational games is greater than that of children without such games.

3) Learning rate for the recognition of similarities and diversities in children receiving such educational games is greater than that of children without such games.

4) Learning rate for the recognition of communication concept in children receiving such educational games is greater than that of children without such games.

5) Learning rate for the recognition of classification concept in children receiving such games is greater than that of children without such games.

6) Learning rate for the recognition of arranging concept in children receiving such games is greater than that of children without such games. and, 7) Learning rate for the recognition of one-by-one correspondence concept in children receiving such games is greater than that of children without such games.

Research Methodology The research methodology is a semi-experimental one with a preliminary test design and control group. The participants are divided into two experimental and control groups, the latter being received educational games and the former untouched by the variable. Of course, both groups were given the preliminary test before applying the independent variable to the experimental group. In addition, in the second stage, a similar test was given to both groups (Naderi and Seif Naraghi, 2013). As for data analysis, inferential statistical methods were used for exploring the meaningfulness of score mean differences (t-paired statistical test) in addition to the appropriate descriptive statistical methods.

Statistical population, sample and sampling procedure The population of the present study includes all the pre-elementary school males having ADHD in Tehranâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s fifth district kindergartens under the Social Security Organization for the education year of 2012-2013 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; yet the exact statistics of children with this disorder was not provided by the respective organization. Therefore, convenience sampling method was used for the selection of the participants.

In doing so, children of the age 5 to 6 who had ADHD background were chosen and then, 30 children having ADHD were selected based on Conners parent questionnaire -which were filled in by their parents. Then, they were randomly assigned to two groups of experimental (15) and control (15), and the former group was exposed to educational mathematical concepts through educational games.

Data Collection Method and Research Tools

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1. Conners parent questionnaire (CPRS-48): The questionnaire is consisted of 27 questions and is filled in by childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s parents. Scoring of the questionnaire is done with the Likret 4 point scale (From not at all to very much). This tool is used for measurement of intensity of the symptoms for hyperactivity disorder. In a study by Shahaeeyan et al. (2008) regarding Conners scale, reliability coefficient of retest for the overall score amounted to 0.58 , Cronbach's alpha coefficient for the total score amounted to 0.73 and its validity was confirmed.

2. Researcher-designed test for the learning qualitative mathematical concepts measurement in pre-elementary school children: This test is in the form of a visual one, consisting of components to measure the qualitative mathematical concepts such as similarities and diversities, recognition of local and spatial concepts, communication, collection development, arranging, and one-by-one correspondence. The content validity of the tests has been measured and confirmed by the professionals and pre-elementary trainers. To achieve sustainable levels of internal consistency for the test reliability Cronbach's coefficient alpha was used. Based on this approach, the more consistency in the dimension, the greater the Cronbachâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s coefficient alpha. Minimum intensity of this coefficient among scientists is between 0.5 (Chalabi, 1988) and 0.7 (Dooas, 2008) (In the present study the minimum is assumed to be 0.7). The alpha depends on the reliability of every item. In order to increase the alpha and thus, the reliability, it is mandatory to remove all unstable items. In the present study, the items which decreased the alpha were removed so that the final test would be reached with a high alpha (0.81).

3. Educational games for teaching the qualitative mathematical concepts including the game number 1 (recognition of local and spatial concepts), the game number 2 (similarities and diversities), the game number 3 (collection development and classification concept), the game number 4 (communication and correlation concept), the game number 5 (arranging concept), the game number 6 (one-by-one correspondence concept) which all were done in two sessions. In overall, teaching the educational games in addition to the pre-test and posttest sessions, took 14 sessions. Some of the games can be seen in Table 1.

Table 1. Educational games used for teaching mathematical qualitative concepts to preelementary school children with ADHD

Game No.

Game Goal

Game No.1 Increase in attention and concentration, teaching local and spatial concepts (right and left, up and down, far and close, back and forward, etc.)

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Necessary Items

Embodied Phase

Semi-embodied Phase

flashlight, some luminous object, string or woolen cloth

The child is asked to follow the light in the dark room or follow a moving luminous object with their eyes. Point the light to locations and spaces such as ceiling and floor, left and right, near and far, etc. or move the objects by straight or circular motions in different directions. (gradually increase the time of the practice)

Any child is provided with a piece of paper. They are asked to draw a tree in the middle of the paper. Then with the help of the coach, a bird on the tree, a mouse under the tree or a certain fruit on the branch of the tree or under it are drawn, or the drawings are colored as you ask .

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Game No.2

increase in attention and concentration physically, increase in balance, teaching the concepts of similarities and diversities (wide and narrow, bold and pale)

Woolen and colorful ribbons, colorful markers, big white or colorful paperboard, magnet

Create paths on the floor using colorful woolen cloth and ribbons. Children are asked to walk bare-foot on the colorful lines (narrow, wide and colorful ones) at the beginning with small and slow steps and then they can be made longer and faster.

Paths can be in the forms of circles, snail form, straight lines, and square.

Movement instructions are considered from simple to complicated ones like motion from big circles to small ones.

Draw wide and narrow as well as circular and spiral colorful lines on an A3 paperboard; then make a snail and attach a magnet beneath it and place it on the paperboard; then provide the child with a piece of magnet and ask them to move the snail on the drawn lines according to your instructions.

Game No. 4

increase in attention and concentration, increase in accuracy, order and arranging concept learning

Woods, colorful cloths in different sizes, pebbles in different size, colorful beads, string, some glasses, some water, some paint

At the beginning, any child is given opportunity to touch and see the objects carefully. Then, they are provided with a paperboard with edge to arrange the woods from big to small or asked to put pebbles on the specified points on paperboard from heavy to light. In the third stage, the similar glasses filled with different amount of water are arranged in rows and then are added two drops in the first one, four drops in the second, and then the child is asked to arrange the glasses from more colorful to less one, and form more to less content (filled to empty).

The child is asked to cut the colorful paperboard and stick it to certain rows based on different features.

Research results In this section, results of the research findings are provided along with the appropriate descriptive and inferential statistics in the form of tables and explanations.

Table 2. Statistical features of mathematical qualitative concepts for the experimental and control groups in the preliminary and final test

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Groups

Experimental group

Stages

Preliminary test

Component Indicator

M

SD

Control group

M

Final test

Preliminary test

Final test

SD

M

M

SD

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Local

5.33

1.80

17.61

of and

2.80

1.04

7.88

Collection Development Concept

4.21

0.94

Communication Concept

4.00

Arranging Concept

One-by-one Correspondence Concept

Spatial and Concepts Recognition Similarities Diversities

1.20

5.64

2.13

6.19

2.50

1.58

2.96

1.14

3.22

1.48

12.89

1.37

4.42

1.02

4.72

1.97

1.05

12.38

0.79

4.42

1.58

4.70

1.89

5.30

1.78

17.34

1.19

4.68

2.15

7.19

2.76

4.25

0.96

11.75

1.27

4.45

1.03

4.60

1.94

As seen in the table 3, the mean for mathematical qualitative concepts of individuals for experimental group increased after the educational game training; however, the situation for control group was approximately the same and no change is seen concerning it.

Inferential Findings 1) Attention duration for children receiving educational games concerning mathematical qualitative concepts is greater than that of children without such games.

Table 3. Mean and Standard Deviation for experimental and control group (pre-test and posttest) in Conners Parent Questionnaire (ADHD) Statistical Indicators

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Before Training

Group

M

Experimental Attention Deficit

Group

27.8

After Training

SD

M

SD

5.8

18.6

3.8

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26.46 Control Deficit

Group

7.46

24.06

6.51

Attention

Table 3 represents mean and standard deviation for experimental and control groups concerning hyperactivity during pre-test and post-test. Based on the data, the means for the experimental group decreased after applying the educational games, implying that the games have been effective and caused the intensity of ADHD to be decreased.

2) Learning rate for the recognition of local and spatial concepts in children receiving such educational games is greater than that of children without such games.

Table 4. T-paired test comparing the change in recognition of spatial and local concepts in hyperactive children of experimental and control groups Indicators Category

Mean Differentials Mean

SD

Standard Error

Minimum Amount

Maximu m Amount

Changes

Calculate dT

Freedo m Degree

Meaning fulness Scale

Experimental

Spatial and Local Concept

10.02

2.20

0.43

11.11

10.99

24.65

14

0.000

Control

Spatial and Local Concept

0.65

3.05

0.71

-1.10

2.11

0.67

14

0.510

Based on the data, the calculated T for the experimental group (24.65) is greater than the critical T of the table (2.97) with fault tolerance (0.01) and the freedom degree of 14.

The zero assumption is rejected, thus it is concluded that there is a meaningful difference between the changes of spatial and local concept of children in experimental group and the ones in control group. Comparison of the means shows that the changes in the children classification concept for the experimental group is higher than the spatial and local concept for the control group; in other words, the learning scale of spatial and local concept for children who have received the games is greater than the learning of spatial and local concept for the children who have not received such games.

Hence, the assumption is confirmed.

3) Learning rate for the recognition of similarities and diversities in children receiving such educational games is greater than that of children without such games.

Table 5. T-paired test for comparing the changes in recognition of similarities and diversities in hyperactive children of the experimental and control groups Indicators Category

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Means Differentials

Calculate dT

Freedo m

Meaning fulness

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Mean

SD

Standard Error

Minimum Amount

Maximu m Amount

Change

Degree

Scale

Experimental

Similarities and diversities Concept

7.97

1.502

0.28

7.11

8.95

30.85

14

0.000

Control

Similarities and diversities Concept

0.27

2.95

0.41

-0.57

2.12

0.677

14

0.405

Based on the data, the calculated T for the experimental group (30.85) is greater than the critical T of the table (2.97) with fault tolerance (0.01) and freedom degree of 14.

The zero assumption is rejected, thus, there is a meaningful difference between the changes in similarities and diversities concept for children in the experimental group and that in the control group.

Comparison of the means shows that the changes in the similarities and diversities concept for the experimental group is higher than that for the control group; in other words, the learning scale of similarities and diversities concept for the children who have received the games is greater than that for the children who have not received such games. Hence, the assumption is confirmed.

4) Learning rate for the recognition of communication concept in children receiving such educational games is greater than that of children without such games.

Table 6. T-paired test for comparing changes in communication concept in hyperactive children of the experimental and control groups Indicators Category

Means Differentials Mean

SD

Standa rd Error

Minimu m Amount

Maximu m Amount

Chang es

Calculat ed T

Freedo m degree

Meaningfulne ss Scale

Experimen tal

Communicati on Concept

8.86

1.2 4

0.34

7.91

9.37

25.805

14

0.000

Control

Communicati on Concept

0.31

2.4 0

0.41

-0.69

1.21

0.628

14

0.537

Based on the data, the calculated T in the experimental group (25.805) is greater than the critical T of the table (2.97) with fault tolerance (0.01) and freedom scale of 14.

The zero assumption is rejected, thus, it is concluded that there is a meaningful difference between the changes in communication concept for children in the experimental group and that in control group. Comparison of the means shows that the changes in communication concept for the

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experimental group is higher than that for the control group; in other words, the learning scale of communication concept of children who have received the games is greater than that of children who have not received such games. Hence, the assumption is confirmed.

5) Learning rate for the recognition of classification concept in children receiving such games is greater than that of children without such games.

Table 7. T-paired test for comparing changes in classification concept in hyperactive children of the experimental and control groups

Indicators Category

Means Differentials Mean

SD

Standard Error

Minimum Amount

Maximu m Amount

Changes

Calculate dT

Freedo m degree

Meaning fulness Scale

Experimental

Classificati on Concept

12.03

2.24

0.45

11.11

12.95

26.85

14

0.000

Control

Classificati on Concept

0.54

4.05

0.81

-1.13

2.21

0.67

14

0.511

Based on the data, the calculated T in the experimental group (19.889) is greater than the critical T of the table (2.97) with fault tolerance (0.01) and freedom scale of 14.

The zero assumption is rejected, thus, there is a meaningful difference between the changes in classification concept of children in the experimental group and that in control groups. Comparison of the means shows that the changes in the childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s classification concept for the experimental group is higher than that for the control group; in other words, the learning scale of classification concept for children who have received the games is greater than that of children who have not received such games. In conclusion, this assumption is confirmed.

6) Learning rate for the recognition of arranging concept in children receiving such games is greater than that of children without such games.

Table 8. T-paired test for comparing changes in arranging concept in hyperactive children of the experimental and control groups

Indicators Category

Means Differentials Mean

SD

Standard Error

Minimum Amount

Maximu m Amount

1.50

0.30

5.36

6.60

Changes Experimental

631

Arranging Concept

5.98

Calculate dT

Freedo m Degree

Meaning fulness Scale

19.889

14

0.000

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Control

Arranging Concept

0.26

1.84

0.39

-0.54

1.06

0.671

14

Based on the data, the calculated T in the experimental group (19.889) is greater than the critical T of the table (2.97) with fault tolerance (0.01) and freedom scale of 14.

The zero assumption is rejected, so it is concluded that there is a meaningful difference between the changes in arranging concept for the children in the experimental group and the ones in the control group. Comparison of the means shows that the changes in the children arranging concept in the experimental group is higher than that in the control group; in other words, the learning scale of arranging concept for the children who have received such games is greater than that of children who have not received such games. Hence, the assumption is confirmed.

7) Learning rate for the recognition of one-by-one correspondence concept in children receiving such games is greater than that of children without such games.

Table 9. T-paired test for comparing changes in one-by-one correspondence concept in hyperactive children of the experimental and control groups

Indicators Category

Means Differentials Means

SD

Standa rd Error

Minimu m Amoun t

Maximu m Amount

Chang es

Calculat ed T

Freedo m Degree

Meaningfuln ess Scale

Experimen tal

One-by-one corresponde nce Concept

8.28

1.30 5

0.28

7.36

8.65

32.1

14

0.000

Control

Arranging Concept

0.26

1.84

0.42

-0.56

1.16

0.677

14

0.505

Based on the data, the calculated T for the experimental group (32.1) is greater than the critical T of the table (2.97) with fault tolerance (0.01) and freedom scale of 14.

The zero assumption is rejected, so it is concluded that there is a meaningful difference between the changes in one-by-one correspondence concept for the children in experimental group and the ones in control group. Comparison of the means shows that the changes in the childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s one-by-one correspondence concept for the experimental group is higher than that for the control group; in other words, the learning scale of one-by-one correspondence concept of children who have received such games is greater than that of children who have not received such games. Hence, the assumption is confirmed.

Discussion and conclusion

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The present study has been done with the aim of exploring the educational games impacts on qualitative learning concepts of the mathematics course in pre-elementary school children with ADHD. The results show that the educational mathematics games had a great impact on pre-elementary children suffering from ADHD and contribute to the treatment of the disorder in them. In this regard, the studies of Dahlin (2013), Heastad (1991), Adams (1973), Ball (1976), and Rezazadeh and Kalantari (2008) highlight the fact that educational games can improve hyperactivity in children. In addition, the results are in accordance with the findings of Montoya et al. (2011), Toplak et al. (2008), Coleman et al. (2006), Tom et al. (2005), and Rappaport et al. (1998) concerning educational games impacts on the treatment of ADHD in pre-elementary school children.

In addition, the results show that educational games are effective on learning the mathematical qualitative concepts such as recognition of spatial and local concepts, recognition of similarities and diversities, classification concept, communication and paired concept, arranging concept, and one-byone correspondence concept in children with ADHD and also realize a better learning of such concepts in them. The results of similar studies including Glaymph (2010) show that the educational games (such as maze) are effective in learning the mathematical concepts and some qualitative prenumber concepts like open/closed, in/out, less/more, etc. in children. Also the results of Van et al.

(2009), Alizadeh and Ghobari Bonab (2012), Nouri (2011), Moradi et al. (2011) are in line with the above-mentioned findings.

Given that the game as a multidimensional process serves the evolution and growth of children having remedial, social and educational value, it clears the negative energy of the children and also provides them with chances for treatment of various disorders such as ADHD and learning social, moral and mathematical concepts. According to Alessandrini, games are the most effective and meaningful way for childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s learning and spending energy just in the same way the adults do purposeful tasks and should never be identified with fun and wasting time (Alessandrini, in Mohammad Esmaeil, 2005, p.133). Therefore, purposeful educational games are useful in teaching different concepts and also in the treatment of children including ones with hyperactivity disorder.

Since ADHD treatment is related to the childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s experience especially through various games during their development, then if it could be possible to enrich the environment and provide teamwork as well as movement games, probably their ADHD would improve. Maxwell et al. (2004) show that educational games may further active learning in children and teach complicated mathematical concepts in a simple way as the most effective and the best educational manner (Akhavast, 2010).

Thus, it is highly recommended that managers and trainers of pre-elementary school centers provide enriched learning environment with educational games in order to enable the children to take advantage to meet school requirements such as mathematical qualitative concepts and the decrease in ADHD. It is also suggested that early intervene based on the children-oriented games have stronger role in the recognition and treatment of deficit disorders in order to prevent learning and later occupational problems. Given the fact that the present study has been carried out concerning male children and a comparison of two groups of ADHD children are involved, it is suggested that another study be done regarding female sample with a comparison of normal and hyperactive children, assuming game as an effective approach for education as well as improvement of pre-elementary and elementary childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s behavioral disorders.

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Gillberg, C, 2003. Deficit in childhood, Motor Control and Perception: A brief review. Archives of Childhood, 88,904-910 Rappaport.G.C, Oreny,A, Tenenbaum, 1998. Is early intervention effevtiveness in preventing ADHD? Lsr Psychiatry relate SCI 1998: 35 (4) 271- 290.

Lau Whelan, D, 2005. Let the Games Begin. School liberary Journal: 51(4); 40-43.

Glymph, Ronald.C, 2010. Improving attitudes and engagement in Mathematics using the Maze Math game system.M.a. California State University, Dominguez Hills. ProQuest.AAT 1489982.

American Psychiatric Association, 2002. Diagnostic and statistical mamual of mental disorder.

Washengtone, DC: American Psychiatric Association.

Toplak. Maggie E & et al, 2008. Training and Review of cognitive, cognitive Behavioral and neural -based interventions for Attention- Deficit/Hyperavtivity Disorder(ADHD). Clinical Psychology Review 28(2008)801- 823.

Montoya, A. Colom.F.Ferrin.M, 2011. Is Psychoeducational forParents and Teachersof Children and adolescent with ADHD efficaceious? A systematic Litreature review: European psychiatry 26(2011) 166- 175.

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International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Research. Special issue Vol 1(1), 636-645, 2014

Available online at http:// www. ijpbrjournal.com ISSN 2322-4002 Š2014 Victor Quest Publications

The Relationship between Occupational Skills and Organizational Learning with Principals' Occupational Quality of Life in Birjand Primary Schools 1

Dr. Hossein Jena Abadi , Mohammad Reza Ghaderi Gask

2

1.PhD in Psychology, Associate of University of Sistan and Baluchistan 2.Graduate Student Educational Research University of Sistan and Baluchistan

Abstract The present study aims to investigate the relationship between occupational skills and organizational learning with principals' occupational quality of life in Birjand primary schools. A correlationaldescriptive method was used and statistical population included all primary school principals in Birjand during educational year 92-93 making a population of 92 participants. Standard Neefe questionnaire including five dimensions (Employee Skills and Capabilities, Mental Models, Shared Mission and Vision, Team Work and Team Learning, and Systems Thinking), Whoqol-bref questionnaire of occupational quality of life including 26 questions, and occupational skills questionnaire from principals' occupational skills questionnaire (Farhang, 1997) including 30 questions were used in the research.

Questionnaire validity was content type and the reliability of each questionnaire was estimated 0.91, 0.95, 0.87 respectively, using Cronbach's alpha coefficient. Redundancy, percentage, mean, and standard deviation were used in order to describe data, while Pearson Correlation Coefficient, independent-t test, and one-way variance analysis (f-test) were used to analyze data. Results from Pearson correlation Coefficient show that there is a significant and direct relation between dimensions of occupational skills (technical, conceptual and human) and occupational quality of life.

Moreover, there is a direct and significant relation between occupational quality of life and employee skills and capabilities, shared mission and vision, and systems thinking. There is also a significant and direct relation between principals' technical skills with mental models and systems thinking, employee skills and capabilities with human skills, and conceptual skills with mental models and systems thinking.

According to the results, there is no significant relation between technical skills with employee skills and capabilities, shared mission and vision, and team work. There is no significant relation between conceptual skills with organizational models, shared mission and vision, and team work either.

Moreover, there is no significant relation between human skills with mental models, shared mission and vision, team work and team learning, and systems thinking.

The results show that (according to t test) the rate of occupational skills and occupational quality of life is equal among male and female principals. In addition, the results of f test shows similar occupational skills and quality of life with respect to education.

Keywords: occupational skills, organizational learning, occupational quality of life.

Introduction

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The twenty-first century is named management era, because the speed, power of action, and mass of human and industrial products require the presence of thoughtful and wise coordinators called managers. Organizational survival and the effectiveness and performance of educational system depend on management quality. Organizational management needs paying attention to different mixtures such as facilities, organizational features, and human resources. Proper use of human resources in an organization along with financial resources requires knowledge and awareness of associated methods and it can be said that one of major dimensions of success or failure in social organizations is related to the way they deal with human. Management and leadership can be considered as fundamental aspects of organizations and communities (Mirkamali, 2000, p.9).

Today, regarding tremendous and unique changes in economy, politics, science, and technology, especially during the recent decade, management responsibilities and functions have become broader, more complicated, and difficult compared to the past. As a result, only those people who have received occupational training and education can perform management responsibilities effectively and efficiently. In this respect, management is considered as a technical work or profession which has been established according to a set of different knowledge (Pardakhtchi, 1996). Educational managers should have significant conceptual skills in order to know educational environment, understand mutual relationship between different factors, recognize educational priorities, make effective decisions, and provide the best results with proper performance (Alagheband, 2007, pp. 26-27).

All these issues have led to more emphasis on organizational learning in big organizations and researchers are trying to promote this important element in organizations' administrative structure. In other words, they investigate and search for ways in order to establish learning organizations.

Stating the problem Management plays a critical and basic role in today world so that Alfred Marshal, British economist, says: "If all assets and tools of production are destroyed across the world but science and art of management remain production, development, and progress will still continue" (Bayan, 1992, p.20).

Increasing social complexity, science progress, technology, consequent needs, and expansion of organizations requires skilled and efficient managers to control organizations effectively because managers' reasonable performance will lead to organizational growth and survival (Irannejad Parizi and Sasan Gohar, 1993, p.13). Efficiency and effectiveness is met through management skills, and failure in each skill will decrease the chance of manager and eventually organization's success.

Therefore, each skill is important in order to perform management responsibilities effectively (Anderson, 1998, p.91). In other words, managers' competence and qualification regarding management skills can be considered as important factors in organizational sustainable success.

Managers need basic skills in order to have an effective performance (Jasbi, 1998, p.214). In fact, management is meaningless without human resources and the main aspect of dealing with human resources is relationship with them (Mirkamali, 1995, p.16). Overall, occupational quality of life as a philosophy means the quality and content of relations between humans, professions, and different occupational responsibilities. These relations can be considered from different aspects such as human, organization, community, job design, work structure, personal needs and values, and social concepts (Shirzad Kenria and Bordbar, 2011). There is a direct and significant relation between occupational quality of life and human resources productivity, which means that whatever we invest regarding occupational quality of life, we will increase organizational productivity (Ghasemi, 2001).

These skills and capabilities make managers more effective in their occupation and out of work environment; therefore they are needed in order to achieve organizational productivity. Moreover, managers' command on these abilities leads to more satisfaction and ensures them about the need to progress and growth (Marseille, 1998, p.3).

Organizational learning was first provided by Mars and Simon (1958). In other words, research on organizational learning has been started since 30 years ago and has faced an increasing growth up to now (Susana and Klaus, 2003, p.229).

Therefore, based on what mentioned above, the main question is that "is there a relationship between occupational skills (technical, human and conceptual) and organizational learning with principals' occupational quality of life in Birjand primary schools?"

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Importance and necessity Every country's educational system includes a set of requirements for formal organizations.

Performance of educational system which is controlled by educational managers is not only important for economic and social growth but also for the effects it has on job mobilization and expectations. The most important point is that management in a place like educational organization, especially at schools needs a mixture of triple skills more than any other situation. Thus, these skills are critical and necessary for principals (Safi, 1993). It seems that skill (Katz, 1991) represents capabilities that are extendable and show themselves in practice rarely being represented potentially. Moreover, education is the best tool to change values and behaviors and helps people to prepare for providing social and economic services and enter professions based on their talent and desire. As a result, from the first of this century all countries that have developed educational institutes using educated and experienced managers have passed development and progress steps successfully (Gharai Moghadam, 137, p.13).

This research aims to investigate occupational skills and organizational learning and their relationship with principals' occupational quality of life in order to provide guidelines for better school management.

Background 1. Amoli (2002) carried a research entitled "investigating the relationship between employees' occupational quality of life with their performance in Islamic Azad University of Rudehen". His results showed a significant correlation between employees' occupational quality of life and their performance.

2. Khadivi and Olyee (2008) in a research entitled "the status of employees' occupational quality of life in Tabriz Islamic Azad University" showed that there is a significant relation between employees' occupational quality of life and age, experience, and gender.

3. According to the results of Etebarian and Khalili research (2009) entitled "the relationship between occupational quality of life and its dimensions with organizational sociability" there is a direct and significant relation between occupational quality of life and all its dimensions including fair and sufficient pay, safe environment, growth opportunity, law and legalism, general atmosphere of occupational life, and social consistency with organizational sociability.

4. Jena Abadi and Nastizai (2012) in a research entitled "employees' quality of life in Baharan psychological research, treatment and educational center in Zahedan" concluded that there is no significant relation between personnel's quality of life based on gender, marital status, executive responsibility, educational level, work years, and employment status except executive responsibility.

5. Shipper (1994) has performed research management meetings regarding men and women management skills. According to a recent study, men and women own a similar set of management skills which affects their performance and success in a similar way using proportional and specific skills. A research group investigated if management skills are gender specific or not. The research was performed on management skills of 177 women and 115 men. The results confirmed previous and new theories and finally the research group stated that gender is a neutral variable regarding management skills.

Research objectives The overall objective of the present study is to investigate the relationship between occupational skills (technical, human, conceptual) and organizational learning with principals' occupational quality of life.

Secondary objectives Investigating the relationship between occupational skills (technical, human, conceptual) with dimensions of principals' organizational learning, Investigating the relationship between dimensions of occupational skills (technical, human, conceptual) with principals' occupational quality of life,

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Investigating the relationship between occupational skills and occupational quality of life with gender, Investigating the relationship between occupational skills and occupational quality of life with education level Research questions Is there a relationship between occupational skills, organizational learning, and principals' quality of life?

Is there a significant relation between principals' occupational quality of life and dimensions of organizational learning?

Is there a significant relation between occupational skills and principals' occupational quality of life?

Is there a significant relation between dimensions of occupational skills and dimensions of principals' organizational learning?

Is there a significant relation between occupational skills and principals' occupational quality of life with gender?

Is there a significant relation between occupational skills and principals' occupational quality of life with education?

Methodology Given the research title and objective which investigates the relationship between occupational skills and organizational learning with principals' occupational quality of life in Birjand, descriptive correlational method was used.

Statistical population Statistical population included all male and female principals of Birjand primary schools.

Sampling method and sample size In the present research, census was used and all the statistical population was chosen to fill out the questionnaire.

According to Morgan table, for sample size of 92 participants, the number of 75 people is mentioned and due to similarity in numbers all the population was investigated.

Methods and tools for data collection Data collection was performed using questionnaires. In order to collect data, occupational quality of life questionnaire (technical, human, conceptual) including 30 questions, organizational learning questionnaire including 24 questions, and occupational quality of life questionnaire including 26 questions were used.

Neefe standard questionnaire including five dimensions was used. This questionnaire includes 24 questions with Likert seven-alternative scale (completely disagree to completely agree). Scoring is as follows: completely disagree gets score1; disagree score2; somehow disagree score3; no idea score4; somehow agree score5; agree score6; completely agree acore7.

WHOQOL-BREF questionnaire was used in order to measure occupational quality of life. This questionnaire includes 26 questions with Likert five-alternative scale (very little to very much). Scoring is as follows: very much gets score 5; much score4; so-so score3; little score2; and very little score1.

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Principals' occupational skills questionnaire (Farhang, 1997) was used to measure occupational skills.

This questionnaire includes 30 questions with Likert five-alternative scale (from very little to very much). Scoring is as follows: very much gets score 5; much score4; somehow score3; little score2; and very little score1. Questions 1-13 measure conceptual dimension, 14-20 are related to human, and 2130 technical skills.

Validity and reliability of data collection tools Validity is conceptual in this research. In conceptual validity, some experts say if the questions consider all the aspects completely or not. In order to ensure validity, the questionnaires were given to six experts in educational and training sciences.

The results for questionnaire validity with Cronbach's alpha were 0.87 for occupational skills, 0.91 for organizational learning, and 0.95 for occupational quality of life.

Statistical techniques Data was analyzed using descriptive and inferential methods. At descriptive level, statistical indicators such as mean and SD were used in order to describe data. At inferential level, statistical tests such as Pearson correlation coefficient, independent t, and one-way variance analysis were used in order to answer research hypotheses. In should be noted that all statistical calculations were performed using SPSS software version20.

In this section, research questions are considered using descriptive and inferential statistical techniques.

First question: is there a relationship between occupational skills and organizational learning with principals' occupational quality of life in Birjand primary principals?

To deal with this question, descriptive data, mean, SD, and Pearson correlation coefficient were used. Teble1 shows the results of descriptive and referential statistics.

Table1. The results of descriptive data on occupational skills, organizational learning, and occupational quality of life Variables

Mean

SD

Occupational

125.51

16.34

Organizational Learning

44.54

11.23

Occupational Quality of Life

63.12

13.18

Skills

Second question: Is there a significant relation between dimensions of occupational skills and principals occupational quality of life in Birjand primary school?

Table2. The results of correlation coefficient for occupational skills and occupational quality of life Variables

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Occupati onal Quality of Life

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Occupati onal Skills

Technical Human

r sig r sig r sig

0.61 **0.000 0.52 **0.008 0.43 **0.005

As it is shown in table2, there is a significant and direct relation between dimensions of occupational skills (technical, conceptual, and human) with principals' occupational quality of life in Birjand at the level of 0.99 (in all dimensions p<0.01).

Third question: Is there a significant relation between occupational quality of life and principals' organizational learning in Birjand primary schools?

Table3. The results of correlation coefficient for organizational learning and occupational quality of life Variables Dimensions Employee of Organizational skills Learning Mental skills Shared Mission and Vision Team Work Systems Thinking

r sig r sig r sig r sig r sig

Occupation al Quality of Life 0.49 **0.000 0.19 0.31 0.33 **0.002 0.11 0.10 0.38 **0.005

According to table3, there is a significant and direct relation between dimensions of employee skills, shared mission and vision, and systems thinking with principals occupational quality of life at 0.99 level (in all dimensions p>0.05). However, regarding p>0.05, there is no significant relation between mental models and team learning at 0.95 level.

Fourth question: Is there a significant relationship between occupational skills and dimensions of organizational learning in Birjand primary principals?

Table4. The results of correlation coefficient for occupational skills and organizational learning Variables

Occupational Skills Technical Human

Conceptu al

Organization al Learning Dimensions

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Employee skills Mental Models Shared vision

r sig r sig r sig

0.29 0.12 0.48 **0.001 0.25 0.10

0.52 **0.006 0.30 0.10 0.38 0.13

0.29 0.13 0.37 **0.003 0.36 0.11

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Team Learning Systems Thinking

r sig r sig

0.10 0.09 0.46 **0.004

0.24 0.13 0.11 0.10

0.49 0.18 0.56 **0.009

According to table4, there is a significant and direct relation between principals' technical skills with mental models and systems thinking, between human skills with employee skills, and between conceptual skills with dimensions of mental models and systems thinking at 0.99 level (p<0.01). There is no significant relation between other dimensions of occupational skills and organizational learning (p>0.05).

Fifth question: are occupational skills and occupational quality of life similar in male and female principals?

Table5. The results of correlational coefficient for occupational skills and organizational learning based on gender Variable s

Gend er

Occupat ional Quality of Life

Num ber

Male

Mea

SD

53.4

7.7

51 5

Fem

41

ale Occupat ional Skills

t

df

sig

0.23

90

0.56

0.34

90

0.61

n 51.5

10.8

55.3

8.5

0 Male

51 3

Fem ale

41

52.7

5.5

5

According to the results, occupational quality of life shows a mean of 53.45 and SD of 7.7 in male principals, while the same figures are respectively 51.50 and 10.8 for female principals.

Calculated t being -0.23 with freedom degree of 90 at level of 95% is not significant (p>0.05).

Therefore, the occupational quality of life is similar in male and female principals and our hypothesis is rejected.

Moreover, occupational skills represent a mean of 55.33 and SD of 8.5 in male principals and 52.75 and 5.5 in female principals respectively. Calculated t which is -0.34 with freedom degree of 90 at level of 95% is not significant (p>0.05). as a result, occupational skills are the same in male and female principals.

Sixth question: Is there a significant difference between occupational skills and occupational quality of life according to principals' education?

Table6. The results of correlational coefficient for occupational skills and organizational learning based on education Variables Education Occupatio Associate nal quality of life degree

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Number 4

Mean 125

f 0.833

sig 0.45

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BA MA

and

higher Occupatio Associate nal skills degree BA MA and higher

63 25

130 120/25

4

60/6

63 25

33 59.33

0.625

0.37

According to table6, calculated f is respectively 0.83 and 0.62 for between-group freedom degree 2 and intergroup freedom 89, which is not significant at 0.95 level (p>0.05). Therefore, occupational skills and occupational quality of life are similar based on education.

Conclusion and discussion The results of this research show that there is a significant and direct relation between dimensions of occupational skills (technical, conceptual, and human) with occupational quality of life.

Moreover, there is a significant and direct relation between occupational quality of life with dimensions of employee skills, shared vision and systems thinking. There is a significant and direct relation between principals technical skills with mental models and systems thinking, between human skills and employee skills, and between conceptual skills with mental models and systems thinking which is of course inconsistent with the results of Laver (2001), Nadi & Sajadian (2011). Laver's research (2001) on investigating primary styles and occupational quality of life showed that shared projects are more effective on improving occupational quality of life. It can be concluded that there is a significant relation between occupational quality of life and human skills which leads to employees and principal cooperation at work.

According to the results, occupational skills are similar among male and female principals. This finding is consistent with Shaper (1994). Shaper (1994) performed research management sessions on male and female management skills. He stated that men and women possess a similar set of occupational skills with the same effects on their performance and success which is associated with the use of proper and specific skills.

Another result of this research emphasized that male and female occupational quality of life is similar which is consistent with Jena Abadi and Nasti Zai (2012). Jena Abadi and Nasti Zai concluded that there is no significant relation between employees' quality of life and their gender. However, this result is not consistent with Khadivi and olyee (2006). They concluded that there is a significant difference between employees' occupational quality of life with age, experience, and gender.

Another result shows that occupational skills are the same regarding education which is consistent with Ranjbar (2000). He concluded that there is no significant relation between education, diploma mean, and the number of children with human skills.

According to the results, principals' occupational quality of life is the same regarding education and this finding is consistent with Jena Abadi and Nasti Zai (2012). They showed that there is no significant relation between employees' quality of life and their education.

Suggestions 1. If principals have moral and respectful relations with employees, follow commitments to rules and legislations, be honest in their speech, behave with dignity, respect others and have humility to other employees, they will be able to increase their trust in themselves and organization. In such an

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atmosphere managers will be able to manage effectively and prepare the backgrounds for compliance with guidelines. It seems that managers can control and manage all conflicts this way.

2. Managers shouldn’t just emphasize oh human relations in educational organizations.

Personal skills which have a significant relation with technical and conceptual skills should not be ignored at all.

3. Managers need to become familiar with new technics and philosophy of management and pay more attention to clarifying their relations with subordinates. They should also seek a reasonable and realistic explanation of management and leadership strategies and manners in order to identify their expectations from subordinates and recognize their expectations as well. I this way, they will be successful in dealing with some misunderstandings due to inconsistent perceptions and decrease the gap between themselves and their subordinates. As a result employees will be encouraged to follow guidelines and policies while managers will control and manage the organization toward development and growth.

Suggestions for future research 1. It is recommended that similar research is done at a broader scale and on other educational levels to be able to extend the results.

2. Investigating the variables from theoretical point of view will be helpful.

3. Doing a field research including interviews with principals is recommended.

4. It is suggested to do the same research with a similar title on a different statistical population.

References 1- Amelie, Fryna. (2002). Examine the relationship between quality of work life and employee performance ROUDEHEN Islamic Azad University. Master's thesis, Islamic Azad University Rudhen.

2- Alaghe Band, Ali. (2007). General Management. Tehran: Publication of flowing, fifteenth edition.

3- Anderson,Carl A, 1998.Management: skill function Organization performance,2nd edition, Mc Graw – Hil. 4- Bayan Hesamoddin. (1992). Management Regulations. Tehran: Center State Management Training.

5- Cuisine Gillian & Ron Callus, 2003.The Development Of Quality Of Work Life Indication; Helping Define Decent Work in Developed Economies,Australia.

6- Etebarian, A. and Khalili, Massoud. (2009). Quality of work life and its relation to dimensions of organizational socialization. Journal of science and research in psychology, No. 35 and 36, Spring and Summer, Pages 106-81.

7- Farhang, abolghasem.(1996) Investigate characteristics of qualified manager and compare it with the selection criteria of qualified manager from vision of Isfahan high schools. Master’s thesis, faculty of educational sciences, University of Isfahan.

8- Gharaei moghadam, Amanullah. (1997). Educational Management. Tehran:Printing first 9- Ghasemi, Mohammad. (2001). Investigate the effect quality of work life and the productivity the workforce. MS Thesis, Tehran University.

10- Iran Nejad Parizi, M. and Sasan Gohar, Pervez. (1993). Organization and management theory to practice. Tehran: Iran banking publication.

11- Jassbi, Abdullah. (1998). Management principles. Tehran: Islamic Azad University.

12- Jenaabadi, Hossien and nastizaei, naser(2011). Quality of working life of personnel in training , remedial and psychiatric research center of Baharan, Zahedan city,Iran. Bimonthly of Oromiyeh nursing and midwifery college.

Course ninth, Issue fifth, pages 350-337.

13- Katz, RL. , (1991) , "Skills of an effective administer", Harvard business review, Business classic fifteen key concepts for managerial success.

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14- Khadivi, A. aliei, Hassan. (2008). Investigate the situation of working life quality of Islamic Azad University. Tabriz Branch, Journal of Management Science, First Year, No. 2, 172-150.

15- Marseille, Gibson. (1998). Skills necessary to successfully manage ÂŹ. Nik Rashidi translator, Amir. Tehran: Center State Management Training 16- Mirkamali, Seyed Mohammad. (2000). Leadership and management training. Tehran: Publication Steven, Fifth Edition.

17- Mirkamali, Seyed Mohammad. (1995). Leadership and management training. Tehran: Amin, First Edition.

18- Pardakhtchi, MH. (1996). Management training as the professional realm. Journal of Management Education, No. 13, Pages 80-55.

19- Safi, A.. (1993). Management and planning in education. Tehran: Office of inservice training, third edition.

20- Shipper, F, August , 1994. in proceeding, Academy of management meeting Dalls, Tesax, pp 14- 17 21- Shirzad, Kebria, baharak., bordbar, Simin. (2011). Check the main elements of teacher quality of work life. Journal of Research in Educational Administration, No. 4, Pages 164-138.

22- Whoqol group ,1996. WHOQOL-BREF Introduction, Administration and scoring, Field Trial version, World Health Organization, Geneva.

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International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Research. Special issue Vol 1(1), 646-656, 2014

Available online at http:// www. ijpbrjournal.com ISSN 2322-4002 Š2014 Victor Quest Publication

Moral education status and Islamic ethics Pattern in Curriculum 1

2

3

Afkari Fereshteh , Maleki Hassan , Delavar Ali , Ahmadi Gholamali

4

1- PhD student of Curriculum studies, Allameh Tabatabai University, Tehran, Iran

2- Professor, Department of Curriculum, Psychology and Educational Sciences, Allameh Tabatabai University, Tehran, Iran 3- Professor, Department of Curriculum, Psychology and Educational Sciences, Allameh Tabatabai University, Tehran, Iran 4- Assistant Professor, Department of Curriculum, Psychology, shahid Rajai University, Tehran, Iran

Abstract Today's ethical approaches are conceived as one of the important approaches for territory Curriculum. In this approaches, curriculum developments are as effective tool for the promotion of moral virtues and social skills among the students, and prepare them to deal effectively with new issues. To achieve this great aim, education institutions require having a map, so called as curriculum in the education literature. This program can reach the desired goals of the educational system only based on the religious, values and ethical moral foundations, principles and methods. Prevailing the culture of that country. This paper, making use of a descriptive - analytical approach and library resources, while examining the ethical approaches, has defined the characteristics of moral education curriculum based on the principles of Islam. Ethics-oriented curriculum will lead to closeness to God, referring the pure ' nature' of human, and achieving the set of targeting the monitoring student achievement, intellectual growth, and appropriate to achieve the objectives of higher moral education, such as responsibility, observing rights of others, valuing the work of others and consider moral arguments and the debate will provide justice. The content of the course topics, the issues of life are formed. Intimate learning environment and teacher should play the leading role. Ethics education should be conceived as a course curriculum or in conjunction with other courses by educational professionals, especially teachers, should be considered.

Achieve the moral education curriculum model based on the teachings of Islam can provide the design of a comprehensive curriculum of religious education. To achieve the goal of moral education is necessary due to the view -based ethics curriculum should be planned values and beliefs of Islam.

Keywords: Moral education, Principles, Islam point of view, Curriculum, Islamic ethics Model

Introduction

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International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Research. Special issue Vol 1(1), February2014

Education principles of each views derive Educational basis .It will have certain techniques and methods by itself. It isn’t possible to achieve real welfare without possessing ethic and wholesome life to grow and anthopologenic. We needs knowing about cultural exact investing and planning to get the aim nowadays. Ethic and moral Education make one of the main pillars of human culture. As a result , lots of attentions paid to this subject for many years ago. So many scholars attend it in plenty of countries these days. A large amount of religions Educationing of different religions are made by mortality. Human experience shows that mankind always need to ethical education even in modern or postmodern era. Therefore, the curriculum must be sensitive more than past, in their orientation to teaching religious values and moral beliefs. (MehrMohammady, 2004). Also, from The goal of present study is to scrutiny this problem how the teachers and curriculum planners can act in organizing activities to make students’ achievement in determination of aims possible in inner and moral of mentioned values as inseparable part of their personality.

Ethical and moral Education

The terms of ethic and moral education refer to make habits, secondary nature which occurs in human soul arbitrarily and with continuous trying from Sheeye’s thinkers point of view .They think that moral and education teacher’s work is perfect and complementary, means that they contribute their trainees to complete their innate and inherent abilities.

In Arabic, two terms “humor” and “mood” are from one root. Humor refers to natural shape and formal structure” and “mood” means physic in Muslim's leader Ali (peace be upon him)(Amini,1993). Moral education’s goal is to nurture human’s inner capacities to make and grow characteristics of moral desirable behaviors Moral Education Curriculum Moral Education needs to provide special educational area to establish a system of innate moral values that human owns from birth (Shameli, 2007, p. 110). As regards to first part of “Shams” sura, human self has both boost and advance tendency and demotion one.

Thus, as respect to the presence of innate values in human and by the consideration of moral scientists and education philosophers in this area and as regard to applied function in schools, moral education curriculum is: planning how to apply and nurture inner talents and also development and establishment to appropriate moral behaviors to get the best virtues and to being away of the worst and destroy them.

Moral Education in Islam

Historical study of moral education in Islam Abraham religions refer to the presence of prophets obviously in Quran. 64 verse of “Al Omran” sura and 2 verse of “Joma” certificate it. By the contents of these verses, the greatest aim of prophets had been to bestow awareness and nurture of human. The religious masters were the followers of them after inspiring of the prophets approach tried to build religious moral knowledge.

In history, moral knowledge and training has been attended lots of attentions. Yahia- ebn- O’dai (280364), ebn Moskoyeh (325-421), Toosi Mohaghegh (597-672), Qazali (450-505), Feiz Kashani (1006-

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International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Research. Special issue Vol 1(1), February2014

1091) and (Mehdi 1128-1209 and Mola Ahmad 1185-1245) are the most prominent in this area.

Muslim theosophists, who pass the theoretical gnosis, know about its practical virtues for example Shams Tabrizi (582-645) and Moulana Jalaledin Mohammad Roomi (604-672) were the establisher of some schools in which not all people but sporadic of them and paid to special gnosis training. The teachers can discover the continuous way of a person's training methods by referring to theosophy schools to learn strategies and educational disciplines having a person-base method (Amoozegar, 1996, pp. 186-195).

The inner part of prophets prompt and sacred books descent and their commission to guide human are the strongest reasons of education possibilities in whole individuals, verses like “the persons who selected among uneducated are sender to refine and show them signs and teach them book and teleology, their way is clear” (Joma: 2) and other verses similar show the aim of sending prophets well, to help, refine, educate everybody in “clear”. So we can say that growth and training in Islam is growth and moral education.

Doubtlessly, one of the formal education system (schools) of country is students moral training “school consists of: formation to hold body and scientific and moral training of all people” (Safi, 2003).

Upon this, students are integrities in educational centers so they play effective role in efflorescence of talents and moral education that they have to get awareness and sights.

Moral education approaches

Knowing moral values have direct relation to educational performances, surely, values especially moral ones make human life’s basic pillar. Values like the other affairs are both personal and social (Shariatmadary, 1985, p. 121). To do moral education effectively, it’s necessary to get familiar with moral education approaches. We can’t infer all of them in this study, so we refer to some: The other approach which is for moral education is based on emphasis on moral’s mental aspects and values, it shows inherent activity of a person that expresses one certain self clearly, so does Neo county pattern.

Moral is an inner and mental phenomenon that forms with the basis of principles and structures (Rahnama, 1999, p. 46). Kohlberg effect of Piajet1 attend to cognitive Development. Piajet started this approach after him Daman, Mosher, perry Development. He believed humans training have stages too: encourage and punish, instrument - like orientation stage, taking others attention stage, disciplinarily, social relation and personal aspect and finally moral extent stage (Ryan, 1899).

The approach like care attended or social responsibility received lots of attention, too. Gillikan 1982 attended it. He knew its philosophy a pragmatic Naturalism and Feminism (Rahnama, p. 49). Bourdio 1977 and Godel, 1980 point is based on moral behavior and ultimate moral action is its aim. So, its results are important then, it pays attention to moral cause and effect behavior instead of its structure (Rahnama, 1999, p. 66). Dewey critics toward spending in moral education rather than some of theological approaches of expressing values.

He believes this approach knows the values and moral more than human’s willing and tendency so tries to force it to us and these values have super human aspects (Dewey, 1934) The other approach is values Analysis which received plenty of attentions, Frankel was its protector.

He believed students should be able to analyze the questions morally like why isn’t stealing allowed?

1- Piajet

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(Frankel, 1993).. Another approach is psychoanalytic. Its founder is Sigmund Freuid. He studied unconscious mind after him Bronow Bettelheim extended it.

Sociologists and psychologists attended to social learning approach.

The experimentalists like lock and behaviorists such as John Watson and Skinner paid it. In this approach people learn differently of first by direct teaching then by modeling and reinforcement.

Psychologist called (Maccoby 1980) has written, “Moral behavior is a behavior that group define it well of badly since the works punishment of immoral behaviors and rewarding of moral works depend on group. Saying well or badly to someone relies on out of him (Ryan, 1899).

As respects to above moral education, we can understand them due from the moral philosophy schools or growth psychology's ones specially moral and cognitive school or from special theory in moral education. Each of them have positive and negative effects so they are not suitable lonely to get to destination. So, it is not enough to choose one approach for moral education. But we need to their combination.

Moral education by Islam point of view

According to Quran (Al-Omran 164, Jome 2) and numerous verses of great prophet and the others.

Moral education was the prophets main goal especially the last ones, Mohammad. “It was chosen as a prophet to accomplish morals munificence (Bahar-Ol-Anvar, 59 vol., p. 372). Upon this, Islam presents any kind of planning like moral education is based of the human to be creature and GOD to be orshipped. A human in Islam school has a close relation with GOD and accept whole things in front of him.

Islamic moral in contrast with other approaches is not a thinker’s behavior or a group of scholars but is with Quran moral, great prophet. It’s wider than the moral that practical wisdom finds out (Sobhani, 2005). This system joints in three directions: arbitrary, as it promotes the accepted works and reaches to felicity and welfare (Al-e-Omran 130, Enfal 145). “Welfare” concept as the best for human in Islam is the otherworldly felicity. For this reason, selection of unstable pleasures, superficial and painful is rejected.

Islamic moral system is , means the aim of doing moral works relates to the person who does it. and honesty are values.

Islam moral school is the kind of principle-looking (Shirvani, 2005) means man should follow a direction to obtain his purpose its range clarifies with total principles. It based of fixed foundation which is due to holy Islam religion source. One of them is “theorem of kindness” based on it GOD bestow man everything that is essential for his welfare (Sajjadi, 2011). In the other hand, moral education relies on religion laws so it’s a kind of intellectual training. Its emphasis doesn’t mean anomie to inner perceptions.

Instead of emphasizing on rules of speech and lingual, commend to action. (Noor 30, 36, Enfal 28) From Islam’s view a person is moral who has certain mental and practical attributions and any one doesn’t account. Every action has two parts decision and formation. One that has moral value which is accordance to God’s order. Its grail is GOD achievement (Baqre 264, 265, Hashr 8 and Momtahene 1). According to Mesbah Yazdi, a work is valuable calling. Its root is in best innate or non-money dimension and it bases on inspiration. Its background is rewarding and punishing of accounting day (Sobhani, 2005). The moral assessment is the man same welfare. (Baqeri 21, 194, Hojarat 11, Mojadeleh 12) it. Accompany with willing and selection (Nesa 92, Enfal 24), based on Quran verses moral assessment depends on existence abilities (Moballeq, 2005).

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Moral-base curriculum elements

Number of constituent elements of curriculum stated from variant views, some accepted four and some did nine. Four accepted by whole planners are: goals, contents, learnt activities-students learning and evaluation methods (MehrMohammadi, 2012).

In this survey, seven basic elements according to theology, Miller’s view is their name basis (Miller, translation MehrMohammadi, 2007).

Moral education curriculum goals

One of curriculum’s dimensions is its goal; moral education curriculum identity is its following aims. It draws a sight of human as an honest creature. Such plans’ aims are to provide living and inherent needs like innate tendency to welfare and capacity’s arousal.

On the basis of anthropological and monotheism, the curriculum can claim to fulfill these needs and take steps to meet this requirement shall be based on cosmology, theological and anthropological monotheism is established, the three pillars are the same goals.

Totally about Islamic moral education can say: Its final aim is the degree and heart incensement in God kith beam, learn data and awareness to something creates us and to remove any completion obstacles which are comprehensively called “Velleity”, so, everybody reaches God by providing these elements.

Its origin end is growing wisdom human never leave his religion and follow it consciously.

School should provide a way of sharing families and society in moral education.

In curriculum should clarify attach ways to God and his praise.

In moral curriculum base, we should apply proper judgment, enhance the endurance of disagree ideas; respect others, consideration of equality right of whole people.

Its last aim is moral reinforcement and appropriate proper attribution of individual or social is three fields' cognitive, attitude and skillful and put responsibility sense in doing tasks, cooperation, and ability to work with others, Democracy concept training, and knowing national entity first.

2. Proper essence of learning Learning is different depend on the number of current views, in growth-related view, learning relates to growth, moral and cognitive growth occur in persons facing cognitive conflict or moral puzzles with thought pattern restructure, learning happens when the assessment of problems present student as a stimulus access (Miller, translation MehrMohammadi, 2012).

As respect to this among A’lame-e-Mesbah principles means “regard to hearer ability” something that should be consider is growth stage and learning ability.

Mutation stages are references to educational content. For example, you can ask yourself learning or training numbers when a child doesn’t understand its concept, what is the result of speech learning?

(Kadivar, 2002)

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So, fitting education to mutation is an essence. Planners and executors should provide conditions to find values and let them be inner Learning are an interaction among learner and environment.

Thus, one of the planners' duties is man’s real welfare in man’s reality, his eternal soul, monotheistic areas. These are the main activity of learning process, its view shouldn’t put in the middle of “Zero and one” it has a quiescence, it emphasis an innate dimension of learners like feeling. Thoughts and outer dimension like students' outdoor behavior.

3. Regard to learner’s role in curriculum

Investigate, who is learner? What attributes does s/he have? We can say learner is a person who can find out worlds layers by observing and thinking, arrive to deeper knowing via self-bowdlerization. He reaches to God adduction. In some verses, God knows the self-person responsible for his training (Shams 9). According to this verse, final role of training is with man not others. They are the provider of education field. As regard to anthropology and psychology “man’s free arbitrary” “his responsibility” “individual differences” are main points which executors and planners of curriculum should regard it.

Since they affect on its design, learning is stable when a person be active in its designing (MehrMohammadi, 2012). One of the effective strategies in moral education is to predict arbitrary lessons to educational grade and age, interests and motivation of learners. This is anomie to favorites and personal differences. So learner receives everything sent him. So the students are not able to decide in his life.

4. Attention to physical role and space in curriculum

One of the outer factors in moral education is natural & human environment they have a long precedent.

Advocates of social-cognitive theory believe social factors effect on one’s behavior. But the manner of treatment through them depends on him. In this view “Man is an active creature and affects logically with his around.” (Kadivar, 2002), so no one denied its role in education in public.”

Nowadays there is a question among experts of curriculum; as we care to curriculum designing aim, learning method, content and evaluation, do we pay attention to environment and space role? Some views, school and space are involvement elements in curriculum designing. As man is a social creature and lives in society, so family is the most effective institution upon moral and religious education.

Moral one raise from environment like school. School and classroom are the places where students get training in them. They sample the teacher, too. They learn lots of tendencies and cultures via school.

“Culture” means theology, tendency and values in school environment that should contain following conditions: Close relation of school clerks with students and students with each other.

Providing assurance atmosphere to express students' view that warrant justice and persons’ rights.

Teachers' collaboration with each other as a whole.

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Providing suitable background to do and encourage students' justice behavior in or out of class.

Thus, curriculum, official structure, building and appearance school, teacher interaction with student in school play a serious role in moral education this effect can be both positive and negative dimension.

Thus, never ignore the educational effect of learners, school role and something happens via it.

Reinforce spirituality in students Accept activities on the value pillars Any action be on the basis of Islam trainings and commends.

Learning environment has a harmony with student's growth level Learning atmosphere was full of trust for students not to scare to state their ideas.

5. Attention to teachers' role in curriculum

Teacher role is prominent in education from many years ago. He can teach well and make a perfect moral sample and form personality (Mesbah Yazdi, 2006).

Educational auxiliary tools are significant so teachers ignore the ordinary effects of self-behavior as a tool during training. In curriculum view, defines variant roles for teachers. In social view emotional atmosphere in class is emphasized for students to argue there. In subjective view, teacher has a source provider role. In behavior view teacher defines abilities for students to achieve different abilities level. So design extra plans (MehrMohammadi, 2012).

Educational role: Means teacher transfers essential awareness to students to increase their knowledge.

Making religion: As expressed, nowadays, students knowing and knowledge level has added up for the development of communication power tools like; newspaper, magazine, book, visual medias and so on toward the religious problem rather pastThe question is whatever a person knows his work is immoral, why does he perpetrate it? Sound that correct analysis is, fouling due to heart knowledge belief not heart belief.

Forming student's behavior: in addition to educational and religious roles, teacher has a duty to convert student's mental belief to heart one.

The manner of a personâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s behavior in education is effective, as a summary recommend that: Teacher should have a deep knowledge of moral problems.

Teacher tries about practical behavior of innate values.

Teacher carries out extra activities and out of school like charity visits and help to grow humanism.

Teacher should act as a facilitator's trainer not a moral expert.

Provide opportunities for students to think about their selections.

Set the programs to improve personal relationships like speech or non-speech, listening skills, confidence, respect sense in students.

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Plan for performing students moral learnt.

Has a plan to welcome new students and guide them.

Provide suitable background for justice behavior in or out of class to be encouraged.

Encourage students by using images, stories, and poems, bibliographies about moral & immoral actions.

6- Attention to teaching strategies in curriculum

Teaching process as regard to different strategies is variant. Some of them uses structured educational pre-determine process, other approach uses Azoubell comparative thinking method, in another one in discovery procedure teacher has an assistant role means teacher provide a background at first so that the students can make hypothesis and conclusion based on obtained research (Miller, translation MehrMohammadi, 2007).

In teaching method and process discussion, the question is; how should be teaching to reach predetermine aims?

Whatever we can’t consider a curriculum for perfect teaching exactly, nevertheless, teaching strategies are inseparable part of students' activity according to the same pattern designed curriculum. We refer to some A’lame Mesbah’s view: we should move via love. It means tenderness soul should beam on entire method, no compulsion, if there weren’t any forces for kids because of the age range, they wouldn’t accept simply. But parents worries should not put on the basis of encourage, punish or frighten, although they are necessary they’re not final work. Student must train with tenderness to like science.

Another strategy or educational practice in Islam is “Motive” motivations is one of the most important effective factors in resultful training. On the basis of psychology training, the students who wants to learn, can learn everything (Eslavin, 2006), something that has basic role is “motive”.

One of the effective principles in motivating is tending toward spirit and being active, curiosity and innovation therefore education must be started with students' self-activities. “Teacher-based” should be replaced by “interactive” although education provides innate fields, we can teach successfully if we use students to be active. He must have choice; act as a co-teacher and manager.

7- Having proper acceptance of evaluation in Moral Education Curriculum

One of the naturalized elements in curriculum is “Evaluation”. Its aim is being final stage of a work so getting awareness of success plans amount, politic and knowing errors and the loss of learning process. In other hand Evaluation is a reflect to honesty and helper of students in which both teacher and student can take part in process.

The evaluation purpose in current system patterns in process views, commonly, the level of “Knowledge-Organized” measurement form test and explained questions. If he gets mark, he goes upper grade, does this educational course effect on him.

As respect to above context, the most important points related to evaluation moral education of students are:

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-Score deletion in common educational system in students' evaluation moral education.

-Try to flexible teachers’ expectation of students.

-Emphasis on involvement process and students participation.

-Shirk of explicit recommendation toward students immoral behaviors.

-Investigate and record the features of students behavioral in class, school yard and out school and compare prior behavior before performing moral education curriculum and after that -Emphasis on students “Self-assessment” -Clarify students rather evaluation results

Conclusion

Moral education as one of initial and basic purpose is attended in educational systems, nowadays, one of present worries it is how moral education. In this discussion essence recognition and its replacement don’t convey in educational dimensions. Imam Khomeini bade about the essence of anthropology before any education planning: since human is the base of education, presenting proper educational system is possible just with knowing human and “any improvement, first point is human, himself”. (Article sets, 1995). The Education main duty is to apply religious innate, because the continuous way of education is to wake human innate up and clear the default dust of them to teach God presence in their life and appear their tendency to religion and moral.

To achieve moral education aim, moral base curriculum to belief and value view is performed in any society, managers and planners want to find a way to solve this problem. “Curriculum” has a harmony role so imply effective factors and elements in it.

Curriculum makes harmony among teacher and student. Two physical environment school and class, also close relationship, respect between them are the heart of Education as a tool to accomplish the above goals. Curriculum is the main pillar in education why its quality of a society in variant grades, evaluate.

Proper pattern in designing moral education curriculum which adjusts Republic Islamic of education system rises from Islam view in anthropology.

In this program, the aim is to God closeness and tend to clear “innate” learner is viewed as a person, if the condition is provide, he can apply logical capacities in front of moral problems via moral analysis. In designing learning process, provides lesson content. The content for lesson titles consists of life problems. Its environment is communion. Teacher has a leader role. He increases awareness while the performance of class discussions for students' assessment is done continuously by real performance and moral education effect. Justice, care and tend to others, are attributions which grow students.

Use of moral-base curriculum not only make student achievement to sets of goals on logical growth, but also in a group, is an area t achieve the best moral education aims like, responsibility, respect to the others right, valuing, justice and discussion. (MehrMohammadi, 2007), Also, everything teacher consider for learning basis about opinions and judgment has moral aspect kids each to receive principles not only with moral grammar they should learn how to behave correctly.

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