software development

Software Development What is software?

You should already know that any computer system is made up of hardware and software.

The term hardware is fairly easy to understand, because you can see it. It is all the pieces of equipment that make up the system - the processor, monitor, keyboard, mouse, printer, scanner and so on.

Software is not so obvious. It is all the programs, instructions and data that allow the hardware to do something useful and interesting.

Think about all the different items of software that you have used in the last week or so.

Here is a list of popular programs that you may be familiar with: • • • • • • • • • • • •

Microsoft Word (the word processing program that I use) Microsoft Excel (spreadsheet used to keep charity accounts for which I am the treasurer) AppleWorks 6 (integrated package - I mainly use its word processor and simple database sections) .

Internet Explorer (both PC and Mac versions - for browsing the web) two different e-mail clients (Nets cape Communicator and MS Outlook iPhoto (for organising my digital photographs) iMovie (for editing digital movies) Safari (web browser for MacOS X) Adobe Photoshop (for editing digital photographs) Adobe PageMaker 6.5 (for creating worksheets to be used at school) Toast (for burning CDs) Adobe Acrobat (for viewing pdf files)

But that’s not all! On each computer that we have used, a program (or group of programs) called the operating system must have been running. So we must add the following to our list:

• MacOS 9.2 ( iMac at school) • MacOS X.2 (on a iMac at home) Thirdly, a full list would include all the actual documents, files, web pages, e-mails and so on, that we had accessed, as these are also software. That would be too long a list, so I’ll ignore it here.

INT 2 Computing -

Software Development

Infosheet 5.6.1

Software Development The development process Before we think about how software is developed, it is worth considering how any product is developed, because the process is essentially the same.

For example, think about the process of developing a new model of TV. Stage 1: Analysis Before a new product is developed, someone within the company, probably in the marketing department, analyses what people want. They consider which products are selling well, look at what rival companies are producing, and maybe even carry out a survey to find out what people want.

From this they can work out which features are required in their newest model, including its size, target price range and various technical requirements.

They use this information to produce a specification for the new model of TV. This states clearly all the features that it must have.

Stage 2: Design The next stage is to turn the specification into a design. Designers will get to work, alone or in groups, to design various aspects of the new TV. What will it look like? How will the controls be laid out? Sketches will be drawn up and checked against the specification. Another team of designers will be planning the internal circuitry, making sure it will allow the TV to do all the things set out in the specification.

Stage 3: Implementation Once the design phase is over, engineers will get to work to actually build a prototype. Some will build the case according to the design, while others will develop the electronics to go inside. Each part will be tested on its own, and then the whole thing will be assembled into a (hopefully), working TV set.

Stage 4: Testing Before the new model can be put on sale, it will be thoroughly tested. A wide range of tests will be carried out.

It might be tested under ‘normal’ conditions. It could be put in a room at normal room temperature, and checked to see that all the controls work correctly, the display is clear, it is nice and stable, and so on.

If it passes this type of testing, it might be tested under ‘extreme’ conditions.

For example, does it still work if the temperature is below freezing, or very hot and humid, if it is used for long periods of time, or with the volume or the brightness or contrast set to their maximum values.

INT 2 Computing -

Software Development

Infosheet 5.6.1

Software Development Finally, it could be tested under ‘exceptional’ conditions. What happens if a 2-year old picks up the remote and presses all the buttons at once? What happens if there is a power cut, or a power surge?

If it fails any of these tests, it might be necessary to go back to the implementation (or even design) stage and do some further work, before re-testing.

If it passes all the tests, then the new TV can go into production.

Stage 5: Documentation However, the development isn’t yet complete! Some documentation will be needed to go with the TV - a User Manual containing all the instructions about how to work the new TV, and probably a Technical Manual for repair engineers.

Stage 6: Evaluation Once the model is in production, the company will want to evaluate it. Does it do what it is supposed to do? Is it easy to use? And, from the engineer’s point of view, is it easy to repair?

Stage 7: Maintenance Stage 6 should be the end of the story, but in the real world, there needs to be stage 7 - maintenance. There are different kinds of maintenance: fixing faults that turn up once the product is being used regularly, improving the design to make the product even better, or making changes for other situations the product may face (like making a version that will work in another country) .

These seven stages are an essential part of any production system and are collectively known as the Development Process.

INT 2 Computing -

Software Development

Infosheet 5.6.1

Software Development Process A system is much more than an environment of computer hardware and software, and in some cases will have none of these components. You only need to look around to see that in the world of work some systems do not contain or utilize computers.

A small companies payroll system may have a process set-up to pay employees but does not use any computers. The amount of Pay, Tax, National Insurance, etc is calculated manually and the employees paid in cash. Books are kept with all the total information regarding the staff payroll and are kept for years.

So, when does a system become a computerised system and the design of a computerised solution become a requirement? What factors would influence this decision?

The most common factors are: •

the manual system becomes overloaded by increasing workloads

•

the system is too dependent on skilled staff who are expensive or difficult to employ

•

the nature of the work changes

•

frequent expensive errors are made

The manual system will have to undergo a rigorous process of Systems Analysis and Design to transform it into a computerised system.

Developing Computerised Solutions Prior to the 1960's computer solutions were developed with little regard to what we now recognise as established methods. Development of a system was handled by highly trained, technical personnel within an organisation.

There were many problems with this approach. Too often user's needs were met by programmers who did not take into account the system as a whole.

Managers and directors are not expert programmers, but understandably knew that these systems were not what they required. They insisted upon better solutions.

The solution lies in a method of clearly translating a verbal or textual description of an idea into a feasible solution.

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Software Development .

Infosheet 5.6.2

Software Development Process The only way to guarantee that the best solution is identified at the earliest opportunity is to adopt a clearly defined system of procedures and practices that provide guides and checks that all factors have been taken into account at all stages of the development.

The most popular and widely used system in industry is referred to as the waterfall model.

Lots of different versions of this development model exist, each one is usually specific to the type of problem that is being solved, but each follows basically the same procedures.

THE WATERFALL MODEL

ANALYSIS

DESIGN

IMPLEMENTATION

TESTING Using the ‘Waterfall Model’ each stage is created and completed in turn before moving on to the next stage. This process continues to the completion of the task however as we move from one stage to another questions or problems may arise that require that we return to a previous stage to obtain clarity. This referral to previous stages to answer questions and resolve problems is referred to as an Iterative Process.

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Software Development .

DOCUMENTATION

EVALUATION

MAINTENANCE

Infosheet 5.6.2

ANALYSIS A systems analyst is the person who is capable of ensuring that all of the demands of the system are properly analysed, documented and applied. It is this person's job to carry out an analysis of the situation. In other words the need for exploring the original idea more closely.

Skills Of A Systems Analyst Most systems analysts have a background in programming. The first thing that a systems analyst needs to learn is to communicate effectively with the user / client and technical systems developers. The analyst is like a buffer between the user / client and the systems development team. These communication skills can be transferred into many other aspects of the job.

It is fundamentally important that a system is developed which meets the needs of the client. Anything less is simply useless.

The client will be dissatisfied, with money and time misspent.

Clients are not usually technically skilled, therefore the analyst must develop ways of extracting their needs, documenting these needs in some formalised way and finally communicating them to the team of designers and programmers who will build the system.

Analysis of the problem Systems Analysis relates to the understanding of the problem, clearly identifying what the solution to the problem must do.

What type of computer and what operating system will be used to run the program?

Will it need special input or output devices?

Will it be using specialist backing storage devices?

Problem Specification The problem specification is a clear and precise description of the problem understood by both the programmer and the client. A clear statement of the problem inputs, outputs and any assumptions are stated.

It is important to get software correct the first time. For example, if new software was being developed for all of the banks in Scotland the cost would be very high, therefore it is imperative to get the software right the first time, to save money and keep good customer relations.

The aim is to produce robust and easy to use software. Program schedules (the expected time for each stage of development), test plans (to check that is robust and correct) and user documentation (instructions on how to use the package) arise from the problem specification.

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Software Development

Infosheet 5.6.3

ANALYSIS Errors Any errors regarding the problem specification should be detected early in the development cycle. If not they can be very costly to resolve especially at a later stage in the development of the software. If errors are not detected then poor testing and incorrect documentation will be produced as a result. It costs more to correct an error at the maintenance stage of software development that it does at the analysis stage.

Algorithm An algorithm is a set of instructions that describe how a particular type of problem may be solved.

When we are going to make something e.g. a meal we firstly need all of the ingredients combined with the recipe. Every time we go to make the meal after this we use the same ingredients and follow the same recipe.

If we missed something out then would not end up with desired result! The input and the recipe must be clearly identified and adhered to obtain the expected output.

An algorithm correctly implemented will always produce a correct result. In computing the correctness of a program can be ensured if the correct algorithm is chosen.

A problem is fully specified when it is stated clearly and we define the inputs and outputs for the problem.

Only when both the analyst and the client are sure and happy about the idea and its proposed development, only then will the analysis stage may be completed. It is a lengthy iterative process (repeatedly checking that the various stages are correct and do the correct job) , but both parties must be 100% sure before the next stage in the development can take place.

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Software Development

Infosheet 5.6.3

DESIGN Once the needs of the user are clearly understood and documented, software development can move onto the next stage - the DESIGN of the system. System Design involves the methodical planning of the solution to the problem.

Systems Design answers the following questions:

•

•What the hardware and software environment of the system will be.

The programming language to be used.

•

HCI - screen designs, menu options, etc.

When the problem for the programmers is clearly specified there are some techniques which the programmer can use to produce the program. A number of methods are available, they all express large problems as a set of smaller problems. This method is called Top Down Design.

Top Down Design is a process of breaking a problem down into smaller problems, this is known as stepwise refinement. Stepwise refinements continues until the subproblems are manageable enough to be coded.

It is necessary to use a structured and methodical approach to planning the solution.

These techniques can be used in any type of design or planning. We can use a Top Down Design technique to write an essay.

Introduction Set Scene Introduce Main Characters Introduce Plot Middle Develop relationship between main characters Introduce a minor but important character Develop Plot Tell strand 1 of plot Tell strand 2 of plot Tell strand 3 of plot Ending Bring together strands Conclusion of plot Happy ending

INT 2 Computing -

Software Development

Infosheet 5.6.4

DESIGN Two graphical methods of designing the structure of a program which we will look at are structured diagrams and flow charts.

Structured Diagrams Structured diagrams represent the top down design of the solution by 'layering'. The top layer of the diagram is the initial problem. The second top layer shows the breaking down of the initial problem into smaller problems, and so on. It's a tree-like diagram.

Example A program has to be written to find the average of a set of numbers.

A typical structure diagram for this problem could be: Finding the average of a set of numbers

Get first number

Repeat until no more numbers

Add number to total

Calculate average by dividing total by count

Print average

Add 1 to count

Notes about structure diagrams • • • •

The box at the top describes what the whole program does.

The boxes below are arranged in logical order from left to right.

Each box shows a different section of the program.

The flow of data may be indicated by an arrow labelled with the data name.

Initialise variables

Get first numbers Add 1 to count

Any more numbers?

Flow Charts A flowchart is often used to illustrate an algorithm (set of instructions) to solve a problem. A flowchart is a diagram which uses different shapes and arrows to show the steps in a problem solution. Particular box shapes are used to represent different aspects of coding.

Example A program has to be written to find the average of a set of numbers, A typical flowchart for this problem could be:

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Start

Software Development

Yes

Add number to total

No

Calculate average

Print out average

Stop

Infosheet 5.6.4

DESIGN Pseudocode Pseudocode is a cross between a programming language and English. Pseudocode is sufficiently like English to allow you to concentrate initially on your program design without having to worry about the complexities of the programming language using key words.

When writing pseudocode it is important to use indentation and keywords to represent the design structure. Every program should be broken down into modules and then each module should be described and again broken down fully. This is known as step-wise refinement.

Stepwise refinement can be identified by the numbering of the statements. Indentation of the statements helps to represent the design structure. This helps to make the program more readable.

Example A program has to be written to find the average of a set of numbers.

Typical pseudocode for this problem could be: Program Inputs: Program Outputs:

data average

Algorithm

1 2 3

initialise variables work out average print the average of the data set

Refine step 1

1.1

initialise the total and count of data items

Refine step 2

2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6

get the first number while there are more numbers do add number to total increment the count of numbers endwhile divide the total by the count of numbers

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Software Development

Infosheet 5.6.4

DESIGN Software Characteristics At each stage of the design process the programmers must consider certain characteristics of the program they are developing. Some relate to the requirements of the customer who is going to use the software.

Some relate to other programmers or computing specialists who may have to read the program.

Fitness for purpose A program should be: correct

A program should produce the correct answers (output) for all valid data (inputs).

There is no point in producing a program that doesn't do the task required.

reliable

Are there any design or coding bugs? Does the program work for any situation ?

efficient

The program should run at a speed that is appropriate to the task it has to perform.

There is no point in a bank auto-teller that takes four hours per transaction.

Likewise a small business payroll program which had to run on a super-computer wi Gigabytes of RAM would not find many customers.

Design of the User Interface The screen presentation should be clear. The user should receive consistent instructions on how to proceed through a program. If at different stages the program stops running until the user presses the <space> bar then the screen instructions on how to proceed should be positioned at the same place on the screen. The user will look to that place. Clear prompts should be given.

The software should be robust. The user should see any data entered on the screen so that it can be altered if necessary. Suppose you wanted to type in '37' but you typed '73' instead. How do you know that you have made a mistake during data entry if you do not see what you have typed. It should be clear to amend what you have typed if it is incorrect.

All inputs should be validated (checked to ensure that they are appropriate) and helpful messages given to the user. This means that any entry at the keyboard should be automatically passed into a module which will test the validity of the input before accepting it. If your entry is being rejected as invalid - e.g. 31st February 2000, then you should get an error message on-screen.

If invalid data is allowed into the program it may cause the program to 'hang' - this is when a data item is entered which is not acceptable input. The program cannot proceed and you will have no option but to come out of the program.

The program should give correct results for all acceptable inputs. The program should present the user with prompts that make sense and are easy to follow. Menus should have suitable headings and be well structured. Option names should be meaningful. Error messages should attract the user's attention with possible actions indicated.

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Software Development

Infosheet 5.6.4

Implementation Implementation is the third stage in the software development process.

This stage involves the translation of the design into a form that the computer can understand - program code. There are many high level programming languages available, Basic, Comal, Pascal, Visual Basic, Algol, Primex, C ++ etc.

Choosing a Programming Language When considering the problem many questions need to be answered regarding which programming language to use - How complex is the problem? Which language will be the most effective for the particular problem? What hardware is needed for the language? Can I develop a program in modules, that is, with procedures? Does the language let me do structured programming? Does it support sequence, repetition and selection? and so on.

In general a good programming style will be user friendly; be as short as possible at the top level; have clear internal documentation; use meaningful variable names; have routines to check that all the inputs are acceptable; and show a clear structured layout.

Types of Languages The nature of the problem that you are trying to solve will decide the programming language that will be used. Some languages are special purpose and suited to solve one particular type of programming language, such as Primex (an expert system shell) or Prolog. Others are general purpose and these are designed to produce programs that solve a wide range of problems, such as Comal, Pascal, Hypertalk, Visual Basic etc.

There are 2 different types of languages. They can either be procedural or declarative. â&#x20AC;˘ â&#x20AC;˘

In a Procedural Language the programmer identifies all the instructions that the program must carry out to complete the task and set them in the correct order.

Declarative languages allows the programmer to define the problem being solved in terms of the facts and relationships contained in the program.

Once you have coded the design of your program in a High Level Language you will run the program on a computer which has a translator program for the code. All programs developed in High Level Languages have to be translated into machine code - this is the only language that the computer understands! The translator program may be an interpreter or compiler depending on your choice of High Level Language.

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Software Development

Infosheet 5.6.5

Implementation When your coding is finished it is ready to be entered into the computer. The file that you create is known as the source code. This code is then processed by the compiler and checked for any syntax errors (language errors) and construction errors. The compiler then translates the source code into machine code. This Low Level Language file of code is called the object file. When you run the program the object file is loaded into the computer's memory and executed.

Processed by Print"What is the leng th" Input leng th Print"What is the breadth" Input breadth Let area=leng th * breadth Print "The area is "; area

Compiler

10101101 10100001 11011101 11010000 10000000 01000101 01001010 10010111 00100010 00101001

Source Code Object Code

High Level Language Features User Interface The user interface is the way that your program looks to the person who is using it. This includes the screen layouts, the prompts or instructions and the way it checks the input.

Screen Layout How your program looks on the screen is important. If it is clearly laid out, then the user will find it easy to use and follow. The problem statement may well include a description of the way the screen may look.

User Prompts Programs must tell the user what keys to press to operate the program, or what type of input to give.

Input Validation When a user can choose what they input, the program must check to see if it is the correct type, text or number. For example, if a number is required then a number is entered. The program checks that the number is in the correct range. This is called validating the data.

Variables Variables can take the form of integer, real number, character or string. A variable is a name given to a box in the computer's memory that is being used in the program. Programs are not very useful if they cannot be used more than once. Therefore a program will be more useful if variable names as meaningful.

Reserved Words The language in which you use to program will have reserved words. These are words that have a special meaning in the High Level Language. These words cannot be used as variable names.

Examples:END LET PRINT FOR....NEXT PROC....END PROC IF.......THEN DO......WHILE INPUT Structured Programming Structured Programming helps you to develop your program by organising your code into blocks. It is based on three main techniques SEQUENCE the program will do one thing after another.

REPETITION the program repeats an action either a fixed number of times or until a condition is met.

SELECTION allows the program to choose a course of action.

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Software Development

Infosheet 5.6.5

TESTING TEST DATA To make sure that the program actually solves the problem you have to test it to ensure that there are no errors. To carry out proper tests you need to create and use multiple sets of data, this is called test data. Test data must be carefully chosen to ensure that all stages of the program are being tested.

There are three different types of test data: Normal This is test data that is well within the limits that the program should be able to deal with. This makes sure that there are no unexpected results.

Extreme Extreme test data is data which is at the ends of the range, that is on the limit. This tests to make sure that the boundary limits are working correctly.

Exceptional Exceptional data is data that is incorrect. This shows whether or not the software can deal with unexpected inputs without crashing. This also helps to test the robustness of the software.

When testing your program we need to create sets of test data. This test data must include data from the three different types. The idea of this is to cover different scenarios. When creating our test data, we must consider the following point: The expected results must be know in advance, that is we check the test data manually first so that we can compare our expected results with our known results when we run the program.

Example a program has been written to tell you how many dollars your pounds can be exchanged for.

Normal

input input -

10 100

expected Output expected output -

16 160

Extreme

input input -

0 100000

expected Output expected Output -

0 1600000

Exceptional

input -

-5

expected Output -

input -

0.47

expected Output -

input -

five

expected Output -

"your value must be greater than zero please try again" "your value must be a whole number please try again" "your value must be a number please try again"

INT 2 Computing - Software Development .

Infosheet 5.6.6

TESTING ERRORS There are three different types of error: System Errors (Run -Time Errors) System Errors are errors that affect either the computer or its peripherals. For example we may write a program that sends its output to the printer as well as the monitor. If there is no printer when we run the program then the computer will produce a system error message. A common run-time error is to ask your program to divide by zero. These errors sometimes make the computer stop altogether and we have to restart the computer.

To avoid system errors we should write code to check that the printer is connected before the data is sent to the printer. In this case the computer would warn us in advance again with a simple message on the screen.

Syntax Errors Syntax Errors are errors that occur in the programming language, i.e. EDN instead of END. Syntax errors cause the program to fail.

Logic Errors Logic Errors are very difficult to detect because a program that contains logical errors will run, but it will not work properly. To avoid logical errors we will have to 'Hand-Test' the program, this means working through the problem line by line to ensure that the program does what we want it to do on paper. This form of testing is also known as a 'Dry Run'.

Some programming software environments help to solve errors through interactive debugging. This entails tracking a variable through a program and noting the values that it takes. Breakpoints can be inserted to stop the program executing at a certain point. The contents of all variables which have been assigned values up to the breakpoint will be kept and can be checked by the programmer. Step commands can also be used. In this instance the program will step through a statement at a time, thus each statement can be checked for error.

Thorough testing and debugging are essential. The process of debugging involves looking for syntax errors. These are usually easy to detect because most software environments tell the programmer that a syntax error has occurred and will even try to tell them where. This is called an Error Reporting facility.

System Errors (or Run-Time Errors) arise during execution of the program and Logical Errors are found when the syntax is correct and the code runs without any error, but the program does not give the correct result.

The correctness and reliability of the program can only be determined by very thorough testing and debugging.

Once a module is tested and any bugs removed it may be entered into a module library to be used again.

This is advantageous as the programmer does not have to write new code every time that module is used, and the module can be used and called anywhere in a program any number of times. This is a feature that saves time in the program development.

INT 2 Computing - Software Development .

Infosheet 5.6.6

Documentation & Evaluation When we look at a new piece of software the first place we look at to understand how it works will be in the documentation.

Documentation is needed so that users of the program will know how to use it. Good documentation should be concise and complete. Any alterations to the system through upgrades or corrective maintenance should be included in the documentation, documentation should be maintained and kept up-to-date.

Two essential pieces of documentation are the User Guide and the Technical Guide.

User Guide The user guide should clearly tell the user all that they need to know; the start-up instructions for the program, the facilities it offers and how to use them. Ideally there should be tutorials and examples for the user to become familiar with the commands and the various sections of the software. This is now commonly provided as on-line with interactive help and tutorials.

It is very common for developers to provide documentation in an electronic form, this saves the cost of producing paper-based documents.

Technical Guide A technical guide should be provided as this gives instructions on how to install the software and details hardware and memory requirements. The technical guide should also include a section on troubleshooting, this will help the user to get around any problems that they may encounter.

Documentation is essential if any person other than the programmer is going to use the program.

At all stages of software development documentation should be evident.

Stage Analysis

Design Implementation

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Software Development

Documentation Problem Specification Program Description Inputs and Outputs Assumptions Flowcharts / Structured Diagrams Pseudocode Internal Commentary Program and Output Listings Test History and Sample Outputs

Infosheet 5.6.7

/

Documentation & Evaluation Other Guides Although User and Technical Guides are commonly given with software, most companies include other guides to help the user. e.g.

Printing Guides Shortcut Guides Tutorial Guides Extra Features or Function Guides To evaluate our solution we must go back through each stage of development of the software development process and check whether the solution meets the requirements. The evaluation stage is mainly concerned with answering the question:

Does the software meet the user requirements?

To answer this question, we need to return to the original aims of the software development and judge the program against a set of criteria. This criteria can be used against the different stages of the software development process.

• In analysing the problem have we correctly interpreted the user requirements?

• During the design stage have we taken account of user interaction with the program? This will include helpful screens, internal documentation and modularity.

• Is the program reliable?

• Is the program robust?

• Can the program be easily maintained?

• Is the program giving correct results?

• Is this the best solution?

• Has a user guide been included?

• Is there a technical guide?

• Have potential changes been suggested?

For example, during the analysis stage you are measuring how well you have understood the problem. In using the recommended tools and techniques of analysis and through interaction with the client you will have generated a list of user requirements that can be used as a checklist to help you validate your product as you proceed through the design, implementation and testing stages.

The criteria for the design stage helps to measure and develop screen layouts, structured diagrams and algorithms. The criteria are used to evaluate the modularity and portability of the software. The reliability, maintainability and robustness of the software are validated through its structure, readability and testing.

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Software Development

Infosheet 5.6.7

MAINTENANCE The maintenance stage of software development comes into effect as soon as the system is delivered to the client and enters into productive use.

Maintenance Procedures Research has identified three maintenance activities.

1. Corrective Maintenance A company will spend 17% of their time on corrective maintenance. These are errors that emerge during the use of the system that were undetected during system testing.

2. Adaptive Maintenance Here a company will spend 18% of their time on adaptive maintenance.

Adaptive Maintenance concerns the software environment of the system, such as the operating system or the hardware environment of the system, such as peripheral devices, processor etc. that have changed since the program was originally developed and these have caused the program to fail or operate less effectively. The system has therefore to be altered in order to adapt to these changes.

3. Perfective Maintenance 65% of a company's time is spent on Perfective Maintenance. Perfective Maintenance involves the response to a user's request to change the existing system by adding new or altering existing functions, or catering for general enhancements to the system.

Maintenance Costs In the 70's maintenance costs accounted for between 35 and 40% of the software budget. This figure rose to 60% in the 80's, and if it continues at this rate by the year 2030 maintenance costs will account for 100% of development time.

This could prove to be very costly for developers as most of their time will be tied up in existing software and little time will be left for new developments.

Maintenace is very expensive.

Minimising maintenance costs will be determined by the answers to the following questions: • Have meaningful names been used for the variables?

• Is there internal documentation which is helpful?

• Is there a user guide?

• Is there a technical guide?

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Software Development

Infosheet 5.6.8

MAINTENANCE In general a good programming style will be friendly to the user; be as short as possible at the top level; have clear internal documentation; use meaningful variable names; have validation testing routines and show a clear structured layout.

Factors Affecting Maintenance Many factors affect the maintainablity of a piece of software, some of the most common problems are as follows: Application If the application is new, then it is likely that users will require changes to the initial software as they gain experience.

Staff It is fairly unusual for one person to develop and maintain a program therefore, the code must be very clear and well documented so that the original developer does not have to explain the original source code.

Versions When software is evolving there are many versions, changes from one version to another must be clearly documented.

Documentation If documentation does not exist or has been kept up-to-date then it is not worth reading.

Documentation must be kept up-to-date with code changes and revisions.

External Environment If the program depends upon an external source, any changes to the source may alter the program.

Hardware and Software Software that is on particular hardware or operating systems may require modification.

Design Design factors can also affect a system's maintainability.

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Software Development

Infosheet 5.6.8