Innovative Architectural materials, electrochemical systems and bio-receptive 3D concrete structures

Thesis investigating

“The Relationship between innovative Architectural materials by integrating Algae and Electrochemical systems into bio-receptive 3 dimensional concrete structures” with Algae being the current generator in the Bio-photovoltaic system (BPV), producing small quantities of energy possibly used to power micro fluidics in order to self regulate its growth

By

Eleni Maria Dourampei #15103817

MArch Architectural Design (B-Pro) – Biota-Lab RC7 Bartlett School of Architecture UCL

Supervision: Paolo Bombelli Submission: 14 July 2017 Word Count: 5030

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I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my advisor Paolo Bombelli for the continuous support, patience and motivation. His guidance was essential for me all the time of research and writing of this thesis.

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0.0 Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………………………...7 1.0 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………….8 1.1 What is a bio-photovoltaic system (BPV)?

1.2 How does a BPV system work?

1.3 Case studies 1.4 Why do we integrate Architecture with bio-photovoltaic technology?

2.0 Development……………………………………………………………………………………………..10 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6

Theoretical Background and Idea How are smart materials layered into a BPV system Designs and Computational Logic Casting the MPC Tests and Diagrams Design combined with a BPV system

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Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………………….21

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How energy generated from the Bio-photovoltaic system can be used in the future

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References……………………………………………………………………………………………….23

4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5

Glossary Case Studies Online References Book References Figures

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Within the last years, environmental impact has been influencing our lives immensely. People are trying to use alternative ways to generate energy from any natural resources available. Cryptogrammic surface covers bear the potential of producing small quantities of energy that can be extracted from its growth process.

Micro and macro scale relationships a shape can have in design and 3dimensional geometrical growth, has been an interest that I started having lately during my Master’s course at Biota – Lab. The way small cells are forming and growing around a scaffold, creating something much richer in visual aspects and bigger than themselves, and being able to absorb pollution, and boost sustainability, is something I find very fascinating.

Organisms that thrive in extreme environmental conditions have the ability of surviving at a dormant state. Every cell they have, is absorbing carbon dioxide and hydrogen and releases methane . I became interested in how lowering the CO2 emissions is so essential to a better future, and realized how important it is to acclimate nature with design.

Later then, when I was becoming more and more interested in sustainability, I was intrigued by how nature can be used effectively and viably in architecture, having in parallel a successful result in the design.

One of the aims of this paper is to delve more into whether and how powerful Architectural Design can be, by augmenting the “green” elements on an Architectural fabric, while in parallel lowering the CO2 emissions at atmospheric levels.

In the fields of biology but also natural history, designing topologies for living and artificial self-assembly organisms and the ideas surrounding the self-organization of several geometries due to specific shapes is an interesting part of the work in its own right. A main focus is on the interactions between photosynthetic Algae and magnesium phosphate concrete (MPC). How Algae could be seeded and colonized on 3D MPC concrete geometrical volumes and how these prototypes produce bio-electricity and how this energy is used further to cycle water and feed the specie generating it.

This document will describe how smart Architectural materials are integrated with each other in order to create a bio-photovoltaic (BPV) system. Bio-photovoltaic systems are electrochemical systems comprising Algae and cyanobacteria. The work will be carried out in the context of multi-layered robotic deposition of variable viscosity gels currently investigated in research cluster Biota-Lab at the Bartlett.

Michael Weinstock. “The Architecture of Emergence”, p.93.

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Sun being the optimum source of Energy for all living organisms on Earth and us being able to retrieve this energy sustainably, mimicking Nature is an interesting scientific challenge. Nature is known of harnessing solar energy through the process of photosynthesis. Creating a bio-photovoltaic system (BPV), which will be hosted on a designed component having species living on it, being able to generate energy through photosynthesis is an interesting factor.

1.1 What is a bio-photovoltaic system?2 Bio photovoltaic devices also known as biological and electrochemical systems also called “living solar cells”, produce electrical power from light energy by relying upon the photosynthesis of living oxygenic photoautotrophic organisms such as, Moss and Algae3. Bio photovoltaic energy is a new way of converting chemical energy into electrical energy using plants that photosynthesize and preferably thrive under extreme environments. When Algae receives light, reactions split water into protons, electrons and oxygen and bio-photovoltaics use this charge separation to generate electrical energy.

1.2 How does the bio-photovoltaic system work?

A bio-photovoltaic system consists of the anodic and the cathodic matrix. The anodic surface is where the electrons are generated. The anodic surface of the bio photovoltaic system needs to be a surface where the photosynthetic organism can live, grow and colonize. The anodic parts need to cover as much surface as possible and to have certain characteristics like “biocompatibility”, “water retention” and “low electric resistance”.

This surface needs to be electrically conductive, like carbon fiber and needs to contain a certain amount of water; otherwise the photosynthetic organism will die or kill the protons while they are travelling from the anode to the cathode. Eso-electrogenic is the spontaneous process that drives the bio photovoltaic process. The conductive element used needs to be made out of a material with a certain degree of durability and with no much potential of oxidation. In our case, carbon fiber is the conductive material used for the anode of the BPV. The cathode contains a hole and has two parts; the internal one and the external one. The external one faces outside, as it needs oxygen. One of the problems of the cathode is that it consists of a carbon paper that is very fragile and when handling, it needs extra care.

1 Paolo Bombelli. (April 2012). Moss Table FAQs . Bio photovoltaics . 1.

2 Paolo Bombelli. (April 2012). Moss Table FAQs . Bio photovoltaics . 1.

3 Paolo Bombelli and Alex Driver, Bio-photovoltaics, energy from Algae.

4 “Outer” electro genic activity

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One face of the carbon paper is gray and the other one is black. The black part is where the catalyst is; the gray part is just the carbon, which is fragile through mechanical stress only, not time. A piece of rubber used in the cathode, prevents leaking, and supports the carbon paper preventing it to break. Stainless steel mesh touching the catalyst helps us not to damage it, and is the where the crocodile clips can be attached. All studs supporting all parts of the cathode together need to have an even touch, otherwise the carbon might break because of uneven pressure to it.

The anodic matrix needs to be combined with the cathodic element, with a catalyst that permits the cathodic protons to move through water. The ending point where the electrons are consumed needs to be in a spontaneous direction, while the cathodic part could be much smaller and it does not need any light, but requires oxygen access. A piece of paper or a part acting as the “separator” needs to be placed between the anode and the cathode, in order to electrically divide the two. We need to be able to move the protons from one area to the other. Hydrogel is an effective material acting as the connector, as it contains a lot of water. On the cathode, electrons and protons need to be combined with atmospheric substance.

Electricity from a bio-photovoltaic system is generated from the electrons captured by conductive fibers, in our case, made out of carbon. The ‘moss pots‘ in the bio photovoltaic table (Figure 01) by Paolo Bombelli, act as bio-electrochemical devices converting the chemical energy into electrical energy using biological material. This biological materials can be Algae, Cyanobacteria, and vascular plants.

1.3 Case Studies As explained in “Surface morphology and surface energy of anode materials influence power outputs in a multi-channel mediatorless bio-photovoltaic (BPV) system”, bio-photovoltaic cells are a new bio-electrochemical technology for curb solar energy through photosynthesis of autotrophic organisms. Low efficiency currents are the output of these bio-photovoltaic systems examined in this case. Filamentous cyanobacteria have been considered for their “exo-electrogenic ” activity. Anodic conductive materials used in this study, as indium tin oxide-coated polyethylene terephthalate (ITO), stainless steel (SS), glass coated with a conductive polymer (PANI), and carbon paper (CP), helped to compare the performance of different photosynthetic biofilms of a multi-channel of a bio-photovoltaic device. The anodic materials used determine the interactions between the electrochemical photosynthetic microbes and the anode, under light and dark conditions with different ratios of light.

Bombelli et al., (2016) has created a non-vascular bryophyte microbial fuel cell (MFC) in the following study: “Electrical output of bryophyte microbial fuel cell systems is sufficient to power a radio or an environmental sensor” (Figure 02). A novel three-dimensional anodic matrix was successfully created and characterized and was further tested in a bryoMFC to determine the capacity of mosses to generate electrical power. Some microorganisms, termed exo-electrogens, are known to be able to oxidize organic substrates and donate electrons to conductive materials.

Figure 01 “Moss Table” by Paolo Bombelli

Another recent study of bio photovoltaic vascular plant technology in “Comparison of power output by rice (Oryza sativa) and an associated weed (Echinochloa glabrescens) in vascular plant bio-photovoltaic (VP-BPV) systems” by Bombelli, has shown that higher plants harvesting solar energy and metabolism of heterotrophic microorganisms in the rhizosphere plant, can generate electrical power.

Two species were compared, crop plant rice “Oryza sativa L” and “Echinochloa glabrescens”, planted in the same soil and glasshouse conditions where the bio-electrochemical systems were regulated without additional energy inputs. During an 8-day growth period, constant vibrations were observed in the electrical outputs of VP-BPV systems.

1.4 Why do we integrate Architecture with bio-photovoltaic technology?

Furthermore, integrating Architectural design with bio-photovoltaic technology, gives us a possible futuristic vision of Architectural components where their system is not based on artificial constructions but bio-constructions. Species hosted are growing, moving and evolving on these Architectural components, having power generated from the overall bio-photovoltaic systems. Having many layers of different “smart” materials6, interacting with each other consisting of a bio-photovoltaic system, is an innovative way of extracting energy sustainably and is being tested for the first time. Architectural can enrich the BPV system visually, the design can control the requirements the BPV system has and the BPV system gives the “green” aspect in Architecture making it essential for our future.

Figure 02 “Moss FM radio” by Paolo Bombelli 6 A material is known to be smart when it has one or more abilities that endow in a green aspect

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2.1 Theoretical Background and Idea This paper explores how Architectural elements can be advanced based on bio-receptive components instead of traditional artificially made ones. This can be achieved and further developed through the investigation of integrating the bio-photovoltaic technology with bio-receptive and bio-responsive materials on a designed component.

By exploring this, we give novel functionalities for introducing biodiversity and generate electrical energy, to the inanimate concrete component.

The main relationship between Nature and Architecture arises from the micro scale of plants; as many times Architectural designs have been influenced by the micro construction of plants such as their veins and cells.

Deriving from the skin, an organism’s vital organ, which has many functions between its interior and the exterior, such as temperature regulation, camouflage from predators7 - especially for animals, I deduced that it also acts concurrently as a filter structurally and environmentally. It contains elastin8 is very absorbent and has several layers. The body is becoming a regenerative home, while at the same time it disintegrates9. Nature driven designs are capable of generating complex structures of organic and inorganic, multifunctional composites in the biological world, according to Neri Oxman10.

In “Bioreceptive design” by Marcos Cruz and Richard Beckett11, we come across a simple but deep in meaning realization. The bark of any tree is the first natural element that acts as its envelope, its skin, but instead of only protecting it, it also absorbs carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and it is recycling itself by falling to the ground etc. In that way there is an overall cycle of recycling of “micropollution12” happening by trillions of plant components since Earth exists. According to Marcos Cruz and Richard Beckett, the shift from skin to bark directs us to bio-receptive design.

Designs and functions inspired by nature is not a new evolution. It lies back from the times of Vitruvius’ writings13 about harmonic natural forms, Goethe’s theory on morphology and even the Art Nouveau movement14. The ability to integrate nature with materials in order to prolong their durability and strength is an interesting factor about Bio design. Today, self-repairing concrete15 and bio-brick16 are two examples of a more sustainable future. NomexR DecoreTM is an ultra-light panel with a honeycomb core made of DuPont’s aramid fibre Nomex (Figure 03).

Figure 03

William Katavolos, has said that we should have one aim for architecture, to have a single seed and create a whole city out of it. Taking this as an inspiration, the idea of using a specie such as Algae as the “seed” of growth on a bio receptive structure, gives us the opportunity to develop this idea into action.

What is more important than Architecture that heals itself? Architecture that consists of components with living organisms on them, absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and recycling themselves with time. Algae as a bio scaffold, absorbs carbon dioxide and is self sustainable while at the same time thriving at extreme environments. Michell Joachim has said during one of his TED speeches: “Imagine your home as a part of the environment”. Systems that absorb carbon and act as renewable resources aim to enrich our life’s quality in the future.

2.2 How do smart materials connect to create the bio-photovoltaic system?

The concept of integrating different materials which overall create the bio-photovoltaic system has derived from the idea of combining two materials and a living specie that would be able to survive because of the existence of one of them. Hydrogel made out of two parts of Methocel and one part of Sodium Alginate, is known for its ability to form the shape of its mold, maintain moisture for a long period of time and is able to host vegetation in it. Previous tests in Biota-Lab in 2016, have shown that Algae can grow in hydrogel making it a bio-responsive material.

7 Silver, F. H. “Biological materials”, p.122.

8 Silver, F. H. “Biological materials”, p.36.

9 Oron Catts, Ionat Zurr, “Growing Semi-Living Sculptures”, p.31.

10 Neri Oxman, “Variable property rapid prototyping”, p.4.

11 Also my mentors on the course 12 Micropollution is pollution that is not directly realized, because of its micro scale but long-term effect.

13 William Meyers, Bio-design: Nature, Science, Sensitivity” p.12.

14 William Meyers, Bio-design: Nature, Science, Sensitivity” p.12.

15 William Meyers, Bio-design: Nature, Science, Sensitivity” p.15.

16 William Meyers, Bio-design: Nature, Science, Sensitivity” p.79.

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Magnesium Phosphate Concrete (MPC) is considered to be a bioreceptive material as it can hold hydrogel on it, and it is very water absorbent, a key element for a suitable anodic matrix. New and more multi-layered applications on 3dimensional surface morphologies have been explored, as well as intertwining hydrogel with different porosity concretes. Ultimately, investigations on the possibility of a living architecture by means of using selected Algae strains inoculated in lab as micro-organic matter to be proliferated within the printed material substratum. The robotic printing of these prototypes applies two kinds of materials to help bio-photovoltaic Algae to be attached on the surface of our prototypes. One is hydrogel, a main element of absorbing water. The second one is carbon fiber, ideally printed inside hydrogel and the essential element to collect bioelectricity.

The intensity of water in the material is controlled by the exposure to the outside environment. By calibrating the surface geometry, material porosity and exposure, allows us to calibrate the evaporative variability to promote more or less growth on the material. The interval between natural rainfall events is too long and irregular and the quantities of rainfall have an intensity that is too low to compensate for the rate of desiccation under prevailing conditions in the hydrogels tested. Relationship of hydrogel and carbon fiber will differ according to the shape of prototypes and direction of water absorption. During this time, materials’ behavior to the water will be documented and measured, thus finding out suitable shapes and comfortable environmental conditions for bio-photovoltaic Algae to grow and later on produce energy.

The following image show the layering of a bio-photovoltaic system on MPC concrete. MPC is acting as the base of the BPV system. Stainless steel mesh is acting as the electron collector. The anodic matrix was created with the expectation that its surface area is large enough to improve the contact between the Algae and the anode, which leads to a better overall electrical output.

Algae is chosen as the photosynthetic specie generating current as it thrives in extreme environments, has dormant state abilities and is able to grow and survive in hydrogel.

Carbon fibers are the mediator between hydrogel layers (Figure 05), acting as the anode of the bio-photovoltaic system. The integration of carbon fibers in the bio-photovoltaic system is because the anodic surface of the BPV system needs to be as vast as possible and carbon fibers could indeed provide these characteristics. Two techniques of carbon fiber acting as the anode have been tested. One is using the carbon fibers as hair like parts, running through hydrogel layers connecting different sides of the 3dimentional geometry together (Figure 04).

Figure 04

Figure 05

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The other one is a combination of small carbon fiber segments – 0.2mm-0.5mm– and hydrogel, all stirred together as one substance, acting as the anodic part for the bio-photovoltaic system (Figure 06 and 07). Knowing that the novel substrate being conductive through all of its volume, there is a bigger surface area for interaction between the donation of electrons from microorganisms and the anode.

Figure 06

By using computational techniques, such as circle differentiation and point track, we come up with the following 3d geometries (Figure 08 and 09).

Figure 08* - generated by Yuan Huang 3 dimensional design of a geometry generated in Houdini software by using the “differential growth” technique. “Differential Growth” enables us to have growth from one or more points resulting with several undercuts and labyrinth shapes, which then create shadows and “canals” needed for Algae to grow and Hydrogel to be well kept on the structure.

Figure 07 Investigating the relationship between various smart materials such as magnesium phosphate concrete (MPC), hydrogel and carbon fibers, creating a bio-photovoltaic system, which will generate energy from Algae, as its photosynthetic specie has been a very interesting concept to delve into. We investigate the tectonic and materialistic relationship between MPC -as the hard scaffold material- and hydrogel –as the soft scaffold material- when combined together, how MPC relies on casting techniques (hard and structural), in what ways hydrogel can be robotically printed and adjusted on the concrete, creating a multi-material and multi-technical composite. That composite will need to be adjusted in regards to its geometric variability using multiple computational simulations and will be materialized and tested through small-scale prototypes.

2.3 Designs and Computational Logic This bio photovoltaic system, will host brawled vegetation, which will be growing and evolving into it, also containing Algae which itself will have the potential to grow into a predesigned structure casted out of the magnesium phosphate concrete. The concept of design also derives from the growth process of Algae, based on differential growth technique and reaction diffusion geometries in Houdini software program.

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Figure 09* - generated by Yuan Huang

Ultimately the prototypes are developed to meet architectural functional requirements as well as provide suitable conditions for bio-photovoltaic algae to colonize and produce energy to support its ecosystem. The prototypes are also expected to apply robotic fabrication techniques and have potential resilience against changing environment in the future.

Using a whole surface colonized with photosynthetic organisms such as Algae could lead to a production of electric current. Bio mimicry and bionic thinking, as long with the symbiotic approach of the joint between architecture and nature, gives us the holistic approach of this idea.

2.4 Casting the Bio-receptive concrete the base of the bio-photovoltaic system “Cast on Cast”17, efficient and sustainable fabrication process, is focused on the evolution of a smart but simple methodology to design and prefabricate building elements with complex geometries, which is resource efficient and considerably reduces construction waste. Complex geometries are utilized in contemporary architecture for the construction of concrete or mortar building envelopes, partition walls, horizontal and vertical shading building details and pavements.

Bio concrete is a smart material operation, where species live in the “gaps” of concrete and are able to exist in extreme conditions. This bio-receptive concrete acts as the hard scaffold material of the system, where hydrogel acts as the soft scaffold, which is hosting the specie.

Geometrical volumes generated in Houdini, gives us the opportunity to have “canals”, undercuts and vertical walls being able to hold hydrogel. The components are casted with multiple strategies like multi-layer rubber, “sandwich” casting.

Figure 10 Hydrogel is held between the 3 dimensional geometries on the MPC concrete. Algae can grow on the micro and macro scale features “sculpted” on the component resulting in having specific areas with growth.

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2.5 Tests and diagrams The following tests show the measure of the resistance on different amounts of carbon fiber embedded into 50gr of H ydrogel. In this way, we are measuring the condition in which the anode will be created. This is essential as from this point forward we are moving on creating the item and introducing the cathode to it.

Figure 11 shows the elements needed when I started building the different carbon fiber amount containers with hydrogel.

Figure 11

Figure 12 shows the different resistances for the composite material carbon fiber (CF) + hydrogel (HG). 4gr of CF and 50gr of HG mixed and prepared, with different amount of carbon fibers. Measurements were taken over every container every 10 minutes each.

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12 C

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Only Hydrogel (HG)

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HG + 1g of Carbon Fiber (CF)

HG + 2g of Carbon Fiber (CF)

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HG + 4g of Carbon Fiber (CF)

Figure 12

Each container has 50 gr of hydrogel (sodium alginate 25% and methocel 75%). Figure 12A’s container has pure hydrogel.

Figure 12B’s container has hydrogel with 1 gr of Carbon fiber. Figure 12C’s container has hydrogel with 2 gr of carbon fibers. Figure 12D’s container has hydrogel with 4 gr of carbon fibers.

The following diagrams (Figure 13 and 14) show individually the ratios of each container and also the relationships between the different containers.

Figure 13

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Carbon fiber (CF) loading affects the loading of CF effects the electrical resistance of the hydrogel (HG) acting as the bio-responsive material. Four experimental conditions of CF loading have been considered. The following color code is adopted in this figure 12A: 0g of CF (black), Figure 12B: 1g of CF (red), Figure 12C: 2g of CF (blue) and Figure 12D: 4g of CF, photographs of the actual experimental vessel. The CF loading was increased from 0g to 4g. The first diagram shows the variation of resistance over time for the 4 experimental conditions. The second diagram shows the variation of resistance versus the CF loading.

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The following images show the process of assembling a bio-photovoltaic component.

This study successfully created an anodic matrix and tested the ability of Algae to generate electrical output. Electrical wires attached to the stainless steel butterfly bolts were connected to a digital millimeter (RMS Digital Multi-meter with USB Interface). The cathode consists of carbon paper, loaded with Pt as the catalyst. In order for the cathode to be exposed to oxygen, a small hole of 9mm was created on the plate. The anodic and the cathodic parts were separated by 2.5cm of hydrogel coating on MPC. But how can we test if the specie is giving current to the bio photovoltaic?

This test has been carried out in natural conditions with the addition of “extraneous organic material� also known as TAP medium, to enhance the growth of Algae. The inoculum of the Algae culture (5ml) attached the anodic matrix under immobile conditions. Figure 15 shows diagrammatically the Anode and the Cathode matrices of the BPV system.

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Figure 15

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2.6 Design combined with the BPV system Many small functional units will form the designed bio-photovoltaic system. In this way, we have many components producing energy individually and at the end we have this energy added instead of having one large component.

Hydrogel with embedded carbon fiber as the anodic part hosting Algae is robotically printed on the concave parts of each component, covering as much surface as possible and creating in its own way design paths where Algae growth is allowed to happen.

Figure 16 BPV components are allocated with an interlocking way Ideally, the component needs to be irrigated every other day to preserve its moisture, essential for maintaining Algae alive and to have energy extracted from it.

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3.1 How energy generated from the Bio-photovoltaic system can be used in the future and closure After analyzing the relationship between the smart materials mentioned above, and after assembling a bio-photovoltaic system with bio receptive and bio responsive elements, but also having a living organism in one of these materials surviving in it, we come up with a concept of sustainable and bio receptive Architecture that can be further applied on our every day lives.

After creating and testing several designs on bio-photovoltaic systems, it is very interesting to question, what could the energy being generated be used for. As we know, this energy produced is very limited (ca. 0.1 Wm2) and one idea is to power micro-fluidics system to support and self-regulate Algae growth by irrigating specific amount of water on specific times controlled with a switch.

Following previous studies on bio-photovoltaics developed at Cambridge University developed by Paolo Bombelli, and given that the 10,000 fold difference between bright sunlight (1000W/m2) irradiation and the current estimate for energy harvested from bio-photovoltaically electro-chemical (0.1W/m2), (Mc Cormick et al., (2011)) the possibility to power micro-fluidics to support and self-regulate algae growth, in different viscosity gels will also determine the adjustment of the carbon fibers extracting energy from Algae. Electricity collection system and water pumping system can also be designed on the prototypes.

Finally, we conclude to the point of when dealing with the concept of bio-photovoltaics, being very fragile, scientific and tactile, parameters that are surrounding it can be altered and modified to the preferred result, when the bio-photovoltaic system itself needs to always be structured in the same way.

When combining this concept with Architecture, design is a parameter that can be altered and based on the needs of the components of the bio-photovoltaic but not vice versa. By designing around an element such as the BPV, gives us some specific rules that make the design more driven and directed.

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4.1 Glossary Biofilm: A complex structure adhering to surfaces that are regularly in contact with water, consisting of colonies of bac-

teria and usually other microorganisms such as yeasts, fungi, and protozoa that secrete a mucilaginous protective coating in which they are encased. Biofilms can form on solid or liquid surfaces as well as on soft tissue in living organisms, and are typically resistant to conventional methods of disinfection. Dental plaque, the slimy coating that fouls pipes and tanks, and algal mats on bodies of water are examples of biofilms. While biofilms are generally pathogenic in the body, causing such diseases as cystic fibrosis and otitis media, they can be used beneficially in treating sewage, industrial waste, and contaminated soil.

4.2 Online References Andy Lomas. (2014). Cellular Forms. Available: http://www.andylomas.com/extra/andylomas_paper_cellular_forms_aisb50. pdf. Last accessed 22 Dec 2016.

Brandon Keim. (2011). Allan Turing’s patterns in nature and beyond. Available: https://www.wired.com/2011/02/turing-patterns/. Last accessed 11th Jan 2017.

D’Arcy Wentworth Thompson, Edited by John Tyler Bonner. (2014). On Growth and From, I - Introductory. Available: https:// www.cambridge.org/core/books/on-growth-and-form/introductory/3D6DDFA83621D7B10C5ED49E320C8D52. Last accessed 22 Dec 2016. hexnet. (2010). Flower of life. Available: http://hexnet.org/content/flower-life. Last accessed 22 Dec 2016.

Marcos Cruz, Richard Beckett. (2016). Bioreceptive design: a novel approach to bio-digital materiality. Available: https:// www.cambridge.org/core/journals/arq-architectural-research-quarterly/article/div-classtitlebioreceptive-design-a-novel-approach-to-biodigital-materialitydiv/5D744151D884A517AF10A2FD46C3ECA7. Last accessed 22 Dec 2016.

Neri Oxman. (2011). Variable property rapid prototyping. Available: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17452759.2 011.558588?scroll=top&needAccess=true. Last accessed 22 Dec 2016.

Oron Catts, Ionat Zurr. (2001). Growing Semi-Living Sculptures: The Tissue Culture & Art Project. Available: http://www. leonardo.info/isast/articles/catts.zurr.pdf. Last accessed 22 Dec 2016.

Rose Tahash. (3 Oct 2014). Thinking outside the square – Lindsey White, CED Ambassador. Available: http://www.ced.uga. edu/classes/thinking-outside-the-square-lindsey-white-ced-ambassador/. Last accessed 22 Nov 2016.

4.3 Case studies 1. Paolo Bombelli, Marie Zarrouati, Rebecca J. Thorne, Kenneth Schneider, Stephen J. L. Rowden, Akin Ali, Kamran Yunus, Petra J. Cameron, Adrian C. Fisher, D. Ian Wilson, Christopher . (2012). Surface morphology and surface energy of anode materials influence power outputs in a multi-channel mediatorless bio-photovoltaic (BPV) system. Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics. 35 (all), all.

2. Paolo Bombelli, Durgap rasad Madras Rajaraman Iyer Sarah Covshoff Alistair J. McCormick Kamran Yunus Julian M. Hibberd Adrian C. Fisher Christopher J. Howe Email author. (2013). Comparison of power output by rice (Oryza sativa) and an associated weed (Echinochloa glabrescens) in vascular plant bio-photovoltaic (VP-BPV) systems. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 97 (1), 429–438.

3. http://inhabitat.com/moss-voltaics-is-a-clean-green-energy-producing-machine-that-mounts-to-the-wall/ 4. Paolo Bombelli, Ross J. Dennis, Fabienne Felder, Matt B. Cooper, Durgaprasad Madras Rajaraman Iyer, Jessica Royles, Susan T. L. Harrison, Alison G. Smith, C. Jill Harrison, Christopher J. Howe. (2016). Electrical output of bryophyte microbial fuel cell systems is sufficient to power a radio or an environmental sensor. Royal Society Open Science. DOI: 10.1098/ rsos.160249. http://rsos.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/3/10/160249

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4.4 Book References Ary A. Hoffmann and Peter A. Parsons (1997). Extreme Environmental Change and Evolution. UK: Cambridge University Press.

Gilbert M. Smith. A Comparative Study of the Species of Volvox. Transactions of the American Microscopical Society. Vol. 63, No. 4 (Oct., 1944), pp. 265-310.

John Thackara (2005). In the Bubble: designing in a complex world. USA: The MIT Press.

Michael Weinstock (2010). The Architecture of Emergence. UK: John Wiley and Sons Ltd. Peter Pearce (1979). Structure in nature is a strategy for design. USA: The MIT Press.

Philip Ball (1999). The self made tapestry. USA: Oxford University Press.

Silver, F. H. (1987). Biological materials: structure, mechanical properties, and modeling of soft tissues. New York, New York University Press.

William Meyers (2012). Biodesign: Nature, Science, Sensitivity. London: Thames and Hudson Ltd.. 6-17, 28-31, 58-65, 78-79, 96-101, 142-145, 196-199, 218-221. (Online resource: https://app.box.com/s/f98rc04w1ndfdmqfijp2)

4.5 Figures 1. http://thisisalive.com/biophotovoltaic-moss-table/ 2. http://www.themethodcase.com/moss-radio-fabienne-felder-paolo-bombelli/ 3. http://aerospaceengineeringblog.com/sandwich-panel/

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