Trusting people to save Ngare Ndare Forest Women, poverty and forest destruction A passion for tree-growing Briquetting saves trees Subscription only A Publication of Better Globe Forestry
I s s u e N o.2 3 J u l y - Se p t e m b er 2 0 1 4
Changing the landscape
Palm oil plantations change lives and the environment in Uganda
Liberated from hunger Water harvesting transforms lives in the Yatta Plateau
Illegal taxes in the charcoal trade Transporters forced to bribe their way to markets
From menace to income generator
The mathenge tree is to be used to produce electricity
Better Globe Forestry Ltd
Making Africa greener
Making Africa greener Better Globe Forestry (BGF) is part of The Better Globe Group from Norway, which focuses on the need to fight poverty through promoting massive tree planting and sustainable agricultural programmes. BGF’s vision is to create secure commercial projects with vital humanitarian and environmental activities and as a result become the biggest tree planting company in the world within 20 years.
Land in Kiambere before planting. Note the omnipresent soil erosion
The mission of BGF is to make Africa a greener, healthier place in which to live and eradicate poverty by focusing on the development of profitable, commercial tree plantations that will deliver environmental as well as humanitarian benefits. Miti magazine is a publication of Better Globe. It is the policy of BGF to, among other things: • Create attractive financial opportunities for present and future investors, Continuously identify and address the needs of employees, suppliers, customers, shareholders, the community at large and any other stakeholders, • Focus on the need to help fight poverty, through promoting massive tree planting • Create and sustain motivation throughout the organisation for meeting its business objectives, • Continuously maintain and review an effective and efficient Quality System which as a minimum satisfies the requirements of the appropriate Quality System standard(s), • Continuously improve the performance of all aspects of the organisation.
Workers clearing a thicket in Nyangoro in preparation for tree planting
Our nursery at Kiambere
A two-year-old plantation of Melia volkensii in Kiambere
Workers in BGF’s plantation in Kiambere, after receiving a food donation
A Melia volkensii plus -tree part of our genetic improved programme
Preparing for planting in Kiambere
The committee of Witu Nyongoro ranch with Rino Solberg and Jean-Paul Deprins
www.betterglobeforestry.com
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Issue No 23 July - September 2014
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Editorial
26
Striking the right balance
Charting the future of bio energy
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News
Master Tree Growers training launched in Uganda
The Uganda government needs to weigh the benefits of growing oil palms against the need to preserve the ecosystem By Geoffrey Kamese
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Biomass for energy
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An unrecognised commodity
Apart from charcoal and firewood, we need to explore the potential of other forms of energy from wood By Jan Vandenabeele
The contribution of charcoal to Uganda’s national revenue goes unnoticed By Gladys Nagawa and Kandole Annet Balewa
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From menace to income generator
30
Illegal taxes in the charcoal trade
The lives of the people of Marigat are set to change as mathenge is utilised for electricity production By Wanjiru Ciira
Transporters forced to bribe their way to markets By Emmanuel Ekakoro, Stephen Mutimba and Volga Lipwoni
10
Looking at the future of biodiesel
Is it a viable substitute for fossil diesel in engines, generators and furnaces? By Dianah Nnakayima
12 The jatropha integrated energy project, Mpeketoni
Making charcoal respectable
Harnessing the opportunities to rehabilitate the sector By Miyuki Iiyama, Audrey Chenevoy, Erick Otieno, Teddy Kinyanjui, Geoffrey Ndegwa, Jan Vandenabeele, Mary Njenga and Oliver Johnson
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Charcoal: Time for a change Uganda needs to adopt better charcoal production methods to avert wood wastage By Thaddeus Businge
The challenges faced and lessons learnt By Paul Mbole
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Charcoal dust to the rescue
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Taking to tree-growing with a passion
Pushed by need, women and youth groups make fuel briquettes for cooking By Mary Njenga and Miyuki Iiyama
Business manager Andrew Tibeyalirwa battles encroachers to establish a viable tree enterprise By Diana Ahebwe
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Cutting fewer trees for charcoal
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Trusting people to save a forest
Ugandan company makes briquettes – this way, a smaller number of trees die for fuel By Diana Ahebwe
The Ngare Ndare Forest Trust empowers communities so as to take pressure off the woodland By Wanjiru Ciira
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Women, poverty and forest destruction
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Liberated from hunger
Despite sensitisation, womenfolk continue to cut indigenous trees for firewood By Paula Braitstein and Mary Njenga
Water harvesting transforms the lives of the people of Kinyatta Location, in the Yatta Plateau By Jan Vandenabeele
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Anchored in the community
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Ambassador talks about Better Globe Forestry
Horizon Business Ventures works with farmer groups to produce bio-fuel and other tree oil products By Wanjiru Ciira
Bart Ouvry, the outgoing Ambassador of Belgium to Kenya, talks to Wanjiru Ciira
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Changing the landscape
Palm oil plantations transform lives and the environment on the Ssese Islands of Lake Victoria, Uganda By Jan Vandenabeele
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On the cover: Crates and crates of charcoal briquettes, a product of Goodfire Uganda Ltd. For the full article, see page 18. (Photo: Goodfire Uganda)
Editorial
Charting the future of bio energy
T
his issue of Miti magazine comes out late, very late in fact, as our professional but small editorial team had to deal with time challenges that delayed the normal smooth flow of the magazine. We thus ask our esteemed readers to accept our sincere apologies. Bio energy or biomass energy is renewable energy derived from biological sources. It has been used for thousands of years, ever since people started burning wood to cook food or to keep warm. Today, major players in different industries have increasingly taken an interest or invested in the subject. Wood is by far the largest input in biomass energy. However, other sources are now being used like wood waste, sugarcane, other by-products from a variety of agricultural processes and the organic component of municipal and industrial wastes. It is important to note that bioenergy is the energy extracted from the biomass, as the biomass is the fuel and the bioenergy is the energy contained in the fuel. In this issue of Miti, Dianah Nnakayima looks at the future of biodiesel as Paul Mbole reflects on a jatropha integrated energy project. Of course, charcoal could not be left out. Contributions on charcoal come from Emmanuel Ekakoro, Miyuki Iiyama, Audrey Chenevoy, Erick Otieno, Teddy Kinyanjui, Geoffrey Ndegwa, Mary Njenga, Oliver Johnson, Thaddeus Businge, Gladys Nagawa and Kandole Annet Balewa. And do not overlook the very interesting input of Geoffrey Kamese on the need to weigh the benefits of growing oil palms against the need to preserve the eco system. Finally, we thank His Excellency Bart Ouvry, the outgoing Belgian Ambassador to Kenya for his views on Better Globe Forestry projects in Kenya. He took the time out of his busy schedule to visit the projects and we are grateful! Enjoy the reading. Jean-Paul Deprins
Published by:
Chairman of the Editorial Board:
Managing Editor - Kenya
Better Globe Forestry Ltd No. 4, Tabere Crescent, Kileleshwa P.O. Box 823 – 00606 Nairobi, Kenya Tel: + 254 20 434 3435 Mobile: + 254 722 758 745 Email: kenya@mitiafrica.com www.betterglobeforestry.com
Rino Solberg
Wanjiru Ciira
Uganda office: MITI MAGAZINE ® Plot 92, Luthuli Avenue, Bugolobi P.O. Box 22232 Kampala, Uganda Mobile: + 256 775 392 597 Email: uganda@mitiafrica.com www.betterglobeforestry.com
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Editor-in-chief
Technical Editor
Jean-Paul Deprins
Jan Vandenabeele
Editorial Committee - Kenya
Country Director - Uganda Julie Solberg
Joshua Cheboiwo, Francis Gachathi, Keith Harley, Enock Kanyanya, James Kung’u, Rudolf Makhanu, Fridah Mugo, Jackson Mulatya, Mary Njenga, Alex Oduor, Leakey Sonkoyo, Jean-Paul Deprins, Jan Vandenabeele and Wanjiru Ciira
Country Representative - Uganda Diana Ahebwe
Editorial Committee - Uganda
Designer
Gerald Eilu, Hillary Agaba, Dickens Sande Bueno, Ponsiano Besesa, Paul Buyera, Sarah Akello Esimu, Dennis Kavuuma, Patrick Byakagaba and Diana Ahebwe
Daniel N. Kihara COPYRIGHT © BETTER GLOBE FORESTRY ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Miti July - September 2014
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NEWS
Master Tree Growers training launched in Ntungamo, Uganda BY DIANA AHEBWE
T
he second African Master Tree Grower (MTG) training was conducted in July this year in Ntungamo District, western Uganda. The first one took place in May last year in Kabale District. The MTG course is a replica of the Australian Master Tree Grower (MTG) programme, developed in 1996 by Rowan Reid of the University of Melbourne. The objective of the course is to train farmers on the use of trees to enhance agricultural production, conserve soil, protect biodiversity, store carbon or generate profit through the sale of tree products like timber, food, seed and fuel. The Ntungamo course was sponsored and facilitated by Beyond Subsistence Incorporated of Australia, in partnership with the Sawlog Production Grant Scheme (SPGS) Uganda. Ntungamo District is characterised by bare hills and populated by pastoral and agro-pastoralist communities that do not normally plant trees. There is also a general misconception in the district that trees are a threat to and cannot co-exist with pasture. The training was thus a means to nurture and scale up more tree-growing in the area. The training was attended by local government officials, leaders from schools and religious organisations, local tree planters, tree nursery operators, community leaders and representatives of various NGOs. Among other topics, the training covered the role of trees on farms, tree management, measurement, economics and markets, with field trips. The six-day training ran from 20th to
26th July and participants received certificates, Master Tree Grower hats and diameter measuring tapes. The formation of a steering committee to oversee the development of the Ntungamo Agroforestry Network suggests that the course will have a lasting impact in the region. The writer is the Country Representative, Miti magazine - Uganda Email:diana@mitiafrica.com
The views expressed in Miti magazine are the writers’ and do not necessarily reflect the views of Better Globe Forestry. WRITE TO US We welcome feedback on any article you have read in Miti magazine, or on any issue on tree planting, afforestation and related matters. Please include your name, address and telephone number. Letters may be edited for clarity or space. We also invite you to send us any interesting photos you might have. Please send your contributions to: The Editor Miti magazine P.O. Box 823 – 00606 Nairobi, Kenya. Email: kenya@mitiafrica.com OR Miti magazine P.O. Box 22232 Kampala, Uganda. Email: uganda@mitiafrica.com
www.betterglobeforestry.com Miti Magazine-Africa’s Tree Business Magazine
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Miti July - September 2014
LEAD THEME
A chipper spitting out chips in a trial run at the Cummins Power Generation plant construction site in Marigat, Baringo. The wood in use is from mathenge (Prosopis juliflora), sourced from nearby communities. (Photo: BGF)
Biomass for energy Apart from charcoal and firewood, we need to explore the potential of other forms of energy from wood BY JAN VANDENABEELE
I
n sub-Saharan Africa, charcoal dominates energy that is produced out of bio-mass, i.e. wood. Charcoal is cheaper than other products, has a high calorific value, is cleaner than firewood, is easier to transport and so on. Nevertheless, other forms of energy captured by trees through photosynthesis are increasingly used in different, and usually more efficient ways. Indeed, most charcoal production takes place at dismal conversion rates, like 8 to 12 per cent, while improved technologies achieve double or more rates. Charcoal production destroys the tree. However, energy from oil in fruits or nuts does not destroy trees; it leaves the tree alive and able to produce for many more years.
Miti July - September 2014
Below is a summary of some of the methods used to get more energy from trees. They are all in use in East Africa, and their utilisation is increasing as the demand for energy is on the rise, and the future of charcoal production looks unsustainable.
Briquetting Briquetting means compacting a mixture of charcoal, charcoal dust, or other material like sawdust, with a binder, which can be soil, gum arabic, cassava, etc. This could be done either by hand or simple devices or using even more complex machines able to produce briquettes in industrial quantities. Individuals, self-help groups or otherwise
organised communities use simple methods (see article by Mary Njenga on page 14); while companies like Goodfire Uganda Ltd and others do it in an industrial way.
Vegetable oils Plant oils produce energy. Some of the oilcontaining fruits and nuts are edible so they have dual use (food and non-food), others are non-food only and are used for energy, as lubricants, in cosmetics or are medicinal. Vegetable oils come from different species. Currently, the most important in East Africa are the oil palm (Elaeis guineense), Croton megalocarpus (musine, muthulu, mukinduri), castor (Ricinus vulgaris) and Jatropha curcas.
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Another species with energy potential that grows well in the region is the candlenut tree (Aleurites moluccana). Each of these species is able to produce oil and all have a lot of potential. But there in lies the root of the problem. The potential exists, but the use is restricted, because of limited production and availability. The exception are the oil palm plantations on Kalangala Island (Lake Victoria), where an industrial concern (BIDCO Ltd) put its weight behind a large-scale venture (see article on page 24). The oils of most species have multiple uses. A good example is castor, which has a wide variety of industrial and medicinal applications. Production of bio-fuel is another possibility, although obligatory blending of biofuel with fossil fuel like what is planned in the European Union does not exist in East Africa. Croton megalocarpus is well distributed in East Africa, but as a natural occurring tree species, not in plantations, although the species might be dominant in sub-humid forests. Collection of its fruits however, is not organised over large areas. The story of castor is different. It is indigenous to East Africa, and in the past has been grown in semi-arid areas in eastern Kenya, particularly Machakos, Makueni and Kitui counties, for export. Considerable amounts were produced in the 1950s through to the 1970s. However, commercial growing stopped because of several factors such as low oil prices due to the emergence of the oil palm industry, and more importantly, the collapse of the Kenyan marketing system. Good germplasm is available, and the knowhow of growing still exists, but no major volumes are produced and neither does an established market exist in East Africa. Export to Asia is feasible, but only in commercial quantities of 17-tonne containers. Jatropha was much hyped some six to eight years ago, and established in several African countries either as medium-scale plantations or in small holdings. However, the crop was mostly abandoned when it became clear that it suffers more than its fair share of attacks by pests and diseases, is low yielding and faces challenges in management and harvesting. The candlenut tree beautifies Nairobi roadsides, but again, no major presence of the species exists.
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Any venture into oil processing for either bio-fuels, cooking stoves or other uses faces the challenge of lack of raw materials, although several small start-ups are trying their luck.
Steam and electricity A well-known use for woody debris like offcuts, bark and sawdust is burning it to produce steam, a product used by various industries. It is handy for the textile and other industries, and many plants in Kenya use it for their production processes. It can also be used for making electricity, and BIDCO in Thika has a small, 2-megawatt (MW) electricity station powered by steam turbine technology. The most efficient use of wood in producing energy is gasification, a process to be used by Cummins Cogeneration (Kenya) Ltd, in their power station under construction in Marigat,
Baringo (see article on page 7). Cummins will use the wood of Prosopis juliflora - known in Kenya as mathenge, and officially considered a noxious weed - for powering a 10-MW plant. Cummins is also looking at the possibility of using other biomass like the seed shells of macadamia nuts, maize cobs and sawdust for similar setups in other parts of Kenya. It therefore looks like sooner or later, we shall get away from charcoal and firewood as major energy sources in East Africa. Probably later than sooner, but there is huge potential, and it is being developed. The writer is the Executive Director, Better Globe Forestry Email: jan@betterglobeforestry.com
Miti July - September 2014
LEAD THEME
From menace to income generator The lives of the people of Marigat are set to change as mathenge (Prosopis juliflora) is utilised for production of electricity BY WANJIRU CIIRA
F
or a long time, Johannes Lekariap and others in Salabani Location, Marigat, did not have much use for Prosopis juliflora, or mathenge, as it is commonly known in Kenya. The people used to complain that the tree grows everywhere, its roots go deep and take all the water, killing all other vegetation. Prosopis thorns would injure the gums of cows and goats, leading to teeth loss. “As a result, the animals lose weight and waste away as they cannot eat,” said Mr Lekariap, the chairman of Salabani CBO (community based organisation). The exotic tree was introduced into Kenyan drylands in the early 1980s to provide fuel, fodder and stem soil erosion. However, the tree has since become an invasive weed, threatening, rather than improving, local livelihoods. Left on its own, P. juliflora replaces native vegetation and takes over rangelands. Dense stands of P. juliflora can block irrigation channels, obstruct roads and block smaller trails completely.
As such, P. juliflora was in 2008 declared a noxious weed in Kenya under the Suppression of Noxious Weeds Act (CAP 325). Under this Act, the Minister for Agriculture can compel land owners with such noxious weeds to remove them. However, mathenge’s effect has not all been negative. The tree prevents soil erosion, produces strong wood that is good for fencing posts, timber, construction poles, charcoal and firewood; pods for fodder and flour; and the bark makes strong rope. “Before prosopis started growing here, all this land was bare - we could see Lake Baringo from my house,” says Gladys Kimosop, a member of Salabani CBO. The area was so dusty that it was difficult to sit outside. Today, the area is green and cool and free of dust storms. “We can now sit outside our houses and enjoy the shade of the trees,” says Ms Kimosop. In addition, when ground, the pods make good feed for humans and animals, which people add to wheat and maize flour. Simon Choge, Principal Research Scientist
at the Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI) Baringo Sub-centre, says prosopis is gaining acceptance as a resource. “Here in Marigat, we want to make the KEFRI substation a centre of excellence for management and use of prosopis,” he says. KEFRI is gathering knowledge on the species, even sending researchers as far as the desert of Piura, northern Peru, the original home of Prosopis juliflora. Interestingly, Peruvian goats do not seem to suffer teeth loss from eating prosopis pods and leaves. Also, production of quality honey is increasingly being recognised as one of the various uses of the tree. KEFRI is installing an apiary in a prosopis grove adjacent to its new office, while members of Salabani CBO are already producing honey. P. juliflora wood has a calorific value of 3,700 – 4,400 kilocalories (Kcal) per kilogram, and a specific density of 395 kg per cubic metre. This makes the tree a logical choice for electricity production, which is why Mr Lekariap and other members of the community are now singing a different tune.
A typical greenfield investment. Cummins bought 15 acres of land to put up the power generation plant. (Photo: BGF)
Miti July - September 2014
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Cummins Cogeneration Kenya Ltd (CCKL) is building a gasification based power station in Yatoi Sub-location, Marigat Location, Baringo County that will use P. juliflora as the raw material. Gasification means generating gas out of solid fuel (wood in this case), using pyrolysis or partial combustion of biomass while restricting supply of air. The main components of this synthetic gas or “syngas” are carbon monoxide and hydrogen. Syngas has to be thoroughly cleaned so that impurities (tar and other particulate matter) do not choke the generators. “This cleaning technology has been improved a lot in the last few years,” says Yash Krishna, the company’s Managing Director. The gas passes through a cyclone, a scrubber, and an electrostatic filter to remove moisture. The gasification takes place at 800oC, and the syngas has a temperature of 500oC. It has to be cooled, and passes
through coolers to a storage tank, then it is compressed, goes through a heat exchanger to lower its temperature, and finally to the generators for producing electricity. The generators come as modular systems, notably in 40ft containers or power-boxes, able to produce 1.2 MW (megawatts); but Cummins
also produces lower capacity power-boxes, down to 240KW (kilowatts). For phase I of the project, Cummins has two of these containers on site, with another six coming in phase II, to produce about 8.4MW, of which the company will export 7MW to Kenya Power. “We have secured the licences and agreement from
Comparative costs between making charcoal and selling wood for electricity WOOD FOR ELECTRICITY (SELLING TO CUMMINS) Item
Cost (Ksh)
Note
Power saw, 1.5 tank or 1.5 litres
173
Good for cutting 3,441 kg of wood
Power saw, labour
900
1 day (capacity: 5 tanks per day)
Other labour
900
Loading, etc.
SUBTOTAL
1,973 Income Ksh
Sale of wood to Cummins
6,762
At Ksh 1.965/kg; with 10.4% moisture content
Profit Ksh 4,789
Taking 1 to 2 days
WOOD FOR CHARCOAL Item
Cost (Ksh)
Power saw, 1.5 tank or 1.5 litres
173
Labour, felling trees
900
Labour, chopping wood
900
Labour, arranging wood
900
Labour, covering wood with soil
900
Labour, cooling down
200
Labour, gathering and packing charcoal
900
Bags
450
SUBTOTAL
Note Good for producing 15 bags of charcoal
At Ksh 30 per bag
5,323 Income Ksh
15 bags of charcoal
6,000
At Ksh 400 per bag
Profit Ksh 678
Taking 6 days
Source: Johannes Lekariap
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Miti July - September 2014
Kenya Power,” says Mr Krishna. The company’s long-term target is to produce 30MW of electricity but two factors limit this. The first is that currently, the Kenya Power line and sub-station at Marigat can only handle 7MW of electricity. Secondly is the availability of prosopis. To produce 30MW of electricity, Cummins needs 240,000 tonnes of prosopis a year. To get this, at a yield of 20 tonnes per hectare per year, requires 12,000 hectares of fully stocked prosopis. A recent inventory by KEFRI puts the acreage that is fully stocked at a lower figure. However, Cummins estimates that a rotation of three years, meaning the time between two clear-fellings of the same site, might provide enough prosopis for sustained production.
Indeed, a field visit proved that P. juliflora grows amazingly fast in the area around Lake Baringo. There is no waste in Cummins’ power generation system. Apart from electricity, there are three by-products, namely, heat, biochar (or partly activated charcoal), and tar. Heat can be used for drying wood, although in semi-arid Marigat air-drying should be sufficient. Moreover, the heat can be converted into cold air for cold storage of meat or horticultural produce. Charcoal or biochar is suitable for soil improvement - as a fertilising agent and for water retention. It can also be used as activated charcoal for medicinal purposes. Tar, the last by-product, can either be put back into the system for additional extraction of
gas, or be used in road building and roofing. Once stabilised, the company hopes to generate a revenue stream of about US$ 8 million each year with electricity generating the bulk (80 per cent) of the revenues. Other sources of revenue will be briquetted charcoal (10 per cent), tar (5 per cent), carbon credits (5 per cent) and 5 per cent from cold storage space. This money will be well-earned, as it stands against an initial investment of roughly US$ 28 million for the whole undertaking, and substantial running costs in view of the purchase of wood. Cummins has worked out a scheme of buying prosopis from the community through established CBOs. And on the day that Miti visited the plant, Mr Lekariap had delivered Salabani CBO’s first harvest of the invasive weed. Depending on the moisture content of the biomass and US dollar to Kenya shilling conversion rate, Cummins pays Ksh 1.30 to Ksh 2 per kilogram. The company accepts biomass with a moisture content that is below 35 per cent. The people have worked out the economics of processing their supply of prosopis, and have come to the conclusion that selling wood to Cummins is more profitable than making charcoal (see Table). Transport to the Cummins plant is however not taken into consideration. The CBOs are still at the organising stage for supplying Cummins. So far, they have agreed on the site of their common collection points, from where large loads can be transported to the power plant. At the power plant, the wood is stored, dried and chipped. The gasification technology imposes restrictions on size and the wood chips should not be longer and wider than 30mm. Cummins purchased a Laimet chipper for the initial trials, and is certain to need a bigger capacity machine later on. The undertaking in its first phase is projected to generate a net income of Ksh 40 million per year for more than 2,000 families without any additional monetary costs or inputs from them. The use of mathenge weed means that the CCKL project will not compete for land that could be used for agriculture, and will actually open up land for pastoralists. Mr Krishna is upbeat about the role that biomass-based cogeneration could play in provision of energy in Kenya. He is especially happy about the use of P. juliflora. “It’s a winwin scenario, turning this plant menace into an income generator for local communities.” The writer is the Managing Editor, Miti magazine Email: wanjiru@mitiafrica.com
Miti July - September 2014
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LEAD THEME
Looking at the future of biodiesel Is it a viable substitute for fossil diesel in engines, generators and furnaces? By DIANAH NNAKAYIMA
U
ganda imports all its petroleum to meet the country’s energy needs in transportation and industry. This presents the government with a significant import bill and associated requirements for foreign exchange. The fuel bill for a country like Uganda constitutes almost 50 per cent of its budget. The unsustainable nature of the situation is compounded by the unpredictable nature of the oil market. Escalating fuel prices have made it imperative for the government to promote the development of renewable energy resources including bioenergy.
Why biofuels? Today, 70 per cent of the world’s oil is sourced from just six countries and 50 per cent of its natural gas from just three. As the world’s population rises, demand for energy will naturally increase and prices of fuel will reach unprecedented highs. This has already begun and can be witnessed throughout the world.
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There is a need for increased energy security and self-sufficiency – especially in developing nations. Biofuels are renewable, efficient, and clean-burning, thus a better alternative to fossil fuels. One of the major challenges facing the biodiesel industry is the lack of adequate feedstock to meet the demand. Biodiesel feedstock has become a threat to food security because it requires large parcels of land to ensure sustainable supply. As the biodiesel industry grows, farmers may shift from growing food crops for cash to growing biodiesel feedstock as cash crops. It may also lead to rising food prices as oil seeds like sorghum, palm oil and many other nuts are being used to make biodiesel.
Biodiesel production African Power Initiative (API) is a private limited company working to produce biodiesel for Uganda sustainably. The main aim of API is to provide a clean, competitive and quality energy
option, while contributing to the creation of job opportunities, climate change mitigation and economic development efforts of Uganda. API currently operates a mini-refinery that can process 4,000 litres of biodiesel per day. The facility is being used as a pilot study for research and analysis of the products before project scale-up. Upon securing sufficient feedstock, API will install a 60,000-litre capacity processing facility.
Feedstock: species and challenges Initially, API’s major challenge was inability to acquire the seed needed to even sustain the mini-refining facility. API has identified appropriate feedstock that provides material efficiency and increases productivity and profitability as well. The crops identified as potential sources of biodiesel include Aleurites moluccana (candlenut), Ricinus communis (castor) and Jatropha curcas (jatropha). Other crops that are being researched on include Argemone
Miti July - September 2014
mexicana and Croton tiglium (croton). All these are robust plants that yield well in dry and marginal conditions and require little maintenance. To ensure sufficient supply of seed, API developed a feedstock supply strategy that guarantees a dedicated supply of oil seeds to meet its capacity.
Castor API has considered establishing its own farm in Namalu, Karamoja where it is cultivating hybrid castor seeds that have 50 per cent oil content and a high yield of seed per hectare. Castor grows for six to seven months and harvesting can go on for up to a year.
Candlenut Candlenut is locally known as Kabaka anjagala and scientifically as Aleurites moluccana. It matures in four years and has a life span that exceeds 50 years. The tree does well in most parts of Uganda and seed yield is about six tonnes per acre per year. API has contracted Cenergy Global Limited to develop and coordinate an out-growers scheme to grow and supply candlenut seeds for biodiesel production. Cenergy recruits and trains potential farmers on how to manage and maintain the trees for high quality, high yield seed. Both pure plantations and agroforestry systems are being established on croplands, grasslands, forests and road reserves. When the trees reach maturity, the seeds will be harvested and sold to API for processing into biodiesel.
Jatropha In Uganda, jatropha is known as ebiti, ekilowa or omara omara. The cultivation of jatropha has
Miti July - September 2014
gone up recently as farmers use it to provide support for vanilla plants. For oil production, subject to good rainfall and soil with an adequate supply of plant nutrients, a hectare can give a good seed yield. API buys jatropha seeds from vanilla growers.
Advantages of biodiesel Pure biodiesel can be used in a modified diesel engine or a biodiesel engine. However, to use it in already existing diesel engines, it has to be blended at different percentages depending on the engine type. The biodiesel produced is blended with petro-diesel at different ratios between 5 to 50 per cent - and sold for use in automotive diesel engines and appliances like generators. It is also burnt in furnaces/kilns and burners. This biodiesel offers the best alternative to pure petro-diesel due to the following benefits: Commercial: It is cheaper than mineral diesel. With fuel bills representing 35 per cent of an operator’s costs, using biodiesel will lead to savings. Environmental: Biodiesel exhaust has less ozone-destroying potential than petroleum diesel and has been proven to reduce toxic tailpipe emissions, including carbon dioxide (CO2) – a major contributor to climate change. Better ignition and combustion: Biodiesel has better ignition and combustion characteristics, than petro diesel. This allows the engine to run more smoothly with less of the “knocking” sounds typical of diesel engines. Reduces exhaust emissions: Biodiesel contains naturally occurring oxygen, which enables the fuel to burn more completely and all but eliminates the black smoke normally associated with diesel engines. Improves capacity to lubricate and reduces engine wear: Biodiesel has very good
intrinsic lubrication properties. Even blends as low as B1 (1% biodiesel blended with fossil diesel) can improve the capacity to lubricate in highly de-sulphurised mineral diesel. It extends engine life and increases performance. Safer, biodegradable and non-toxic: Biodiesel has a higher flashpoint than mineral diesel. It is also readily biodegradable and non-toxic, which makes it a safer and more environmentally friendly fuel to handle than regular diesel. Sulphur free: Biodiesel is naturally free of sulphur and so produces no sulphur dioxide, considered to be one of the main precursors to acid rain. Carbon dioxide neutral: Biodiesel is made from renewable resources, which means it reduces the contribution of carbon dioxide (one of the main greenhouse gases) to the atmosphere. Compatible with current vehicles: B20 can be run in diesel engine(s) safely without any engine conversion, change in maintenance or impact to the engine.
Conclusion Biofuels offer great potential for production of renewable energy that can supplement the energy sector in Uganda. However, commercial investment in biofuel crops is low; therefore there is still room for increased commercialisation. Since biofuels are mainly grown on marginal lands or intercropped, there is no threat to food security. The government has also set up policies to support utilisation, processing and marketing of oil from the seeds of biofuel crops. The writer is the Project Manager (CDM), African Power Initiative Emails: dianahnnakayima@gmail.com
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The jatropha integrated energy project - Mpeketoni The challenges faced and lessons learnt BY PAUL MBOLE
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he Jatropha Integrated Energy Project (JIEP) was initiated in 2008 by the Norwegian Church Aid (NCA) in partnership with local communities in Lamu -Tana River. The project is part of NCA’s climate change mitigation and adaptation programme. The initiative was aimed at promoting production of jatropha for local consumption. Its approach focused on developing small-scale out-grower production of jatropha feedstock, combined with the establishment of a decentralised, farmer-owned and operated jatropha oil processing and marketing structure. The target market for the oil was the immediate local population that uses diesel for mechanical and electrical appliances and kerosene for lighting. The project sought to use oil and seed cake from jatropha for producing fuel that would be affordable, clean and sustainable. This would be done through electricity generation and distribution in targeted towns in the project area. It would also involve supply and distribution of jatropha oil and seed cake to meet household energy requirements of lighting and cooking, and briquettes from seed cake for cooking. The project also included
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provision of affordable cooking and lighting appliances that can use jatropha oil and seed cake. Diesel powered boats, irrigation pumps, posho mills and electric generators were to be adapted to run on pure plant oil (PPO). The plan was that once oil production exceeded local consumption after the jatropha bushes reached peak production, to sell the oil to large-scale consumers in the project area; primarily the electricity generation stations in Mpeketoni and Lamu towns.
Organising farmers During the inception stage of the project, farmers were organised into groups based on administrative divisions. As farmer interest in the project increased, it became necessary to further divide them into smaller, more effective groups. After stakeholder consultation, the groupings were divided into zones that were further divided into localities. At the Project Inception workshop held in 2007, over 1,470 farmers pledged to set
Project Census of Oil Crops in target farms Plants/bushes per species and zone No. of Jatropha Castor Zone farmers Kiongwe
181
5,722
1,307
Croton
Yellow Oleander
Moringa
28
5,484
7,059
Matangeni
344
6,906
4,623
2
880
4,412
Witu
340
6,361
4,178
97
7,883
3,758
Kilelengwani
150
4,083
1,193
37
7,156
102
Hongwe
123
4,598
822
5
5,255
16
Mokowe
75
2,066
162
2
32
606
214
19,226
1,324
213
1,357
1,296
65
2,075
1,218
7
55
507
Total 1,492 51,037 Source: Oil Crop Census – NCA 2012
14,827
391
28,102
17,756
Mhamarani Hindi
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aside between ¼ and two acres of their farm plots for planting jatropha and be enjoined into the community enterprise. Further, to ensure that their participation did not compromise household food security, each participating farmer had to present a land-use plan for review by the Project. According to the 2012 Oil Crop Census conducted by NCA, 1,492 farmers were active in the Project with a total of 51,037 jatropha bushes. In addition, the farmers had a further 61,076 plants from alternative oil crop species that could be included in the diversification strategy later implemented to overcome the feedstock shortages experienced with jatropha. NCA invested significant resources in mobilisation and organisation of farmer groups into viable structures to enable efficient operations and ensure effective support to onfarm activities. This was spread over a three-year period and culminated in the establishment of Pwani Jatropha Enterprises (PJE, an umbrella community enterprise) that sought to group over 400 farmer producer groups. After a re-organisation of the community structures to cover four administrative divisions, over 150 groups have been engaged since a new recruitment drive in 2013. Following extensive consultations, farmers opted to operate under the legal structure of a company limited by guarantee. This option was informed by the concern of farmers wary of a purely commercial shareholding company and their lack of trust in existing cooperative models. Indeed, farmers were of the view that such a structure would afford them equal ownership of the enterprise and allow individual efforts to be rewarded, based on product deliveries to the company.
Feedstock supply and oil production At the onset of the Project, it was clear to the promoters that the feedstock supply would only pick up after two to three years with volumes anticipated to grow steadily thereafter as the jatropha plants matured. This was confirmed by the low feedstock volumes delivered to the Project during the first three years. However, feedstock supplies continued to be low long after the oil processing equipment was installed in 2010. The situation did not improve even after the Project secured an order to supply 1,000 litres of PPO daily to the governmentoperated generator in Mpeketoni in 2012. The low feedstock supply was largely attributed to the relatively low prices that PJE was offering farmers, especially considering the extra work needed to remove the husks at farm level
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before delivery. Further, it emerged that the crop was vulnerable to cyclical dry spells and to pests and diseases, resulting in low seed production. With spraying support programmes and the installation of de-husking equipment at the Mpeketoni PJE factory, supply of feedstock has increased significantly. Indeed, in the first quarter of 2014, over 258 farmers – including 91 women - supplied over five tonnes of jatropha seeds and two tonnes of seeds of other oil crops. At the typical oil content ratio, this would generate over 1,700 litres of PPO.
Applications and use of PPO The Project’s goal was to provide local communities with an alternative to fossil fuels for use both at domestic and community level. To demonstrate the use of jatropha oil, NCA supported study visits to Tanzania to see converted diesel generators running on jatropha, the use of jatropha oil for lighting and production of herbal soap using jatropha oil. Based on the acquired knowledge, NCA supported Kipini Community Power to convert a 2-cylinder Lister generator and thereafter the PJE Multifunctional Platform (generator), to run on jatropha oil. Both machines have been operating smoothly since 2010. The Kipini machine has been used to power woodworking gadgets for local artisans and the PJE machine to power the milling of jatropha seeds and grain amaranth. The Kenya Bureau of Standards (KBS) certified grain amaranth flour is packed in PJE branded packaging and sold as a high nutrition flour for infants and the ailing. The Kenya government, through the Ministry of Energy, offered jatropha farmers a great opportunity to supply PPO to run the converted generator at the Mpeketoni station. However, this initiative has been marred by the limited supply of feedstock. Unfortunately, the use of unfiltered
PPO bought from elsewhere – as a stop-gap measure – clogged up the fuel lines and filters of the generator and had to be stopped. On the other hand, the use of filtered jatropha oil produced by PJE from Mpeketoni was successful. Operators indicate that the jatropha PPO was able to maintain lower operating speeds at loads comparable to running on standard diesel. Adaptation of jatropha oil for use in lighting and cooking at the domestic level only had limited success. Indeed, soot accumulated continuously on the wicks of the modified lamps, leading to reduced brightness the longer the lamp was used. For the specially designed Protos stove, (see http://www.bsh-group.com/index. php?109906 ), the rather cumbersome lighting process hampered wide acceptability, especially by women. The challenge of accessing good technology that would ease the use of the heavier density PPO in cooking and lighting remains a significant barrier to widespread production and use of PPO at household level. Securing sufficient volumes of feedstock to sustain commercial sales (e.g. the government generator) will remain a critical focus for the Project in the days ahead. With the re-organised structure, the establishment of the registered company, feedstock diversification and the integration of a PPO/diesel blending strategy, it is anticipated that the project is on the way to viability. Using the lessons learnt so far and capitalising on the goodwill from the government, farmers and support partners, it is hoped that the project will become viable and help to formulate renewable energy solutions based on bio-mass. The writer is the Area Advocacy Advisor, Kenya / Somalia Programs, Norwegian Church Aid Email: paul.mbole@nca.no
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LEAD THEME
A woman transporting charcoal dust on her head and another one sieving the same, using recycled plastic nets, for fuel briquetting; Nairobi. (Photos: Mary Njenga)
Charcoal dust to the rescue Pushed by need, women and youth groups make fuel briquettes for cooking By MARY NJENGA and MIYUKI IIYAMA
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ighty two per cent of urban households in Kenya use charcoal as their cooking fuel, while most rural households rely on firewood. For many decades, charcoal was inexpensive and easily accessible, while firewood, comprising mainly dead wood or tree branches, was collected from forests at no cost. However, population increase, poverty, land degradation and strict forest management regulations, among other factors, have contributed to increased cost of wood fuel, making it difficult for the majority of poor households to source cooking fuel. So, desperate to put food on the table for their families, poor women often resort to using unhealthy sources of fuel such as plastic waste, and even old clothes and shoes, at the expense of their health. In an effort to
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reduce expenditure on cooking fuel, they are also pushed into abandoning nutritionally rich traditional foods that take long to cook, further affecting their families’ nutrition security. To address the challenges of accessing cooking fuel, women and youth groups in Nairobi have turned to fuel briquette production. They make the fuel briquettes by mixing biomass such as charcoal dust with soil, paper or cow dung as a binder, and adding water. They then compact the mixture by moulding it using bare hands, recycled plastic cans or a manual metal or wooden press. The solid blocks are then dried in the sun and used for cooking just like firewood or charcoal. This is a simple local innovation that spreads spontaneously or through external support. Briquettes have multiple benefits that endear them to communities.
Why communities like fuel briquettes Briquettes made of 80 per cent charcoal dust and 20 per cent soil burn for over four hours, compared to two and a half hours for regular charcoal. The briquettes emit neither smell nor sparks. Briquettes produce less smoke than charcoal and leave no soot on pots. Indeed, experiments have proved that the above type of fuel briquette reduces household indoor air pollution with carbon monoxide (CO) and fine particulate matter (PM2.5) by 1/3 and 1/9 respectively, compared to regular charcoal. It costs Ksh 3 to cook a traditional meal of green maize and dry beans (githeri) using briquettes, while it costs Ksh 26 and Ksh 45 when using regular charcoal and kerosene respectively.
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Other benefits of briquettes include contribution to waste and environmental management through recycling biomass residues. Furthermore, fuel briquette enterprises create employment for women and youth, thus empowering them. The briquette-making groups help strengthen community-based institutions through enhanced social networks, informal savings and credit facilities.
Briquette supply chain The fuel briquette supply chain involves sourcing and transporting, sieving and grinding of raw materials, shredding papers, mixing and pressing, drying and utilisation. Charcoal dust is sourced at low costs (Ksh2 - 5 per kilogram) from charcoal traders within the neighbourhoods where the groups operate. It is estimated that 10-15 per cent of the total charcoal produced ends up becoming charcoal dust. Some charcoal traders store the charcoal dust in sacks for the women to pick. This
way contamination of the charcoal dust with impurities such as pieces of metal, wires, wood and plastics is controlled. Charcoal dust in its particle form is not useful for cooking, although it still contains energy values. As such, community groups use soil and papers as binders to make briquettes from charcoal dust. Soil is mainly sourced from road sides, river banks, excavated pit latrines or road constructions. Paper is sourced from newspapers venders or schools and offices. Sieving of charcoal dust and soil is carried out using recycled plastic nets or wooden mesh wire to remove big particles and impunities such as pieces of wood, metal and plastic. Grinding of big particles of raw materials into fine particles is carried out using traditional mortar and pestle. Community groups shred the papers with bare hands or by use of manual paper shredders. After the raw materials are sieved and ground they are mixed with binders and water. Charcoal dust is mixed with soil or paper in washing basins that are commonly used
by households for washing clothes. The mixing ratios are mainly arrived at through trial and error. Experiments and community practices have showed that the best combustion and emission properties from charcoal dust briquettes is from a mixing ratio of charcoal dust and soil of 4:1 and charcoal dust and printing paper of 7:1 (Njenga et al 2013b and Njenga et al., forthcoming). The ratios vary from one place to another depending on the particle size of charcoal dust and type of soil and paper. In the case of charcoal dust and soil, water is added during mixing to moisten the slurry; while paper is first soaked in water for three hours to moisten it, then charcoal dust is added. More water is only added if required. To test if the mixing of charcoal dust and binder has been done effectively, communities squeeze it in their palm and shake it between the thumb and index finger. If the material holds, the mixing has been done well, and if it falls off, more binder is added. The testing is repeated until the mixture holds together.
Grinding raw materials using mortar and pestle; and shredding paper using a manual shredder for fuel briquetting; Nairobi. (Photos: Mary Njenga)
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Compacting mixed raw material into fuel briquettes using manual methods. (Photos: Mary Njenga)
Communities test the mechanical durability of the dry fuel briquettes by dropping them from a height of about 1 metre to see if they hold together. They calculate the percentage of mechanical durability as follows - number of unbroken pieces, divided by
number of pieces dropped, multiplied by 100. Mechanical durability is important, especially where briquettes need to be transported. The mixture of charcoal dust and soil or paper, plus water, is compacted by moulding it into solid blocks using bare hands or in
a recycled plastic can. Women prefer this method, while the youth normally use manual wooden or metal presses. Space for drying fuel briquettes is a limitation and some groups solve this problem by drying their product on the ground or on roof tops. Some groups,
Drying fuel briquettes on the ground, on a roof and on shelves. (Photos: Mary Njenga)
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Packing, marketing and use of fuel briquettes. (Photos: Mary Njenga)
especially with external support, have drying beds with several shelves. The drying period depends on the raw material used, size of briquettes and the weather. Briquettes dry in less than three days during the dry season and take twice as long during the wet season. Those made from charcoal dust and paper dry faster than those made from charcoal dust and soil. Most community groups sell briquettes on-site and customers bring their own containers for packing. Some groups pack their product in recycled sisal or plastic sacks and transport them to surrounding rural areas for sale. Briquettes are popular with food kiosks and hotels. Chicken hatcheries also use them for heating brooders. The briquettes are used either as whole blocks or broken into smaller pieces.
Challenges Among the challenges communities making briquettes face are: Women risk injury when they transport loads of charcoal dust and soil on their backs
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or heads. Again, only small quantities of raw materials can be transported on the head, back or using wheelbarrows, which limits the quantity of fuel briquettes community groups can produce. Manual grinding and compacting of fuel briquettes is tedious and compromises on the density of the product, leading to breakages during transportation. Drying fuel briquettes on the ground slows down the process as some pieces receive low amounts of sunlight. Spreading briquettes on the roof tops speeds up the drying process, but results in breakages. These forms of drying also expose briquettes to rain.
Remedies There is need for adoption of more efficient grinding, compacting, drying and packing systems. Community groups require space to construct and maintain fuel briquette production and marketing units with fully functional machines and drying beds. Again, adoption of more efficient cook stoves would enhance energy use efficiency.
Other raw materials like macadamia nut residues, coconut, rice, and maize husks should be evaluated for effectiveness in producing briquettes. To realise high sales, potential customers need information on the multiple benefits of fuel briquettes.
References Njenga M., Yonemitsu, A., Karanja, N., Iiyama, M., Kithinji, J., Dubbeling M., Sundberg, C and Jamnadass, R. (2013). Implications of charcoal briquette produced by local communities on livelihoods and environment in Nairobi, Kenya. International Journal of Renewable Energy Development (IJRED). 2 (1) 19-29. Njenga, M., Karanja, N., Jamnadass, R., Kithinji, J., Sundberg, C., and Jirjis, R. (2013b). Quality of briquettes produced locally from charcoal dust and sawdust in Kenya. Journal of Biobased Materials and Bioenergy. 7, 1-8.
The writers are scientists on bioenergy at the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) Emails: m.njenga@cgiar.org and m.Iiyama@ cgiar.org
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LEAD THEME
Mixing of charcoal dust and debris with powered cassava and water. (Photo: Goodfire Uganda)
Cutting fewer trees for charcoal Goodfire Uganda spells good news for trees BY DIANA AHEBWE
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ver 90 per cent of Ugandans, both urban and rural, rely on firewood and charcoal for their energy needs. In Kampala alone, the annual demand for charcoal is 205,000 tonnes. According to research done by the Developing Energy Enterprises Programme (DEEP) in 2008, it is estimated that each tonne of charcoal requires the felling of 88 mediumsize trees. That is over 18 million trees every year, and growing. This is equivalent to destroying 194 football pitches of trees every month, for Kampala’s charcoal needs alone. Goodfire Uganda Ltd (GU), a Ugandaowned social-commercial enterprise, aims to slow down such forest degradation. Robert Ssemakula, the chief executive officer (CEO) of the company was inspired to
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start the business by an old hardwood tree that was believed to have lived for over 100 years in Nabbingo village, near Kampala. Mr Ssemakula grew up watching the tree and trying to understand its behaviour and its language. “I loved the tree and what it provided - the cool air, shade, the music that came from the branches when the wind blew,” says Mr Ssemakula. However, people cut those branches and made firewood and charcoal. Many years after the tree was cut down, something still stood out from the good old tree. That was charcoal dust, a material so inert that it cannot rot away easily. This gave Mr Ssemakula and a few friends a business idea. The result was a manufacturing company, GU, which uses char waste to manufacture energy-saving charcoal briquettes. “A brightly
burning tribute to all felled trees,” says Mr Ssemakula. The factory, located along Mityana road, a few miles east of Kampala, supplies briquettes across the region. The raw material used in GU’s processing - charred dust and pieces of discarded, broken charcoal - has not been fully exploited as there has not been scarcity of charcoal and firewood so far. However, with the current fuel shortage and ever-rising prices, consumers are looking for affordable alternative fuels; and briquettes will fill the gap.
Processing of the briquettes GU works with small trader groups in Kampala to collect the char dust, agricultural waste and other raw materials. The company uses a “waste buy-back model” which not only
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Robert Ssemakula, the CEO of Goodfire Ltd. (Photo: Goodfire Uganda)
enables the poor to earn an income, but also cleans up the environment. GU has also contracted the Mityana farming communities around the factory to grow and supply organic starches such as cassava, whose flour is used to bind the materials. GU has a network of over 50 groups that supply charcoal dust. “We have trained the communities on how to store and manage the dust,” says Mr Ssemakula. The company deals with small-scale suppliers, especially roadside charcoal dealers. GU buys a 100kg bag of char for Ush 5,000. “There is no shortage of raw materials because charcoal dust does not rot even after decades,” says Mr Ssemakula. Other materials used include agricultural and food waste. Some of the agricultural material, for example maize waste, is seasonal, available only during the maize harvesting season. Good quantities of agricultural waste are found on commercial farms. The challenge, however is that the waste is difficult to recover and bulky to transport, making the process costly. The company carbonises the agricultural waste. Carbonising involves burning the material in controlled conditions to turn it into carbon powder. This powder is then graded, crushed into fine particles, mixed with cassava flour and water. The mixture is then compressed into pillow-shaped pellets for convenient packaging after drying. GU has installed commercial driers although these cannot accommodate all the materials. The compacting machine expels air from inside the briquette, allowing it to burn from the
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Drying of charcoal dust (“chardust”) in preparation for processing in Goodfire’s production chain. (Photo: Goodfire Uganda)
outside because it is oxygen starved inside. This makes the briquette burn for longer than charcoal, hence making them economical. According to Mr Ssemakula, their briquettes last twice as long as ordinary charcoal. The briquettes are packed conveniently and do not produce dust, smoke or soot. They contain no impurities. They can be used in any domestic or commercial charcoal stove. GU sells the briquettes mainly to commercial users like factories, poultry farms with brooders, restaurants, hotels for heating water, bakeries, schools and also supermarkets. However, GU is rethinking sales to supermarkets because the company is not able to monitor sales and supermarkets only pay after the products are sold. On average, GU sells eight tonnes per day, and this can go up to 10 tonnes during the cold season.
Challenges In Uganda, household and agricultural waste is not sorted out between what can and what cannot be carbonised. The cost of sorting the waste is high. This challenge can only be solved through legislation. For example, in some countries, waste is sorted out between plastics, paper, glass and biodegradable material. Transportation costs of raw materials are high. GU pays its suppliers in advance so that they can sort and pack the raw materials in sacks, ready for collection. Pricing is another challenge. “We need to price the briquettes such that they are cheaper than bush charcoal so that more people are encouraged to buy briquettes,” says Mr
Ssemakula. GU uses electricity from the national grid, which is expensive, but they are hoping to generate their own electricity out of waste. Ignorance on how to use briquettes is another challenge GU faces. For example, briquettes disintegrate if shaken while burning in a stove.
Business plan Before starting the business, GU did proper planning, a financial model and a business plan. As such, the company has managed to make a profit as well as save a number of new trees from being cut. “Most people fail in business because they don’t separate operating costs from fixed costs,” says Mr Ssemakula. “You must fully understand the cost structure of your business.” In addition, Mr Ssemakula is planting trees on 20 hectares of land.
Future plans For further expansion, GU wants to partner with commercial foresters through the Sawlog Production Grant Scheme (SPGS), to use off-cuts and lumber waste as raw material for making briquettes. GU is still at the research and development phase. The company is working closely with community members and other partners to design the most effective briquettes for its consumers. The writer is the Country representative, Miti magazine - Uganda Email: diana@mitiafrica.com
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LEAD THEME
Women, poverty and forest destruction Despite sensitisation, womenfolk continue to cut indigenous trees for firewood By PAULA BRAITSTEIN and MARY NJENGA
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he Pombo-Sabor Kaptagat Forest Users Conservation Group aims to protect and rehabilitate the PomboSabor (Kaptagat) natural forest in Eldoret (see Miti issue 16). One of the lessons members have learnt is that, if left alone, the forest will regenerate itself. However, regeneration is hindered by, among other factors, excess livestock grazing in the forest, especially in newly planted areas. If well-managed, trampling by livestock improves soil conditions, but not in this case. The second human activity that threatens forest regeneration is harvesting, by women and children, of “young” indigenous trees for firewood. The trees are 15 to 50 years old; however, such indigenous trees are still small enough to be cut with a panga (machete). The forest is thus not able to regenerate because the cutting interrupts the natural cycle of regeneration. Pombo-Sabor Kaptagat Forest Users Conservation Group has sensitised women in the area on the need to keep away from the indigenous forest to allow for regeneration. In fact, the indigenous forests have been fenced off; and there is an abundant supply of accessible exotic trees nearby - pine, cypress and blue gum eucalyptus – for firewood. So, why would adult women continue to cut down indigenous trees? Pombo-Sabor Kaptagat Forest Users Conservation Group sought to understand the issues that cause this highly destructive behaviour. Ninety per cent of rural households in Kenya and many small businesses in towns rely on wood for cooking, heating and other needs. Women who cut indigenous trees estimate that they sell 75 – 90 per cent of the wood they cut. In farming communities in many parts of the world, households cannot make enough money from farming alone. Reasons for this include high population density leading to small farming plots, depleted soils and poor economic conditions. As a result, households
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must participate in other activities to make enough money to meet their families’ needs. Evidence shows that people in farming communities in Africa and Asia who earn money by selling forest products, including wood from trees, are some of the poorest people in those communities. Women in Kaptagat who cut and sell indigenous wood earn between Ksh 200 and 300 per day. Many of these women are single mothers and grandmothers who must provide for their families. This money is not enough to provide food, school fees/uniforms,
and farming inputs, for their families. The money may also not be enough to deal with challenges such as drought, crop pests and illnesses. Thus, poverty is one reason why the women cut and sell wood for money. Other jobs that may pay more require resources that are difficult for people, but especially women, to access. Owning a business requires loans. Working for companies in Eldoret may require certain levels of education. Farming requires a certain size of land. All of these job options require
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support from family and friends. Without these things, women do not have other options to make money to help their families.
Selling indigenous wood Wood from indigenous trees burns more efficiently, producing more heat than wood from exotic trees. As such, people prefer wood from indigenous trees for cooking. A backload of indigenous wood sells for Ksh 50 more than a backload of non-indigenous wood. Women in Kaptagat can earn Ksh 100 more per day if they cut and sell indigenous wood rather than non-indigenous wood. In addition, some women said it is not always easy to find fuel wood customers, so the women go out of their way to provide what the customers want – wood from indigenous trees. In many countries, including Kenya, women have less access to inherited land, education, employment, loans and money than men. In places where access is unequal, millions of women and their families have trouble finding enough food, and are not able to pay for farming inputs or their children’s school fees. A common response to this kind of poverty is to take and use more resources from the environment, such as wood from forests, leading to degradation. Women are more likely than men to have smaller plots of land, no plots at all and less control over the plots they use. Therefore, women are more likely than men to be working off the farm in low-paying jobs, such as cutting and selling indigenous wood. In Kaptagat, the majority of women who cut and sell indigenous wood are not married and have extremely small plots of land that are between 0.20 and 0.40 hectares. Married women, on the other hand, live in fear and insecurity as they neither own nor control the land on which they live. They risk being kicked off the land if they disagree with men on control and land tenure issues. Women also bear the weight of poverty if they are married to irresponsible men who misuse assets. In the past, firewood collection mainly involved picking of deadwood. Due to rising populations and an increase in demand for firewood, most of the deadwood has been picked and the women resort to cutting down young trees. Therefore, women’s unfair access to resources can lead to poverty and worsen deforestation, and consequently deforestation worsens both poverty and women’s access to resources.
Sustainable firewood In addition to women cutting young trees from
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forests for income generation, they also do it as a source of cheaper cooking fuel. Studies have shown that households without access to firewood use other forms of fuel such as cow dung to meet their cooking energy needs (Duguma et al., 2014). Some poor households go to the extent of using unhealthy fuel sources like plastic waste. Still others may abandon their healthy traditional diets that take long to cook, hence impairing their nutrition status. There is therefore need for development of sustainable sources of cooking fuel through, for instance, agroforestry. Pruned branches of trees growing on farms can supply enough cooking fuel for households and for sale. Briquetting of sawdust, charcoal dust (mainly in urban areas), maize combs and other tree and crop residues can be developed to compliment firewood. The residues are ground and the particles bound using soil, paper or cow dung. The mixture is compacted into solid blocks using bare hands or manual machines and then dried in the sun. Community briquetting for cooking fuel was widely covered in Miti issues 12, 13, 14 and 16. The community briquette technology generates additional cooking fuel, thus saving trees while generating income for women. To save on cooking fuel and reduce indoor air pollution, there is need for adoption of efficient cook stoves.
Sustainable development means protecting the natural environment, the economies and the lives of communities. Three major problems that make sustainable development difficult to achieve are poverty, environmental destruction and gender inequality. In most cases, these problems are inter-related. Therefore, poverty, environmental destruction and gender inequality must all be addressed together for sustainable development to be realised.
References: Lalisa A. Duguma, Peter A. Minang, Olivia E. Freeman and Herbert Hager (2014). System wide impacts of fuel usage patterns in the Ethiopian highlands: Potentials for breaking the negative reinforcing feedback cycles. Energy for Sustainable Development 20, 77–85
Acknowledgements: Brendan Ellinor (Toronto, Canada) conducted the field work and wrote the report.
Paula Braistein is the Secretary, Pombo-Sabor Kaptagat Forest Users Conservation Group Email: pbraitstein@yahoo.com Mary Njenga is a bioenergy scientist at World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF). Email: M.Njenga@cgiar.org
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LEAD THEME
Anchored in the community Horizon Business Ventures works with farmer groups to produce bio-fuel and other tree oil products BY WANJIRU CIIRA
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sing what is available readily in a location is the most economical way of utilising resources. Horizon Business Ventures Ltd (HBV), located in Naro Moru in the Mt Kenya region, has put this principle into practice. Established in 2006, HBV is an arm of The Help Self Help Centre (HSHC), a non-governmental organisation (NGO) working in the region. HBV wants to reduce poverty and increase business options for farmers living adjacent to forests in the Mt Kenya region. To this end, HBV has undertaken several activities, and is still on a growth curve, with innovative products. One of the activities the company has undertaken is the production of bio-fuel, which can be used to drive heavy machinery. The company has a small plant with oil crushers, a de-huller, two small reactors for production of bio-diesel, and storage space for fruits and seeds (feedstock). For transport, they use a small covered lorry and a pick-up. This may seem like little, but they are more advanced than other start-ups in the same line of business. HBV sources seeds and fruits of Croton megalocarpus (mukinduri, musine, muthulu), Ricinus communis (castor), Calodendrum capense (Cape chestnut) and Azadirachta indica (neem). They also use the leaves of Tithonia diversifolia (Mexican sunflower), Warburgia ugandensis (muthiga) and other species for essential oils. HBV buys croton, castor and Cape chestnut seeds and fruits mostly from small-holders living within a 20 to 25km radius of the plant, although some suppliers come from as far as the Aberdares, Eldoret, Nakuru, Nyeri and Murang’a. “We are even thinking of sourcing produce from Meru and Embu, where there are more trees than here,” says Nahashon Mureithi Karaya, the firm’s Production Manager. Neem seeds come from Kilifi. Farmers and agents bring seeds to collection centres, where HBV pays Ksh 8 per kilogramme of croton seeds. If the seeds are delivered to the company’s premises, then HBV pays Ksh 10 per kilogramme. There are 10 collection centres in the Mt Kenya West area. HBV deals with some 30 farmer groups and
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some 18 agents, all representing over 1,000 farmers. “We have trained the communities on how to gather, grade and store the seeds and how to keep records,” says Mr Karaya.
Products Initially, in 2009 – 2010, HBV produced bio-diesel from croton oil. This was well received by local matatu (public transport vans and minibuses) operators as the distance they covered when
using biodiesel was double compared to fossil diesel. At the time, HBV used to produce some 400 litres of bio-diesel per day. Economically however, the product could not compete with fossil diesel and HBV had to go slow on production. To an extent, Mr Karaya blames the Kenya government for lacking a blending policy. In some countries, for environmental reasons, fossil fuel has to be mixed with bio-diesel.
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Today, HBV mostly produces straight vegetable oil (SVO) from croton. The company only crushes the seeds; it does not process the oil. The SVO is sold to companies like Delmonte and others with similar interests who use it for diesel generators. HBV is exploring the possibility of selling the oil to paint manufacturers in Nairobi. Although there is considerable annual variation, croton trees seed prolifically in October - December in central and northern Kenya and in January - February in western Kenya. In a good year, HBV buys more than 500 tonnes of croton nuts. Currently, the potential for the Mt Kenya West region is estimated to be between 600 and 800 tonnes a year. This will increase as farmers have stopped cutting down the trees and started planting more. The trees are fast-growing and fruit production starts at five to seven years. According to HBV, 7 to 10kg of nuts make 3.5 to 4kg of seeds and that makes a litre of oil. The difference between the volumes of oil and
seed is made up of the crushed seed-cake. This contains minerals and can be used as organic fertiliser. The oil also has medicinal properties as an anti-fungal. Currently, HBV’s use of castor is limited by supply, market and processing method - as the company’s presses are used for croton. ”However, we see a bright future for castor, as a bio-fuel and for use in cooking stoves,” says Mr Karaya. By contrast, marketing is not a problem for Cape chestnut oil. In fact, demand outstrips supply, as farmers had cut down many trees before they realised the value of the seeds. The oil is in high demand for use in the cosmetics sector, and a number of companies export it. Nonetheless, HBV was able to buy 100 tonnes of Cape chestnut seeds two seasons ago, at Ksh 25 – 30 per kg. Conversion rates into oil are the same as for croton. HBV buys dry Warburgia leaves at Ksh 50 – 70 per kilogram.
Product development HBV has invested in product development. The company has an arrangement with recognised research institutions like the International Centre for Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE)) for neem tree research, and the International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA) for testing various products. One of these products is Bio Cord, an organic fertiliser containing 20 per cent neem and seven other components including dry Tithonia and Warburgia leaves. Another product is Biofume, a soil fumigant used against bacterial and fungal wilt, again with a heavy presence of neem. Biomist is a spray for agricultural and horticultural use and Bio-drop is for animal health. According to Mr Karaya, demand for these products outstrips supply. HBV markets these products locally, through organisations like the Kenya Farmers Association (KFA), Bio-Intensive Agriculture in Meru and several agro shop outlets in the region. The company is also looking at possibilities of using the Kenya Organic and Agricultural Network (KOAN) as a major outlet for the products. A sister company, Eco Agribusiness, manufactures chutney from tree tomatoes grown by the farmers, thereby strengthening the rural community’s economic capacity. HBV is a small outfit, with five permanent workers and four to five casuals, depending on need. The company is steadily making its way to sustained profitability. Apart from the challenges regarding feedstock supply, storage space is also an issue. However, the company’s anchorage in the local farmer communities is an asset. The writer is the Managing Editor, Miti magazine Email: wanjiru@mitiafrica.com
Miti July - September 2014
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LEAD THEME
Seven-year old oil palm plantation, spacing 8x8m or 148 trees per hectare, leaving room for some undergrowth. (Photo: BGF)
Changing the landscape Palm oil plantations transform lives and the environment on the Ssese Islands of Lake Victoria, Uganda BY JAN VANDENABEELE
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ugala Island, whose capital is Kalangala, is the biggest of the Ssese Islands, in the north-western corner of Lake Victoria. The island occupies 275 sq km (27,500 hectares) or 68.5 per cent of the total land mass of the archipelago. The complete archipelago constitutes Kalangala District, with a total of 84 islands. It has an annual average rainfall of 1125 2250mm, and a natural vegetation of rainforest and degraded grasslands. With rain distributed all year round and a monthly precipitation of 125 - 300mm, soils are ferralitic (the final stage of leaching and weathering) and eroded on hilly terrain where trees have been cut. This degradation has resulted in grasslands.
Population In the 2002 census, Bugala had a population of 34,766 people, whereas by the end of the 19th century there were about 20,000 people, living in numerous farms with large cattle herds. In 1902 a severe outbreak of sleeping sickness occurred, resulting in a complete evacuation of the island in 1909. The people started going back in 1920. Between 1980 and 1991, the island saw
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an influx of immigrants from the mainland, attracted by the possibility of fishing. As a result, the island recorded a 5 per cent annual increase in population, the highest in the country. However, by 2005, fish catches had started to decline, due to over-fishing1. Today, growing oil palm is the main economic activity in Bugala and the island has attracted a new wave of immigrants, resulting in a population of some 90,000 people. By 1997, farmers had planted 50 hectares of oil palms, stimulated by the presence of a small research plot with oil palms. Oil extraction was by crude methods, not very efficiently, and the district authorities approached the Ministry of Agriculture with a concept paper to improve on this. This was accepted, and the government received assistance from the World Bank and the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD). A tendering process for private participation was won by BIDCO Uganda Ltd (BUL), which entered into an agreement with the government in 2004. Kalangala District State of Environment Report, 2005, by Kalangala District Local Government 1
Oil palms The oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) is originally a West and Central African species that requires high humidity. Bugala Island’s rainfall suits the species perfectly. And it grows well on a variety of soils. The seed is difficult to germinate, and young seedlings are pre-germinated and flown to Bugala from South East Asia. The seedlings are kept in a nursery for eight months before they are ready to be planted. This is done at a spacing of 8x8m or 148 palms per hectare. Yields start by year 4 up to year 25. A gradual replanting process starts by year 20. Gradual in this case means a 20 per cent thinning per year, over five years, so that by year 25 the plantation has been renewed completely, without total loss of production. To keep competition from weeds low, a cover crop (Mucuna bracteata or Pueraria javanica) is sown. This completely eliminates grass, and fixes nitrogen. After four years, maintenance switches to chemical weeding through spraying with glyphosate, a herbicide commonly used in afforestation projects. An alternative option is grazing, to keep weeds
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under control. Yield of young trees is some six tonnes per hectare per year. This increases to 18 tonnes per hectare per year. Substantial fertilisation is required to sustain the production of fruits. Where the plantations have been established on grassland, the remains of the fruit are added to the soil to increase its organic matter.
The investment model The Uganda Government rolled out the Vegetable Oil Development Project in 1997. It created the Kalangala Oil Palm Growers Trust (KOPGT), which became the implementing agency for the government in oil palm growing in Kalangala. The mandate of KOPGT is to engage smallholders into oil palm growing. As such, KOPGT supports small-holders in land clearing, provision of seedlings and other inputs, plantation management, marketing and training. It provides and administers loans to farmers. The government owns 80 per cent of KOPGT; the remainder being owned by farmers. To date, 1,610 farmers, managing 3,860 hectares of oil plantations on their land, have registered with KOPGT. Of these, 38 per cent are women. KOPGT has played an instrumental role in the success of the Vegetable Oil Development Project in Kalangala, overcoming initial resistance from the intended beneficiaries. BUL on its part initially invested US$ 40 million on plantation development, and later an additional US$ 20 million on palm oil mills. In addition, BUL invested US$ 40 million in a refinery in Jinja, on the mainland, in 2005. BUL set up a company, Oil Palm Uganda Ltd (OPUL), in which BUL has 90 per cent shares, and KOPGT 10 per cent. As such, OPUL is a publicprivate partnership, and quite a successful one. OPUL runs BUL’s palm oil plantations on the island, including the oil crushing plant where crude palm oil is produced. This oil is then shipped to BUL’s refinery in Jinja. The refinery imports most of its oil from South East Asia, and Kalangala’s production accounts for only 15 per cent of the processed volumes. The price of imported crude palm oil, serves as the benchmark for the price paid to the farmers. They are paid the equivalent of the cost of crude palm oil landed at Jinja, after conversion back into fruits, minus the processing cost and the transport cost to the refinery. In other words, Ugandan farmers are paid more than their SE Asian counterparts. The government had promised to lease out to BUL 10,000, and later an additional 30,000, hectares of land, bought from farmers. But acquisition took eight years and the promise did not materialise. In addition, operations were supposed to
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Oil palm plantations according to ownership and previous land use Plantation ownership
Area (hectares)
Previous land use Type Area (hectares)
BUL
6,200
Grassland
3,720
Forest
2,480
Farmers
3,860
Mainly forest
TOTAL
10,060
General land use now in Kalangala Land use
Area (ha)
%
Notes
Oil palm plantations
10,060
37
CFRs
6,462
23
Central forest reserves, protected areas
Other
10,978
40
Agriculture, roads, infrastructure, natural vegetation
TOTAL
27,500
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expand to Buvuma Island in 2007, with a nucleus of 10,000 hectares. But according to BUL, even there, land acquisition proved difficult, to the extent that BUL suffered financial loss and had to pull out of the Buvuma component. BUL enjoys a 25-year corporate tax waiver on the palm oil project in Kalangala.
additional taxes. In 2005, the vegetable oil industry paid about Ush 40 billion in taxes per year. In 2013, BUL alone paid Ush 125 billion in taxes. The government also has a majority shareholding in the Trust that earns 10 per cent of OPUL, and the government is paid for the lease of 6,200 hectares of land to BUL.
Impact of the intervention
The environment
OPUL has established 6,200 hectares of oil palm plantations so far, of which 60 per cent is on previous grasslands, and 40 per cent on previous forest land. Farmers, as out-growers for OPUL, have established 3,860 hectares. Those who have benefitted from the venture are Farmers and their households have recorded increased income. At an average small-holder landholding of 2 to 5 hectares of oil palm plantations, a yield of 18 tonnes per year of fruit bunches at Ush 398,000 per tonne gives a family Ush 14.3 to 35.8 million a year. In addition, land prices have risen substantially. On top of that, the farmers own part of KOPGT, which in turn owns 10 per cent of OPUL. The communities living on Bugala Island have benefitted from job opportunities, direct and indirect. The hospitality industry has grown, two banks have been established and services in general have improved. OPUL employs 2,000 people in its nucleus plantations, and another 100 in the mill. Small-holders also hire labour, at an average of one to two people per household. The district of Kalangala, because of greatly improved infrastructure. There are new ferries, implementation of an electricity grid, and improvement of schools, roads and medical centres. The Government of Uganda, because of
As the Table shows, the environment has undergone a big change, with the establishment of over 10,000 hectares of oil palm plantations, a monoculture. At least 5,000 hectares of rainforest were lost, with the accompanying biodiversity. However, no central forest reserves (CFRs) were touched in the process. On the other hand, 3,700 hectares of nonproductive grassland was planted with palm trees, eventually even increasing moisture and rainfall through a better micro-climate and putting it to productive use. BUL stays 200 metres clear of the lakeshore to eliminate eventual fertiliser run-off. However, the loss of that forest is relative when looking beyond the figures. Population pressure was increasing before the oil plantations. The forests were being degraded because of timber exploitation and charcoal burning, and would gradually have been opened to more subsistence agriculture. The land has definitely been put to better use financially. It is indeed regrettable that biodiversity suffered a loss, but that is the price of development. At least this one was planned and executed in an orderly way. The writer is the Executive Director, Better Globe Forestry Email: jan@betterglobeforestry.com
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LEAD THEME
Striking the right balance The Uganda government needs to weigh the benefits of growing oil palms against the need to preserve the ecosystem By GEOFFREY KAMESE
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he world over, the concept of sustainable development has remained a major puzzle to a number of players including governments, the private sector and non-governmental actors. While the concept has been a point of reference every time a project is initiated, it is also common practice that project assessments have usually been skewed to reflect the interests of developers at the expense of communities and the environment. Many of these assessments tend to emphasise positive outcomes while downplaying the potential negative social and environmental impacts of a given project. Until recently, there was no oil palm growing in Uganda, especially on a commercial scale. Today, it is considered one of the new avenues of enhancing Uganda’s development processes. The oil palm project is a component of the Vegetable Oil Development Project (VODP) which was initiated by the government to increase the production of vegetable oil in
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Uganda. The project is a joint initiative between IFAD, the World Bank, Oil Palm Uganda Limited (OPUL) and the Ugandan Government. On average, an oil palm tree has a commercial lifespan of about 25 – 30 years. This raises fears among conservationists about the long-term impact of the degradation of the indigenous and natural environment. Development is not a “one size fits all,” meaning that, its benefits may not be uniform and equal for all intended beneficiaries. While some may benefit fully, others get minimal benefits, while others may end up losing out completely. While the importance of oil palm growing to an economy like that of Uganda cannot be overemphasised, it is also true that such economic progress, if premised on fragile ecosystems, can only be meaningful and sustainable when extra caution is exercised and sufficient safeguards put in place. However, while oil palm growing may be a welcome economic intervention, the fact that it degrades and replaces natural forest has raised concern among conservationists
the world over. Oil palm growing has been associated with severe degradation of natural forest resources and ecosystems. This is clear in Kalangala District, Ssese Island where hectares of forests have been replaced with oil palm. The threat is not limited to Kalangala, as BIDCO is targeting other forested islands within Lake Victoria for expansion. The introduction of a monoculture in a land that was characterised by a diversity of fauna and flora has a number of disadvantages. For example, monocultures are associated with high spread of diseases. They are also associated with high losses of specific nutrients; since specific crops absorb and exhaust specific types of nutrients from the ground. Monocultures are also characterised with high loss of biodiversity, since mixed cropping is resisted or not prioritised. The depletion from the soil of some nutrients means that the farmer has to apply more fertiliser to replenish the exhausted nutrients. Environmentalists are also concerned
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that the oil palm may eventually be used in the production of bio-fuels at the expense of the local demand for cooking oil. In 2003, the Government of Uganda signed an agreement with BIDCO, which included a 25-year corporate tax holiday, a 17-year holiday from VAT, zero import, customs and excise duties on imported equipment and zero withholding tax on interest on loans. The government also promised BIDCO about 36,000 hectares of land to lease. This means that the company does not significantly contribute revenue in the form of taxes to Uganda’s economy. Given that oil palm farming in Uganda is being carried out on islands located in the middle of Lake Victoria, it is feared that the intensive use of fertilisers and other nutrient rich chemicals will lead to the eutrophication (depletion of oxygen in the water) of the lake. This would in effect result into a decrease in species diversity in the lake, leading to the dominant biota changing. Eutrophication of the lake would also result in an increase in plant and animal species within the water. These, together with many other changes would impact negatively on the lake and its biodiversity. The negative aspects of the project notwithstanding, one can correctly say that oil palm growing in Kalangala and on other islands within Lake Victoria has had some positive contribution to the social and economic wellbeing of the communities and it has overall
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contributed to national development. For example, oil palm growing is expected to enhance the production of edible oil in Uganda, reducing dependence on imported cooking oil. It is estimated that the government will save in excess of US$ 60 million annually, money now used to import crude edible oil. It is also expected that upon completion of the project, Uganda may become a net exporter of refined palm oil. Generally speaking, the project can be credited with creating employment opportunities for unskilled workers. According to the government, the oil palm project was designed to provide immense social benefits to the residents of Kalangala and beyond. It is indeed true that there has been a tremendous improvement in infrastructure in areas where oil palm is grown. In Kalangala where the roads were almost impassable, the communities today are enjoying better roads. In addition, new ferries have been introduced to link Kalangala with the mainland. Kalangala, which is the epicentre of oil palm growing in Uganda, has also witnessed gradual improvement in other infrastructure such as a water pipeline, more schools, more medical centres, more churches and an improvement in the supply of electricity. In conclusion, there is need for the conflicts in oil palm growing to be minimised or even eliminated by ensuring that the negative aspects of land grabbing and forest degradation are
avoided. Oil palm growers and the government must recognise and consider the need for sustainable development. The principle of sustainable development dictates that, the development needs of the current generation should not compromise the development needs of future generations. Finally, the need for oil palm growing in Uganda is a welcome economic intervention. Undoubtedly, oil palm growing will address some of the existing social and economic challenges in the country such as unemployment, low household income and revenue generation. However, the government needs to work out a better and more acceptable land use plan that recognises the conservation of forests as an important aspect of national development. Efforts should therefore be made to minimise the replacement of natural forest with oil palm trees whose ecological functions may not exactly match those of natural forests or ecosystems. The government needs to strike a balance between oil palm growing and conservation. In addition, communities affected by oil palm growing should be compensated fairly and adequately. The writer is a Senior Programme Officer, Administration/ Energy Climate Change and Chemicals Management at National Association of Professional Environmentalists (NAPE) Email: kamese@nape.or.ug / kameseus@yahoo. com
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LEAD THEME
A slighted commodity The contribution of charcoal to Uganda’s national revenue goes unnoticed BY GLADYS NAGAWA and KANDOLE ANNET BALEWA
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n Uganda, urban households view charcoal as a reliable, convenient and accessible source of cooking fuel that is available at a stable price. More than 90 per cent of the population depends on charcoal and firewood as the primary source of cooking fuel. Charcoal production is predominantly undertaken by rural populations and contributes to their household income, provides a safeguard against food shortages and unemployment. The demand for charcoal is greater today than ever before, and it is expected to rise over the coming years as population increases. This is despite the growing concern in the country for the deteriorating state of the country’s forest cover. It is estimated that between 1990 and 2005, Uganda lost 27 per cent of her forest cover, equivalent to 1,329,570 hectares. The highest loss, at 33.5 per cent, has been on private forests, and the National Forestry Authority (NFA) estimates that 80,000 hectares of private and protected forests are cleared annually. The major factors leading to the loss of forest cover and degradation are conversion of forests to agriculture and grazing land, over-harvesting for firewood, charcoal, timber and non-wood products, and encroachment on government reserves. In many cases, landowners encourage deforestation as it allows them to convert forestland into farming land at relatively low cost. Charcoal producers in Uganda are not organised. This makes the industry informal and it is often ignored. Recently, district local governments initiated a taxation system on the charcoal trade. However, the tax is seen more as a source of income for the local governments. Other than Mubende Local Government, others do not have a reinvestment plan. There are challenges that have led to loss of
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revenue during the charcoal value chain. A study by CARE international in Uganda has revealed that 60 per cent of timber, 80 per cent of charcoal and 95 per cent of firewood go untaxed in most local governments. The study further shows that charcoal traders in districts such as Kyegegwa, Kyenjojo and Mubende are registered. However, the districts are not able to monitor the traders effectively because of understaffing in the District Forest Service. The charcoal value chain encompasses different categories of stakeholders, among them producers of trees, the harvesters/charcoal burners, the transporters, the traders, both wholesalers and retailers and the consumers. Revenue loss usually occurs in the licensing procedures which the charcoal producers, transporters and traders manipulate to maximise their profits. These licensing procedures are: Charcoal production should be done under a licence from the responsible body, payable monthly, quarterly, half yearly or
yearly; Transporters of charcoal by bicycle should pay for a monthly licence; Charcoal movement by vehicle is supposed to be done after issuance of a Forest Produce Movement Permit (FPMP) specifying the number of bags, destination and details of the truck moving the charcoal. This should be done after payment of the stipulated fees. The permit is valid only for one trip within three days of issue. Also, the movement documents must always be left at the final destination of the charcoal for easy verification whenever required. According to the study on Timber, Charcoal and Fuel Wood Value Chain done by CARE, loss of revenue in the charcoal value chain occurs because: Charcoal business dealers want to maximise profits. Unregulated mechanisms in the charcoal value chain. Inefficient charcoal conversion technologies.
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Public perception of charcoal being discriminated against as “dirty� and economically unattractive, therefore it is not given the attention it deserves. Reluctance of charcoal operators to formalise their businesses. Low staffing in the forestry sector, particularly the District Forestry Services, which are directly responsible for effective monitoring of the private and local forest reserves. Most illegal charcoal burners and transporters work and transport produce at night or over weekends. As such, it is hard for forestry staff to monitor the movement of charcoal, since there are no provisions for working over weekends and beyond office hours. Limited facilitation of the District Forestry Services to monitor the charcoal value chain and in particular the production, harvesting and transportation stages. Use of official licences by many different illegal charcoal harvesters and transporters. Weak laws on private forest management. The official forestry revenue benefit-sharing ratios are defined as 40 per cent to the district government and 60 per cent to the national government. Thirty five per cent of the funds that remain at the district level are supposed to be retained or remitted to the lower level sub-county government. This rarely happens. There are obvious incentives for sub-counties to under-report revenues from charcoal, given that they retain a minimal share of the total amount collected.
Recommendations If leakages within the charcoal value chain are to be eliminated, there is need for the Forestry Sector Support Department, the District Forest Services and National Forestry Authority, together with civil society and the private sector to: Operationalize the decentralisation of revenue collection to the sub-county level for its efficient and effective collection. Facilitate the formalisation and formation of charcoal associations as an entry point for regulating, controlling and monitoring their
operations as well as encouraging them to adhere to the charcoal value chain standards. Examples are the charcoal associations in Kabarole, Kyegegwa and Kyenjojo districts. Provide fuel and transport to district officials to enable them to monitor compliance to the charcoal value chain taxes. This would encourage healthy competition between district officers to implement sustainable forestry practices and to detect charcoal malpractices along the value chain. Map out and tighten the hot spots for illegal charcoal transactions in the charcoal value chain. Involve other actors in monitoring compliance of the charcoal value chain. Such actors might include the community based monitors (CBMs) and the communities that live within and around the forests. Government and the private sector should come up with innovations in technology to minimise waste at production and usage levels. They should for example introduce improved kilns and promote energy-saving initiatives. Gladys Nagawa is a Policy Advocacy Specialist, CARE International in Uganda Email: Gnagawa@co.care.org and Kandole Annet Balewa is Manager, Forest, CARE International in Uganda Email: Akandole@co.care.org
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LEAD THEME
Illegal taxes in the charcoal trade Transporters forced to bribe their way to markets By EMMANUEL EKAKORO, STEPHEN MUTIMBA and VOLGA LIPWONI
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any things have been written about charcoal in Kenya. Depending on who is talking and why, different figures are given on the level of charcoal usage in the country. According to the ministry in charge of energy for example, about half of Kenyans use charcoal, representing 82 and 34 per cent of urban and rural households, respectively. If you ask us however, EVERYBODY in Kenya uses charcoal. What differs is the level and frequency of use. If you have ever enjoyed some grilled nyama choma at home, any hotel or restaurant irrespective of the star rating, you ARE a charcoal user. It does not matter that you do not buy it. The widespread use of charcoal comes with mixed feelings. For “ultra” conservationists, charcoal is the bane of environmental conservation and is responsible for most environmental woes in Kenya. For others, especially among energy professionals and a section of civil society, charcoal is a clean and affordable source of energy whose sustainable production and use can help address energy poverty in Kenya while improving both rural and urban incomes. The greatest disharmony, however, exists at the policy level. Perhaps for political reasons, both the Energy Policy and Forest Policy advocate
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“sustainable charcoal production”. In practical terms however, there is evidence of insincerity, judging from the little - if any - budgetary support given to sustainable charcoal production. While, for example, one can see on government policy documents a clear strategy for increasing Kenyans’ access to electricity or LPG, the same cannot be said of charcoal. Everyone talks of “sustainable charcoal” but there is no single document that gives a strategy for achieving this sustainability. This can also be seen in the way charcoal production is banned arbitrarily, even today when deliberate government policy exists to support its sustainable production. Charcoal is also a potent political tool. Those banning its production hope to score political points from such actions, while those advocating for its unbanning similarly hope to gain politically from their campaigns. Most policy makers would therefore rather sweep charcoal under the carpet and pretend it does not exist. After all, the people involved in the industry are “dirty, poor, and perhaps ignorant of modern development”. Nothing could be further from the truth though. A 2005 study showed that charcoal is a Ksh 32 billion industry. This has since been revised to Ksh 135 billion (equivalent to US$ 1.59 billion) in a 2013 Charcoal Value Chain Study for the Kenya Forest Service (KFS). Mark
you, this is a conservative estimate. It is true that most charcoal producers are impoverished people with limited income sources. But the real powers behind the industry, the people who are pulling in the millions from charcoal by the day, are the stiff collars, the same people who shout loudest about the harm caused by the reckless destruction of forests from among other things, charcoal production. Whether charcoal indeed causes forest destruction however is subject to further debate backed with factual data.
The Charcoal Rules – a new avenue for corruption When the revised Forest Act 2006 and Energy Act 2006 both advocated for sustainable charcoal production, there was a collective sigh of relief. Many thought that finally, the woes bedevilling the industry would be addressed and that the lowly producers and vendors would also reap some benefits. When the Charcoal Rules and Regulations 2009 were published and gazetted as supplementary legislation to the Forest Act, there was even more hope. This was so especially since there was a level of stakeholder participation including the direct actors in the industry, the judiciary and the traffic police. The reality was much different though.
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The rules themselves came with a raft of inconsistencies, and most times, difficultto-implement provisions. For example, the requirement that charcoal producers must form or join charcoal producer associations (CPAs) to obtain charcoal production licences goes against the constitutional provision that no one should be coerced to join an association. The difficulties associated with implementation of these rules came to the fore even more distinctly when KFS began piloting their implementation in Kwale, Tana River, Kitui and Baringo districts. Since criticism of the rules is not the thrust of this article though, we will leave that for now. However, it is telling that the Ministry of Environment, Water and Natural Resources, the successor to the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources under which the Charcoal Rules were developed and published, has noted these difficulties and is currently supporting a multi-stakeholder committee to review and revise them before the end of the year. It is a startling irony that while various executive decrees have over the decades “banned” and “unbanned” charcoal, none of these have actually banned charcoal production and use. In other words, it has always been perfectly legal to produce, sell and use charcoal, but illegal to transport it. This curious anomaly has carried on into the present where although legislation exists to regulate the production and transportation of the commodity, no one actually goes into the production areas to ensure that the producers adhere to the laid down procedures, but everyone is on the lookout for the charcoal transporter to ‘’check for compliance” with the rules. ‘’Check for compliance” is in reality a codeword for scouting opportunities for corruption – or rather, opportunities to be corrupted. It is not yet clear whether the provisions on charcoal transportation will be among the revisions to be recommended. It would help if the judiciary and police were involved in the review, as has already been proposed. According to the Charcoal Rules, charcoal may only be transported between 6am and 6pm. This provision provides the single biggest opportunity for corruption in the industry. Charcoal transporters must pay up a bribe to the authorities (euphemistically dubbed “illegal taxes”) or face the consequences. This is how it works. Charcoal producers will typically comply with all the rules relating to obtaining a production permit, obtain the permit,
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Our experience To see for ourselves how this works out, we set out one chilly morning in July 2013 morning for Namanga on the Kenya-Tanzania border. Our intention was not to prove that corruption exists in the industry. Everybody knows it does. We only wanted to know how it works. We talked to a friendly truck driver who agreed to give us a ride in his cabin from Namanga to Ngara in Nairobi. We were armed only with our mobile phones, carefully hidden away to avoid suspicion (but set to record video and sound) and dressed like “charcoal people”. We did not have far to go. At the first road block at Bisil, we encountered a combined force of the Kenya Police, the Regular Police and Administration Police. Never mind the difference between the ‘Kenya Police’ and ‘Regular Police’ but that is how the crew labelled them. The police were in full uniform. The crew gave each policeman Ksh 2,000 – that is Ksh 6,000 in total - and we proceeded with the journey. Some 20 kilometres later, we encountered another traffic police officer who accepted Ksh 200. Five kilometres later, another traffic officer contented himself with Ksh 2,000. Another five kilometres later, an Officer Commanding Station (OCS), with full insignia of rank on his brown uniform, accompanied by a junior officer, stopped the truck and demanded to search it. The crew offered him Ksh 500 but he declined and threatened them: “Leo mtajua
proceed to make charcoal, pack it in gunny bags and load it onto trucks for transport to the market, mostly Nairobi and other urban centres. However, as soon as the charcoal is loaded onto the truck and the said truck hits the road, the problems start. A traffic police officer (or any other person in uniform and with powers to arrest) will flag down the truck for what appears to be a routine inspection. At this point the transporter has the easy choice of giving out a bribe, and be allowed to proceed, or decline. If the transporter refuses to pay up, the truck will be detained at the roadside for a real or imagined traffic or other offence. Say he is detained at 2pm. The driver will be detained until a few minutes before 6pm. Here two scenarios may then play out. The crew will be released and told to proceed, unaware that another group of traffic police officers are laying an ambush ahead, having received communication from their colleagues that there is a truck coming their way, transporting charcoal beyond the allowed
mimi ni nani” (Swahili for, “Today you’ll know who I am”). He however waved the truck on after receiving Ksh 1,000. We learned how entrenched the practice is at the fifth encounter, a few kilometres after Kajiado town, when a female officer was offered Ksh 500 but declined, saying: “Inakuwanga elfu moja” (“The usual fee is one thousand”). Our luck finally ran out near Ngara when a policeman on a patrol motorcycle spotted us trying to take pictures of him receiving Ksh 1,000 from the crew. We had to run but by then had collected enough information. The charcoal truck was stopped 16 times! The minimum amount the crew paid was Ksh 200 and the highest Ksh 6,000. In total the crew parted with Ksh 23,400 in “illegal taxes” to the “lawkeepers” to avoid trouble. All these costs are eventually transferred to the consumer. It explains why the lowly charcoal producers will never make money from their sweaty job. If they choose to transport their own charcoal to the market where prices are easily six times higher, they will have to meet all the costs of illegal taxes in addition to the actual cost of transportation. Few of them can afford this. This scenario places the producer at the mercy of the large-scale buyer, who is typically also the transporter. The latter’s argument is that since he has to pay illegal taxes as well as the transport costs, to make a profit he can only pay the producer the minimum price.
hours. Once re-arrested, it becomes a close and shut case; he is charged with transporting charcoal after hours. The alternative scenario is that the first group of officers will just detain the truck for hours and then promptly “arrest” the crew after 6pm for transporting charcoal illegally. Either way, things are now stacked against the crew. They risk forfeiting all their cargo, jail terms or huge fines in addition to having the truck impounded for contravening the Charcoal Rules. Emmanuel Ekakoro is Senior Consultant, Camco Advisory Services (Kenya) Ltd. Email: emmanuel.ekakoro@camcocleanenergy.com Stephen Mutimba is Managing Director, Camco Advisory Services (Kenya) Ltd Email: stephen.mutimba@camcocleanenergy.com and Volga Lipwoni is an Associate, Camco Advisory Services Kenya Email: vhabwe@gmail.com
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LEAD THEME
Making charcoal respectable Harnessing the opportunities to rehabilitate the sector By Miyuki Iiyama1, Audrey Chenevoy1, Erick Otieno1, Teddy Kinyanjui2, Geoffrey Ndegwa1,3, Jan Vandenabeele4,Mary Njenga1, Oliver Johnson5
Furthermore, charcoal producers cut down hardwood tree species such as acacias, leaving behind softwoods such as commiphora. This leads to loss of biodiversity. About 75 per cent of charcoal consumed in Kenya comes from drylands. The last few years have seen a shift of charcoal hotspots further inland – say, from Narok to Kajiado and Makueni – as favourable tree species become exhausted. With urbanisation expected to rise in coming decades, rising demand for charcoal will have a significant impact on dryland forests and woodlands degradation.
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ver 80 per cent of urban households in Kenya rely on charcoal. They prefer charcoal over firewood due to its higher energy density, lower transport costs and relative cleanliness. In rural areas, however, firewood is the dominant primary source of energy. A national survey in 2013 estimated that charcoal consumption had risen from 1.6 million tonnes a year in 2004 to 2.3 million tonnes a year in 2013. This is a 5 per cent increase, higher than the rate of urbanisation during the same period. Based on this type of consumption data, the economic value of the charcoal sector in Kenya in 2004 was estimated at Ksh 32 billion, comparable to the contribution of the tea industry, a major export commodity of the country, and far exceeding that of coffee, maize, wheat and livestock. The most recent survey suggests that the sector is now worth Ksh 135 billion. It is estimated that the charcoal sector supports the livelihoods of 2 to 2.5 million Kenyans directly and indirectly, creating employment for 500,000 to 700,000 people as producers (farmers and burners), traders/ middlemen and vendors across the value chain. Other stakeholders include those responsible for regulation like the Kenya Forest Service (KFS) and the Kenya Police, research institutions and policy-making bodies.
The charcoal policy The Charcoal Rules of 2009 mandate KFS to grant licences to groups organised into charcoal producer associations (CPAs) to produce sustainable charcoal legally. However, high transaction costs to screen applications for sustainability have resulted in delayed licensing, discouraging potential sustainable producers. Such delays, coupled with corruption, allow unlicensed charcoal producers and traders to dominate the market at the expense of those World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) Cookswell Jiko 3 University of Passau 4 Better Globe Forestry (BGF) 5 Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI) 1 2
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Making the sector sustainable
abiding by the rules. This has also opened up the sector to more corruption from other law enforcement agencies like the traffic police and local authorities who demand bribes. As this happens, almost no prosecution or confiscation of illegally-produced charcoal is reported. For example, in 2010/2011, KFS reported that only 498 sacks of illegal charcoal were seized despite the existence of many control points within the production areas and within the transportation channels around the country. Ironically, charcoal producers and transporters are often unaware of their rights on applying or acquiring the licences, and continue to pay bribes to the police. Brokers also exploit producers by keeping farm-gate prices low. Consequently, farmers get low returns while urban consumers pay high prices, because bribes account for more than 20 per cent of the final price. This discourages sustainable supply.
Charcoal geography and technology In urban areas where most charcoal is consumed, the adoption rate of more efficient charcoal stoves stands at 85 per cent. In contrast, in rural areas where most charcoal is produced, about 99 per cent of producers use earth mound kilns with a wood-to-charcoal conversion efficiency of 8 - 15 per cent.
Steps that would help to transform the Kenyan charcoal industry include: Creating reliable data on charcoal demand and supply for guiding policies and planning. Promoting research and development by public/private sectors to develop compatible technologies for sustainable charcoal production depending on particular operating scales. For example: promotion of multi-purpose agroforestry systems, coupled with institutional arrangements to control grazing animals to enable farmer-managed natural regeneration, promotion of affordable and acceptable charcoal kilns, and promotion of efficient cooking. Setting up a policy forum where ministries of environment and natural resources (with KFS), energy, agriculture, livestock and fisheries development, county governments and others discuss, streamline and harmonise their authority and responsibilities to regulate the charcoal sector as a prerequisite for an enabling environment. Simplifying the licence/permit systems. Harmonisation of related regulations dealing with tree felling among relevant authorities at the decentralised local level to ease legal compliance by stakeholders. Initialising a national communication strategy to raise awareness on sustainable production and utilisation of charcoal, and its legal status. This article is compiled from a paper originally published as ICRAF-SEI Technical Brief. A list of references is available at the Miti offices.
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LEAD THEME
Charcoal: Time for a change Uganda needs to adopt better charcoal production methods to avert wood wastage BY THADDEUS BUSINGE
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harcoal production is a thriving enterprise in Uganda, due to the fact that most urban dwellers depend on the commodity for their cooking needs. Estimates from the National Forestry Authority (NFA) put charcoal consumption in Uganda at half a million metric tonnes a year. This is because charcoal and firewood are the cheapest forms of cooking energy available in Uganda, compared to alternatives like electricity and gas. However, there are fears of a looming charcoal shortage. Some pundits predict that there may not be any charcoal-producing tree species in the next five years. This unsustainability is caused by three major factors: Deforestation is high, estimated at about 90,000 hectares per year. Most of this deforestation is for charcoal production and it means that the raw material will run out soon. The charcoal production technologies being used have a low conversion rate and are hence wasteful. There is also a cultural factor, where the market is not willing to accept charcoal from species other than the ones they are used to. Thus, consumers want charcoal from, for example, Albizzia subspecies, Combretum and Acacia species, yet these are disappearing at a high rate. Most charcoal consumed in Uganda is produced using the highly inefficient earth mounds. Here wood is stacked and covered with soil after which fire is introduced under limited oxygen supply (pyrolysis). The efficiency of this type of kiln is in the range of 10 – 15 per cent, meaning it needs a lot of wood to produce little charcoal. It is thus a wasteful charcoal production method and has contributed a great deal to
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rising deforestation and hence the high rate of depletion of charcoal species. It is also not good for sustainable soil management as soil used to cover the wood cannot be reused. Brick kilns would be more efficient. One such kiln, the Katuugo kiln, was developed in Katuugo, Nakasongola District of Uganda. Katuugo lies about 100 kilometres north of Kampala. Katuugo, like other parts of Nakasongola, was a source of charcoal for Kampala for a long time. However, as of now, the trees are depleted and charcoal is sourced from northern Uganda. The Katuugo kiln, which can give efficiency of up to 30 per cent, was conceived to prevent such a scenario as is happening today. Some countries like Tanzania have embraced the Katuugo kiln, even as Uganda continues to use earth mounds. There are many other versions like the Brazilian clay brick kiln. Such kilns can be used over and over again as the production process involves loading wood into the kiln, burning the wood into charcoal using pyrolysis, cooling it, unloading the charcoal and repeating the cycle. Other than having higher efficiency, the volume of such a kiln is known and using this information one can predict the amount of charcoal expected, which is good for planning. Also, because soil is not used in this kind of kiln,
the resultant charcoal is free from soil. Moreover, since the kiln can be used over time, it is in the long run more economical than the earth mound method. There are also manufactured kilns (retorts) currently being used at Busoga Forestry Company. These have the highest efficiency of all charcoal production methods. They are environmentally friendly as they have a mechanism for reusing the gases produced by pyrolysis to provide energy for burning the wood further. The only drawback is that they are quite costly, but it is the direction we should take in order to address the wood wastage, environmental pollution and many other charcoal production associated challenges. There is also need to adapt to using charcoal from planted forests as these will become the main source of fuel wood in future. Charcoal briquettes are also a good idea; they are basically charcoal dust compactly massed by a binder. With briquettes, it does not matter the tree species the charcoal is from, as the dust is compacted together to give dense fuel material. The writer is a forester and a private consultant Email: tbusinge@gmail.com
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SUCCESSFUL GROWER
Taking to tree-growing with a passion Business manager Andrew Tibeyalirwa battles encroachers to establish a viable tree enterprise BY DIANA AHEBWE
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ree-grower Andrew Tibeyalirwa studied business management at Makerere University, a course that has served him well for more than 20 years. In his career, Mr Tibeyalirwa has ventured into a number of businesses, including hotels and rearing animals and in the process acquired skills that he applies to tree-growing. Born in Fort Portal, western Uganda, Mr Tibeyalirwa developed a passion for trees when he was still in school. He used to admire a pine plantation in Kyenjojo District, western Uganda, which belonged to Rukidi, the late King of Toro, and today managed by the National Forestry Authority (NFA). ”I used to admire the beauty of the forest and with the knowledge I acquired from school, I started appreciating the importance of forests,” he says. In his travels around the country, Mr Tibeyalirwa has witnessed extensive forest degradation. People are clearing natural forests for charcoal and timber. “I have realised there is a big difference between degraded and forested areas,” he says. “Forested areas are cooler and have cleaner air from the atmosphere compared to degraded ones.” In addition to appreciating the beauty that trees add to an area, Mr Tibeyalirwa knows he can make money from trees as a business. Mr Tibeyalirwa launched his tree-planting business eight years ago by planting on 15 hectares in Buhingiro Forest Reserve, Mugomba District, land that NFA allocated to him. He later acquired an additional 55 hectares in Wakiso. In total, he was allocated 70 hectares of land in the heavily encroached Central Forest Reserve. He has so far planted in three districts, namely, Wakiso, Kyegegwa and Kyenjojo. In addition to the forest reserve allocated by NFA, Mr Tibeyalirwa bought more 32 hectares, of which he planted recently.
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Miti July - September 2014
Species planted Mr Tibeyalirwa has planted several lots of Pinus caribaea. He has 15 hectares that is eight years old, 56 hectares that is five years old and 15 hectares that is three years old. He has also planted 38 hectares of Eucalyptus grandis. Ten hectares of this is four years old and the rest, a year old. He planted this variety because it grows fast and gives quality products within a short period. His total planted area is 124 hectares. The tree-grower obtained seedlings from the NFA-run Namanve Tree Seed Centre in Kampala, and the Kaggorra NFA Nursery at Kyarusozi in Kyenjojo District. However, some of the seedlings from NFA were not of good quality, contrary to his expectations. Most areas of Uganda have two rainy seasons - in March to May and September to November. Mr Tibeyalirwa plants during both rainy seasons. He employs two forestry technicians and over 250 casual labourers during the peak planting and weeding stages; and contractors for the thinning and pruning. Mr Tibeyalirwa feels honoured to be featured as a successful commercial tree farmer but considers his achievements modest. “I look forward to a time when I will harvest about 100 hectares in a single season; then I will count myself as being successful in commercial tree- growing,” he says.
Challenges encountered “Forestry is a very challenging venture,” says Mr Tibeyalirwa. “One needs to take care
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of many small details to get good results.” The biggest challenge he has faced is encroachment on the land allocated by NFA. Encroachers grazed animals on his newlyplanted trees, cut the eucalyptus trees for firewood and for construction and uprooted newly planted seedlings, creating one of the biggest setbacks to his forestry enterprise. NFA intervened by opening up the boundaries and evicting the encroachers. To get a permanent solution to the problem of encroachers, Mr Tibeyalirwa initiated dialogue with local communities and other stakeholders. The plantation also suffered fire outbreaks, a problem Mr Tibeyalirwa overcame by establishing fire lines and designating the local community as a fire-fighting crew in the area. “It is paramount to maintain a good working relations with neighbours and to visit and patrol the plantation continuously during the dry season,” he says. Commercial tree-planting is an expensive venture and one has to dig deep into one’s pocket to succeed. Each maintenance activity has to be performed at the correct time and requires resources.
Future plans Mr Tibeyalirwa hopes to acquire a sawmill because he can make more money from sown timber than from standing trees. His objective is to continue buying more land for planting trees until he has planted on a square mile1 At 1 mile = 1,600m; this amounts to 256 hectares. 1
then he will concentrate on maintaining what he has planted. This means that on top of his 124 hectares planted and the 32 hectares newly acquired, he needs an additional 100 hectares (250 acres). Mr Tibeyalirwa advises tree-growers to draw up detailed plans of activities and allocate each activity to a different group of people. One then needs to assess the progress of that particular activity during the planting season. One needs to plan carefully since most of the activities are time-bound and require a steady flow of resources and personnel. “Some of us started off by planting a big area, then we found we could not maintain it when it came to spraying, weeding, pruning and later, thinning,” he says. It is best to plant a manageable area per season and plant every year for five years, depending on the size of one’s land. “This allows a planter to spread expenditure and will not drain the project,” says Mr Tibeyalirwa. Through experience, Mr Tibeyalirwa has realised that it is better to grow trees on one’s own land. NFA land presents many problems with encroachers who think they have a right to government land even when it has been allocated to a grower. Because of this, for the last four years, Mr Tibeyalirwa has been planting on his privately owned land. The writer is the Country Representative, Miti magazine, Uganda Email:diana@mitiafrica.com
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FORESTRY
Trusting people to save a forest The Ngare Ndare Forest Trust empowers communities so as to take pressure off the woodland BY WANJIRU CIIRA
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embers of seven user-groups sit around a table discussing their needs. The groups are firewood collectors, water users, grazers, eco-tourism operators, herbal medicine collectors, beekeepers and lastly, youth and nursery groups. These are the user-groups of Ngare Ndare Forest, an indigenous forest set at the foothills of Mt Kenya, in a transitional zone towards lower lying areas Some of the ancient African olive (Olea europaea subspecies Africana) and pencil cedar (Juniperus procera) trees within the forest are thought to be around 200 years old. The forest is gazetted under the Forest Bill, and as such is under the protection of the Kenya Forest Service (KFS). It is 5,543 hectares, covering the escarpment linking the Mt Kenya highlands to the Laikipia plateau below. The forest, which supports a rich array of bird and animal life, is a vital corridor that links the Lewa Wildlife Conservancy to Mt Kenya, and one that elephants have been using for centuries. Elephant and buffalo are seen here frequently, as they make their way from Lewa to the lush grazing hills on the slopes of Mt Kenya. The forest is also important as a water catchment area, with numerous springs, and is the source the Uwaso Nyiro River. The springs form pools of pure, blue water, one of the tourist attractions of the forest. The communities living next to the Ngare Ndare Forest have grazed their cattle in the forest for decades, existing side by side with the wildlife. However, as populations increase, so does pressure on natural resources. In the 1980s, farmland became more developed on the southern side of the forest, and farmers clashed with elephants. In an attempt to eliminate fatal human-wildlife conflict, the forest was fenced off from southern farmland in 1992. To save the forest, preserve peace and transform people’s lives, the Ngare Ndare Forest Trust was registered in 2004. A concession management agreement was finalised with KFS in 2009. To ensure preservation of the forest, a number of initiatives have been put in place to offer the forest adjacent communities alternative means of earning a living or getting services.
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The Trust involves the different user groups in the management of the forest. This way, the user groups own the management process and help to implement it. To ease pressure on the forest for firewood, the Trust provides small farms in the area with tree seedlings, mainly eucalyptus and acacias, to plant for firewood and building materials. Over 1.5 million gum trees have been planted in the farms, and have made a huge difference to the incidents of illegal tree-felling. The Trust runs a tree nursery that grows 100,000 indigenous seedlings a year. Out of these, 50,000 are re-planted in degraded areas of the forest in an annual tree planting ceremony attended by many of the community members. The species planted include Acacia xanthophloea (fever tree, Naivasha thorn), Juniperus procera, Casuarina equisetifolia, Vepris simplicifolia (olgelai, ngela), Grevillea robusta (silky oak, mukima), Dovyalis caffra (kei apple), Cordia africana (muringa, muvuku, mukomari, samutet), Carissa spinarum (olamuriaki, lamuriei, mtandamboo), Prunus africana (red stinkwood, muiri, olkoijuk, kiburabura), Polyscias fulva (parasol tree, mutate, olyalilingi) and Croton megalocarpus (mukinduri, musine, muthulu), among others.
Outside the forest boundaries, the Trust has helped establish seven tree nurseries that are managed by the forest user-groups. For every seedling that Ngare Ndare community members buy at Ksh 10, the Trust gives them another seedling. “Our aim is to motivate and encourage the communities to plant woodlots, so we can preserve the forest,” says Solomon Mung’ori, the Head of Security at the Trust. Ngare Ndare Forest boasts the only canopy walk in East Africa. The one-kilometre-long boardwalk provides visitors with a monkey’s-eye-view of the flora and fauna below. Often, visitors experience the unrivalled thrill of watching black rhino, elephant and buffalo walk majestically (at least for the elephants) below. A number of walking and mountain bike trails snake through the forest, and guides are available to accompany visitors who wish to explore the forest. There are two campsites with basic facilities, so visitors can stay overnight. Together with Lewa Conservancy, Ngare Ndare Forest has been declared part of the world heritage site of the Mt Kenya ecosystem. The writer is the Managing Editor, Miti magazine. Email: wanjiru@mitiafrica.com
Miti July - September 2014
WATER MANAGEMENT
One of the many water ponds constructed in Makutano, in the Yatta Plateau, Eastern Province, under the inspiring leadership of the Christian Impact Mission. (Photo: BGF)
Liberated from hunger Water harvesting transforms the lives of the people of Kinyatta Location, in the Yatta Plateau BY JAN VANDENABEELE
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he Yatta Plateau is a prominent geological feature in the south-eastern Kenyan landscape. It stands out as a long stretch of elevated land, from Garissa Road down to the midst of Tsavo East National Park. The southern part of the plateau can be seen from Mombasa Road. At 300 kilometres, the plateau is the longest lava flow in the world. Its origin goes back to the Mid-Miocene (that is 16 to 11.6 million years ago), when lava flowed in the valley of the original Athi River. Mixed with steam and water, the lava covered the whole floodplain until it came to a standstill in the Athi delta, the coastline of that time, today in the extreme south-eastern part of Kitui. Due to its higher resistance to erosion relative to the surrounding basement rocks, this flow now stands out as the Yatta Plateau. The volcanic rocks that make up the plateau are called phonolites. When hit by a hammer, they ring like a church bell. The impact of climate has weathered the rocks, breaking them down into clays, either red or black. These clays overlay the rock, making the whole area impenetrable
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to rain, with lots of run-off as a result, and poor infiltration in the soil. Talking about rain, there is not much of it. The average annual rainfall in the northern Yatta Plateau, at an altitude of 1280 metres above sea level (masl), fluctuates between 300 - 400mm, more inclined to 300mm over the last few years
(source: Bishop Masika). However, the agroecological map of Kenya gives a range of 450 - 900mm for the broad surrounding area. This is the home of Christian Impact Mission (CIM), on a piece of land bought by Bishop Titus Masika, close to Makutano village in Kinyatta Location, Yatta District, Machakos County. This
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is a semi-arid place, with no watering points on the plateau itself, only Athi River on its western flanks. This information of soil and rain is required to understand why the massive introduction of water ponds has been so successful.
The human factor For the people living there, life can be hard. And during the dry years of 2006 to 2009, there was such a serious food shortage that the government and donor agencies had to provide relief food (mwolyo in Kikamba). This and past episodes of famine had reduced the people to dependency on hand-outs. Bishop Masika was born and grew up in Masii, a little to the south of Makutano. A teacher by profession, he rose to become a head teacher in a high school, before going into ministry. Some 20 years ago, he bought land in Makutano during the rainy season, when the land was green and welcoming. However, the land looked very different during the dry season and Bishop Masika came to the conclusion that he had acquired property in the wrong place. However, he decided to stick to it and reverse the situation. Among other things, he planted thousands of grevillea and eucalyptus trees. However, except for some eucalyptus, all the other trees died during the drought of 2007 - 2008. During this dry period, Bishop Masika invested in digging a pond for harvesting rainwater. It worked. Thirsty neighbours and their livestock would beg for water. But most importantly, the bishop could not face the helplessness of the people. He started
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an amazing transformation of the whole area. He knew that self-sufficiency and food security was possible. Bishop Masika decided to use the church as his entry point, using the Bible to convince people during sermons, discussions and seminars that they had within themselves the power to change their situation. After the death of his mother in 2005, Bishop Masika mobilised a group of elderly women to start goat-rearing and selling. He gave them start-up capital of Ksh 10,000 each, as a gift. The women became staunch supporters of his transformation programme and a centre-piece of the community mobilisation.
“These were the people who started digging the first water ponds, hungry and weak as they were,� he says. Bishop Masika founded CIM, and launched Operation Mwolyo Out (OMO). No more relief food. No more waiting in queues to get hand-outs. No more accepting the harsh environment without trying to change it. No more looking out for government officials to give advice that does not work. Instead, the people would use a whole range of technologies, starting with harvesting rainwater. To make that spiritual U-turn was not easy. Even within his own church, the Bishop faced resistance from members who felt that the sacred should not be mixed with the secular.
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Parts of the Yatta plateau are literally dotted with water storage ponds. These ensure food security in a harsh semi-arid climate characterised by low Acacia drepanolobium (whistling thorn) bushes and a couple of Acacia mellifera (wait-a-bit thorn) trees. (Photo: BGF
But Bishop Masika felt that liberation from physical bondage had to come before spiritual development.
The water ponds
After each rainstorm, water was running off the land, and simple observation showed the locals where to locate their water storage ponds (silanga). Today, over 2,000 ponds exist, and the movement continues, both in creating new ones, and in deepening existing ones. On her farm in Makutano sub location, Kinyatta Location, Jacinta Mutiso has a pond that is roughly 15 metres wide, 30 metres long and about 1.8 metres deep; with a capacity for 900 – 1000 cubic metres of water. It took her three years and Ksh 100,000 to get that far. This works to about Ksh 1 per litre of stored water, for one season. As the pond fills up again every season, the investment per litre becomes less. Ms Mutiso is now investing another Ksh 100,000 to deepen her pond to 3 metres. The digging is not easy. The upside of the rocky underground and the heavy clay soils is that there is no infiltration or seepage of water, so no plastic dam liners are needed. But the downside is that digging into the rotten rock (the weathered phonolites) underlying the clay is a hard job. By now, the people of Kinyatta Location are quite knowledgeable about harvesting water. There are specialised diggers, whose services are greatly sought after, roads are recognised as catchment areas and their run-off guided by trenches towards the ponds. It is amazing to see the landscape dotted with mounds of soil, as every farm has one or two
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dams now. Richer individuals pay bulldozers to dig their ponds. Other ponds we saw were larger than Ms Mutiso’s, with potential to store 2,000 – 4,000 cubic metres. The ponds are roughly rectangular, with rather steep walls so that the surface area is kept to a minimum and evaporation by sun and wind is also minimal. They are fed by catchment areas close by, or further away, through trenches.
feet, filled with organic matter and manure and space left for collecting rainwater. Making pits is labour-intensive, but it pays. The crops have enough nutrition and water to come to full fruition and yield. Farmers irrigate their land manually, using the Money-maker pump, or by small petrol pumps. Of late, some farmers have taken to using solar-powered pumps, although these only work when there is sunshine.
Appropriate agricultural technologies
Transformation
Under normal rainfall, the ponds supply enough water for irrigation all year round. As the April rains this year were low, some ponds have dried while others contain little water. Crops like mango and pawpaw are thirsty now, and it shows. Cash crops like onions, tomatoes, or bullet chillies and watermelons have to wait. The little water available goes to maintaining the livestock. The people have invested considerably in improved dairy cattle breeds. On each farm there is a stack of grass and maize stalks to get the animals through the dry season, and a cattle boma from where manure is collected for use in the field. So the circle is complete. But the fields are different now. Instead of complete ploughing which triggers erosion both by wind and water when the first rains fall, often in torrential form, the farmers now use conservation agriculture with an important mulching component. Farmers cultivate small areas, called zai pits or bigger pits called beds. Zai pits are 2 x 2 x 2
Kinyatta Location has undergone a transformation. Most farms have neat brick houses and motorised vehicles (like tricycles) are evident. People are innovative and are using interesting techniques to improve their crops. They for instance graft pawpaws to get rid of non-producing male plants. Bishop Masika has developed a passion for tree growing, and sees great potential in growing of mukau (Melia volkensii), for timber, and moringa (Moringa oleifera) for medicinal uses. Conservation and zero-grazing have encouraged grass to grow back in the area. And the transformation goes on, with value addition like baking bread using flour from locally grown sweet potatoes. The model is working and spreading to other areas, benefiting more people. Bishop Masika continues to play a leading role, and sees his community prospering. The writer is the Executive Director, Better Globe Forestry Email: jan@betterglobeforestry.com
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Ambassador talks about Better Globe Forestry Bart Ouvry, the Ambassador of Belgium to Kenya, talked to Wanjiru Ciira, the Managing Editor of Miti magazine, on his impressions about the work BGF is doing in its plantations. Below are excerpts from the interview: What do you think about Better Globe Forestry? What is so remarkable about Better Globe Forestry is that they are engaged in a sustainable activity. This is not the classical cooperation that we had in the 60s, 70s and 80s. These are private people who want to invest in an activity that is important for improving the lives of Kenyans, and do so in a sustainable way. This is a long term private investment that should bring a return on investment; it has to be a profitable venture. There should be a return both for the investor and the people in Kenya. How would you describe what you have seen at the BGF plantations in Kiambere and in Witu-Nyongoro? For me, my most important observation is that BGF has a very strong link with the local people. Every time I visited, we had a meeting with the local people. This is not just a foreign project bringing technology and know-how from abroad. It is a project that involves the local people. It creates jobs, supports education, and is sensitive to the security needs of the people. There is a real effort to integrate the local population into the project. What do you think about the leadership and integrity of BGF? I think their main strength is that they are always keen to listen. They bring technical knowledge and capital, but are always willing to listen to the local people. If at the beginning they did not listen enough to the local people, they would make mistakes that could have been avoided. They have taken in this lesson very well and are always ready to accept solutions which local people can offer. What do you think about BGF’s way of financing their plantations by selling trees as long-term investments to people worldwide? The financing of Better Globe is a formula which is very close to crowd funding. It’s not just one big investor or country bringing in a chunk of money. They really want to have as many stakeholders as possible. Everyone who invests in BGF is not just bringing in money – but is a stakeholder in
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terms of sustainable development and is thus committed to both the environment and the wellbeing of Kenyans. BGF organises travel for their investors so they can see how their investment is faring and what it means for the people of Kenya. What do you think massive tree-planting will do for the communities? Planting trees bring in jobs and has long-term benefits for the environment – for example, ensuring we receive regular rains and acting as a water reservoir for the country. We need more forest cover in Kenya. Over the last 100 years, the forest cover here has diminished tremendously. This has now been stopped, to a large extent, but we need more trees to maintain the blessed climate that many regions in Kenya enjoy. How do you think planting trees will help the people of Kenya? Tree-planting will improve things at different levels. In the long term, it will improve the environment but it will also create new economic activities such as production of wood both for local consumption as well as for export, something that Kenya needs. Kenya needs to have more export commodities. There is tea, coffee – but there is no reason why Kenya cannot export sustainably produced timber or even other products like furniture made from high quality timber. Why do you think BGF has MoUs with KEFRI,
KFS and ICRAF? BGF is not just a private company that wants to make profits – they also want to improve livelihoods. They do this locally through their plantations but they also want to have an impact globally, so some of their activities involve offering transfer of knowledge and experience in forestry. BGF wants other organisations to take advantage of their experience in Kenya. What do you think about the forestry information that BGF shares with others through Miti magazine? Growing trees is a long-term project. For that reason, it is important to share information with professionals, the youth and others about afforestation because forests are an investment for the future. Miti magazine encourages people to plant trees, shows how they can make money from trees, and informs readers about BGF’s activities. Should more people, companies and organisations support tree-planting in Africa? BGF’s model is one of sustainable development. They are creating jobs in semi-arid zones, areas where it is very difficult to create livelihoods and grow crops. They are not competing with the growing of food crops in the more fertile areas but are offering a means of earning a living to people who had none in arid and semi-arid areas. This is a model for others to follow: combine environmental action with social development.
Miti April - June 2014
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