Gums and resins trade in Kenya Indigenous trees in Uganda Rain water harvesting in Kitui The giant yellow mulberry Subscription only
THE TREE FARMERS MAGAZINE FOR AFRICA
A Publication of Better Globe Forestry
Issue No.29 January-March 2016
Regional market boosts forest products Roads, construction increase tree value in East Africa
Eucalyptus now tree of choice in Uganda Power poles, furniture, fast-growth rate key to preference
A day in the life of a forester Insights into joys, fears of forest sector
New opportunities in trees Honey, shea-butter gain acceptance
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36 Issue No 29 January - March 2016
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Editorial
Knowing the Trends and Opportunities in forestry
25
Towards improved marketing of Non-Wood Forest Products in Uganda
4
News and Events
By Fred Kalanzi
Forests to aid in achieving development goals
27
Can a Farmer make money from Indigenous trees?
5
Trends and opportunities in forestry development in East Africa
By Joel Buyinza & Clement Okia
By Joshua Cheboiwo & Jan Vandenabeele
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Which perspectives for East African indigenous tree species?
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Uganda’s tree farmers now prioritizing growing eucalyptus trees
By Quentin Meunier
Charles Odeke with Bariho Robert
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Gums and resins production and trade in Kenya
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Ikiugu: A day in the life of a forester
By Meshack Muga and Chikamai, B
By Jane Gitau
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Vegetation of the Menengai Caldera
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A rare Fruit tree with cultural value: The Giant Yellow Mulberry
By Francis Gachathi
By Francis Gachathi
15
Forests and Landscape Restoration
By the Kenya Redd+ Coodination Office
36 Rainwater harvesting evaluation in Kitui County By James Daniel Okoth
16 The evolution and state of forestry in Uganda
By Gershom Onyango
19
Recycling to the last notch: Transafric Timber values every bit of wood
By Jane Gitau
21
Pictorial: Transformation of logs into doors in an integrated production process
39 Rainfall trends in the Lake Victoria Basin, Uganda By Egeru Anthony
Gums and resins trade in Kenya Indigenous trees in Uganda Rain water harve sting in Kitui The giant yellow mulberry Subscription only A Publi catio n of Bette r Glob e Fores try
THE TREE FARMERS
22 Way forward for Kenya in commercial forestry
By FOMAWA
23
Commercialisation of wild plants: the case of Prunus africana
By Alice Nyivuru Okecha
MAGAZINE
FOR AFRICA
Issue No.2 9 Janu ary-M
On the cover:
Beautifully shaped poles, for construction and fencing purposes, out of peeled pine logs
Photo BGF.
Regional ma rket boosts forest produc ction increas ts e tree value in East Africa Eucalyptus no w tree of ch Power poles, oice in Ugan furniture, fast -growth rate da key to prefere nce A day in the life of a fores Insights into ter joys, fears of fore Roads, constru
st sector
New opportun ities in trees utter gain acc ept
Honey, shea-b
ance
arch 2016
Editorial
Dear readers,
I
f there is anything I hate writing, it is editorials. But as freshly promoted Editor-in-Chief, it is part of the duties. This being said, the lead theme for this issue of Miti magazine, number 29 in a series that goes back to January 2009, is “Trends and opportunities in forestry development”. Now, that’s quite a subject. It is ably addressed by Joshua Cheboiwo (and myself in a minor way) in the opening article, where we highlight some of the developments in East African forestry, such as the increasing switch to growing eucalypts instead of pines & cypresses, the push towards dryland afforestation, the appreciation of Non-Wood Forest Products and the opening market of the East African Community where over 150 million consumers are eager to consume forestry products. These themes are further exploited by Charles Odeke & Robert Bariiho on how Ugandan growers increasingly plant eucalyptus, and commercialisation of wild plants like Prunus africana by Alice Okecha. Fred Kalanzi from the National Forest Resource Research Institute in Uganda explains the marketing problems of Non-Wood Forest Products, with valuable shea products (karité) taking a prominent place, from a tree (Vitellaria paradoxa) that grows from the West-African savanna towards Uganda but for its own reasons stops before reaching Kenya or Tanzania. The question whether it is possible to make money from indigenous tree species, instead of from the ubiquitous eucalyptus, is answered by Joel Buyinza & Clement Okia, and it is yes, through a surprising variety of products that include bark cloth (!). They don’t say whether it can withstand machine washing, but it seems to be very fashionable (makes me think of an Icelandic fellow that visited us in the office some weeks ago, gaining a living from selling treated fish skins (!) from Lake Victoria to make shoes, counting on some serious brands as clients). What next? Well, gums & resins from drylands, are explained by Meshack Muga & Ben Chikamai, both being authorities on the subject. Very interesting and scientifically sound, underpinned by a map made by the Kenya Forestry Research Institute, showing where the resources grow (or not). Further on, there are the usual articles of general nature. Jane Gitau gives a day in the life of Cosmas Ikiugu, Head of Mau Conservancy of the Kenya Forest Service, including a short visit to one of the gazetted areas under his management Menengai Crater in Nakuru. Francis Gachathi gives insight to plants in that crater and also writes about the giant yellow mulberry, Quentin Meunier on the perspectives of tree species indigenous to Uganda, and Gershom Onyango on the evolution of forestry in Uganda. Last but not least, there are two articles on water; one on rainwater harvesting in semi-arid Kitui County in Kenya (by James Daniel Okoth) and the other one on the weather patterns governing rain in and around Lake Victoria (by Anthony Egeru). Happy reading. Jan Vandenabeele
Published by:
Chairman of the Editorial Board:
Managing Editor
Better Globe Forestry Ltd No. 4, Tabere Crescent, Kileleshwa P.O. Box 823 – 00606 Nairobi, Kenya Tel: + 254 20 434 3435 Mobile: + 254 718 173 388 Email: kenya@mitiafrica.com www.betterglobeforestry.com
Rino Solberg
Jane Gitau
Editor-in-chief
Country Director - Uganda Julie Solberg
Uganda office: MITI MAGAZINE ® Plot 92, Luthuli Avenue, Bugolobi P.O. Box 22232 Kampala, Uganda Mobile: + 256 775 392 597 Email: uganda@mitiafrica.com www.betterglobeforestry.com
2
Jan Vandenabeele
Editorial Committee - Kenya Joshua Cheboiwo, Francis Gachathi, Keith Harley, Enock Kanyanya, James Kung’u, Rudolf Makhanu, Fridah Mugo, Jackson Mulatya, Mary Njenga, Alex Oduor, Leakey Sonkoyo, Jean-Paul Deprins, Jan Vandenabeele and Jane Gitau
Editorial Committee - Uganda Gerald Eilu, Hillary Agaba, Dickens Sande Bueno, Ponsiano Besesa, Paul Buyera, Sarah Akello Esimu, Dennis Kavuuma, Patrick Byakagaba and Diana Ahebwe
Country Representative - Uganda Diana Ahebwe
Designer Daniel N. Kihara COPYRIGHT © BETTER GLOBE FORESTRY ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Miti January - March 2016
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NEWS AND EVENTS
Forests to aid in achieving sustainable development goals BY JANE GITAU
T
he African Forestry and Wildlife Commission (AFWC) has been invited to work closely with the United Nations Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) to identify indicators for forests’ contributions to the newly launched Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The invitation was made by Eva Müller, FAO’s Director of Forest Economic Policy and Products Division. She was addressing the 20th Session of AFWC held 1st -5th February 2016 in Nairobi at the Kenyatta International Conference Centre. The Director added that members of the Collaborative Partnership on Forests (CPF) could support country implementation if requested by the Commission. This would cover the integration of climate change into forest and related sectors including dryland forest management, through the Forest Landscape Restoration (FLR) program, mountain development and to strengthen the response to climate change mitigation and adaptation. She observed that the UN Forest Instrument is a useful framework for implementation of the SDGs, and integrating climate change into their National Forestry Plans would help reflect forests adequately in their climate change strategies and plans. Speaking at the same occasion, John Fonweban, the Forestry Officer at the UN REDD Programme, FAO, noted that the successful implementation of REDD+ requires support (funding & technical for capacity building) provided through multi-lateral and bilateral agencies and to a lesser extent by the private sector. The UN-REDD Programme is the United Nations collaborative initiative on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD) launched in 2008. It builds on the convening role and technical expertise of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). The programme supports national readiness efforts in Partner Countries in Africa, Asia-Pacific and Latin America, in their readiness process. Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania are among the UN REDD Partner Countries in Africa. It envisions
that developing countries have significantly reduced their forest and land-based emissions, as a result of incentives from a performancebased REDD+ mechanism, while achieving national development goals in a sustainable and equitable manner. The Cancun Agreement (COP16) defined the three-phased approach to implementation of REDD+ mechanism which includes preparatory or readiness phase (Phase 1), pilot demonstration (phase 2) and results-based (Phase 3). The speaker observed that most countries are still at the readiness stage, (Phase 1) which requires undertaking developing a national strategy or action plan (NS/AP), designing & implementing a National Forest Monitoring System (NFMS) for REDD+ activities, establishing a National Forest (Emissions) Levels (FREL/FRL) and developing a system to ensure that safeguards are addressed and respected. The theme of the 20th Session of African Forestry and Wildlife Commission (AFWC), “Sustainable Management of Forests and Wildlife in Africa: Enchaining Values, Benefits and Services” was selected to highlight and implement the many facets of sustainable management of forestry and wildlife, and to fully capture their importance in sustaining the livelihood of millions of people, supporting sustainable development in the
region. Some of the key issues discussed were: Forestry and climate change adaptation and mitigation; Non –wood forest products , opportunities and challenges; Implementation of forest and wildlife policies in Africa, harmonizing policies and laws to reduce growing conflict on land use Value addition and trade in timber and nontimber forest products in Africa Enhancing sustainability and efficiency of wood fuel production and consumption Early in the history of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), countries recognized the importance of building international cooperation in forestry. This spearheaded the formation of national subcommittees that would be used to represent major geographical regions of the world. Consequently, six Regional Forestry Commissions were established. These are: European Forestry Commission Latin America and Caribbean Forestry Commission Asia Pacific Forest Commission Near East Forest Commission African Forest and Wildlife Commission North American Forest Commission. The writer is the Managing Editor of Miti Magazine. Email: jane@mitiafrica.com
Miti January - March 2016
LEAD THEME Integrated processing of wood products: charcoal briquettes from pine sawdust (Rosoga Investments Ltd, Rift Valley Province). Photo BGF
Trends and opportunities in forestry development in East Africa BY JOSHUAH CHEBOIWO AND JAN VANDENABEELE
R
ecent investors in the vibrant Eucalyptus sector have targeted the wooden transmission poles and industrial firewood sector across the country due to profitability. The investors range from smallholders to private companies that differ only in scale, from small woodlots of tens of trees, to large estates of up to 400 hectares (Cheboiwo 2013). Tremendous competition however, is being experienced from the use of concrete poles that has driven prices and profit margins down. The projections indicate that many Eucalyptus growers may need to diversify their product portfolios into the high-demand sawnwood sector. Eucalyptus has provided timber for many years to many users in western Kenya and currently accounts for 80% of marketed sawnwood in rural areas and small urban centres. Unfortunately, in most cases it is produced at lower quality that cannot meet the standards for construction. In the Americas, Chile and Brazil have invested
Miti January - March 2016
heavily in timber production from Eucalyptus for local use and export to Europe by adopting appropriate stocking densities and pruning schedules for higher end quality production. The companies have also invested in efficient processing machinery and seasoning procedures to produce premium hardwood timber for various uses. The success cases of the Americas can be adopted in Kenya by many Eucalyptus growers through acquisition of efficient processing and seasoning technologies for production of premium timber that can compete with mahogany timber in the country’s markets as well as for regional export markets. The first step will be provision of technical support to Eucalyptus growers to respace their woodlots and plantations from polewood production to those for timber production. Secondly, local saw millers or forest owners need to purchase and deploy appropriate processing and seasoning technologies. The country still maintains a timber deficit and hence markets for
premium timber are huge and can compete with hardwood imports from DRC.
The opening of a truly East African market Many countries globally are forming regional blocks solely to promote trade and economic developments through market integration. This is aimed at creating larger markets to attract investors and enable a smooth flow of goods and services. Within the umbrella of the African Economic Community (AEC), an organ of African Union (AU), there are various economic blocks; notably the East African Community (EAC) and the Common Market for East and Southern Africa (COMESA). Others relevant to Kenya are the Southern African Development Community (SADC) and the Community of Sahelian-Sahara African States (CEN-SAD). These economic blocks include countries rich in forestry resources like Tanzania, DR Congo, Congo, Angola, the Central Africa Republic, Gabon
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Kenya’s regional network plans: (i) railway from Mombasa to Bujumbura (Burundi) and Kisangani (DRC), (ii) Lamu port to Juba (South Sudan),and (iii) Nairobi to Addis Ababa (Ethiopia)
and Cameroun. The forest types found in these countries include tropical rain forest, tropical moist forests, tropical dry forests, mountain forests, mangrove forests and tropical lowland woodlands that can produce goods and services driving economic development. Similarly, investment in forest-based industries and value addition businesses within the region will create employment opportunities, wealth and reduce imports of wood-based products from outside the region. The market opportunities for forest-based industries are enormous; AEC membership countries count approximately 860 million people, COMESA 190 million and EAC 150 million. Raw hardwoods and softwood roundwoods can be processed into tradeable products such as hardwood timber, charcoal, reconstituted wood products (such as plywood, boards, paper products, parquets), treated transmission poles and other allied products that can be traded within the regional blocks. The development of the Northern Road Corridor, the Southern Road Corridor and the Great Northern Road, and subsequent agreements among countries in the region, has already opened up the timber trade between Kenya and DRC, Tanzania and South Sudan and is likely to expand to the Central Africa Republic, Angola and Cameroun. Local and international players need to position themselves to take advantage of the existing regional opportunities to invest in processing and trade in the wide range of forest allied products to meet the growing demand for timber products from a booming construction sector and strong economic growth currently being witnessed in the region.
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Increased cultivation of bamboo Bamboo is touted as a fast growing plant and Kenya is lucky that there many species that can be grown under its various ecological zones. Bamboo is very useful in stabilizing top soils and conservation of water quality and is good for protection of fragile areas such as steep slopes and riverine areas. An undisturbed crop can carry about 10,000-17,000 stems per hectare with the capacity to produce 100 tonnes of air dry weight of culms (Kigomo, 1988). Species range from the local indigenous Yushania alpina (thriving between 2,400 and 3,350masl), to others, imported from Asia. Y. alpina is restricted to the mountain ranges of Mt Kenya, the Aberdares, Mt Elgon, and the Cherangany and Mau Complex where it occupies an estimated 155,821 hectares. On average it is estimated that its life cycle is 40 years before mass flowering and death occurs (Wimbush, 1945) during which it can produce 3,700-4,000 culms per hectare every three years. The country has embarked on rigourous bamboo production on farms through introduction of eight lowland Asiatic bamboo species. It also has undertaken some robust measures to promote expansion of bamboo growing, including awareness creation, building capacity on propagation and nursery management, and training on product harvesting and processing. These developments culminated into the recent drafting of a bamboo policy paper that is aimed at facilitating the promotion of bamboo as one of the key intervention measures for supply of materials to cottage industries. Kenya held an international bamboo
workshop in April 2014 to share experiences with key players in the bamboo sector that involved local investors, experts, farmers, and international agencies engaged in bamboo promotion. Some nascent investors on nursery production, commercial growing and processing have started in earnest in various parts of the country. However, there are some outstanding issues that are yet to be addressed that include rigorous evaluation of economic potential contribution to household livelihoods through some cost-benefit analysis of bamboo enterprises, guidelines on commercilization of bamboo and development of efficient market value chains. However, any fast-growing plant requires serious amounts of water, and secondly, bamboo displays an invasive nature. Does that sound a bell (eucalyptus & drying of streams, and prosopis/mathenge)?
Increased planting of indigenous species People slowly become aware of the many benefits indigenous species have, though they cannot (yet) be exploited as profitably as the conventional pine, cypress, grevillea and eucalyptus. Sometimes it’s about cultural values (fig trees), or traditionally valued species such as mutuya (Myrianthus holstii, see further in this magazine) and murathina (the sausage tree – Kigelia Africana), to name but a few. An example of commercial value is however Melia volkensii (mukau), a species that due to its outstanding ability to produce value in semiarid areas, in the form of prime timber, is being planted more and more in the country side. This is both in woodlots and in an agroforestry
Miti January - March 2016
context. Because of its fast growth, it is poised for mass-scale planting.
A push by industries towards integrated processing Roundwood is converted into various products ranging from furniture and construction wood, to biomass energy for both domestic and industrial uses. The conversion processes have varied recovery rates. In the saw milling sector, processing is done through technologies such as sawmills, mobile saw benches, pit sawing and power saws. It is estimated that 65% of roundwood comes from public plantations, processed by sawmills, while 35% comes from private, community and farm forests, processed by mobile sawmilling technologies. The estimated recovery rates for sawmills are between 26% and 35%, translating into an average of 32% while that of mobile saws is estimated at 25%. Other forms of processing (plywood, pulp, paper and particle boards) take an average of 5% of the total roundwood supply, with recovery rates of 95% (Githiomi 2012). Processing trees into poles and firewood is mostly done at stump site with a processing efficiency estimated at 95% for both products. Roundwood processing into charcoal has the most inefficient conversion rate with a 16% recovery (ENSDA, 2005). This shows that the highest losses are recorded in charcoal and saw milling. This inefficiency is attributed to the use of old, inappropriate, inefficient machinery and lack of provisions towards integrated approaches in roundwood utilization. The use of inefficient technologies is a problem in wood-based SMEs and other smallscale operators that still use old machinery. Most operators attribute the low recovery rates to lack of supportive policies on technology access. The country needs to move from single product processing into integrated processing units that utilize the roundwood completely, and go into many reconstituted wood products such as charcoal briquettes, fancy products, biomass energy and many others that leave no by-products unused. A recent study on volumes of wood products available after processing, indicates that nearly a third is lost during processing - out of a total wood supply of 31,372,531m3, 11,979,146m3 is lost during processing; leaving only 19,428,576 m3 available for the intended purposes (MEWNR, 2013). Public and private sector agencies that support forestry sector development need urgent support in their efforts to provide access to efficient technologies for integrated use in the wood industry.
Miti January - March 2016
Increased exploitation of NonWood Forest Products (NWFPs) The country over the years has attempted to exploit its vast non-timber resources to enhance its socio-economic development. The NWFPs so far developed, range from gums and resins, baobab and tamarind fruits, prunus bark and black wattle bark among many other minor resources. In Kenya many communities use tamarind (Tamarindus indica) fruits to treat various ailments such as abdominal pain, diarrhea and dysentery among others since it is rich in phytochemicals, and hence possess antidiabetic, microbial, venomic oxidant and anti-malarial activity. Thus the plant has potential for commercial utilization in medicinal and pharmacologic activities. The ripe fruit is usually eaten fresh and also made into juice, jam, syrup and candy in India, something that can be adopted by local firms. The baobab (Adansonia digitata) fruit has the potential to play an important role in family nutrition and food security in marginalized rural communities. Traditional use of baobab has largely remained subsistence with a minimal outflow to markets to generate incomes producers. However, baobab products have a growing market in the country, Europe and the US. In its good days the East African Wattle and Extract Company (EATEC) had 10,000 hectares under black wattle (Acacia mearnsii), producing 25,000 tonnes of wattle bark per year. The exit of EATEC saw the closure of the tannin extract factory in Eldoret, leaving the country with only three factories in Nairobi and Thika. These are still being sustained by small-holder bark supplies from North Rift, Central and Eastern Kenya and imports from Tanzania. The tannins are critical for the
country’s leather industry that rose from 9 plants in 2005 to 13 in 2009, with a capital investment of KES 3.8 billion (USD 38 million). Their production rose from 5,000 tonnes in 2003 to 20,000 tonnes in 2007. The turn-around has been largely due to an increase on tax levied on raw hide export from 20% in 2006 to 40% in 2007.The leather industries directly employs 4,000 people. However, the country’s black wattle extract exports fell from 5,340 tonnes in 2002 to 46 tonnes by 2008. This was due to a combination of falling production of bark (the closure of EATEC) and increased domestic demand because of the expanding leather tanning sector (requirements: up to 10,000 tonnes of tannin per year). The main importers of tannin from Kenya were UK and India. Tannin demand in the country is expected to increase with the growth of the domestic leather sector. Aloes are a group of succulent plant varieties adapted to dryland conditions that have emerged as an important resource for production of various medicinal and industrial products. Key Aloe species of high value include Aloe turkanensis and Aloe secondiflora, containing highly valued aloin, sought after for body lotions and medicinal products. There are two aloe products processors in the country; Pwani Aloe Processors based at the Coast, and the Baringo Bio-enterprise based in Baringo County. They purchase and process indigenous aloe products for local and export markets. The sector is still at its infancy stages and likely to expand due to high interest from various investment groups. However, global trade in indigenous aloe products is regulated under CITES and therefore local producers eyeing international markets have to undertake a rigorous procedure to
7
LEAD THEME
put in place sustainable management practices that meet stringent licensing requirements by Kenya Wildlife Services (KWS). Prunus (Prunus africana) bark products are used in the treatment of prostate cancer, common with ageing population mostly in developed countries but also receiving local attention. The Prunus bark is traded in various forms such as dried bark, bark extracts, herbal concoctions, capsules and tonics (Schippmann, 2001). Kenya is listed among the leading countries in planting of P. Africana, accounting for 628 hectares out of 878 hectares found in Africa. A recent study in western Kenya (Gachie et al, 2014) showed that Prunus africana is one of the widely retained or planted indigenous species in small-holder farms with a mean density of 0.8 trees per household. The species is mostly planted for ornamental purposes and medicinal use. In the local markets the bark is sold in various forms; mostly air-dried bark, ground bark powder and herbal liquid concoctions. The Prunus bark trade and associated activities have the potential to generate income in excess of KES 3 billion ($35 million) to the country’s economy annually. To realise this however, the country needs to put in place policies and legal structures to promote planting, sustainable harvesting procedures and appropriate extraction technologies. Gums and resins (from Acacia, Commiphora and Boswellia species) are among the most valuable dryland woodland resources to ASAL communities. Most gums and resins produced in Kenya are exported in raw form and only small quantities are processed into essential oils for domestic uses. The current annual global demand for gum arabic is about 100,000 MT projected to grow to 150,000 MT by 2020 (Muller and Okoro, 2005). The country is estimated to have the potential to produce 3,000 MT of gums and 3,500 MT of resins, as compared to current production of 400-500 MT for gum arabic and 1,000MT of gum resins (Luvanda, 2015). The sector is undergoing some transformation with the entry of several agencies to promote sustainable management and utilization of gums and resins. Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI) in collaboration with the Ewaso Nyiro North Development Authority (ENNDA), the Centre for Training and Integrated Research in ASAL Development (CETRAD) and many CBOs such as Mandate For Future (MTF) have trained people on production and post harvesting handling procedures (Wekesa, et al, 2013). New developments include the opening of one processor in the country (Vetochem)
8
that extracts opoponax essential oils through distillation. Arid Land Resources Limited (ALRL) adds value to gum arabic by grinding and grading before export. So far, trade in gums and resins has remained a largely informal business due to various factors that range from a nonconducive environment for business, availability, quantity, quality and operational economics (Wekesa et al, 2013).
More industrial demand for wood energy
The key uses of industrial firewood in the country are the textile and food processing industries, chemical processes and recently generation of electricity. The major supplier of industrial firewood is the small-holder tree growers spread across the country. One of the major consumers of industrial firewood is the tea sector which is one of the major agricultural activities contributing to both GDP and foreign exchange. The tea sector in Kenya consists of the small-holders affiliated to the Kenya Tea Development Agency (KTDA, with 65 factories constituting 80% of tea output in the country) and the large-scale sector affiliated to Kenya Tea Growers Association (KTGA, with 29 factories accounting for 20%). The KTGA affiliated factories were the first group to realize the cost savings of switching from furnace oil to firewood. Firewood use in tea processing has triple benefits because (i) it increases profitability of the sector by cutting costs, (ii) it saves foreign exchange and (iii) it increases overall incomes to tea growers that supply firewood to factories. In 2010 the tea sector demand for firewood stood at 1,592,000 m3 with an estimated value of Kshs 2.2 billion. KTDA accounted for 60%. To sustain the demand for firewood by KTDA affiliated factories, requires a total of 22,800 hectares of forest plantations
to be planted, with an equivalent annual output value of KES 1.3 billion (Cheboiwo, 2012). Recent development has diversified electricity generation from traditional water, hydro and geothermal infrastructure, towards use of woody biomass for steam technology and gasification processes. BIDCO, a vegetable oil manufacturer in Thika, uses firewood to fire a steam turbine to generate 2 KW electricity for its use. Cummins Cogeneration Ltd in Marigat (Baringo County) currently nearing completion, will utilize Prosopis juliflora to produce 10-30 MW through gasification. The biomass energy sector is expanding and woody wastes are likely to have market as the country expands its electricity generation through mixes of sources with green-based technology. Cummins has organized the local communities into CBOs that will be contracted to supply Prosopis wood to the factory from their own farms and community lands. Cummins estimates it will require 240,000 tonnes of Prosopis wood per year to produce 30 MW electricity. Cummins counts on a potential yield of 12,000 tonnes per hectare, for well-stocked Prosopis areas. The country therefore has great opportunities in production of biomass energy, ranging from firewood to drive industrial processes, to power generation for instutional use and domestic businesses. Joshua Cheboiwo is the Deputy Director, Socioeconomics, Policy and Governance, Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI). Email: jcheboiw@kefri.org or jkchemangare@yahoo. com. Jan Vandenabeele is the Editor in Chief of MITI Magazine, Email: jan@betterglobeforestry. com;
Miti January - March 2016
LEAD THEME
Uganda’s Tree Farmers now prioritizing growing eucalyptus trees BY CHARLES ODEKE WITH BARIHO ROBERT
U
ganda’s tree farmers have actively taken on tree growing, both for their long-term financial security but also for climate change mitigation. In a country with an average loss of forest cover estimated at 92,000 ha per annum (NEMA 2008) and whose timber demand is estimated at 150,000ha (NFA 2001), this is a more than welcome move. Uganda’s Forestry industry is still young and is fast developing, thanks to the rising interest by the private sector in investing in commercial tree growing since 2004/5. This was when the
Large (>500ha) 34%
Small (25-100ha) 24%
Medium (101-500ha) 42%
Figure 1: Number of SPGS II contracted clients by category 2009 - 2015 Source: SPGS II Project closure report, 2015
Sawlog Production Grant Scheme (SPGS)1 kicked off this drive. Due to the boost by the private sector, the recent Value Chain Study of the Commercial Forestry Industry in Uganda (March 2014) puts the area under commercial plantation in Uganda at 70,000 ha (47,075ha under SPGS I and II; 12,541ha under NFA; and nearly 11,000ha supported by others outside the jurisdiction of SPGS and NFA). The Uganda Forestry Department (UFD) established over 12,000ha of plantations during the 1960s and 1970s in response to the demand for commercial timber (NFA, 2005). These plantations were not well maintained or protected, were systematically harvested without replanting and only about 1,900ha of mature plantations established in the 1960s and 1970s now remain (NFA 2005). To avert the looming timber crisis Uganda was facing in the next 10 to 15 years starting in 2004, it was agreed that the best option was to mobilize the private sector to take up the mantle of growing the forestry industry. With the coming of SPGS in 2004, the private sector has since picked interest and a variety of individuals, communities and organizations are actively growing trees to make money. Ownership of plantations in Uganda is dominated by small and medium-sized growers who account for nearly 60% of commercial tree plantations (figure 1). The growth in Uganda’s forestry sector is however characterized by some notable trends worth sharing for instance, the recent increase in demand by farmers to plant eucalyptus trees. This is now in sharp contrast to what farmers were interested in planting during SPGS I and II. In phase II of SPGS (2009 – 2015) which supported the private sector to establish 32,108ha, the proportion of the area in terms of species planted is; 28,850ha or 90% under Pinus caribaea, 2,264ha or 7% under Eucalyptus and 994ha or 3% under other tree species including Pinus patula, Tectona grandis (Teak) and 1 The SPGS is a programme of the government of Uganda, funded by the EU, Government of Norway and Government of Uganda aimed at supporting private sector to invest in commercial tree plantations since 2004.
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Terminalia superba. This seems to agree with results of Tanzania. According to the African Forests Forum report (2011), the most important industrial plantation species in Tanzania are pines (Pinus patula, P. elliottii and P. caribaea), cypress, eucalyptus and teak. Pines are the dominant species in most of the government and private plantations with about 78% of the total area planted and the remaining 22% is shared among hardwoods and other softwood species. As Uganda’s farmers gear up for phase III of SPGS support (2016 – 2021), at least 8 out of the 10 farmers coming to make enquiries are either preparing or have already planted
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eucalyptus trees as the main tree species. A similar trend is seen in the applications received in which at least 3 quarters of the forest management plans received are for growing eucalyptus tree species. Those farmers who planted pine tree species in SPGS I and II are already looking back and wondering why they did not plant eucalyptus too by the side, even when SPGS encouraged them to do so at the time (being a short-cut to meeting a looming timber crisis)! The reasons that are prompting this U–turn in interest and priority among Uganda’s tree growers include but are not limited to the following:
Current influx of market options targeting eucalyptus products: Power transmission and distribution poles. Through the Government’s rural electrification program, electricity is being distributed to villages connecting sub-counties and main trading centers. This has caused a sudden rise in pole treatment plants which are now scampering for poles from farmers’ plantations to meet demand. There is also a similar regional demand for poles in Tanzania and Kenya. Proliferation of factories preferring processing eucalyptus products. A number of Chinese investors have opened up factories targeting eucalyptus trees. These factories peel and crush eucalyptus poles for veneer and particle boards. A number of these factories prefer eucalyptus poles to pine or other tree species. The faster growth rate of eucalyptus trees especially eucalyptus clones. Eucalyptus are fast growing tree species and if well managed, tend to reach harvestable stage for power transmission poles in 7 – 9 years. The common clones now in place include GUs (Grandis and Urophylla hybrid) and GCs (Grandis and Camuldulensis hybrid). The former being common in the cooler parts of the country whereas the latter are cultivated in the hotter drier parts of Uganda. Coppicing ability. Farmers are ever obsessed with this property of eucalyptus species whereby once planted, the cut trees sprout from their stumps and grow into poles without need to re-plant again like it is done in other tree species such as pine. Variety of products. Depending on existing demand, farmers find more flexibility in dealing with eucalyptus. Eucalyptus trees can be sold as poles (for transmission and distribution of power, fencing, fuel wood or construction of houses) or sawn into timber for other uses if given more time to grow. Availability of planting material. Apart from eucalyptus clones which are still very expensive because of the technology involved, other tree species especially Eucalyptus grandis, its local seed can easily be got and raised. There are over 60 private commercial tree nurseries now raising eucalyptus planting materials including eucalyptus clones. Planting materials are therefore available for those in need. Amidst this excitement and rush to plant Eucalyptus trees, we would like you to avoid unnecessary mistakes. If you would like to get fast-growing high-yielding eucalyptus plantations, we advise you to take note of the following key aspects:
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Planning. It is important that you carefully plan for your resources, both human (labour) and financial a year before embarking on your business. It is also important to plan plantation activities to fall in the right timing, for example doing all the land preparation early before the rains come, so that planting can be done as soon as the rains start. The success of any plantation largely depends on how well you plan for your resources and time your activities. With climate change, you need to get the new weather patterns right. Site species matching (planting the right tree in the right place). Information out-reach regarding proper site-species matching for eucalyptus growing is still low and the result is planting off-site. This is especially true with the starters. They usually rush, sometimes even on a large scale to plant “anywhere” but only to be disappointed with the poor response of the planted crop. For those with the information, sometimes they do not take advice seriously. The following are the common issues in this respect: Planting Eucalyptus grandis on hot dry sites. We have started getting farmers registering heavy losses of eucalyptus trees along the hot dry cattle corridor districts as a result of planting Eucalyptus grandis – a crop suitable to grow in cooler sites (<22oC) as shown in shaded areas in figure 2. Unfortunately, the hot dry sites are also home to heavy infestations of termites which are known enemies of eucalyptus trees. Eucalyptus clones, especially GCs can thrive in hotter areas as long as termites are checked. Swampy sites. Farmers are discouraged from planting trees on wetlands however, there is a natural belief fixed in the local population that eucalyptus does better in wetlands. This is not true, actually these trees remain stunted
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unlike their friends on the upper side of the land. Wetlands should be conserved for their ecological duties. Shallow sites. Any timber tree species would like an assurance of at least 1 meter deep penetrable soils for its top performance. When it comes to eucalyptus, its rooting system is not good at penetrating hard, rocky sites and yet this is where some farmers plant it only to grow stunted trees! Poor weeding regime. Eucalyptus is intolerant of weed competition. So, often farmers put considerable effort in clearing land, buying expensive eucalyptus clones (now costing about UGX 700 per piece) and planting them – only later to fail to cope with the intensive weeding regime needed by eucalyptus. This is often a failure on the cash-flow side where a farmer plants bigger areas than he can ably maintain. Planting food crops in trees (popularly called Taungya). In order to get better results from an eucalyptus crop, you must weed it promptly. Unfortunately, food crops also behave like weeds towards eucalyptus trees and so compete with it. Maintenance. This involves pruning and thinning of your plantations. This is an operation carried out at different stages of tree growth by selecting and deliberately removing some of the living trees from a given plantation stand before the final clear cutting. Eucalyptus is a light demanding, shade intolerant species, which responds well to thinning done on time. In order for it to produce large diameter stems for timber and poles, eucalyptus must be thinned heavily (from an early age - starting around 2 years in Uganda) to final crop densities of 250-400 trees per hectare. Unfortunately, some farmers delay thinning and
end up producing a stand with several tiny poles which do not catch a good market especially for power transmission and distribution. Coppice regrowth must also be selectively thinned on time for larger poles production. Pruning is the successive removal of the lower branches from timber/pole trees mainly to produce high quality logs/poles. Popular local belief that Eucalyptus is self-pruning is not sound enough because farmers with poorly pruned poles are often disappointed at pole treatment plants due to dead/hollow knots which would have been eliminated by timely pruning. In conclusion - depending on which angle you are looking at, Uganda needs more trees on the ground “yesterday”. In order to build a robust and sustainable forestry industry, Uganda needs some critical mass of raw material to support it and the current trend the private sector is taking is surely a blessing towards that fulfillment. What the farmers however need is motivation to reinvest so as to make the industry sustainable. In order to keep farmers motivated, they need to get benefits from trees they plant today. In addition to availability of a good market that may come as a result of farmers being organized under umbrella organizations such as the Uganda Timber Growers Association (UTGA), farmers also need better inputs, skills and technical advice on establishing fast-growing high-yielding tree plantations. Famers are therefore advised to seek professional advice before engaging in largescale tree growing to avoid regrets. Charles Odeke is the Plantation Development Manager at SPGS, Email: odekecharlie@gmail.com and Robert Bariiho is a private tree grower, Email: rbariho@ gmail.com
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SUCCESSFUL FORESTER
Ikiugu: a day in the life of a forester BY JANE GITAU
View of Menengai crater, with geothermal exploration on the caldera floor. The caldera or crater is one of the biggest in the world. The tree on the left is ol-leleshwa (Tarchonanthus camphoratus) Photo BGF
E
ach morning when Mr. Cosmas Ikiugu wakes up, he knows he must play his role in conserving the forests of Kenya. To him, forests and their care is a profession, a love and an occupation. Since graduating with a Bachelor of Science degree in Forestry from Moi University, he has been engaged by the Government of Kenya in various locations around the country to do what he loves most. For the last seven years, he has been the Head of Conservancy (HOC) in the Mau working for the Kenya Forest Service (KFS). Mau Conservancy covers five counties – Nakuru, Baringo, Kericho, Bomet and Narok. As I sit in his office, listening to his story and that of other forest officers by extension, his mobile phone rings. He apologises that he must answer the call. I watch as he slowly
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rises, walks towards the window and looks into the distance. “Where exactly did you see the fire?” he asks. When the conversation ends, he looks at me and says: “We are in the season of forest fires. Such calls are going to be very frequent until the rains come”. In the dry season, every leaf is parched, the land thirsty and there is wind blowing from every direction. A matchstick carelessly thrown away by a smoker or burning papers from a garbage heap, any flame really could be a source of a huge forest fire, causing great distress to Ikiugu and his colleagues. Other threats are human encroachment and there are never enough rangers to patrol. Then there is political will. In the past, water towers were invaded due to poor forest
conservation efforts and lack of political good will. Such was the case with the Mau in the mid ‘90s to 2000s, the largest water tower in Kenya. The Kenya Forest Service (KFS) is a State Corporation established in February 2007 under the Forest Act 2005 to conserve, develop and sustainably manage forest resources for Kenya’s social-economic development. Its core functions are to • Sustainably manage natural forests for social, economic and environmental benefits. • Increase productivity of industrial forest plantations and enhance efficiency in wood utilization. • Promote farm forestry and commercial tree farming.
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• Promote efficient utilization and marketing of forest products. • Promote sustainable management of forests in the drylands. • Protect forestry resources and KFS properties. • Develop and maintain essential infrastructure for effective forest management and protection. All efforts are now geared towards realising the V2030 goal of 10% forest cover throughout Kenya. The Mau Conservancy, Ikiugu’s domain, is one of 10 conservancies through which the KFS carries out its mandate. They are ecologically demarcated. The others are the Central Highlands, Nairobi, Eastern, North Eastern, Ewaso North, Coast, North Rift, Western and Nyanza. It covers 400 000 ha and it is also the biggest of the five water towers in the country ahead of the Aberdares, Mt Kenya, Cherangany and Mt Elgon. It is the one ecosystem with the most economic activities- tourism, agriculture and hydropower. Twelve (12) main rivers originate from here such as the Mara which goes all the way to Tanzania and feeds into the Lake Victoria. The lakes Nakuru, Naivasha and Elementeita are found here and of course it is home to the world famous Maasai Mara Game Reserve and the Lake Nakuru National Park. Back in 2007, an environmentalist overflying the Mau realised there was significant human habitation and chose to study the extent. By then, the lakes were drying up, the spectacular wildebeest migration was threatened because the animals had no river to cross to and from Tanzania and a hundred thousand hectares had been illegally converted to human settlement. His astonishing findings were presented to
the then Prime Minister, Hon Raila Odinga who formed a task force headed by Prof Owino, a respected forester who Ikiugu proudly refers to as “my lecturer” to ensure no further degradation of the Mau. It comprised of the Kenya Forest Service, Kenya Wildlife Services, the Provincial Administration and the Narok County Council. Thereafter, the Interim Coordination Secretariat (ICS) was created headed by Mr Hassan Noor, to fast-track the relocation of people from the Mau and start restoration of the forest. This brought on board the international community, and the Kenya Forest Service was the lead agency. “Now the rivers are flooding and the lakes are full”, notes Ikiugu with pride as his face breaks into a smile of satisfaction. He says that since 2009, there has been no further encroachment of the Mau and it has been restored up to 80%. Baringo is way ahead of the national average at 17% but Nakuru is lagging behind at 9% in tree planting. This has been done through collaboration with the adjacent communities, non-state actors, development partners and agencies, including the United Nations Environment Programme, the
United Nations Development Programme and the Food and Agriculture Organisation, says Ikiugu. To participate in forest management, forest adjacent communities have formed registered groups and are currently working with KFS to sustainably manage forest resources through the Plantation Establishment for Livelihoods Scheme (PELIS). In total, there are 325 Community Forest Associations (CFAs) country wide. Currently fourty (40) CFAs, are allowed to grow crops in the forested land in Mau, for three years while they take care of the trees. This has yielded encouraging results, Ikiugu says. As head of the conservancy, Ikiugu oversees a staff of 830. Five ecosystem conservators, each heading a county directly report to him and below each of the five is a Forest Manager (in charge of gazetted forests) and sub-county extension officers for private forests. Forest managers work with the community forest associations and the forest rangers. Where does KFS get its resources from to keep all its activities going? I ask. The first of these is of course the exchequer, the Kenyan Government that allocates a specific amount to KFS as a State Corporation. The corporation also generates income by collecting A.I.A from licencees for forest materials those who want to put installations such as for communication purposes. Development partners such as UNDP also provide funding for sustainable conservation activities to be carried out. Opportunities for conservation also exist. The new forest act gives Ikiugu hope because no forest can be de-gazetted without parliamentary approval. There is the good will of stakeholders including forest communities who now understand the importance of maintaining a balance in the ecosystem through afforestation. The writer is the Managing Editor of Miti Magazine. Email: jane@mitiafrica.com
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MENENGAI
Vegetation of the Menengai caldera BY FRANCIS GACHATHI
Background
M
enengai (meaning “Mountain of God” in Maasai) lies north of Lake Nakuru and forms the northern divide of the lake’s drainage basin. It is considered a dormant volcano and rises to a height of 2,278 masl. Following the eruption, the sides of the volcanic crater collapsed inwards forming a large, basin-shaped caldera with an area of about 90 km2 and a diameter of 12 km. It is the second largest caldera in Africa after Ngorongoro in Tanzania. For some years now, the Geothermal Development Company Limited (GDC) has been actively involved in exploration and development of geothermal resources for power generation on the floor of Menengai Caldera. The project can influence the local microclimate and hence the flora and fauna. For any geothermal project, land is required for drill pads and access roads. There is also dumping of waste soil and drill mud. The hot wastewater when disposed off, can have some effect on the surrounding vegetation by scorching plants. Impacts to vegetation include loss of indigenous species and species diversity; increased risk of invasive species and seed bank depletion.
General vegetation Vegetation within the Menengai Caldera is generally sparse and the woody perennial species are those that have withstood perennial burning. The dominant trees include: Protea gaguedi, Faurea saligna, Hymenodictyon
parvifolium, Agauria salicifolia, Erythrina abyssinica, Cussonia holstii and Tarchonanthus camphoratus. Common shrubs within the caldera include: Rumex usambarensis, Conyza newii, Anthospermum welwitschii, Lippia javanica, Osyris lanceolata and Rhus natalensis. The ground which is of purely volcanic rocks is barely covered by various grasses and sedges. Common grasses include Themeda triandra, Rhynchelytrum repens, Cenchrus ciliaris, Sporobolus pyramidalis, Hyparrhenia sp., Cymbopogon nardus and Pennisetum clandestinum. Sedges are common in wetter sites and include Cyperus laevigatus, Kyllinga sp. and Fimbristylis sp. Annual herbs are many and appear during the wet season. They include Notonia petraea, Gerbera viridifolia, Fuerstia africana and Impatiens sodenii. There are also ferns like Pteridium aquilinum, Pellaea calomelanos and Asplenium sp. Phragmanthera dschallensis is a common parasitic shrub found on most woody species.
Species of special interest There are a number of species of special interest. The sandalwood (Osyris lanceolata) is of national conservation interest. It is protected under Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) Appendix II, which requires certain legal procedures to be followed, in order to avoid utilization incompatible with the survival of the species in the wild. It is listed as “Vulnerable” by The World Conservation Union (IUCN) due to unsustainable levels of harvesting for the international medicinal plant trade, habitat loss and restricted distribution. Consequently, export trade on these species is under a Presidential Ban. Other species useful as local medicines include: Withania somnifera, Clerodendrum myricoides, Myrsine africana, Ajuga remota, Artemisia afra, Aloe spp., Maytenus senegalensis and Tetradenia riparia. The writer is a retired botanist. Email: gachathif@yahoo.com
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Miti January - March 2016
Forests and Landscape Restoration – A Key Component of Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation. BY THE NATIONAL REDD+ COORDINATION OFFICE
F
orest Landscape Restoration (FLR) has been identified as a key area of focus, in Kenya, if the forestry sector is to support the realization of national goals and ambitions reflected in several legislations, policies, economic blue prints and strategies. Working through Kenya Forest Service (KFS), the government is coordinating a multi-stakeholder project on “National Landscape Restoration Mapping” to ensure effectiveness and harmonization of on-going and future restoration initiatives in the country. This is in collaboration with the World Resource Institute, Clinton Climate Initiative and the Green Belt Movement. Forest Landscape Restoration (FLR) refers to a process that aims to regain ecological integrity and enhance human well-being in deforested or degraded forest landscapes by restoring their productivity. FLR relies on active stakeholder engagement and can accommodate different land uses, including agriculture, agroforestry, protected wildlife reserves, regenerated forests, managed plantations, and riverside plantings. The landscape restoration will be an important tool in helping the country meet its
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economic, development and environmental goals. To ensure these initiatives are linked and coordinated, KFS has established a Landscape Restoration Technical Working Group, whose members are drawn from multiple sectors. The
working group identified the feasible landscape restoration options and they include reforestation and rehabilitation of natural forests, farm forestry and woodlots on cropland, commercial tree and bamboo plantations, tree-based buffers along waterways, wetlands and roads, as well as silvo-pastoral and rangeland restoration. These options have the potential to restore ecosystems services associated with trees, such as erosion control, regulation of water flows, soil quality and forest habitat. In addition the Technical Working Group has produced maps and associated area statistics as proposed priority restoration areas. These maps will help in identifying opportunities to scale up restoration efforts to reduce erosion, increase livelihood diversification, fodder production, as well as present potential areas for commercial plantations among others. This project is coordinated under the overall guidance of the National REDD+ Coordination Office. It puts the country at par with many parts of the world, where people have started to restore degraded forests and landscapes thus creating new opportunities to reduce poverty, improve food security, address climate change and conserve soil, water and biodiversity. This is a result of growing awareness of the importance of forest and landscape restoration attributed to several international processes, including the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Bonn Challenge which set a target of restoring at least 150 million hectares of degraded land by 2020 and the Convention on Biological Diversity’s Aichi Biodiversity Targets which calls for countries to restore at least 15 percent of their degraded ecosystems by 2020.
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TRACING ROOTS
The evolution and state of forestry in Uganda BY GERSHOM ONYANGO
Evolution of forestry The establishment of the Scientific and Forestry Department by the British colonial administration in 1898 marked the beginning of formal forest management in Uganda together with agriculture and veterinary. In 1906 it was renamed Forestry and Scientific Department and underwent several mutations until 1927, when it became Forest Department. The other sections were moved to new departments that had been formed. The Forest Department continued to operate under different Ministries which to some extent submerged its importance. It was not until 1986 that forestry gained some semblance of independence when it was put under the Ministry of Environment Protection. The fact that forestry in Uganda has over the last one hundred years been paired with other departments shows its complementarity with them. Even its current placement under the Ministry of Water and Environment emphasizes
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the linkage between forestry, water and environment. The reservation of forest land started when the Colonial Government made agreements with the Buganda and Toro Kingdoms in 1900, then with the Ankole Kingdom in 1901 and much later the Bunyoro Kingdom in 1933, to set aside some areas for forestry purposes. These were mainly areas of land that were not under private ownership, forests, waste land and uncultivated land. The Agreement between the Government and the Buganda Kingdom provided for 388,500ha or 1500 sq. miles of forest land not in private ownership and 2,331,000ha or 9,000 sq. miles of waste and uncultivated land to be under the control of the central government. This Agreement stipulated that the forests were to be maintained as woodlands in the general interests of the country. The Ankole and Toro Agreements provided for all forests, waste and uncultivated land to be under the control of the
Colonial Government. The Bunyoro Agreement of 1933 gave the Governor the control of all existing forests and all areas hereinafter to be declared forests in Bunyoro.
Regulatory frameworks To reinforce the Agreements on forest land reservation, the colonial government formulated the first Forestry Regulations in May 1900. These regulations prohibited the cutting of forest produce without a permit except for forests that were privately owned and introduced fees for various forest products only leaving out what natives needed for their own use. These regulations also made burning of forest or bush an offence and restricted tree cutting on private land. Initially these regulations applied in Buganda only but were later extended to Toro, Ankole and Bunyoro. Between 1900 and 1932 a number of ordinances were enacted to promote proper management of forests.
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The first Forest Policy was formulated in 1929. It streamlined operations of the Forest Department and has remained the foundation for all subsequent policies. Revisions to it were made in 1948, 1970, 1988 and 2001. Each revision introduced different aspects of forestry management depending on prevailing conditions at the time. Legal Notice No.87 of 1932 was of particular importance in forest legislation being the first gazette notice which outlined all reserved forest land under provinces and districts. It provided the area of every reserved forest land indicating whether demarcated or not demarcated and the map reference. It was followed by the Amendment Ordinance of 1938 that defined Native Forest Reserves to be managed by designated Native Administrations A new Ordinance and new Forest Rules of 1947 consolidated the concept of Central Forest Reserves, Local Forest Reserves and Village Forests which with time evolved into specific categories in Ugandaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s forest legislation. Statutory Instrument 246-1 issued under the FORESTS ACT, 1964 categorized Central Forest Reserves to be controlled by government through Forest Department and Local Forest Reserves to be managed by Kingdoms and districts. Statutory Instrument 1967 No. 67, The Central Forest Reserves (Declaration) Order 1967 abolished Local Forest Reserves. These were thus centralized under the management of the Forest Department. Statutory Instrument 1968 No. 176, The Forest Reserves (Declaration) Order 1968, amalgamated all forest reserves as Central Forest reserves. In 1993, the Government introduced a decentralised system of governance. Under the Local Government Resistance Council Statute
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The ancient kingdoms of Uganda 1993, district councils were empowered to manage certain resources and services including forest reserves. Most district councils looked at these forest resources as a source of revenue and started harvesting them without proper control. Within a short while however, the Government realized that districts lacked the necessary capacity to manage forest
reserves. In Statutory Instrument 1995 No 52 of 3 May, 1995, forest reserves were grouped together with land, mines, minerals and water resources under central government control, thus rescinding the 1993 Statute. The Forest Reserve (Declaration) Order 1998 No. 63 gave up-to-date details of all reserves and their areas in hectares. This (Declaration) Order reverted to the old system creating Central and Local Forest Reserves, in Schedule 1 and 2 respectively. Local Forest Reserves that are under the management of districts are generally small, less than 100ha. This took into account inability of districts to manage large areas. An area of 1.9 million hectares of forest reserves equivalent to 9% of the total land area is designated as the Permanent Forest Estate (PFE) of the country to be managed in perpetuity. The area of the PFE falls under the mandate of both the National Forestry Authority (NFA) and Uganda Wildlife Authority (UWA) with each institution managing approximately half of the PFE mainly for conservation of biodiversity, protection of hilly and mountainous areas and also for production of forestry goods and services for some of the forests under NFA. UWA manages about half of the gazetted
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forests as National Parks. The National Forestry and Tree Planting Act (NFTPA) 2003 is one of the outputs of the Forestry Sector Review Process that took place between 1999 and 2003. It replaced the Forests Act 1964 Cap 246 and The Timber (Export} Act 1965 Cap 247. The NFTPA 2003 consolidated and operationalized the Forestry Policy 2001, the National Forest Plan 2002 and also created the National Forestry Authority (NFA) as a legal entity to manage CFRs. District Forestry Services were placed under local governments to manage LFRs and provide advisory services to local communities and private forest owners on management of their forests which constitute a larger percentage of forests in the country. The new legal and institutional set-up recognizes that there are other stakeholders in the forest sector who need to be involved in management of our forestry resources.
Forest management practices Initially management efforts concentrated on natural forests with the first trial of plantation forests of hardwoods being established at Mutai in Jinja in 1914. A number of species were tried out to establish those that performed well under different conditions. They included Prosopis juliflora (this particular species was introduced from drier areas of North America but was discarded due to its prolific growth and potential for becoming a weed. In Kenya where it was grown it became a very bad weed which caused goats and camels that fed on it to lose their teeth!), Eucalyptus rostrata (Kalitunsi) and E. hemiphloia and Markhamia lutea (Musambya) were also tried and adopted among the species for afforestation. Other varieties of Eucalyptus including E. camaldulensis, E. tereticornis and E. saligna (now E. grandis) were mainly tried in drained
swamps and dry sites. E.saligna proved to be more favourable on sites with higher rainfall and had better growth and outperformed the others leading to its selection for large-scale planting. E camaldulensis and E. tereticornis were more resistant to termite attack and dry spells and were consequently selected for the more dry areas. This selection has been maintained to date although unguided tree planters have planted species for drier areas in much wetter areas and vice versa which should not be the case. The establishment of softwood plantations was initiated by Kigezi African Local Governmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s planting of Cupressus lusitanica (Cypress) at Muko in 1942. Due to its good performance, the Forest Department was prompted to commence a planting programme for Cypress at Mafuga Central Forest Reserve beginning 1946. This spread to Toro (Mwenge Hill), Rwoho in Ankole and West Nile as selected areas of high altitude
(1500 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2000m) and rainfall (900-1500mm). Many species trials later led to the selection of Pinus patula for high altitude areas while Pinus oocarpa and Pinus caribaea were selected for low altitude areas and this selection has been maintained to date.
Forest Working (Management) Plans The first Working Plan (WP) was prepared in 1930 covering 1480ha in Namanve for a fuelwood planting scheme to supply the railway steamer with firewood and for other purposes. Preparation and use of Working (Management) Plans was a routine practice of Forest Department from the early 1950s for all large Tropical High Forests (THF) and Woodland Reserves. It was also usual to group small reserves to constitute one Management Plan Area (MPA) with individual reserves treated as blocks for specific activities. This is why Management Plans (MP) were prepared for Bunyoro Low-land Forest Reserves, West Nile Woodlands Forest Reserves or Kampala Plantations combining Kampala and Entebbe areas. With time and as the forest estate grew each forest had its own MP with specific prescription for its management. Preparation and use of MPs ensured that all forests were managed systematically according to laid down prescriptions. This made it easier to monitor and evaluate the state and development of all forests. Continued in issue 30 The writer is the chairman of the board of Directors of NFA and the Managing Director, Kasiiso Mixed Farm Email: ggonyango@yahoo.co.uk
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Miti January - March 2016
SUCCESSFUL INDUSTRY
Recycling to the last notch: Transafric Timber values every bit of wood BY JANE GITAU
A
simple looking small-sized but strong gate leads into a yard occupied by this deceptively long structure. Once inside the structure, the drone and din of the surrounding timber yard is shut out and a glass-made hand wash basin greets you. It is only then that you realise you are at the front of this extremely well-kept 22-room indomitable bungalow, a colonial relic, that continues to demand attention and presence now as much as it did when it was first built in 1912. I pose to admire the architecture, the Elgon-teak roof, the neat fire place. â&#x20AC;&#x153;This was a town house owned by a settler. All plots along the Nakuru-Eldoret highway belonged to the settlers so Africans never imagined they
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BIO ENERGY
could live here” says our host Mr. Zakayo Maina Waweru who has owned this home for the last fifteen (15) years. It stands on ten (10) acres of land whose every inch is part of a saw mill, except the part occupied by the house. He recalls his first visit to this home as a youngster in 1970. He was a high school student, in dire need of money. The owner wanted some clearing work done on the compound so he hired Zakayo for a day to uproot trees, thus earning himself four hundred shillings (kshs 400). Coming back here had never been in his dream. Zakayo grew up in Nesuit Forest in the Rift Valley. His greatest dream was to sell the wood from Nesuit and get rich. “I saw its benefits from birth”, he quips adding that his lineage has depended on trees for as long as he can trace it backwards. He has gone on to make a success from forests and trees beyond Nesuit. “Trees are our future. We ought to leave this country better than we found it” he says with finality. “I have tree nurseries in Dundori and Elementaita and a tree farm in Mau. I sell certified tree seeds which are very good in harsh environments because they grow fast”, he says. He grows and uses pine and eucalyptus mostly. Wherever he goes, he looks out for trees and has even tried to introduce locally the poplar tree from China. It is a fast growing tree that is used for shade, veneer and sometimes timber. He has grown some in his farm in Dundori and donated suckers to friends and family. Walking round Zakayos’ sawmill, one encounters a hive of activity-loading, unloading, selecting, packing, arranging, deliveries and heating all go on at the same time in different parts of the compound. A trailer delivers logs
Toothpicks packed and ready for sale Photos BGF
from somewhere in the Rift and an automated log peeler removes the bark and the required size of wood is made. Inside the factory building fresh logs, peeled logs, saw dust, tree bark, block boards, plywood, tooth picks, all have their place. Doors, table tops, plywood and toothpicks are all in different stages of completion as is the glue that is made here and used to join the block boards that make some types of doors. Each piece of wood is useful here, being redesigned and re-used up to the point they make toothpicks or burn it as fuel to keep another function such as glue making moving. The motto here is ‘recycle and utilize the limited timber resources to enrich you. Do not burn it’. This motto is posted on the walls as a reminder.
In his office an amazing set of three bamboo seats takes pride of place. No other material. Just bamboo shiny and smooth. My eyes though are fixed on the two pictures on the wall – one he has taken with Rtd President Daniel arap Moi and the other with the current President, Hon Uhuru Kenyatta. “Who is your most memorable customer”? I ask, expecting him to name one of the two presidents. “President Obama”, comes the unexpected reply. “He ordered the timber used to build his grandmother’s house here. He wanted wood without joints measuring 8 inch by 4 inch 40 ft long. It could only be found here in the whole country”. A dedicated workforce is necessary to keep this heavily mechanised operation running. He offers shares to hard working employees among them a human resource manager who is a Master of Arts graduate. His son Anthony Waweru is a Bachelor of Commerce graduate and is in charge of the research and development. “Creating employment is crucial for Kenya and the focus now must be in rural areas to minimise the rural-urban migration. Industrialisation is key in the job creation agenda depending on what raw produce is available in each geographic location”, says Zakayo. When he bought the factory it had only 2 resaw wood band saws. Now, he manages a highly mechanised operation in keeping with industry levels. The writer is the Managing Editor of Miti Magazine. Email: jane@mitiafrica.com
Inside Transafric’s workshop in Nakuru: lots of equipment and timber
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Miti January - March 2016
Transformation of logs into doors in an integrated production process
Timber left-overs glued together, to become the inner core of doors. Photos BGF
Veneer is now glued at both sides of the inner core. Photos BGF
Miti January - March 2016
Now some cleaning, and the door is ready for sale. Photos BGF
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COMMERCIAL FORESTRY
Way forward for Kenya in commercial forestry FIELD DAY ORGANIZED BY FOMAWA (Summary of FOMAWA Newsletter no 13 of January 2016) There is a growing market for timber and firewood in Kenya but a shaky one for poles in spite of a widespread electrification program countrywide. This observation was made by tree growers and tree lovers at an open day organised by the Friends of Mau Watershed (FOMAWA), on the 9th of December 2015. The meeting was convened at Kenana Farm, Njoro to discuss the current situation in the country over commercial forestry and to reach some conclusions about a “better way forward” in which the country is more likely to get what it needs, while the participants in the supply chain make money. It was observed that while gum trees have been grown, treated and used locally to carry power lines, poles have been imported from as far as Latin America, and an increasing proportion is being made from concrete by cement makers. This leaves the tree farmer unsupported as a partner in the supply chain and without a definite market for their trees. A meaningful partnership between tree farmers and the electricity companies would increase the prices of poles and benefit the producers. Concern was also raised about the need to properly manage forest plantations so that a sufficient level of commercial timber production is attained in the country. Currently, there is an oversupply of timber but this will be short-lived, say two more years, because the forests that have been recently planted are left unmanaged, being neither pruned nor thinned. As such the majority will not produce good timber while the trees planted by some Community Forest Associations have also been poorly managed. Their future yield was estimated only up to 30% of its potential. This means that timber prices will start to rise in a few years, as a timber shortage starts to bite. The market for firewood is very strong, with tea companies buying serious amounts from small-holders, moving away from burning furnace oil to cure tea. The need is one million cubic metres/year, at a growth rate of 300m3/ ha over a ten years rotation, translating into
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33,000ha that have to be planted. The price paid to farmers however is about 1800Ksh/ m3, with a profit of perhaps 1000Ksh/m3 after all costs. If this could be raised to 4,000Ksh/ m3, still leaving a substantial cost saving for the tea factories, there would be a tremendous stimulus for farmers to plant more trees; more gum trees will be sold as timber where prices are higher, so that in the end firewood prices will rise. The Kenya Forestry Services (KFS) is proposing registration of private owners, according to the rules of the Forests Act (“The private forests rules 2015”). FOMAWA and local growers were sceptical about registering their private plantations with KFS , thinking that the cost might outweigh the benefit. It is however a voluntary exercise. FOMAWA has been planting trees in schools and on private farms, with the biggest single plantation so far a block of 24ha, using good planting techniques and improved quality seedlings, mostly eucalyptus
from Finlays. There are 1400 schools in FOMAWA’s operational area, and with limited resources have penetrated 270 schools so far. Nevertheless, the first school woodlots planted in 2002-03 are now approaching dimensions for harvesting, a development much welcomed by the schools as they will get some income from it. The field day was attended by organisations in the forestry sector such as representatives from KFS and Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI); organisations with an interest in commercial forestry eg Kenya Forest Growers Association (KEFGA), MANITESE, farmers and schools who have planted commercially with the help of FOMAWA. The key organisers were Richard Mose (head of research at James Finley in Kericho), Robert Twala (Unilever Tea); saw millers and treatment plant representatives, representatives from Rongai WS & Transport and St Andrews School, Turi. FOMAWA Chairman Richard Muir and CEO, Jacob Mwanduka. .
Miti January - March 2016
Commercialisation of wild plants: the case of Prunus africana BY ALICE NYIVURU OKECHA
Introduction Prunus africana is a special tree with unique medicinal values. It is a hardwood employed in the manufacture of axe and hoe handles, utensils, wagons, floors, chopping blocks, carvings, bridge decks, and furniture. This tree acts as a windbreaker within cash crop plantations and also creates shade for plants like coffee and cocoa. Its wood is tough, heavy, straight-grained, and pink, with a pungent bitter-almond smell when first cut, turning mahogany and later odorless. Pygeum, is the herbal remedy prepared from the bark of Prunus africana. The plant was discovered to botany by Gustav Mann during his first European exploration of the Cameroon Range, with Richard Francis Burton and Alfred Saker, in 1861. They named the remedy, Pygeum. It is used as an alternative medicine for benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). Its preparation is useful for lower urinary symptoms consistent with BPH. Traditionally, the parts are used for fevers, malaria, wound dressing, arrow poison, stomach pain, purgative, kidney disease, appetite stimulant, gonorrhea, and insanity. The collection of mature bark for its use in traditional medicine and other uses has resulted in the species becoming endangered. Prunus continues to be taken from the wild inspite of its many uses. In Uganda, quotas for harvesting prunus have been awarded by the Forestry Department without adequate forest inventories. Some harvesters, spurred on by the high prices, removed too much of the bark in an unsustainable manner. In the 1990s, an estimated 35,000 trees were being debarked annually. The growing demand for the bark has led to the cultivation of the tree for its medicinal uses. Tracing the commercial path of medicinal plants from the field to the market is often spurred by the competition between the exporters. This, combined with the increasing demand
Miti January - March 2016
for Prunus africana in this region, creates a potential environmental threat. This threat is multifunctional, involving the socio-economic conditions in which rural workers and their families live, thus conservation programs for the wild flora are encouraged within an organizational framework of the gatherers and peasants in the zone. Deforestation is reduced by planting trees not only to conserve the environment but also for
financial stability e.g, Cinchona, Prunus africana, Rauwolfia to mention but a few. World Botanical Extracts (WBE) has tried to abide by the licensing rules so as to formally export Prunus but this is currently within an unclear framework which presents challenges. WBE has boosted farmers by supplying seedlings of Prunus africana in the areas of Kyenjojo and Kibaale and making followups on the trees to see their growth. It exported 176,000 Metric Tons of prunus bark last year
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which encouraged farmers to plant more trees in order to gain financially. The market prices have improved for farmers as well. Despite assurances from senior management of the two major companies involved in the harvest and processing of Prunus africana bark, considerable concern has been expressed by rural communities for lack of enough information on the tree. The farmers need to be informed on its importance so as to control the cutting of the trees. The National Forestry Authority and the District Forest Officers need to create awareness on the management regimes of this multipurpose tree. Prospects for value addition will be an excellent idea so the barks and extracts processed are exported to Europe (primarily to France or Italy) at a much higher price for preparation of the drugs. This is already being done under the brand-names“Tadenan” (France) or “Pygenil” (Italy).
New initiatives in agroforestry should seek the integration of tropical farming systems of indigenous trees whose products have traditionally been gathered from natural forests. This be done for marketable products from farms that will generate cash for resourcepoor rural and peri-urban households. Poverty alleviation through agroforestry should prefer perennial, biologically diverse and complex agro-ecosystems to the primitive slash-andburn agriculture. One important component of this approach is the domestication of the local tree species that have commercial potential in local, regional or even international markets. Because of several potential candidate species for domestication, one crucial step is the identification of priority species and then formulation of a domestication strategy that is appropriate to the use, marketability and genetic potential of each species.
Some factors that affect Prunus africana’s growth Prunus africana has to grow for at least 12 to 15 years to have a good yield. Farmers, therefore,need to have enough patience for good results and good quality. WBE has a great potential in Uganda with similar fields of about 200 hectares Prunus and Cinchona shrubs established in the DR Congo (in Butembo and Kivu). WBE has successfully traded in tree bark for the last 17 years and has gained experience over the period in this trade with an annual turnover of about 2500 Metric Tons in products. When well planted and harvested, Prunus can conserve the environment and provide potentially high returns. Its domestication is the way forward in protecting it from extinction. This can be done by teaching farmers how to cultivate these plants professionally and provides an opportunity for enterprises to earn money through value addition, much the same like Aloe vera, an ingredient of various beauty products. Prunus africana is an endangered species and is therefore managed by CITES 1. CITES manages the issues of export licenses and provision of quotas to be exported per year thus controlling the amount to be harvested annually. In plant trade, CITES has long concentrated on horticultural plants like orchids and cacti. It is only over a short while that the convention has focused on the trade in plants which have medicinal purposes and which are predominantly taken from the wild. In some cases,this trade causes conservation concern. The debate now is on how to conserve and protect the 1 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
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endangered species, teaching about better methods of harvesting and encouraging people to lawfully deal in trees and medicinal plants by granting licenses to qualified agents while having strict monitoring of the quotas provided by the governing bodies.
Recommendation Farmers should be taught the commercial benefits of the species, and also motivated by being given seedlings to plant the way WBE has so far done in the districts of Kyenjojo and Kibaale. NFA is encouraged to plant medicinal trees and not only pine and eucalyptus especially in riverine ecosystems. If they can partner with private sector they can do a lot more in this regard.
More research should be carried out to get more facts on Prunus africana, knowing the right altitude and spacing in order to get the right chemical concentration. Which chemicals does it contain and what is the relation between the concentration of those chemicals and spacing of the trees? The trees need to be harvested sustainably. These products need tax holidays at the time of exportation in order to encourage the trade for bigger profits. The writer is the manager at World Botanical Extracts Limited World Botanical Extracts Limited Email: Alice.Okecha@wbotanical.com
Miti January - March 2016
NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS
Towards improved marketing of Non-Wood Forest Products in Uganda BY FRED KALANZI
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on-Wood Forest Products (NWFPs) are often valued as an important source of income for people living in and adjacent to natural forests. Many rural populations have traditionally collected freely and consumed a range of NWFPs such as wild fruits, honey and mushrooms. Over time, they have initiated small enterprises to market NWFPs and generate additional income. The promotion of NWFPs is widely perceived as a good approach to achieve conservation and development goals. This is based on the fact that the extraction of NWFPs is less destructive than for wood products yet can significantly contribute to subsistence and income generation of the rural people. Unfortunately, the marketing systems have remained largely informal with much economic inefficiency. NWFPs continue to play a peripheral role in supporting local income generation and contributing to national development. This article analyses the marketing situation of NWFPs as one of the key aspects for their commercialisation in Uganda.
Supply bottlenecks The first challenge is securing a consistent supply of products that meet market demand in terms of both quantity and quality. Most of the NWFPs are seasonal. For example, bamboo shoots have a high market value in Mbale sub-region. However, harvesting can only be done from December to April under restrictions from Mt. Elgon National Park authorities. Such restrictions and seasonality cannot guarantee a steady supply of bamboo products from processers. While gum arabic is a renowned NWFP on the international market, its commercialization in Karamoja is hampered by inadequate quantities to guarantee profitable trade. The entry of large investors into the NWFPs trade many times has not produced the desired outcomes especially in situations where the resource base was not fairly assessed to support such big investments. For instance the launching of a bamboo processing plant in Kabale by the
Miti January - March 2016
Uganda Industrial Research Institute was based on anticipation that the factory would be supplied with raw bamboo from Echuya forest reserve. The factory would then serve as a panacea in revamping the bamboo sub-sector in the region through value addition. However, after just a few months, there was realization that such large scale production could not be sustained since the required quantities of bamboo could not be obtained from Echuya forest. In the subsequent years, NFA tightened the restrictions on commercial bamboo extraction from Echuya forest reserve. As a result, such a multi-million dollar investment remains under-utilised partly due to inadequate raw materials. Most of the NWFPs which are being traded are produced in small quantities. Lack of market information particularly buyer arrangements and market linkages are significant barriers for smallscale producers seeking to gain control of the market. Inadequate access to financial services to invest in production technologies makes it hard for processors to improve production. In some cases, there are trading companies that provide inputs to producers and processors. Such inputs are often provided at inflated prices on credit,
to be repaid in-kind in extracted products. Under such scenarios, many processors are poorly compensated for their inputs and have an extremely limited capacity to negotiate any aspects of trade. All these scenarios have been well exploited by elite middlemen and companies to enjoy higher prices at the expense of the producers. According to a recent study on socioeconomic analysis of beekeeping enterprises in communities adjacent to Kalinzu Forest, most of the honey producers (76%) depend on buyers (mostly middlemen) as their source of price information. This, of course, leaves the honey producers largely at the mercy of middlemen as to the availability and accuracy of information on which they base their marketing decisions. Poor infrastructural development is also an important obstacle in the marketing of NWFPs. Often production areas are remote and connected by poor feeder roads. A lack of physical infrastructure can be problematic for small-scale producers to expand trade, because inefficient distribution systems result in high handling losses and transport expenses. Most NWFPs chains are dominated by
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producers/gatherers with little formal education thus hindering the desire to seek new technologies since education facilitates farmersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; adoption of innovations. For instance, over 40% of the shea nut collectors in northern Uganda had never been to school, in Kalinzu, the majority of beekeepers (59.2%) had stopped in primary while 16.3% had never gone to school. In addition, because of poor forest extension services, very few of NWFP collectors have attained formal trainings to enhance their skills.
Understanding the market elements Despite the potential to produce a number of marketable NWFPs, market opportunities have not been fully explored. As such most of the products remain of low value only tradable in local markets to low income groups. Where there are successes, the value chains are dominated by intermediaries who control the market. Shea butter which is one of the key traded NWFPs in Uganda, has not gained full market potential. As a result, the largest part of shea production (about 65%) is not harvested. Shea markets remain traditional, concentrated in the shea producing belt, with low volumes of sales and high levels of domestic consumption. The shea market is controlled by a few companies through long term purchase agreements with local associations. These companies are associated with the major buyers in the international trade. They prefer to buy the raw nuts rather than the butter in order to have as much control as possible in the processing and quality of the final product. The situation for honey producers is not any different. Beekeepers use traditional methods of production which offer limited opportunities for improving quality and quantity of their production. Besides, most of the producers
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of NWFPs do not take quality considerations seriously. In a recent study of beekeeping enterprises in communities adjacent to Kalinzu Forest Reserve, it was discovered that 55% of the beekeepers are using traditional beehives. It was also found that honey adulteration is still a major constraint in the area. Beekeepers sell their honey in villages and trading centres using simple packaging materials including used mineral water bottles. Most of the beekeepers were receiving different prices for the same quantity of honey due to price manipulation by better placed actors.
Opportunities for commercialization The potential of NWFPs to enhance income and contribute to national development is still not well appreciated. Various strategies and approaches need to be designed to increase the level of success and make for a more secure livelihood option for poor producers, processors and traders. Marketing is just one of the processes in the value chain. Various actors and processes are involved in moving a product from production to consumption. The actors fulfill the different processes (such as processing, storage, packaging and marketing) and at each stage they add value to the product. There is therefore a need to analyse the value chains of non-wood forest products. Value chain analysis is important to characterise the main actors and processes and identify options for product development to penetrate new markets. Farmers have always relied on particular products which are developed using traditional technologies and based on local household needs. Commercialization of NWFPs would benefit more from an iterative approach which focuses on the market demand to develop particular products that meet the specific needs of the consumers but also on deliberate
efforts to popularize existing products to stimulate demand. One of the most significant steps that can be taken to overcome supply bottlenecks is formation of producer/processor organisations. If players at the primary level of the marketing chain are organized, there are greater opportunities for them to exert their market power and establish mechanisms to enjoy better profits. Improved organization of producers and processors can result in the bulking up of sufficient volume of a given product and make it worthwhile for traders to cover long distances to buy the product. Producer organizations can enhance access to market information and develop social networks, including contacts with particular traders, knowledge of alternative sales points and information about market trends. In addition, organized producers and processors can pool resources and invest in simple production and processing technologies to improve product quality and quantity. As the production efficiency of a particular product improves along the value chain, it may facilitate access to new markets. Since most of the NWFPs are produced in rural areas where transport infrastructure is often poor, producer organisations can afford more cost-effective transportation and overcome large distances to the point of sale. At production level, informal education and training are very important in enhancing basic business skills of the producers and increasing their ability to integrate new ideas and adopt improved technologies. Basic bookkeeping and numeracy skills are required to trade successfully in NWFPs. The writer is the research officer at National Forestry Resource Research Institute (NaFORRI) Email: kalfrem@gmail.com
Miti January - March 2016
INDIGENOUS TREE
Can a Farmer Make Money from Indigenous Trees? BY JOEL BUYINZA AND CLEMENT OKIA
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ndigenous trees form an integral part of land resources and the benefits communities accrue from them cannot be downplayed. In Uganda, farming households have for long relied on indigenous trees for firewood, timber, food/ fruit, handcraft materials, fodder, charcoal, herbal medicine and household income from sale of tree products. Some farmers also benefit from tree services through global climate change mitigation initiatives such as Voluntary Carbon Markets, Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD+). This article provides details of the products and services that trees provide to farmers.
Benefits from indigenous tree products Uses of indigenous trees vary among communities and regions (Table 1). Some tree species are considered more important than others due to varying morphological characteristics that make some of them more suitable in providing certain values to local communities.
Ficus natalensis In central Buganda, bark cloth production from F.
natalensis (Mutuba) started way back in the 13th century. It is a unique fabric that plays significant cultural, financial and social roles. The bark cloth has promising prospects as a new raw material on the international market with wide scope for new product development and improvement. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in 2005 proclaimed Ugandan bark cloth as a “Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity”. Market growth resulting from raised levels of awareness by UNESCO have contributed to rural household incomes and brought a sense of pride in the nation’s heritage and culture. Consumers and buyers are also increasingly seeking products that possess characteristics linked to their origin. This has created a market that cares what the product is made of, where the product comes from and how it is produced. Consequently, bark cloth’s economic potential is high and still rising. A study by Rwawiire and Tomkova (2014) on thermo-physiological and comfort properties of Ugandan barkcloth from F. natalensis showed that the thermal conductivity of the barkcloth is in the range of cotton fabrics rendering barkcloth a comfortable fabric. The lower value of thermal
absorptivity of barkcloth compared to the value of cotton renders the fabric a warm feeling when in contact with the skin. The study farther revealed that barkcloth had a higher moisture vapor permeability compared to cotton and other fabrics, meaning its clothing comfort properties are reasonable. F. natalensis is also widely integrated in Banana-Based Cropping Systems, given that bananas form a major staple crop and a source of livelihood for over seven million people in Uganda. A study conducted by Mulumba (2014) to assess the benefits and limitations of integrating trees in banana-based cropping systems in Uganda established that incorporation of coffee and Ficus trees in banana plantations was found to have several benefits. The Nitrogen and organic matter levels were found to be higher when trees were incorporated in the cropping systems, attributed to the high organic carbon levels under the tree crown (23.2 g/kg) compared to 16.2 g/kg outside the crown. F. natalensis was found to have other beneficial effects such as animal fodder (reported by 85% of respondents), modification of the microclimate and shading coffee during the dry season. However, optimal spacing between the trees and the bananas needs to be determined
Table 1: Priority indigenous trees for different regions of Uganda
Region
Highly Valued Indigenous trees
Common/local name
Tree Parts used most
Main Use
Central
Ficus natalensis
Mutuba
Bark
Barkcloth
Albizia coriaria
Mugavu
Stem
Timber and Shade
Combretum molle and Combretum collinum
Ndagi & Mukoola
Stem and branches
Charcoal
Maesopsis eminii
Musizi
Stem
Timber
Balanites aegyptiaca
Desert date/ Ekorete
Fruit and leaves
Food and Vegetable
Vitellaria paradoxa
Shea-butter tree/ Ekunguru
Fruit
Food and oil
Vitellaria paradoxa
Shea-butter tree/ Yao
Fruit
Food and oil
Combretum molle and Combretum collinum
Iworo/ Odugu
Stem and branches
Charcoal
Balanites aegyptiaca
Desert date/ Loba/ Logba
Fruit and leaves
Food and Vegetable
Albizia coriaria
Musisa
Stem
Timber
Carissa edulis
Muyonza
Fruit
Food
Acacia gerrardii
Mutongole
Stem, branches & flowers
Firewood, Bee forage
Eastern Northern
Western
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in order to avoid unnecessary competition for nutrients and water.
Vitellaria paradoxa If trees were minerals, the shea butter tree (V. paradoxa) would probably be gold. The tree is a nutritional and economic resource of great importance across 19 countries of Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Throughout the shea belt, the shea fruit is an important nutritional resource as it ripens and falls during the annual dry season when food stocks are lowest and agricultural requirements are highest for clearing and planting of crops with the coming of rains. This tree, commonly found in Northern Uganda, is known to produce shea oil locally known as moyaa in Luo. Shea oil has several health benefits particularly for the skin and hair. It is also used in a variety of cosmetics, hair products, soap and cooking oil. However, Shea nuts and its products have not gained their full market potential in Uganda. Shea markets remain traditional, concentrated in the shea producing areas, with low volumes of sales and high levels of domestic consumption. The shea business is dominated by local producers and consumers, and regarded as a preserve of women and children. It involves gathering of nuts, storage, processing of oil and marketing. Local market players comprise retailers, itinerant traders, wholesalers and business organizations. Markets for shea nuts are dominated by few organizations who buy nuts from the gatherers. They monopolize the markets because they offer the only reliable market for shea nuts. Most of the Shea nuts and unprocessed shea oil are mainly exported to the USA, Germany, Poland and China amongst other countries. There are limited sales to the local communities as most of the organizations are located in Kampala, where there is limited knowledge amongst consumers about various shea products and their uses.
and as an anthelmintic. The bark exudes a gum that can be used to treat wounds, and crushed dried leaves can be used for the same purpose. C. collinum is used to cure toothache or to plug a decayed tooth. The leaves are used as a purgative, while the roots are boiled and the decoction drunk warm as a treatment for dysentery and snakebites. However, these medicinal uses are still localized and a farmer can hardly earn from such a rich medicinal tree. There has also been limited advanced research to exploit and develop these medicinal values. Individual and collective efforts to build such local products will contribute to improving the local economy, the health situation and the environment, toward the sustainable development of Ugandan communities.
Combretum molle and Combretum collinum These are woodland species, dominating most of Ugandaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s drylands and occasionally associated with anthills. Their wood burns slowly, giving intense heat, and is suitable for firewood and production of high quality charcoal. Their ability to easily coppice provides a cheap propagation alternative to local communities. Conservation of these combretum species has been supported by World Vision and the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), through systematic regeneration from their stumps. This approach is referred to as Farmer Managed Natural Regeneration (FMNR) and it has been implemented in the districts of Kibaale, Nakasongola, Kotido, Abim and Mpigi.
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Apart from charcoal, the combretum species provide fodder, their flowers attract bees and make good forage for honey production and have various medicinal values. For example, boiled root decoction of C. molle is used to treat constipation, leprosy, headaches, stomach pains, fever, dysentery, general pains, swellings and as an anthelmintic for hookworm. The root and leaf together are believed to be an antidote for snake bite; leaves are chewed or pounded, soaked in water and the juice drunk for chest complaints
Balanites aegyptiaca (desert date tree) This is one of the most widely distributed tree species in the dry lands of Uganda. It has been listed among the priority tree crops in the dry zones of Africa, with potential to alleviate hunger and rural poverty. It offers a wide range of uses to the communities. Its fruits are used by local communities to meet their varied household needs such as food and income. With suitable methods, the fruit can be processed into a wide range of products and enhance opportunities for
Miti January - March 2016
a versatile utilization of the species. Although the tree has largely remained underutilized, harvesting and marketing of fruits is of socioeconomic interest to local people and in particular women and youths. While communities in Northern Uganda (especially Adjumani district) mainly value B. aegytiaca for its fruits, communities in Teso and Karamoja sub regions highly value Balanites leaves as a vegetable. Rural households use Balanites tree and its products for food, fuelwood and medicine. For medicinal purposes, the main parts/products used include the root and stem bark, oil, fruit pulp and kernel cake for treating several ailments such as body pains, stomach upsets, malaria, snake bites, skin diseases and de-worming children.
Growing indigenous trees as a climate change mitigation measure Tree planting is one sure way of reducing greenhouse gas emissions and generate Certified Emission Reductions (CERs), a tradable commodity in international carbon markets. The approach is a way of assisting industrialized countries meet their emission reduction commitments. Uganda is one of Africa’s leaders in the fast developing carbon finance markets. Most of the existing voluntary carbon trading schemes facilitate grassroots communities to venture, as groups, into the carbon market. A number of such initiatives have been piloted by the Environmental Conservation Trust of Uganda (ECOTRUST), where farmers are supported to plant native trees for sequestering carbon dioxide. Some of the indigenous species being promoted include mahogany, Prunus africana and Maesopsis eminii. Farmers are paid individually over ten years for the amount
of carbon dioxide their trees absorb through a conservation financing model. Though it varies widely, the average volume-weighted price in voluntary markets is US$ 6.10 per ton of CO2. Since carbon sequestered is stored in the form of woody biomass, the simple way to increase carbon stock is to plant and manage trees. As trees grow, they sequester carbon in their tissues, and as the amount of tree biomass increases the increase in atmospheric CO2 is mitigated. Therefore, the maximum potential in carbon sequestration will be achieved by focusing on increasing above ground biomass in woody vegetation rather than as soil carbon, given the smaller pool size of soil organic matter and short mean residence time. Other carbon financing initiatives that tree farmers need to explore for more incentives include Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD+). Table 2 below provides indicative revenues tree farmers can earn from selected indigenous
tree products Other products (honey, gums, firewood, fruits) and services (community tourism, soil and water conservation, modification of micro climates, habitat and shelter for wildlife) have not been valued, yet are of greater economic importance to the tree farmers. If Uganda is to preserve her majestic natural beauty, appealing climate, fertile land and uphold the prestigious “Pearl of Africa” status, conserving indigenous trees should remain on top of the national agenda. If the current rate of deforestation continues, the country will have no natural forests left by 2050. The long-term effect of this will be catastrophic, contributing to declining food security, disease and conflict. The writers are an Agroforestry Scientist, National Forestry Resources Research Institute (NaFORRI) Email: joebuyz@yahoo.com, and the Uganda Country Representative, World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) Email: c.okia@cgiar.org
Table 2: Estimates of the monetary value of key products from indigenous trees
Tree species
Ficus natalensis
Product
Unit
Monetary value (unit value) Uganda Shillings
US Dollars (1USD=3,450 UGX)
Bark cloth
Piece
40,000
11.6
Bark cloth shirts, Caps, dresses
Piece
25,000
7.2
Timber
Piece
15,000
4.3
Fencing poles
Piece
7,000
2.0
Combretum molle and Combretum collinum
Charcoal
Sack
65,000
18.8
Vitellaria paradoxa
Shea nuts
Kg
1,000
0.3
Shea nut Oil for cooking
Litre
12,000
3.5
Body lotion
Kg
50,000
14.5
Soap
Kg
20,000
5.8
Albizia coriaria
Miti January - March 2016
29
Which perspectives for East African indigenous tree species? BY QUENTIN MEUNIER
L
and is under pressure. Population growth and globalization tend to encroach on the remaining pieces of nature for new settlements, new farms, or new large-scaled agro-industries plantations, all contributing to the climate crisis that we are today trying to politically mitigate. We reached such an extent that planting trees is becoming an urgent necessity, perhaps even a salutary need. This is more relevant in Africa, where biodiversity relies on tight balances that may collapse if they become unsteady. For East Africans especially, who rely on trees for food, for healing or for livestock fodder, this resource is the central point of a daily life and rural communities cannot afford to lose this capital. We therefore need to encourage trees to be maintained and replanted on farms. The emergency status of wood scarcity in some areas forced politics and donors to choose well-known fast growing species that have been extensively studied and domesticated worldwide. These are the renowned Eucalyptus and Pine species, well represented in Uganda, Rwanda and Burundi, as well as various Acacia trees (A. auriculiformis, and A. mangium) in lowland rural areas. While the eucalypt is truly useful in urban peripheral areas to address the huge amount of firewood needed or on the surroundings of national parks to reduce pressure on indigenous habitats, it should not be the only solution promoted. The eucalyptus tree is often promoted for soil fertility and/or sustainability when exotic stands are used. It also unfortunately contributes to loss of material for food or traditional medicine as well as the patrimonial status of these trees, when they are used as high-valued timber capital, boundary markings, spiritual landmarks, to mention but a few. It is therefore important to promote initiatives parallel to Eucalyptus. From Dakar, Senegal to Mombasa, Kenya, youâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ll find in cocoa, coffee or tea plantations the same shade tree species (when applied), and it seems that we missed the opportunity to
30
Bridelia micrantha (kasangati) of 18 months, Uganda. (Photo: Quintin Meunier)
Miti January - March 2016
Indigenous tree species that match with specific land status (from the book “Alternatives to exotic species in Uganda – growth and cultivation of 85 indigenous trees”, 2010).
rely on indigenous ones. Yet there are several thousand African species, most of the time perfectly unknown, that may bring equivalent benefits or even offering – let’s be challenging – much more additional values. Lowland African rainforests are full of hundreds of leguminous species that might be suitable for intercropping or fallow improvement. Some should definitely be tried in Afromontane habitats such as along the Albertine Rift Valley in Uganda. This needs an intensive promotion for the establishment of trial plots throughout the various ecological stations in East Africa, following the impressive example of Ruhande Arboretum in Rwanda. The latest is one of the rare places where there is more than 80 years of data collection on tree monitored growth. However, except for a handful of indigenous species, especially the noteworthy Mahogany (Entandrophragma excelsum) and Muvule (Milicia excelsa), the arboretum is full of continental-exotic species. The main objective of this installation was indeed to set up trials on adaptation capacities of European, Australian and American well-known species. When would we plan for an indigenous arboretum? While waiting for solid scientific
Miti January - March 2016
research data that will highlight (or not) potential of certain indigenous species, there are some clues obtained on field that helps in selecting trees to suit certain situations. Based on natural observations, planting trials, as well as on traditional uses of local trees, there are orientations given on tree selection in response to land constraints, such as high potential of soil erosion, swampy areas, grazing pastures, among others. Local trees will bring additional values to the agro-pastoral habitat in Uganda which also apply to neighbouring nations.
Besides the direct impacts on livelihoods and patrimonial inheritance mentioned above, there are numerous ecological impacts, indirectly profitable to human beings, such as landscape stability, soil fertility, water cleaning, culture protective windbreaker, pollinator’s refuges, among others. The writer is a botanist specialised in tree propagation and cultivation. Email: meunierquentin@hotmail.com
31
Gums and resins production and trade in Kenya BY MESHACK MUGA AND CHIKAMAI, B.N
G
ums and resins from the drylands of Kenya can be sustainably exploited for household income and foreign exchange earnings. These resources include gum arabic from Acacia senegal or Acacia seyal and commercial gum resins such as myrrh from Commiphora myrrha, Opoponax (hagar), Commiphora holtziana and Frankincense (olibanium) from Boswellia neglecta (Figure 1). Gum arabic is used in the food industry, pharmaceutical industry and technical areas such as printing, ceramics and textile industries (Chikamai and Odera, 2002). The gum resins are mainly processed for the extraction of essential oils, used in cosmetics, flavours, perfumery and pharmaceutical industries. Gums and resins are produced mainly in 7 ASAL counties namely: Marsabit, Wajir, Garissa, Mandera, Turkana, Samburu and Isiolo. However, Kitui, Mwingi and Meru counties also have these resources. The probability distribution of these resources in the country is illustrated in Figure 2. The gums and resins value chain places collectors who harvest the gums and resins from the trees in their natural stands at the primary level. These collectors sell the gum to the local agents of major exporters and few wholesalers in the major towns who export the commodities to overseas markets. An example of value chain map of gum resins for Wajir County is shown in Figure 3. Government agencies such as The Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI), Kenya Forest Service (KFS) and Kenya Plant health inspectorate Service (KEPHIS) provide various services. KFS through the support of the Miti Mingi Maisha Bora programme is finalising rules and regulations for the sub-sector. There are about 80 producer groups, 3 cooperative societies, 1 national association (Gum Arabic and Resins Association of Kenya (GARA), and 8 exporters (Elegant Trading Company Limited, Gums and Resins Kenya Limited, Arid Lands Resources Ltd, Lubanchem Limited, Northern Gums Limited, Arbor Oils of Africa Ltd, Kenya gums resins Ltd and Kennect)
32
who are involved in the gums and resins trade.
Harvesting and post-harvest handling Harvesting and Potential Production Hagar, frankincense and gum arabic are from wild harvests collected from exudations caused by insects, animal damage or naturally , while myrrh is mainly tapped. Wild harvests which are richer in essential oils are more preferred. Tapping is done using a special axe in the dry seasons (three weeks after the rains) mainly in May â&#x20AC;&#x201C; October and occasionally in JanuaryMarch. A small area of bark about 3 cm wide and 10 cm long is removed from the tree stem starting from the base. The tapped area is cleaned three times (at seven days interval)
and a first collection made after 21 days. An average of 5-6 kg of gum/resins is collected per person per day. Based on the estimated area under the resources in the country, the potential for gum arabic production in Kenya is about 10,000 metric tons (MT) while that for resins (myrrh, Opoponax, frankincense) is about 8,000 MT (Muga et al., 2014).
Post-Harvest Handling Harvested gums and resins are collected in a jerry-can or gallon in the field and transferred to clean sisal or polythene gunny bags at the camp site or in the homestead (manyatta). Though there are a number of storage facilities in the counties, there is inadequate use of these facilities by the producer groups. Resins
Miti January - March 2016
Surprise! This is not maize, but bags of gum Arabic in a store in Lodwar.
Wild population of Acacia senegal or kerensis growing in Eastern Mwingi.
Hagar for sale in Garba Tula
need to be stored separately in a different store to avoid mixing with gum arabic, but sometimes these are stored together. Most of the gums and resins are sold without sorting. Exporters carry out some cleaning and sorting based on their requirements but no established criterion exists. It involves removal of bark and any observable foreign matter (e.g. stones, insects or separation of nodules/lumps that are distinctly different from the rest). In the case of hagar, post-harvest losses can be to the tune of 30% in the form of bark, insects or adulterants. However, in Ethiopia, myrrh and olibanum are sorted and graded on the basis of
Miti January - March 2016
particle size and colour and in Sudan there are established grades for gum arabic. Packaging is done according to the importers requirements. Powdered gum arabic for example is packed in 50 kgs net weight bags while first grade lumps are packed in 25kgs net wt bags.
Valued Added Processing Only a small quantity of the gums and resins produced in Kenya is processed for essential oils. The rest is exported in raw form. There are currently three processors of gum resins in Kenya - Lubanchem Limited, Northern Gums Limited, and Arbor Oils of Africa Ltd. The firms
extract essential oils from myrrh, Olibanum (Frankincense) and Opoponax (Hagar) through a steam distillation process. The yield of essential oils at 70% efficiency level is 5% for myrrh and 6% for Olibanum and Hagar. For gum arabic, it is only Arid Land Resources Limited (ALRL) that carries out value addition to gum arabic by grinding the product and grading it before exporting.
Trade and marketing The current annual world demand for gum arabic is about 100,000 MT against a supply of about 70,000 MT which is projected to
33
SUCCESSFUL TREE-GROWER
reach 150,000 MT by 2020 (Muller and Okoro, 2004). The annual world demand for gum resins is estimated Actor at around 6000 MT. Globally, the resource potential of gums and resins far exceeds current levels of Location production. Apparently, the exports of gum arabic from Kenya are still very small relative to the resource Average Qty potential. Annual exports of gum arabic have been only a few 58.8 MT which reached a peak of 165 MT Price per Kg in 2008 valued at US $ 151,715.8 (Export Promotion Council, 2014) due to both the intrinsic properties Value addition of the gums as well as issues addition related to handling and post harvest processing. However, there now exists niche markets for gum arabic interfere with gum collection, storage and trade from Kenya that is expected to scale up the Low production of gum arabic due to low production and export volumes. adoption of best practices and land and tree Kenya is the third largest exporter of resins tenure issues (myrrh, hagar and frankincense) after Ethiopia Inadequate data on the resources, trade and and Somalia. However, the export statistics for marketing gum resins are poorly documented as the trade Lack of clear policies and strategies on the codes combine resins, gum resins and other development of gums and resins at the county natural gums making it difficult to segregate the and national levels resins (Chikamai et al, 2002). Export volumes of Inadequate incentives including access to gum resins averaged 2,361 MT and reached a credit by producers and traders peak of 3,687 MT valued at US$ 4,010,726.3 and Delays in operationalizing a factory for sold mainly to Pakistan, Vietnam, China, Hong processing of gum resins at Wajir Kong and India (Export Promotion Council, 2014). Frequent and prolonged droughts affect gum Germany is the leading destination in production Europe with Switzerland emerging as a key destination. A lot of cross border gum resin trade Opportunities for Promoting especially through Ethiopia and Somalia goes Commercialization of gums and resins on unregistered. This is exacerbated by the lack Strengthening GARA by supporting of a strong Traders’ Association and insufficient implementation of the 2016-2020 strategic capacity of the various government agencies plan would be a starting point in reforming the involved in monitoring trade. Profit margins for sub-sector. A strong GARA would lobby the agents or local traders are quite low (7. 1 -9.4 %) government for enabling policies and assist making them to rely on selling groceries, hides in the establishment and strengthening of the and skins to break-even and explain their low producer associations investment in marketing infrastructure (Wekesa The establishment of producer associations/ et al 2013). cooperative societies would help the local communities’ access credit and negotiate for Key constraints and gaps on better prices in line with prevailing market commercialization of gums and resins prices. Training of the producer associations on The key constraints and gaps in the sound production and post harvest handling will commercialization of gums and resins are result in good quality gum resins coming to the summarised below: market and thereby better prices and increased Poor quality of the products resulting from demand. Value adding through establishing adulteration medium processing plants (steam distillation or Poorly developed markets and marketing extraction plants) that will result in export of semi systems resulting in low prices at the producer processed products. level County governments should develop a legal Destruction of gums and resins producing framework that will establish a county statutory trees for firewood, fencing and fodder board with the mandate to oversee investment Insecurity in some of the producing areas and development of the gums and resins sub-
34
sector in each producer county. Operationaization of the gums and resins rules, currently under development, would help in streamlining the sub-sector. REFERENCES AND MATERIALS FOR FURTHER READING Adeso, 2016. Capturing value through integration of gums and resins products from Wajir with the end markets in Nairobi. Report for REGAL-IR project funded by USAID. Chikamai B.N. and Odera J.A. eds. 2002. Commercial Plant Gums and Gum Resins in Kenya: Sources of Alternative Livelihood and Economic Development in the Drylands. Executive Printers, Nairobi, Kenya Chikamai, B.N., E. Casadei (eds). 2005. Production and Marketing of Gum resins: Fankincesnse, Myrrh and Opopoonax. NGARA series 5. 97 pp. FAO. 2005: Mapping gums and resins in Eastern Africa. TCP/2914 Project Report. Muga, M, Mutunga, C, Eliezer, P, Oriwo, V. and Chikamai, B. 2014. Sustainable wild harvesting protocols for gums and resins in Isiolo and Samburu counties. A consultancy study for CETRAD Muller and Okoro, 2004. Production and marketing of Gum acacia. NGARA Publication Series . Wekesa, C., Luvanda, A.M.,Muga, M.O.,Chikamai, B.N., Makenzi, P.M. 2013. Market Chain Analysis of Gum Arabic Trade in Kenya.Octa Journal of Environmental Research April - June, 2013. International peer-reviewed journal ISSN 2321-3655.Oct. Jour. Env. Res. Vol. 1(2): 93-106. Available online http://www.science beingjournal. com. Meshack Muga is a Researcher at Kenya Forestry Research Institute KEFRI Email: meshackmuga@hotmail.com While Dr. Ben N. Chikamai is the Director KEFRI Email:benchikamai@gmail.com
Miti January - March 2016
TREE OF THE QUARTER
A Rare Fruit Tree with Cultural Value: The Giant Yellow Mulberry BY FRANCIS GACHATHI
T
he Giant Yellow Mulberry tree locally known as Mutuya is found in the central Kenya highlands, around Mt. Kenya and the Aberdares. This is an evergreen tree with very distinctive large compound (digitate) leaves made up of 5-7 leaflets. The leaflets are smooth and dark green above and pale greyish-green below with a dense velvety pubescence and distinctive veins. Flowers are unisexual, on separate trees. Scientifically, it is called Myrianthus holstii. It has very delicious yellow fruits consisting of separate segments, resembling a custard-apple or miniature pineapple. The giant yellow mulberry was a common reference in folktales of the local people. As a result of deforestation, the giant yellow mulberry is becoming very rare indeed. It is a tree worth protecting for our own heritage and for posterity. It can be propagated through seed. The seeds should be extracted from ripe fruits, cleaned and sown while still fresh. It is best between altitudes 1500-2200, with over 1000 mm annual rainfall.
A young giant yellow mulberry tree
The writer is a retired botanist. Email: gachathif@yahoo.com
Fruiting branch
Fresh seeds
Miti January - March 2016
Fruits
35
WATER HARVESTING
Rainwater harvesting evaluation in Kitui County BY JAMES DANIEL OKOTH
W
ater scarcity has been a perennial problem in Kitui County. On average, precipitation stands at 500-800mm a year, with intense dry spells leading to drought and famine. This is in addition to the long distances travelled to water sources averaging two (2) km which only worsens the situation. According to a study conducted in December 2015 on drought early warning signs by the National Drought Management Authority of Kitui County, the main sources of water during the month were traditional river wells, pans and dams. Harvesting and local storage of water are important adaptations for ensuring water availability and food security to rural and urban populations, especially in developing countries (Kashyap, 2004). One example of local (‘community based’) adaptation to drought in the county is rain water harvesting techniques. Rainwater is collected, stored, and used for field irrigation amongst other uses. The technique applies the principles of water retention whereby no rain water should run over the earth surface but rather be infiltrated into the soil where it falls.
Case studies and evaluations of rainwater harvesting Kitui Central What impact have the water sector reforms had on the number of water sources, distances to water points and on the distribution of water sources? Does local politics determine the choices made? This study sought to establish the availability and accessibility of water in one of the most expansive counties in Kenya. Out of the five administrative wards (Miambani, Township, Kyangwithya West, Mulango and Kyangwithya East), two - Mulango ward and Kyangwithya East were selected. It was conducted among 100 respondents, split in equal numbers – 50 each- from each ward. In both study areas, 59% of the respondents were 38 years old and below, while 52% had attained at least secondary level education, earning a living from small scale farming or petty trade with average monthly
36
income ranges between Ksh6, 000 to 14,000. Female respondents constituted 61% while the men were 39%. The water sources are seasonal rivers and streams. Apart from seasonal rivers, other water sources in existence are Kalundu (a semidam) three boreholes, sand dams constructed collectively by the community and several shallow wells. More recently yard taps, water kiosks, sand dams, pans, shallow wells, dams and boreholes have become common sources. The dry riverbeds of Nzeu River provide water for both livestock and human populations. Mulango Ward Located on the east of Kitui Town, the ward has a population of 28,573 in an area of 155km2. With the advent of the current phase of the reform process at around 2002-2003, deliberate efforts were made to increase the number of water
sources in Kitui Central Constituency to which Mulango ward belongs. This was done through injection of funds to the water sector. In Mulango post 2002 developments show the availability of water sources to be 20 sand dams/sand wells/ weirs, 1 de-silted dam, 1 borehole , 2 seasonal rivers, 5 household wells, 10 community taps and one waterpan . Before 2002, 76% of Mulango relied on sand dams as a source of water. Kyangwithya East Ward It is located at the entrance to Kitui from Machakos where the main water line from Masinga dam passes. It is highly populated with an elitist set-up. They were among the first residents of Kitui to receive the Masinga water in the 1990s due to their location. Being at the mouth of Kitui Central, the district water officer installed water kiosks along the Kitui – Machakos and Kitui – Matuu roads. The post 2002 reforms by the water
Miti January - March 2016
USD 50 per m3 storage inclusive of gutters and other minor components. DRWH with underground tanks would be considerably cheaper at USD 7-16 per m3. Rock catchments Rock catchments are simple systems for the collection of rainwater and require ease of accessibility for the users. The best sites are found on the lower reaches of bare rock (without fractures or cracks), where infiltration losses to the soil, vegetation and structures are minimized. The retention of run-off is made in natural hollows or valleys made into reservoirs by constructing simple masonry walls. The reservoir should have a relative high depth-to-surface ratio in order to minimize evaporation. Stone and mortar gutters may be built across the rock face to channel the run-off into the dam. Storage may be provided in dams or open tanks. Other surfaces can also be used as catchment e.g. concrete, plastic sheets, treated soils to mention but a few. Cost The cost will depend on local conditions and availability of local construction materials. Nonetheless where technically feasible, this technique can compete with conventional water storage techniques. Costs of rock catchment storage are listed in table 1 below. sector show: 6 sand dams/sand wells/weirs, 2 dams (both incomplete), 2 boreholes, 2 seasonal rivers, 3 household wells, 20 community taps, 5 pans and 10 water kiosks (16 not operational). There have been major water infrastructure development projects in the two wards between 2005 and 2009.
Other sources of rainwater harvesting to agricultural and domestic supply in Kitui Domestic Rain Water Harvesting (DRWH) Domestic rain water harvesting has been successfully utilized by people all over the world for many centuries. A domestic rainwater harvesting system consists of the catchment (roof), conveyance mechanism (guttering and down pipes), first flush device and storage tank (masonry, ferro-cement or plastic). The size of the roof catchment determines the quantity and to some extent the quality of water available throughout the year. Galvanized Iron (GI) sheet roofs are by far the best due to their relative smoothness and the sterilizing effect of the metal roof heating under the sun. Conveyance mechanism is whereby water goes down a pipe normally made of PVC (poly vinyl chloride) or GI. â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;First flushâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; mechanism diverts water from the storage tank. The size of the storage tank depends on the amount of rainfall, the number of dry days and House Hold (HH) consumption rates. The storage tank can either be above the ground with variation in size from 1m3 to more than 40m3 for households and up to 100m3 or more for schools and hospitals or below the ground. The benefit of having a tank above the ground is that water can be extracted easily through a tap just above the base of the tank. Underground tanks offer better alternatives due to cheaper construction costs. However, one has to pump the water and this increases chances of contamination and sedimentation, translating to water-borne diseases. Cost Data and experiences from numerous references shows that the capital cost for a DRWH system with above-the-ground tanks in Africa would be approximately
Miti January - March 2016
Table 1: cost of rock catchments Location
Volume (m3)
Cost (USD)
USD /m3
Kimanjo, Kenya
100
5,000 (2002)
50
Musul, Kenya
450
30,000 (2001)
67
East Africa Mati, 2006
46-110 USD/m3
Sub-surface Dams, Small Dams, and Sand Dams A sub-surface dam consists of a vertical, impermeable barrier through a cross section of a sand-filled, seasonal river bed. A ditch is dug at right angles across the river and into each bank, preferably where a rock dyke protrudes. This provides a solid, impermeable base onto which a simple masonry wall can be built within the trench. In some situations, the wall is raised gradually as sand from upstream accumulates behind the structure, forming a sand dam. Water is taken out through a shallow well in the sand bed, or through a filter box, into a gravity pipe which runs through the dam to the point of use downstream. For water supply augmentation and soil conservation purposes, it is better to build a series of small dams along the same stream, rather than building one large dam. A sequence of small dams increase alluvial deposition and improves infiltration more than a single large dam. Table 2: costs of different types of dams Type of Dam:
Water Volume:
Cost /year:
Subsurface soil dam
1885 m3
Sh.9,000/1997
Subsurface Masonry dam
2411 m3
Sh.75,700/1999
Sand dam Rubble Masonry
6717 m3 900 m3
Sh.225,300/1996 Sh. 241,000/2006
Distance to a Water Source Another determinant of access to water among the rural folk is the distance covered in search of water, the shorter being the better. The comparative data analysis below represents both the two locations Mulango and
37
UGANDA DRYLANDS
Kyangwithya East: Table 3: distances to water sources in two different wards in Kitui County Mulango Ward
%
Kyangwithya East Ward
%
1 to 3 kilometers
4
1 to 3 kilometers
20
4 to 6 kilometers
24
4 to 6 kilometers
64
7 to 9 kilometers
52
7 to 9 kilometers
16
10 kilometers and above
20
10 kilometers and above
0
Total
100
Total
100
Estimates of Cost and affordability of water and water services The determination on affordability of water services requires benchmarking the ratio of household’s monthly expenditure on water to household’s monthly income (Fankhauser and Tepic, 2005). The World Bank and World Health Organisation (WHO), advise that, for water services to be considered affordable, households should not spend more than 5% of total monthly income on water (Dagdeviren, 2008). This is the common benchmark ratio used across the globe. Rural dwellers in Mulango and Kyangwithya East recorded to earn Ksh. 6,000-14,000 per month. Out of that, they spent on average more than 14% and 52% respectively on water. Inability to afford water services had both social and economic implications on the development of the area. Additionally, there was an increase in the number of respondents contracting water-borne diseases due to insufficient funds to purchase water. Prior to the reforms in 2002, Mulango ward got water from weirs or sand
dams, communal wells and boreholes most of which had been drilled by non-governmental organisations (NGOs). This communal water was mainly paid through social capital, whereby one person would volunteer to guard the water source and in return fetch the water for free. Communities around the source were required to pay a small amount for maintenance and this could range from Ksh. 200 to Ksh. 400 which in turn guaranteed unlimited access. This led to improved accessibility of water by the residents of Mulango based on the cost of water. Communal water sources especially in Mulango are still fairly cheap as compared to other sources of water, mainly wells and dams dug as community projects. According to one respondent: “We pay Ksh. 500 per month to the board that takes care of the pan. With that I am able to fetch as much water as I want the whole month as long as I comply with the set rule of not dirtying the water by washing clothes. For example I have just taken a whole cart of water from the pan and I haven’t paid anything.” The water sector reforms increased accessibility and availability in provision of water to rural people while alternative water sources were developed that eliminate dependency on one source. This confirms that reforms improved accessibility of water for rural folks. The increased availability of water sources is however negated by increased non- uniformity in their distribution. It was established that local leaders tend to reward those who vote for them and punish those who fail to do so. The rationality derived from the study is that the water sector reforms have only increased the number of water sources in the rural areas but has failed to improve accessibility. Recommendations The study recommends introducing more water sources like storage tanks, constructed at strategic social places like markets for easier access. This will help to reduce the distances travelled and time spent in search of water. New mechanisms should be put in place to ensure retailers adhere to the stated regulations. Currently, the price of water at kiosks, water bowsers and supply points is beyond the recommended price affordable to the community. From the above evaluation, there are various dominant methods of water collection some of which include water pans, storage tanks and water kiosks. Despite the existence of these collection methods, water is still a challenge as Kitui residents walk kilometers for the precious commodity. James Daniel Okoth is on internship at ICRAF with Green Agric ulture partnership programme Email: jimydanse@gmail.com.
38
Miti January - March 2016
Rainfall trends in the Lake Victoria Basin, Uganda BY EGERU ANTHONY
The ferry from Bukakata to Luku (Kalangala Island, part of the Ssese Islands in Lake Victoria).
L
ake Victoria is an important water mass that has influence on rainfall in the Lake Victoria basin. The effects of the rainfall are limited on the northern and western shores of the lake as they do not exceed 40 km inland. Typically, rainfall increases from east to west with average gradient between 600 to 2,800 mm annually. The Victoria basin’s temperatures reach a maximum level in February, shortly before the March equinox. Meanwhile the lowest temperatures are often experienced around July shortly after the June equinox. The temperatures in the basin depending on the location generally range between 28.6C-28.7C (maximum) and 14.7C and 18.2C (minimum). The basin’s hydraulic processes are greatly influenced by seasonal wind movements with a convergence zone often occurring over Lake Victoria (Figure 1). Wind movements parallel to the equator often occur in the months of January and February and between June –September. These movements are predominantly in the east-west orientation; these winds emerge from western
Miti January - March 2016
parts of Kenya and partly Tanzania. They are quite dry but quickly get moisturized as they traverse through Lake Victoria; eventually creating rainfall in the western parts of the lake (COWI Consulting Engineers, 2002). The pattern however changes
during the months of March-May and OctoberDecember; with the winds changing direction to the north ending of the lake. Over the years, rainfall in the basin has fluctuated with debilitating impacts. This is because 80% of the lake’s water input is from rainfall; as such the lake is generally described as an “atmosphere controlled” lake (Tate et al., 2004).. In that regard, the variability of rainfall over the lake both spatially and temporally is important in influencing the lake’s water levels. Research into the spatial and temporal variability of rainfall over Lake Victoria basin have been undertaken by several researches but have shown no significant trends. However, from time to time, dry spells continue to occur over the basin, leading to the necessity to show not only the patterns but the intensity of rainfall variability in the basin as well. In this current work rainfall trends and intensity of variability over the basin in the Uganda part are shown, using data from five weather stations (Masaka, Wakiso, Kampala, Mukono and Jinja). Data covers 35 years (1980-2014). With 1980 as our base year, three (Kampala, Mukono, Jinja) out of the five rainfall stations show a positive rainfall trend (Figures 2-5). Meanwhile Masaka district rainfall revealed a declining trend (Figure 6). The significance of these trends is however limited. A comparison of monthly rainfall patterns indicated that Wakiso district had a higher increase in the
39
Figure 2: Rainfall for Kampala district
Figure 3: Rainfall for Mukono district
River Nile leaving Lake Victoria at Jinja
Figure 4: Rainfall for Jinja district
Figure 5: Rainfall for Wakiso district
Figure 6: Rainfall for Masaka district
March, April and May (MAM) rainfall (long rains) compared to all other districts (Figure 7). The MAM period thus remains a major rainfall season for the basin; particularly for farmers. The patterns reflected above provide four key messages: (i) rainfall patterns in the Victoria basin are variably differentiated with two patterns; an increasing and a decreasing trend; (ii) the varied patterns of rainfall around the Victoria basin require strategic adaptation that is case specific but integrated; (iii) an analysis of variability intensity is required across scale and scope to provide spatial and temporal adaptation indices for the basin; (iv) further inquiry into the rather peculiar higher rainfall MAM totals for Wakiso district from a satellite system analysis and modeling ought to be undertaken. References COWI Consulting Engineers (2002), “The Integrated Water Quality/Limnology Study”, Technical Report, Part II, Lake Victoria Environmental Management Project, East African Community, Arusha, Tanzania. Tate, E., Sutcliffe, J., Conway, D., & Farquharson, F. (2004). Water balance of Lake Victoria: update to 2000 and climate change modelling to 2100/Bilan hydrologique du Lac Victoria: mise à jour jusqu’en 2000 et modélisation des impacts du changement climatique jusqu’en 2100. Hydrological Sciences Journal, 49(4). Figure 1: Seasonal wind patterns of the Lake Victoria Basin (Adapted from COWI Engineers Consulting, 2002). Wakiso, Kampala, Mukono and Jinja Districts The writer is a lecturer at the Department of Environmental Management, Makerere University Email: eanthony@caes.mak.ac.ug
Figure 7: Annual Rainfall trend for Masaka, Wakiso, Kampala, Mukono and Jinja Districts
40
Better Globe Forestry Ltd
Making Africa greener
Making Africa greener Better Globe Forestry (BGF) is part of The Better Globe Group from Norway, which focuses on the need to fight poverty through promoting massive tree planting and sustainable agricultural programmes. BGF’s vision is to create secure commercial projects with vital humanitarian and environmental activities and as a result become the biggest tree planting company in the world within 20 years.
Land in Kiambere before planting. Note the omnipresent soil erosion
The mission of BGF is to make Africa a greener, healthier place in which to live and eradicate poverty by focusing on the development of profitable, commercial tree plantations that will deliver environmental as well as humanitarian benefits. Miti magazine is a publication of Better Globe. It is the policy of BGF to, among other things: • Create attractive financial opportunities for present and future investors, Continuously identify and address the needs of employees, suppliers, customers, shareholders, the community at large and any other stakeholders, • Focus on the need to help fight poverty, through promoting massive tree planting • Create and sustain motivation throughout the organisation for meeting its business objectives, • Continuously maintain and review an effective and efficient Quality System which as a minimum satisfies the requirements of the appropriate Quality System standard(s), • Continuously improve the performance of all aspects of the organisation.
Workers clearing a thicket in Nyangoro in preparation for tree planting
Our nursery at Kiambere
A two-year-old plantation of Melia volkensii in Kiambere
Workers in BGF’s plantation in Kiambere, after receiving a food donation
A Melia volkensii plus -tree part of our genetic improved programme
Preparing for planting in Kiambere
The committee of Witu Nyongoro ranch with Rino Solberg and Jean-Paul Deprins
www.betterglobeforestry.com
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ISSUE 12 2014
FIGHTING CORRUPTION BY BUILDING INTEGRITY IN THE CHILDREN OF AFRICA
INTEGRITY YOU ARE OUR HOPE FOR A CLEAN FUTURE
yes. my father bought it for me, but i can’t ride. when i tried i fell into these bushes and i think i hurt my foot.
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THE MAGAZINE FOR THE CHILDREN OF AFRICA
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ISSUE: 1 FIGHTING CORRUPTION BY BUILDING INTEGRITY IN THE CHILDREN OF AFRICA
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