Miti Issue 25

The forgotten species Invest your money, plant trees Restoring a habitat to its natural state ‘Mental drought’ afflicts Uganda’s cattle corridor Subscription only

THE TREE FARMERS MAGAZINE FOR AFRICA I s s ue N o . 25 Jan u ary -M a r ch 2 0 1 5

A Publication of Better Globe Forestry

Saving the African rainforests Growing commercial quantities of mukau in EA would save the hardwoods of the Congo

Pioneers in plantation forestry in Kenya’s ASAL

Better Globe Forestry’s goals, achievements, and vision and mission

Civil, steady and playing their part

Public benefit organisations play a crucial role in the forestry sector in East Africa

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LOCATION: Tabere Crescent no.4, Kileleshwa

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21

5

Issue No 25 January - March 2015

2

Editorial

20

Invest your money, plant trees

We celebrate our contributors

4

News

Look upon trees as a savings plan, says economist who has ventured into plantation forestry

By Diana Ahebwe

How KenGen’s Green Initiative Challenge for schools is faring a year later

22

Restoring a habitat to its natural state

Brackenhurst Forest in Tigoni is a living collection of endangered plant species

By Mark Nicholson

25

Pioneers in plantation forestry in Kenya’s ASAL

Jean-Paul Deprins, the Managing Director of Better Globe Forestry (BGF), talks of the company’s goals, achievements, vision and mission

28

Profitable but expensive venture

Although more Ugandans have taken up commercial tree-growing, much still needs to be put right in the industry

By Sarah Akello Esimu

30

Standing tall with good prospects

Despite challenges, the future looks bright for the Uganda Electricity Distribution Co Ltd (UEDCL) Lugogo pole treatment plant

By Jan Vandenabeele

32

Saving the Central African rainforests

Growing commercial quantities of mukau in East Africa would present alternatives to the hardwoods of the Congo A Miti interview with Joshua Cheboiwo, Paulo Cerutti

5

Civil, steady and playing their part

Public benefit organisations play a crucial role in the forestry sector in Kenya

By Rudolf Makhanu and Lucy Njuguna

9

Putting the limelight on forestry Civil society organisations are critical in helping Uganda achieve forestry objectives

By Ceaser Kimbugwe

11

Working with the government

Civil society organisations in Uganda play their role in securing the environment

By Gaster Kiyingi

12 County governments need to be empowered

To fulfil their mandate in forest conservation, counties require financial and human resources

By Rudolf Makhanu

15

Improving on-farm incomes

Muileshi CFA works with KFS to co-manage Kakamega Forest

By Sylvester Murwa Imbwaka

16

Working for the common good

Vi Agroforestry works with farmers for sustainable agriculture

By Diana Ahebwe

17

Let the trees grow

Farmer Managed Natural Regeneration (FMNR) is improving livelihoods and restoring vegetation cover

By Caroline Njiru

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The forgotten species

The versatile poplar and willow trees are potential agents for environmental clean-up

By Phanuel Oballa, A Muchugi and Sammy Carsan

and Dennis Garrity

36 ‘Mental drought’ afflicts Uganda’s cattle corridor

It’s all about attitude, says scholar of the problems encountered in semi-arid areas

By Anthony Egeru

38

Climate change is real in Kenya

Changes in rainfall patterns and amounts, disappearing rivers and other changes all point to global warming

By James Muhindi The forgotten

On the cover: A woman extracts mukau (Melia volkensii) seeds from the nuts. Mukau seeds are firmly stuck inside a tough nut (insert). Opening the nut with a nutcracker either destroys the nutcracker or the seed. That is why the woman is using a knife and a piece of wood as a hammer. (See article on page 25, about Better Globe Forestry’s work with mukau.

[Main photo: Alice Muller (ICRAF); insert: BGF]

species

Invest your money, plant trees Restoring a habitat to its natural state ‘Mental drought’ afflicts Uganda’s cattle corridor

Subscription only A Publicat ion

of Better Globe Forestry

THE TREE FARMERS

MAGAZINE

FOR AFRIC

A Issue No.25 January -March 2015

Saving the rainforests African

Pioneers in plan tation forestry in Ken

Growing comm ercial quantities of mukau in EA would save the hardwoods of the Congo

ya’s ASAL Better Globe Forestry’s goals, achievements, and vision and mission

Civil, steady and playing the ir part

Public benefit organ role in the forest isations play a crucial ry sector in East Africa

Editorial

We celebrate our contributors

T

his issue is number 25 in an uninterrupted series of Miti magazines. If it were years it would be the Silver Anniversary of its marriage with the forestry world. And on this occasion we need to mention particularly and celebrate the contributors to the publication who selflessly as always managed to give articles and inputs despite their busy schedules. They are too many to mention in a list, but our Miti in-house team has compiled a pallet of photos (though not complete) that will allow our faithful readers to recognise many of them.

The theme of this issue evolves around civil society organisations and their role in forestry.

These civil society, non-profit organisations are often run by volunteers and vary widely in terms of structures and size and many believe that they are more effective in addressing local needs than the big charitable organisations. In this issue, we will scratch the surface on how these community organisations relate with forestry.

Contributions in this issue are varied as usual. The civil society subject is covered by Rudolf Makhanu, Lucy Njuguna, Gaster Kiyingi and Ceaser Kimbugwe. Caroline Njiru tells us more about Farmer Managed Natural Regeneration and Sylvester Imbwaka explains how Muileshi CFA and KFS co-manage Kakamega Forest.

Phanuel Oballa writes about Kenyan poplars and willows, a surprise as people might think these species only grow in moderate climates like Europe; Mark Nicholson proves that the Central Highlands can be restored to their original vegetation with water and biodiversity returning; and Sarah Akello describes how Uganda has gone through different reforestation impulses.

Our own company, Better Globe Forestry, gets some limelight on what we achieved in the 10 years of our existence, focusing on dryland afforestation and Melia volkensii, mukau, the Kenyan dryland mahogany. A link might exist between mukau and the Central African rainforests, as interviews with Dennis Garrity, Joshua Cheboiwo and Paolo Cerutti suggest.

Water is not neglected in this issue, where Anthony Egeru says that the dryness of the Ugandan cattle corridor is relative, and where James Muhindi explains how and why and where it rains in Kenya.

We wish you happy reading.

Jean-Paul Deprins

Published by:

Chairman of the Editorial Board:

Managing Editor

Better Globe Forestry Ltd No. 4, Tabere Crescent, Kileleshwa P.O. Box 823 – 00606 Nairobi, Kenya Tel: + 254 20 434 3435 Mobile: + 254 722 758 745 Email: kenya@mitiafrica.com www.betterglobeforestry.com

Rino Solberg

Wanjiru Ciira

Uganda office: MITI MAGAZINE ® Plot 92, Luthuli Avenue, Bugolobi P.O. Box 22232 Kampala, Uganda Mobile: + 256 775 392 597 Email: uganda@mitiafrica.com www.betterglobeforestry.com

2

Editor-in-chief

Technical Editor

Jean-Paul Deprins

Jan Vandenabeele

Editorial Committee - Kenya

Country Director - Uganda Julie Solberg

Joshua Cheboiwo, Francis Gachathi, Keith Harley, Enock Kanyanya, James Kung’u, Rudolf Makhanu, Fridah Mugo, Jackson Mulatya, Mary Njenga, Alex Oduor, Leakey Sonkoyo, Jean-Paul Deprins, Jan Vandenabeele and Wanjiru Ciira

Country Representative - Uganda Diana Ahebwe

Editorial Committee - Uganda

Designer

Gerald Eilu, Hillary Agaba, Dickens Sande Bueno, Ponsiano Besesa, Paul Buyera, Sarah Akello Esimu, Dennis Kavuuma, Patrick Byakagaba and Diana Ahebwe

Daniel N. Kihara COPYRIGHT © BETTER GLOBE FORESTRY ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

Miti January - Mar ch 2015

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NEWS

Evaluating schools’ tree-planting project How KenGen’s Green Initiative Challenge for schools is faring a year later

BY SAMUEL NAKHONE

I

n November 2013, the Kenya Power Generating Company (KenGen) Foundation launched the Green Initiative Challenge (GIC) for schools. The aim of the initiative is to encourage and enable schools to develop small forests and woodlots within their compounds for multiple benefits. Better Globe Forestry supports the initiative and donated 15,000 seedlings of mukau (Melia volkensii) for planting in schools.

The KenGen Foundation is working with 81 schools in Machakos and Embu counties on the two-year programme. The species planted are Melia volkensii and Cassia siamea.

Participating schools are required to have a designated plot of not less than a quarter an acre for tree-planting. The woodlots are monitored every four months by a team of judges from KenGen and other stakeholders.

Final evaluation will be done after two years to determine winners. The final evaluation will be based on growth rate, effort, innovativeness and creativity.

Challenges to the project At the half-way mark in November 2014, the initiative faced a number of challenges. These fall into three categories, namely, environmental, social and human factors.

Environmental factors • Drought: The three districts of Masinga, Mbeere South and Mbeere North, in which the GIC project is being undertaken, are classified as arid and semi-arid lands. The project suffers from scarcity of water. Seventy five per cent of the participating schools have been affected by drought, in some cases leading to mortality of up to 100 per cent of the seedlings planted.

Innovation

No. of schools

Percentage

Fencing

20

24%

Drip irrigation

15

19%

Mulching

2

2%

Manure application

9

11%

Intercropping

12

15%

Trenches and water catchment

17

21%

Assigning seedlings to individuals

27

33%

• Attacks by insects and pests: Attacks by spider mites (Tetranychus spp) on the Cassia siamea and infestation by termites were reported.

However, this was not severe because with time they disappeared.

Social factors • Damage by domestic animals: Domestic animals, especially goats, forage on mukau.

Thirty four of the 81 schools in the project reported damage by animals. Some of these seedlings died or suffered severe bark damage and broken branches. This could be partly attributed to lack of fences in some schools that would have kept domestic animals away from the plots.

• Human destruction: There were cases of seedlings being trampled or uprooted by neighbours for replanting in their own farms.

Some farmers know the value of mukau but do not have access to seedlings so they steal from the schools’ plots.

Human factors • Lack of support from school management: This is a key challenge observed in 27 schools.

In these schools, there was no effort to put in place measures to ensure the survival of the seedlings. The teachers, students and parents were not involved in the project setup and management. Without a management system, the seedlings could not survive.

• Poor tree management: Poor spacing, competition from weeds, shallow pits (less than 30 cm deep) for planting the seedlings, pruning with bare hands or panga (machetes) instead of pruning saws and secateurs, and high pruning leading to top-heavy seedlings.

Successes and innovations Innovations noted included fencing of the plots, use of drip irrigation, mulching, application of manure, intercropping, digging of trenches, assigning of seedlings to students and erection of water catchment structures. Innovations were recorded in 51 schools. The Table below summarises the innovations by some of the schools.

Out of the 24,584 seedlings issued to the schools, 55.5 per cent survived for both species combined. The survival of Melia volkensii was at 61 per cent while that of Cassia siamea was 50 per cent. The highest survival recorded was 98 per cent for Riandu Primary School and the worst school had a survival of 0 per cent.

Way forward There is need to motivate the participants, not through short-term rewards, but by making them own the project and appreciate the future value of the trees environmentally and commercially.

Once the schools own the project, they must get better technical support to enhance their management capacity. This will impact positively not only on the survival but also on the future value of the trees.

The writer is a forester at Better Globe Forestry Email: samuel@betterglobeforestry.com

Miti January - March 2015

LEAD THEME

Civil, steady and playing their part Public benefit organisations play a crucial role in the forestry sector in Kenya

BY RUDOLF MAKHANU AND LUCY NJUGUNA

C

ivil society is one of the three important sectors of society, along with government and business. For this reason, it is referred to as the “third sector�. As per the World Bank’s definition, civil society refers to the wide array of nongovernmental and not-for-profit organisations that operate in public life, expressing the interests and values of their members or others, based on ethical, cultural, political, scientific, religious or philanthropic considerations.

These include non-governmental organisations (NGOs) currently referred to as public benefit organisations (PBOs), grassroots associations such as community forest associations, cooperatives, labour unions, charitable organisations, faith-based organisations, professional associations and foundations.

The concept of civil society goes back many centuries and has its roots in ancient Greece. The modern idea of civil society emerged in the 18th Century, influenced by political theorists from Thomas Paine to George Hegel, who developed the notion of civil society as a domain parallel to, but separate from, the state (Cerothers, 1999).

The 1990s brought about renewed interest in civil society, as the trend towards democracy opened up space for civil society and the need to cover increasing gaps in social services created by structural adjustment - and other reforms - in developing countries.

Over the last two decades, civil society has evolved significantly. Viewed at a global level, civil society is flourishing. Technology, geopolitics and the markets have created opportunities and pressures, spurring the creation of millions of civil society organisations (CBOs) around the world, giving rise to exciting models for citizen expression both online and offline, and generating increasing involvement in global governance processes.

An explosion in the number of CSOs has been witnessed, including a significant increase in activity in developing and emerging economies.

According to the Yearbook of International Organisations, the number of non-governmental

Miti January - March 2015

organisations that operate internationally was reported to have increased from 6,000 in 1990 to more than 50,000 in 2006, and now to over 65,000.

In China alone, there are over 460,000 officially registered non-profit organisations with nearly six million employees. In 2009, it was estimated that India had around 3.3 million NGOs.

Overall, Kenya has 15,000 registered NGOs working in different sectors. Out of these, 48 operate in the forest sector.

CSOs are formed for a number of reasons.

It is interesting to note that most of these CSOs complement each other in their roles and activities. Broadly, CSOs in the forest sector in Kenya play the following roles towards meeting livelihood, development and conservation needs:

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• Watchdog: CSOs hold institutions to account, promote transparency and accountability.

• Advocacy: Raise awareness of societal issues and challenges and advocate for change.

• Service provider: CSOs deliver services to meet needs such as education, health, food and security, take part in disaster management, preparedness and emergency response.

• Expertise: The organisations bring unique knowledge and experience to shape policy and strategy, and identify and offer solutions.

• Capacity builder: CSOs provide education, training and other capacity-building functions.

• Incubator: Developing solutions that may require a long gestation or payback period.

• Representative: Giving voice of the marginalised or underrepresented.

• Citizenship champion: CSOs encourage citizen engagement and support the rights of citizens.

• Solidarity supporter: Promote fundamental and universal values.

• Definer of standards: Create norms that shape market and state activity.

According to the national NGO Coordination Board, the majority of NGOs in the forestry sector in Kenya are national and only 10.4 per cent are international. Most of the national NGOs are however only active in a few counties. Mau Complex has the highest concentration of forestry NGOs, with six out of 48 (12.5 per cent) NGOs based there.

Over the last decade, NGOs registration has declined (see Figure 1.) The period 2007 to 2011 recorded the highest number (25) of NGO registration with lowest dips being in 1999, 2001 and 2012. Generally, it is during transitions associated with general elections that the country experiences intensified forest loss, providing motivation for the formation of NGOs either to advocate for improved governance or take active part in reforestation.

Given the large number of NGO registration requests submitted to the NGO Coordination Board, it is not clear whether the declining number of NGO registration is due to tightened vetting controls or a silent government policy to go slow on registering new NGOs.

The majority of NGOs focus on agroforestry, afforestation, reforestation, and conservation of water catchments. Probably there are gaps in service provision in these areas of forestry management.

The logging ban as relates to gazetted forests created an opportunity for development of farm forestry in the country. Demand for quality extension services on tree farming could explain the large number of NGOs focusing on agroforestry.

The Kenya Forest Service (KFS) and the Ministry of Agriculture lead in providing agroforestry extension service. Since the role played by KFS has been devolved to county governments, which are yet to gain a footing, it is anticipated that more NGOs will join in to take up the challenge, including mentoring county government officers.

The intricate link between the forestry and other sectors has seen NGOs broaden their scope to accommodate emerging issues such as waste management, HIV/AIDS, gender, culture and biodiversity conservation, environmental health, peace building, training of refugees on fuel efficient technology, relief support, and child rights protection.

However, urban forestry appears to miss out among CSOs objectives.

Urbanisation is emerging as a key driver of deforestation, hence the need for NGOs to prioritise urban forestry.

External donors are the main source of funding for the majority of NGOs, making financial sustainability beyond project funding a key challenge.

Fig.2: Roles played by forest sector NGOs

Source: Makhanu, 2014.

PFM: Participatory Forest Management E.C: Environmental Conservation C.E: Conservation Education W.C.C: Water Catchment Conservation C.Bd.C: Culture and Biodiversity Conservation C.B: Capacity Building E.H: Environmental Health

Profile of some CSOs in Kenya’s forestry sector African Forest Forum (AFF)

Fig.1 Forest Sector NGO Registration Trend

Source: Makhanu 2014

Conservation and development gaps as well as priorities of development partners largely influence roles played by NGOs. Based on an analysis of objectives of the 48 NGOs in the forest sector, their roles can be categorised under 11 themes, namely, participatory forest management, environmental conservation, conservation education, water catchment conservation, agroforestry, afforestation, culture and biodiversity conservation, advocacy, capacity building, research, and environmental health (see figure 2).

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This is an association of individuals with a commitment to the sustainable management, wise use and conservation of Africa’s forest and tree resources for the socio-economic well-being of its peoples and for the stability and improvement of its environment. The Forum’s mission is to contribute to the improvement of the livelihoods of the people of Africa and the environment they live in through sustainable management and use of tree and forest resources.

The organisation’s governing structure consists of a members’ forum, a governing council, and an executive committee with a secretariat that runs the day-to-day operations.

Miti January - March 2015

Farm Forestry Small Producer Association of Kenya (FF-SPAK) FF-SPAK was registered in 2013 as an umbrella organisation to work with grassroots organisations in Kenya to promote and champion the interests of farm forestry smallholders. Its mission is to promote sustainable and commercially oriented farm forestry and advocate for the rights of smallholder tree farmers. Its main objectives are promotion of farm forestry through creation of a common forum for collective action among smallholder farmers across the country; promotion of income generating activities closely linked to farm forestry; and fostering joint marketing of tree and non-tree products.

FF-SPAK has about 10,000 members made up of farm forestry associations, self-help groups and tree-planters associations. The main services it offers are lobbying and advocacy to influence favourable policy change, capacity building of associations and networking support; tree nursery establishment and management and marketing support.

The Green Belt Movement (GBM) GBM has promoted environmental conservation and community empowerment in Kenya since 1977. Founded by the late Professor Wangari Maathai, winner of the 2004 Nobel Peace prize, GBM is best known for its environmental conservation achievements. GBM tree nursery groups have supported the planting of an estimated 51 million trees throughout Kenya.

The Movement strives for better environmental management, com­munity empowerment and livelihood improvement using tree-planting as an entry point.

GBM advocates from the grassroots to international forums. It has been engaging women in environmental conservation and community mobilisation for climate change adaptation and mitigation for over three decades.

National Environment Civil Society Alliance of Kenya (NECSA-K) This is an alliance of environment sector CSOs working at different levels to foster social and economic development in an environmentally sustainable manner. NECSA-K was formed in 2009 as a civil society platform (not registered) for articulating and advocating issues of the environment.

Hosted by World Wildlife Fund (WWF), NECSA-K provides a platform for collective policy and legislative engagement with the government on natural resource management. Its mission is to advocate for good environmental governance through collective action that contributes to ensuring equitable social economic and environmental sustainability in Kenya (WWF, 2011). Its four strategic programme areas are: policy advocacy and influence, natural resource governance, environment and natural knowledge management, and institutional strengthening. Membership consists of CSOs in forestry, water, marine, wildlife and environment.

Forest Action Network (FAN) FAN was registered in 1995. Its vision is to achieve a prosperous and just society that manages its natural resources sustainably for improved livelihoods (FAN, 2009). Its objectives include providing support for community forest associations (CFAs), helping KFS to develop the capacity and the will to manage forests and benefit from doing so, and advocating for positive policy change in sustainable management of the environment and natural resources.

FAN’s main services include support in forest management, policy research and analysis, and environmental protection and conservation.

Members comprise local CSOs, CFAs, charcoal producers associations, water users associations, the private sector, tree-growers and tree planters associations, relevant government ministries and parastatals and regional and international organisations.

Miti January - March 2015

Community forest scouts in a training session on the use of GPS for forest monitoring, courtesy of Forest Action Network project in Transmara. (Photo: Dominic Walubengo) Kenya Forests Working Group (KFWG) Formed in 1995, KFWG is a loose national network (not registered) of individuals, institutions and government and non-governmental, local, national and international organisations concerned with forest conservation in Kenya. Its mission is to promote sustainable forest management through research, advocacy, networking and partnerships development for improved livelihoods for all Kenyans (KFWG, 2012).

KFWG is hosted by the East African Wildlife Society as a sub-committee and is governed by a management committee with a secretariat running day-to-day operations. Being unregistered makes it a neutral forum that attracts a broad spectrum of actors including government.

KFWG convenes monthly meetings, thus serving as an invaluable platform for articulating and catalysing remedial action on a wide array of forestry issues. Its four main programme areas are advocacy and lobbying, partnerships and networks, forest information and capacity building and awareness creation. Its main source of funds is from development partners and consultancy services.

It has the broadest membership base, and the most vibrant as relates advocacy for sustainable forest conservation, and is a good example of a functioning multi-stakeholder platform in Kenya.

National Alliance of Community Forest Associations (NACOFA) Registered as an association in 2005, NACOFA is an umbrella organisation for all CFAs in Kenya. Its current membership is 215 CFAs drawn from across the country. Its mission is “an empowered community that sustainably manages natural resources in Kenya for social justice”. Its key objectives and activities include advocacy, capacity building of communities in the NRM sector, and linkages between communities and other likeminded organisations in the NRM sector.

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Mabira forest in Uganda, one of the last substantial remnants of rainforests close to Lake Victoria, has been at the heart of a forest-clearing controversy where civil society protests succeeded in stopping the clearing. (Photo: NFA)

Friends of Mau Watershed (FOMAWA) FOMAWA is an NGO registered in 2002. Its aim is to help establish commercial farm forestry in farms and schools around the Mau. It operates in Bomet, Kericho, Nakuru and Baringo counties. Its main service is provision of market support for forestry products to members.

Membership is made of schools (250) that have planted over 150,000 trees, and farmers (1,200), who have planted over 1 million trees.

FOMAWA’s main source of funds is donations.

Athi River Community Network of the Millennium Community Development Initiatives (MCDI) MCDI is a community-based organisation registered in 2005. It is founded on an ecosystem approach in management of natural resources and operates in nine counties.

Its members are drawn from 20 water resource users associations (WRUAs), 15 CFAs, five beach management units (BMU) and 13 natural resource management community -based organisations (CBOs) along the AthiGalana-Sabaki River. These organisations are located along the whole river course from its source in Kiambu/Kajiado counties, through Nairobi, Machakos, Makueni, Kitui, Taita Taveta, to Mombasa and Kilifi.

MCDI is the only group that has demonstrated capacity to establish upstreamdownstream linkages for coordinated environmental conservation. Its main objectives are to provide linkages between communities living along the Athi-Galana-Sabaki River and enhance their capacity in environmental

8

conservation; link the communities with relevant government and non-government agencies; and to use the network to lobby for responsive policies and laws. The main services offered by MCDI are documentation, networking, capacity building, information dissemination, advocacy and market support.

Other international NGOs exist and support work in cross cutting issues including forestry.

These include World Wide Fund for Nature, Food and Agriculture Organisation, Nature Kenya, the Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), just to mention a few. Faith based organisations have also joined with their activities being mainly based on tree-planting and environmental campaigns.

Recommendations Financing of CSOs activities in the forest sector is donor-based, hence the need to encourage donor coordination to match interventions with priorities on the ground.

Urbanisation is emerging as a key driver of deforestation, hence the need for NGOs to prioritise urban forestry.

Civil society is a critical player in meeting conservation and development needs. The government should provide an enabling environment to encourage optimal NGO participation.

The government, in consultation with civil society organisations, should establish measures to encourage greater financial self-reliance and greater mobilisation of local resources.

County governments require urgent strategic guidance to deliver the mandate

of providing forest extension services competently. The bulk of wood in Kenya is outside state forests, mainly in farmlands and drylands, hence the need for timely and efficient provision of technical support to all the players.

A “mark of excellence� should be awarded to all civil society organisations that match strict criteria of management and financial accountability. This scheme should be established from within the community of civil society organisations.

The power and influence of civil society is growing and should be harnessed to create trust and enable action across sectors.

Civil society in all its forms has an important role in holding all stakeholders, including itself, to the highest levels of accountability.

Self-regulation among CSOs should be encouraged to ensure compliance with legal requirements and standards.

Partnerships among CSOs should be encouraged as a way of enhancing impact in target areas and to avoid duplication of efforts.

(References for this article are available on request from the Miti offices) Rudolf Makhanu is the Operations Manager of Eco-Conquest Africa, a consultancy firm.

Email:rmakhanu@gmail.com Lucy Njuguna is Projects Officer, Kenya Forests Working Group Email:Lucy.Njuguna@eawildlife.org

Miti January - March 2015

LEAD THEME

Putting the limelight on forestry Civil society organisations are critical in helping Uganda achieve forestry objectives as set out in the National Development Plan

BY CEASER KIMBUGWE

T

he Uganda National Development Plan (NDP) 2010 sets national objectives for forestry as follows: • Restore forest cover from 3.6 million hectares (18 per cent) to 4.9 million (1990 level – 24 per cent) hectares by 2015 with the ultimate goal of achieving overall forest cover of 30 per cent; • Restore degraded natural forests in forest reserves and private forests; • Reduce pressure on forest cover as a source of wood fuel and construction materials; • Promote forestry-based industries and trade.

The National Forest Plan (NFP) 2013 details the 10-year forestry sector investment plans and programmes to guide forestry investments in Uganda. All actors in the sector seek to address the NDP aspirations and NFP expectations.

The role of civil society in Uganda remains critical in achieving these targets through complementing and monitoring of government initiatives so as to ensure sustainable forest management, good governance and accountability in the forestry sector. Civil society organisations in Uganda have made the following contributions to the growth of the forestry sector in the recent past:

•Increased visibility for the forestry sector Community outreach The forestry sector has for long been marginalised in terms of development planning and public image. Civil society has contributed significantly in raising the profile of the sector over the years through sensitisation and massive awareness creation not only among the general public but also among key decision-makers.

Awareness-raising campaigns for tree planting in schools, communities and other institutions like prisons, police, military and faith-based organisations country-wide has been carried out widely by various civil society organisations. In some cases, this was done through conservation awareness and outreach, school and community outreach initiatives as well as distribution of information materials.

Miti January - March 2015

Some civil society organisations have been engaged in community mobilisation to plant indigenous woodlots in several districts such as Mitooma, Rubirizi, Kasese, Masindi, Hoima, Adjumani, Kitgum and Gulu, among others. A total of 700 hectares of private land have been planted with trees under the “Trees for Global Benefit” initiative, a carbon sequestration initiative.

In addition, some civil society organisations (CSOs), in collaboration with various district local governments, have held sensitisation meetings and trainings with schools and communities adjacent to forests. This has been in a bid to raise awareness for integrated natural resources management, conservation agriculture and restoration of biodiversity and ecosystem services.

Consequently, over 5 million trees have been planted in over 800 schools and forest adjacent communities countrywide since 2010. It is estimated that more than 900,000 pupils have been reached with messages on tree-growing as a means for mitigating climate change.

Media visibility CSOs have set up and used multi-stakeholder forums/community meetings, newsletters, brochures, radio/TV programmes and social media to raise awareness about sustainable forest management. Gender-based concerns, HIV AIDS, population and health issues relating

to forest resources management have been addressed.

More than 400,000 copies of newsletters have been distributed since 2012. In addition, bilingual newsletters like Suswatchdog have been distributed in the East African region. Some CSOs have published articles in the opinion pages of the New Vision and Daily Monitor newspapers.

•Community participation and empowerment CSOs have also facilitated collaborative forest management agreements between communities and the National Forest Authority (NFA). These agreements have been operationalized in Central Forest Reserve (CFR) in Kibaale District, Itwara CFR in Kyenjojo and Kabarole districts, Maliba CFR in Kasese District, Mobuku CFR, also in Kasese, as well as in Bugoma and Wambabya CFRs. Other communities adjacent to such forest reserves across the country are being supported to form community-based associations and have undertaken resource assessment in preparations for negotiation with NFA for a possible Community Forest Management (CFM) agreement.

If well implemented, CFM will ensure effective forest protection, equitable benefit-sharing between the communities and NFA, and in the end, sustainable forest management. In other forest adjacent communities of Mpigi, Butambala

9

and Rakai, adaptive forest management under the CFM arrangement have been promoted. Some of the specific activities have included tree nursery establishment, bee-keeping and promotion of agro-forestry.

To empower forest adjacent communities with civic expression, some CSOs have created awareness among 1,090 private forest owners (PFOs) from Hoima and Masindi districts about the value of private and communal forests, ownership rights, opportunities and legal obligations for owners of private and customary natural forests.

In Kyenjojo and Kyegegwa districts, communities surrounding Itwara Central Forest Reserve and Matiri Central Forest Reserve have been empowered with skills as community-based monitors to police forest illegalities at community level. Consequently, village forest patrol committees composed of 60 community members have been formed, carrying out community patrols and monitoring in the said forest reserves.

• Forest ecosystem restoration programmes Civil society has played a key role in promoting sustainable forest management using different approaches. One of the approaches being promoted is forest certification, which is envisaged to pave way for good governance of the forest sector.

In addition, CSOs have provided tree seedlings to communities for planting on their private land holdings or to enrich degraded protected areas under the Collaborative Forest Management system. Over 380,450 seedlings of pine and musizi (Maesopsis eminii) have been provided to households in south western Uganda for landscape restoration. In addition, more than two million trees of over 30 different species have been planted in the northern Uganda districts of Amuru, Nwoya, Gulu, Pader, Agago, Kitgum, Lamwo, Adjumani and Moyo since 2010.

Civil society has facilitated processes and

activities leading to river bank ecosystem restoration for Aswa River in northern Uganda, Atari and Sippi Rivers in Mt Elgon Conservation Area, the Albertine rift as well as Nakivaale River in south western Uganda.

• Income generation

No

Research/study/survey topics

NGOs

1

Impact of oil palm project in Kalangala and Buvuma districts

Friends of Earth International, NAPE and Nature Place

Using the Sustainable Economic Forestry Enterprises Development Model that emphasises savings for investment schemes, some civil society organisations have supported farmers with over 5,000 beehives to integrate commercial apiculture in agro-forestry. In addition, at least 50 entrepreneurs have been trained in investing in commercial tree and fruit nurseries in Nakawa, Kampala, Iganga, Jinja and Mukono districts with over Ush 154 million realised annually as revenue.

Tree-growers have also been mobilised to participate in the Sawlog Production Grant Scheme (SPGS) community forestry support activities to generate income from commercial forestry for private forest owners. Again, at least 11 forest adjacent communities around Rwenzori Mountains, Queen Elizabeth, Bwindi and Mgahinga national parks as well as Budongo Central Forest Reserve have been trained to invest in tourism.

2

Unlocking local community potential for sustainable NRM in Uganda’s Albertine oil region

Uganda Wildlife Society

• Research/studies or surveys

3

Access to land in central forest reserves; promoting transparency, civic awareness and collaborative forest management

ACODE

4

Unlocking progress on REDD+ and sector coordination in Uganda

UCSD

5

Promoting and implementing REDD+ safeguards at national level in East Africa

UCSD

6

A toolkit to assess proposed benefit-sharing and revenue distribution schemes of community REDD+ projects

UCSD

7

Best practices for sustainable tree-growing; a social forestry approach

Tree Talk

8

Benefit-sharing under REDD as well as Forest Law Enforcement Governance and Trade (FLEGT)

IUCN

9

Inventory of critical issues in the forestry sector

Environmental Alert

10

Diagnostic study of small and medium forest enterprises in Uganda

Environmental Alert

11

Valuation of the economic costs of weak forest law enforcement in Kyenjojo, Kyegegwa and Mubende districts.

CARE Uganda

12

Study on policy legal and institutional frameworks on gender, tenure and community forestry in Uganda

AUPWAE

13

Documentation of best practices for tree-planting, growing and protection based on community initiatives

Tree Talk

14

Regional and national study on timber trade and feasibility for Forest Stewardship Council Certification in Uganda

WWF

15

The contribution of forestry to livelihoods and economic development

UFWG/AUPWAE

10

To emphasise evidence-based lobbying and advocacy, civil society organisations have undertaken research and documentation to inform their lobbying position while engaging decision-makers. Listed on the Table are the main studies carried out and disseminates by civil society organisations since 2009.

• Policy, planning, lobbying and advocacy engagements To ensure good governance in the forestry sector, civil society organisations have strived to influence policy implementation at local and national levels.

They have done this by establishing and strengthening lobbying and advocacy platforms such as the Uganda Forestry Working Group, the ENR-CSO network and other related CSO coalitions at the sub-national level.

With these platforms, CSOs have engaged on forest issues including participation in the review of the National Forest Plan as well as the REDD+ Readiness Proposal.

CSOs have also advanced these engagements at regional level, with anticipation of the East Africa federation to discuss issues of forestry and climate change linkages particularly focusing on REDD+.

The writer is the public relations officer at Environmental Alert Email: kaycea333@gmail.com

Miti January - March 2015

LEAD THEME

Working with the government Civil society organisations in Uganda play their role in securing the environment

BY GASTER KAWUUBYE KIYINGI

O

ver the years, environment and natural resources (ENR) organisations have partnered with the Government of Uganda to secure the environment, wetlands and forests. They also popularise the link between the environment and natural resources and food security.

One can say there has definitely been an impact. There is an increase in investment in the sector as well as an increase in the number of ENR civil society organisations (CSOs) that share information in this regard.

In the 2010/11 financial year (FY), 29 nongovernmental organisations (NGOs) invested US$ 3,856,802; in FY 2011/12, 35 NGOs declared an investment of US$ 4,012,624; in FY 2012/13, 42 NGOs declared an investment of US$ 6,050,170; and in FY 2013/14, 48 NGOs declared an investment of US$ 6,549,950. This excludes wages and salaries as NGOs/CSOs submitted only programme expenses.

Seventy four per cent of NGOs reporting are local ones and operate in the areas of environment (32 per cent) and forestry (40 per cent).

Some of the resources are used to manage nurseries to complement the efforts of the Ministry of Water and Environment to re-green the country. Over 30 seedling nurseries of various sizes and carrying capacities raised over 5 million seedlings in the financial year 2013/2014.

On planting, this translates into 4,500 hectares.

Using a conservative figure of 150 tonnes of carbon sunk per hectare, it is estimated that this will sink 670,000 tonnes of carbon in 15 years. “Definitely, this will reduce climate change impacts over time but will also provide alternative sources of income as the trees grow and are converted into timber,” says Sheila Kiconco, a climate change officer with Enabling Environment for Agriculture Project.

ENR CSOs have partnered with the Government of Uganda, through the European Union (EU)/Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO)-funded Forest Law Enforcement Governance and Trade (FLEGT), implemented

by WWF Uganda Country Office. FLEGT aims to legalise the timber trade and exclude trade in illegal timber in full compliance with the forest trade regulations of the country.

Miti January - March 2015

“We are starting to see results from the timber associations that were formed,” says Martin Asiimwe, WWF Uganda Country Office. ”Timber dealers are placing orders for modern equipment and tools and are sensitising one another on compliance.”

ENR CSOs have participated in the review process for the National Environment Management Policy, the National Environment Act and the development of the National Development Plan (Phase II). “The plea has been for government to strengthen institutional collaborations and clarification of roles and mandates among ENR sector institutions so that the sector is run smoothly, with avoided duplication of roles and responsibilities at institutional level,” says Robert Bakiika, Deputy Executive Director, EMLI1-Bwaise Facility.

The Standards Development Group has facilitated the drafting of national forest certification standards which await approval upon validation against agreed International Generic Indicators. The certification standards, once in place, will reduce forest degradation, since it is a reliable tool for promoting responsible forest management in the country.

Information and communication technology (ICT) is being used to report illegal activities in the forest sector. A whistle-blower sends a short text message (SMS) to a central code. The message is forwarded to a duty bearer (forest officer, police 1 EMLI: Environmental Management for Livelihood Improvement

officer, or National Forestry Authority offices) in the locality where the crime is committed for action.

“Communities in forested areas of southwestern Uganda have particularly been using the tool to report illegal dealings and they are happy to play a role,” says Patrick Baguma, Joint Effort to Save the Environment.

ENR CSOs, led by World Vision in Uganda, have promoted Farmer Managed Natural Regeneration (FMNR) as a simple, rapid and low-cost method of looking after trees in gardens and grazing or forested areas. “The main activity in FMNR is to manage re-growth from existing tree stumps and roots that sprout and trees germinating from selfsown seeds in the soil that can germinate,” says Cotilda Nakyeyune, World Vision in Uganda. Over 5,000 hectares in the cattle corridor regions of Uganda have been restored using this approach.

Civil society organisations in environment and natural resources have continued to play their public watchdog role and guide government to adhere to set policy. They have been critical in the de-gazettement of forest reserves such as Mabira, Kalangala and many others. They have followed up the exploration, development and initial stages of oil and gas production in the country and this seems to yield results.

The writer is Livelihood and Environmental Manager at Tree Talk Email: gasterk@yahoo.com

11

LEAD THEME

County governments need to be empowered To fulfil their mandate in forest conservation, counties require financial and human resources

BY RUDOLF MAKHANU

U

nder the Constitution of Kenya, county governments have been established to carry out exclusive, concurrent and residual functions1. The national and county governments are expected to work in cooperation and consultation with each other.

Distribution of functions between the national and the county governments are set out in the Fourth Schedule of the Constitution of Kenya.

In the forestry sector, county governments have the duty of “implementing specific national government policies on natural resources and environmental conservation”.

This broad policy guide requires to be “unbundled” so that specific interventions can 1 Exclusive functions are those fully assigned to the county government, concurrent functions are those that are performed by both levels of government while residual functions are those carried out by either government because it’s not clear who should carry them out. Most residual functions are taken up by the national government.

12

be identified for implementation by the county governments with technical support by Kenya Forest Service (KFS). Under the same schedule, the national government is also obligated to conduct capacity building and provide technical assistance for the county governments.

The management of natural forests and forest resources in general is governed by the National Forest Policy, which is implemented mainly by KFS. The Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) has management responsibility for all indigenous forests falling within national parks, national reserves and game sanctuaries. There are some forests under joint management of the two organisations.

In addition to the above gazetted categories of forests, other natural forests fall under trust lands (community land), lands held in trust for the local people under the jurisdiction of the counties. These forests are managed by the

county governments, in some cases with the assistance of KFS and KWS. Forests falling within gazetted national monuments are managed by the National Museums of Kenya (NMK).

The national government has over the years been implementing three core programmes, namely: (i) forest conservation and management, with focus on the management of natural forests in public land; (ii) forest plantations and enterprise, with a focus on the development of industrial forest plantations on public land; and (iii) farm and dryland forestry development, with a focus on the provision of forest extension services for the development of private forests, agro-forestry and technical assistance to tree growers.

Role of county governments Article 15 of the Constitution of Kenya states that the national government shall facilitate the

Miti January - March 2015

devolution of power, support county governments and assist them in building their capacity, and establish criteria that must be met before the transfer of functions. A key role is implementation of policies and legislation relevant to forestry.

Gazette Supplement No. 116 dated 9th of August 2014 provides for devolvement of “forestry including farm forestry extension services, forests and game reserves formerly managed by Local Authorities, excluding forests managed by Kenya Forest Service, National Water Towers Agency and private forests”.

County governments have a responsibility to contribute towards meeting and maintaining the constitutional target of at least 10 per cent tree cover. Besides reforesting degraded gazetted forests and stepping up protection to minimise forest loss through illegal logging, forest fires, encroachment for cultivation and illegal settlement, the greatest opportunity lies in farm forestry- by providing an environment conducive to making tree-farming competitive.

The Kenya Forestry Master Plan (KFMP) (1994) estimates that farm forests (private woodlots) will produce about 17.8 million cubic metres of wood by 2020, approximately 80 per cent of the total wood production in the country.

Given the growing population, it is not possible to meet the demands of forest products from state forests. The alternative sources of these products are expected to be farmlands.

The challenge is to promote commercial forestry, improve farm forestry management and enhance efficient utilisation and marketing of forestry products (Mfahaya et al, 2012).

According to the proposed Forest Policy 2014, the future of the forestry sector lies outside

the gazetted forests. County governments have an opportunity to unlock barriers that impede the growth of farm forestry by, among other interventions, facilitating establishment of markets for tree products; brokering establishment of outgrower schemes; providing an enabling policy and legal environment that makes tree farming a competitive land use;, investing in modern tree-farming technology along the entire value chain; investing in research through partnerships with universities and research institution to ensure decisions are evidence-based; prioritising resource mapping and forest monitoring to provide credible and timely data for informed decision making, and enhancing access to micro-finance to spur tree based enterprises.

Forest extension service

Urban forestry

Forests in Kenya are managed under Participatory Forest Management (PFM), a management approach that deliberately involves the forestadjacent communities and other stakeholders in management of forests (KFS, 2007). The Forests Act 2005 and the Forests Bill 2014 accord certain roles and user rights to community forest associations.

The main role of county governments is to comply with the Forests Act 2005 and attain the twin PFM objectives of preserving biodiversity while enhancing people’s livelihoods; and, ensuring the sustainable use of forests for the benefit of present and future generations.

Urbanisation is a major driver of deforestation and forest degradation. Half of humanity now lives in cities, and within two decades, nearly 60 per cent of the world’s people will be urban dwellers.

Urban growth is most rapid in the developing world, where cities gain an average of five million residents every month. As cities grow in size and population, harmony among the spatial, social and environmental aspects of a city and between their inhabitants becomes of paramount importance. (UN Habitat, 2008).

The Forests Conservation and Management Bill 2014 (Clause 38 (1)) requires every county government to establish and maintain arboreta, green zones or recreational parks for the nonconsumptive use of persons residing within its area of jurisdiction. The Forests Act 2005 (clause 30) echoes the same.

A forest extension service is a critical component for efficient and sustainable tree- farming, for cost-effectiveness, and production of quality tree-based products and services. This function, previously performed by KFS, has been devolved to the counties. County governments are thus expected to organise themselves urgently to offer forest extension services professionally and competently across the value chain. There have been concerns that some counties are offering low grade forest extension services due to engagement of non-foresters.

Participatory Forest Management (PFM)

Generation of data for planning Timely and credible data and information on the status of forests is critical for good forest management. County governments ought to undertake forest resource assessments and inventories to generate information to inform decision-making.

International protocols and conventions Kenya is party to diverse international conventions and protocols that relate to forests, such as the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), the Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora (CITES), and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC). County governments have a responsibility of implementing these international tools of governance, jointly with the national government.

Implementation of policies and laws governing devolution of forestry functions In addition to the Constitution of Kenya, 2010, the following statutes are important references to guide the development of the Transition and

Miti January - March 2015

13

Implementation Programmes (TIPs) for every county. These include; a) The Transition to Devolved Government (Act No. 1 of 2012) This law provides that a Cabinet Secretary of a state department or, in the case of a public entity, an authorised officer, shall submit to the Transition Authority (TA) and the Commission on Implementation of the Constitution (CIC), a transition plan within a period specified by the CIC. The TA is obligated to issue guidelines to state organs or public entities for the preparation of TIPs. b) County Governments Act No. 17 of 2012 This Act provides further structures of decentralisation through establishment of the County Intergovernmental Forum (CIF) chaired by the Governor or in his/her absence, the Deputy Governor, or in the absence of both, a member of the County Executive Committee (CEC) designated by the Governor. The CIF shall comprise: i) The heads of all departments of the national government rendering services in the county; and ii) The county executive committee members or their nominees appointed by them in writing.

The CIF shall be responsible for: harmonisation of services rendered in the county; coordination of development activities in the county; coordination of intergovernmental functions; and such other functions as may be provided for by or under any law.

The county governments will be expected to establish and operationalize the CIF. This is an important forum for supporting discussions and exchange of views on matters of forestry development in the county.

Challenges The Transition Authority (TA), mandated with ensuring the integrity of succession by devolved governments, and a smooth transition, lacks adequate funds to deliver its mandate. Ineffective and delayed induction and capacity building of county government leaders, and challenges related to cash flow to counties, specifically the development budget, have bogged down forest conservation

14

programmes as well as other key operations at county level.

A common concern raised by counties is delayed disbursement of development funds.

The implication is that idle county officers draw salaries but lack funds to implement development programmes.

Other challenges include: Slow action by the national government to develop clear policies, norms and standards on various aspects of devolved functions, which has bogged down the transfer and institutionalisation of functions.

Delays in establishing and operationalizing the County Intergovernmental Forum.

Lack of timely and accurate data critical to transition such as human resource information, assets and liabilities.

Slow response from ministries, departments and agents with regards to information to facilitate the TA role.

Resistance by counties to follow issued policies, guidelines, advisories and procedures. This has affected operations of the counties with regards to hiring of staff, planning, budgeting and budget execution.

Slow preparation of transition and implementation plans by ministries, departments and agencies.

leaders is required for effective delivery of mandates.

There should be effective dialogue between county and national governments to avoid delays in funds disbursement to counties.

County governments need to explore alternative funding mechanisms for supporting implementation of forest management plans (FMP) for community forests within their counties. A starting point would be building a business case for conservation, where among other issues, payment for ecosystem services (PES) schemes could be established to ensure users pay for services such as catchment conservation and water.

County governments should prioritise and fully operationalize the County Intergovernmental Forum (CIF), a key forum for, among things, supporting discussions and exchange of views on matters of forestry development in the county.

(References for this article are available at the Miti magazine offices) The writer is Operations Manager, Eco-Conquest Africa Email: rmakhanu@gmail.com

Recommendations Capacity building of county government

Miti January - March 2015

LEAD THEME

Improving on-farm incomes Muileshi CFA works with KFS to co-manage Kakamega Forest

BY SYLVESTER MURWA IMBWAKA

M

uileshi Community Forest Association (CFA) is registered under the Society’s Act and has a variable membership as per the constitution. By the end of 2014, the CFA had 2,052 members and is still registering new members.

Muileshi is an acronym for - MUnicipality, IL-eho, SHI-nyalu. Ileho and Shinyalu were formerly divisions of immediate proximity to the Kakamega Rainforest, in Kakamega County.

Muileshi CFA is made of communitybased organisations (CBOs) that focus on environmental conservation through stabilisation of on-farm livelihoods.

Kenya’s only tropical rainforest - the last remnant of the ancient Guineo-Congolian ecosystem that once spanned the continent - stands no chance of survival unless on-farm incomes are improved sustainably. The forest and its reserves cover about 238 square kilometres. A little less than half of that currently remains as indigenous forest.

A series of grassy glades ranging from 1 to 150 hectares and a few larger clearings appear throughout the forest.

Some of these glades are recent clearings while others predate recent records. Their origin is variously attributed to past human activity such as cattle grazing or the result of movements by mammals such as antelopes and bushbucks.

Sizeable populations of the area depend on the forest ecosystem for food (mushrooms, fish, honey, wild vegetables and others), fuel wood, logs for timber and charcoal and thatch grass among many products and services. Some inhabitants are part of MUILESHI user right groups within the community forest management agreement.

Muileshi is mandated to co-manage the forest in partnership with Kenya Forest Service (KFS) and Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) in line with recent legal reforms. Members strive to introduce integrated and supplementary livelihood options that improve and stabilise onfarm incomes to relieve pressure on the forest.

Agro-forestry is one important intervention that

Miti January - March 2015

Received Ksh 9.9 million from Act! for construction of the same Iloro Eco-Camp of Kakamega forest.

Promoted/supported establishment of community nurseries for both indigenous and exotic trees with certified seeds from KEFRI. Promoted/supported on-farm treeplanting.

Distributed beehives to all six CBOs under Muileshi CFA (though hives for two CBOs were allocated elsewhere).

Distributed 1,548 local poultry chicks to all CBOs under Muileshi.

Facilitated training and equipment of 20 community scouts.

Providing temporary/volunteer work to a further 40 untrained community scouts for joint patrols with KFS rangers.

Acquired a fruit pulping machine (yet to be functional).

Registered a multi-purpose cooperative society.

Have tents and chairs for hire (under a cooperative society).

Future aspirations diversifies income sources while bringing forest products and services on-farm sustainably.

Achievements Signed a Participatory Forest Management Plan (PFMP) with KFS. Signed a Community Forest Management Agreement (CFMA) Acquired a plot for construction of office premises.

Signed an agreement of 40 years with KFS for planting indigenous trees on 490 hectares within forest land for a carbon sequestration programme (carbon trade).

Planted 150 out of 490 hectares.

Planted exotic trees on 166 hectares of the allocated 301.8 hectares under the Plantation Establishment and Livelihood Improvement Scheme (PELIS).

Acquired a licence from both the National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) and KFS to build an eco-camp.

Expansion of membership of our cooperative.

Tree harvesting.

Opening of the Iloro Eco-Camp.

Installation of the fruit pulping machine.

Promotion and support for modern dairy farming including zero-grazing and installation of milk coolers.

Construction of own office premises.

Honey processing.

Establishment of Pambo Nurseries for commercial use.

Purchase of a vehicle for logistics.

Modernise and intensify income generating activities under the agroforestry programme by supporting spin-off cottage industries.

Conducting free and fair elections in 2015.

The main challenge that the CFA faces is lack of sustainable funding.

The writer is the Secretary of Muileshi Community Forest Association Email: sylvesterimbwaka@gmail.com

15

LEAD THEME

Working for the common good Vi Agroforestry works with farmers for sustainable agriculture

BY DIANA AHEBWE

V

i Agroforestry is a non-profit organisation with no political or religious affiliations. It is registered in Sweden as a foundation under the name Vi planterar träd. In Sweden, Vi Agroforestry is mainly concerned with fundraising and other financing, communication and advocacy work.

Vi Agroforestry is also registered in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania and Rwanda. It works with smallscale farmers in the Lake Victoria catchment areas of these countries.

Vi started working in East Africa in 1982 in Kitale, Kenya, and spread to Uganda in 1992. There, it first worked in central and south western Uganda.

Between 1992 and 2009, it spread to more districts including Mpigi, Mityana, Mubende, Sembabule, Greater Masaka, Rakai, Lyantonde, as well as newly established districts. All these districts are crucial players in the Lake Victoria Basin.

“The approach of the programme has changed over the last 30 years, but the basis for all our work has remained tree-planting,” says James Walusimbi, Head of Partnership Development Unit.

The aim of Vi Agroforestry is to reduce poverty through sustainable agriculture that is adapted to climate change. Sustainable agriculture is done through agroforestry, where trees and food crops are planted together and livestock is kept.

Vi Agroforestry supports market-oriented production through capacity building and advisory services, and farmers are supported to set up their own savings and credit associations.

Area of operation In Uganda, Vi Agroforestry works in the mentioned districts of central and south western Uganda because of the increasing demand for agricultural produce for an ever rising population. The districts are characterised by pressure on land and forests that are already degraded. “With the effect of climate change making farming a more risky venture for smallholders, it is important that there is transition to sustainable production,” says Mr Walusimbi.

Vi Agroforestry works with farmer groups, associations or cooperatives. It supports consortia of member-based farmer organisations, or organisations that in turn support member-based groups that aim to create sustainable, democratic and well-managed organisations.

16

Currently, working with five other partners, Vi Agroforestry is implementing the Lake Victoria Farmer Organisations’ Agroforestry Programme (FOA) 2012-2016. The partners are the Sembabule, Mpigi and Mityana-Mubende District Farmers Associations, the Uganda Cooperative Alliance and the Uganda National Farmers Federation.

Achievements Vi Agroforestry and partner farmer organisations have trained farmers on various methods to reverse land degradation.

So far, they have planted 4,159,396 long-term trees including Grevillea robusta, Podocarpus spp, Albizia spp, and Terminalia superba. They have also planted 3,202,519 short-term trees and these include Calliandra calothyrsus, Sesbania sesban and Tephrosia vogelii.

Vi Agroforestry has promoted interventions to control soil erosion. Some 9,400 households have diversified crops and 39,165 school children have been trained on environmental issues such as treeplanting. In addition, Vi agroforestry has contributed to conservation of natural resources especially trees.

The programme supports the use of energysaving devices and alternative energy. As a result of these efforts, 16,592 households are using wood-saving devices, 6,463 households are using solar energy devices and 368 households are using biogas.

Associations offering financial services have been established hence increasing the income base of farming households in the areas where Vi Agroforestry operates. A total of 10,227 farmers

are able to access financial services. Biogas plants have been constructed with support from Heifer International and fodder trees established to increase livestock production.

Challenges faced Despite these achievements, a number of challenges remain. One such challenge is drought in the areas of operation, which can severely affect the established tree seedlings, crops and productivity of animals.

Vi Agroforestry has tried to minimise the problem through small-scale irrigation, water harvesting, mulching, etc. As a result, 16,285 farmer households have acquired water harvesting structures.

Farmers are not always ready to adopt change, especially regarding biogas technologies, but also tree-planting. Vi Agroforestry has fought the latter by carrying out tree-planting campaigns at least six times a year to sensitise the communities on its benefits.

Future plans Vi Agroforestry hopes to expand its operations to other areas of Uganda. These will be identified in consultation with suitable partner organisations. Vi Agroforestry works with strong local organisations and institutions that can carry development initiatives by themselves.

The writer is the Country Representative, Miti magazine - Uganda Email: diana@mitiafrica.com

Miti January - March 2015

FARM FORESTRY

Let the trees grow Farmer Managed Natural Regeneration (FMNR) is improving livelihoods and restoring vegetation cover

BY CAROLINE NJIRU

I

n Kenya, tens of thousands of hectares of farmland have become so degraded that they no longer produce adequate or regular crops or pasture. The farmlands have lost virtually all of their natural vegetation. Yet, 70 per cent or more of Kenyans are subsistence farmers relying on this degraded resource base for their food and livelihoods.

One of the major contributing factors to this degradation is the alarming deforestation experienced in Kenya since independence. This is due to high dependence on natural resources especially for firewood and charcoal. This has also contributed to land degradation, threatening 65 per cent of existing agricultural land, with a concomitant loss of productivity. This is a major threat to food security.

Kenya has managed to move its forest cover from 1.5 to the current 5 per cent, with an aim of reaching 10 per cent by 2030.There is need to improve forest cover, to raise the vegetation cover and be able to mitigate the effects of climate change.

Farmer Managed Natural Regeneration (FMNR) is an approach by which a farmer takes the decision to re-grow trees in his/her farm without planting. It is systematic re-growth of existing trees or self-sown seeds, and is possible wherever there are living tree stumps with the ability to re-sprout or seeds in the soil that can germinate.

FMNR encourages natural tree re-growth by selecting, pruning and protecting naturally regenerating trees. The approach uses living rootstock, making sprouting of tree stumps easier, and thus cheaper than tree planting. The approach has proved to have great potential in restoring tree cover.

FMNR has proved to be a rapid, low-cost, easily replicable approach since it uses local skills and resources and is highly successful in restoring and improving agricultural, forested and pastures lands through reforestation and agroforestry. The concept is being implemented in Baringo and Nakuru counties in Kenya, in three World Vision Area Development programmes, that is, Mogotio, Kiambogoko and Wema. The concept has continued to realise a great impact in restoring vegetation and tree cover.

Miti January - March 2015

The concept has adopted a bottom up approach. Farmers and government agents have been trained as trainers on the concept.

These trained volunteer farmers and government officials act as extension agents and are tasked with the role of doing farmer-to-farmer training and follow-up.

Due to its affordability, farmers have continued to adopt the technology and reap tangible benefits. Children have been major ambassadors and key players of change through their participation. Some schools have become learning sites for the concept with some earning an income from the sale of grass. The practice has complimented the school feeding programme in some schools through availability of firewood.

Children don’t have to spend learning time looking for firewood.

Communities are experiencing a positive change in vegetation cover and this compliments government efforts of achieving 10 per cent forest cover in Vision 2030.The government has continued to support the initiative, lauding it as a disaster risk reduction intervention.

Through FMNR, communities regaining value for traditional medicine as the herbs are slowly coming back through natural regeneration.

Through FMNR women have more time to engage in other activities as they spend less time fetching firewood. Children have more time to play and read as the firewood is readily available in their homes. Due to increased pastures, farmers have experienced increased milk production with some having surplus to sell.

Through FMNR, large-scale, people-led environmental restoration will be achieved with communities and individuals benefiting through its impact on poverty alleviation, enhanced food security, greater resilience to natural disasters, adaptation to climate change, development of governance structures and also decreased resource-based conflict. This will contribute to child well-being as it will increase the resilience and improve the livelihood of the caregivers.  The writer is Project Manager, FMNR Kenya  Email: caroline_njiru@wvi.org

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on a enga)

TREE SPECIES

The forgotten species The versatile poplar and willow trees are potential agents for environmental clean-up

BY PHANUEL OBALLA, A MUCHUGI AND SAMMY CARSAN

T

wo species of the Salicaceae plant family are indigenous to Kenya. These are Populus ilicifolia and a willow, Salix subserrata. Populus ilicifolia is locally known as Tana River poplar (English), mugui or makini (Kamba), mlalali (Duruma), malalai (Galla), mulalahi or lalaftu (Pokomo), guduba or gucuba (Borana), sirkh (Somali) and mulalati (Malakote, Orma).

The species is widespread in Kenya and it is the only one of the genus that occurs naturally south of the equator. The species’ natural range is along the rivers Ewaso Nyiro North, Tana and Athi. It occurs in arid and semi-arid areas of the country, where mean annual rainfall ranges from 200 to 800mm with altitude ranging from 10 – 950 metres above sea level (masl).

Salix subserrata, commonly known as kambezo (Nandi), koimboindet or kwambeo (Sebei) and olemudongo (Maasai), occurs in the valleys of Nairobi River, Kiserian, Ewaso Nyiro South, Suam, Moiben and Siyabei rivers, among others.

The distribution range of Salix species in Kenya covers areas of medium to high rainfall and in medium to high altitude areas (900 – 2200masl). The species is riparian and is mainly found along permanent river valleys.

This species or its varieties is considered continental and has been identified in Egypt, Libya, Gambia, Sudan, Ethiopia, Tanzania, Zambia and South Africa.

Populus ilicifolia is listed among the most endangered plants in FAO’s red data book, while it is a vulnerable species in the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) red list. The major threats to the survival of these species are habitat degradation by cultivation of river valleys and removal of big trees for domestic use.

Within the protected areas, large herbivores such as elephants degrade tree populations by breaking and debarking them as feed, while heavy floods uproot mature and young trees along the river systems.

The unique geographical location of Populus species in the tropics and the rate at which natural populations of the species are being decimated has attracted the Kenya

18

Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI), Kenyatta University, the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) and other partners to take initial steps towards conservation of the family Salicaceae in Kenya. An investigative survey taken in 2012 revealed the grave state of the populations of P. ilicifolia along Ewaso Nyiro, Tana and Athi River systems.

Importance of the species In the traditional poplar and willow growing areas in temperate and sub-tropical countries, species of the Salicaceae family are of great socio-economic importance. This is mainly attributed to their fast growth, ease of propagation, high biomass yield and easyto-machine wood – qualities that place the

species ahead of most other forest trees.

Poplar species provide sawn timber for construction, especially interior partitioning, lamination, particle board, block board, fibre and roofing material.

Logs are usually sliced for plywood which is used for packaging and veneer for the match industries. The other characteristics such as straight clean bole, leaflessness for some months of the year, the sheltering effect during hot-dry periods, soil enrichment with leaves, compatibility with agricultural crops and high economic returns make poplars versatile and ideal for farm forestry.

Traditionally in Kenya, poplar trees are used for making dug-out canoes, mortars, beehives and corks. Straight poles, posts and

Miti January - March 2015

Populus ilicifolia used to reinforce the banks of Nyandera pond. (Photo: Phanuel Oballa)

withies are used for construction. Both wild and domestic animals browse on the species, while the salt exuded from the bark is mixed with tobacco and used as a beverage.

The Populus ilicifolia bark is also used in both human and veterinary traditional medicine. The traditional use of S. subserrata in human and veterinary medicine as antimicrobial and antiviral is well documented. The species has also been used to produce dyes, stains and inks.

In recent years, poplars and willows have received increasing attention as renewable sources of biomass for energy and short-fibre for pulp and paper-making while contributing to stabilisation of carbon.

Poplars and willows with roots persistently in contact with water in wetlands are currently being adopted for decontamination of soils near irrigation channels and sewage lagoons.

The species has the capacity to take up excess phosphorous and nitrates that cause depletion of oxygen in surface and underground waters. The tree also takes up heavy metals such as cadmium.

These species are therefore potential agents for environmental clean-up if incorporated in drainage areas of municipal sewerage treatment works.

Due to scarcity of land and water in Kenya, people farm along river basins. This has resulted in soil erosion and dam siltation. To counter this, planting trees along the rivers has been encouraged, but the choice of trees is a problem.

One of the trees, eucalyptus, has become controversial because of the water demand and effects to the environment, such that it is now being removed from water sources.

Miti January - March 2015

An over 30-metre tall Populus ilicifolia at Samburu Lodge in 2008. (Photo: Phanuel Oballa)

Salicaceae trees are adapted to the riverine ecology, and would therefore be better choices.

Despite increasing rural electrification projects in Kenya, wood fuel remains the major energy source for cooking and heating. However, the diminishing tree cover has led to a fuel wood crisis. The fast growth rate of poplars and willows makes them attractive in provision of fuel wood.

The potential of the two species in wetland has been demonstrated with P. ilicifolia planted around Nyandera pond in Bondo and Salix subserrata planted to reinforce and rehabilitate the banks of Nairobi River. Observed growth rates of the two species on those sites are impressive, with poplar trees reaching over 15 metres while Salix attained an average height of 10 metres in four years. The diameter at breast height

Debarking of large specimen of Populus ilicifolia by elephants. (Photo: Phanuel Oballa)

was over 12cm for both species. The species regenerate naturally and protect such delicate sites.

The way forward Mobilisation of resources for a national population survey and collection of germplasm for conservation and establishment of conservation stands.

Initiate studies to determine range wide genetic diversity and to assist in unravelling the phylogeny within the Populus genus with potential of using the knowledge in Populus breeding. Study the species potential and selection of provenances for improvement for agroforestry.

Promote use of species in agroforestry as well as wetland and riverine systems that require protection.

(References for this article are available at the Miti offices).

Phanuel Oballa is Chief Research Scientist, Kenya Forestry Research Institute Email: poballa@kefri.org or oballaphanuelo@ yahoo.com A Muchugi is a Lecturer in the Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Kenyatta University.

Email: amuchugi@gmail.com and Sammy Carsan is a Research Scientist, World Agroforestry Centre Email: s.carsan@cgiar.org

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SUCCESSFUL GROWER

Invest your money, plant trees Look upon trees as a savings plan, says economist who has ventured into plantation forestry

BY DIANA AHEBWE

D

ifferent people go into tree-growing for different reasons. For Patrick Mbonye, it was as a savings plan.

Mr Mbonye weighed the options of where to invest his money and concluded that tree-planting was a viable saving strategy compared to buying land or even keeping money in the bank.

Moreover, instead of buying land on which to grow trees, Mr Mbonye, an economist, decided to plant on leased land. He acquired a lease from the National Forestry Authority (NFA) on 35 hectares of land in Sebunya Central Forest Reserve in Mpigi District.

With technical advice from a former NFA employee, Mr Mbonye started planting trees in 2004 although he did not know much about plantation management.

He did all the work himself. He bought the seed, set up a nursery and established the plantation. He first planted 12 hectares of pine

(Pinus oocarpa) and 20 hectares of Eucalyptus grandis. At the time, Mr Mbonye did not apply planting standards such as lining out and proper spacing. This, and poor quality seeds, resulted in a sub-standard plantation. He thus decided to sell off the trees at 10 years of age, and, he still made a profit.

After this, Mr Mbonye decided to replant the land with trees, using standards and procedures put in place by the Sawlog Production Grant Scheme (SPGS). He leased another 65 hectares and also bought 335 hectares, all of which he planted with trees.

Recently, he bought another 200 hectares that is now being planted. Mr Mbonye’s land is distributed in Mpigi, Wakiso and Amuru districts.

Ecological details of the planting areas Mpigi and Wakiso districts have lush fertile

plains with two rainfall seasons, the first in March – May and the second in September - November. Mean annual rainfall (MAR) is 1320mm with a minimum temperature of 11o Celsius and a maximum of 33.3o. Amuru district has a MAR of 1,500mm. The wet season is from April to November, reaching the highest peaks in May, August and September. The dry season starts from November up to March. This is where teak grows best.

Exploring different species Mr Mbonye has explored different species because he believes every tree has its benefits.

He has so far planted a total 400 hectares of different species. Of these, 150 hectares are planted with Pinus caribaea (aged six to nine years) while Eucalyptus grandis and eucalyptus clones are on 120 hectares. The rest of the area is shared Terminalia superba, which is five to seven years, five-year-old Maesopsis eminii

Patrick Mbonye’s three-and-a-half-year old Eucalyptus grandis Mpigi District plantation. Diameter at breast height (DBH) ranges between 15 and 20cm in this block. Growth is excellent. (Photo: BGF)

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Miti January - March 2015

Pinus caribaea variety Hondurensis, with excellent growth and stem form. A first pruning was done, and it is now time for the first thinning. As most growers know, this hurts. (Photo: BGF)

(musizi), mahogany, which is three years old and Markhamia lutea (musambya), which is two to three years old. Other species are Araucaria spp., which is two to three years old and Elgon teak (Olea welwitchii), aged one to two years.

Terminalia, pine and eucalyptus have recorded the most impressive results. Mahogany is not doing well because of a poor seed, as Uganda lacks a good seed source for the species.

Mr Mbonye gets his seedlings from SPGS certified nurseries while indigenous species seedlings came from the National Tree Seed Centre in Namanve.

Planting regimes Mr Mbonye plants within the two rainy seasons – March to May and September to November. He plants 50 hectares per year, planting 25 hectares per season. For terminalia he uses 4mx4m spacing, Markhamia lutea 3mx3m, mahogany 5mx5m, Elgon teak 3mx3m, PCH (3mx3m) and eucalyptus (3mx3m). Growth rates and other indicators such as canopy closure and drying of lower branches determine thinning and pruning regimes.

What has made Patrick Mbonye successful?

“I am very patient,” says Mr Mbonye. “I don’t look at the money I will get out of the trees but consider it a form of savings.” He adds that there is no loss in planting trees. “Even if you sell each tree at the lowest price of 30,000 Uganda

Miti January - March 2015

shillings, you will still make a profit.” He plans his activities well and follows the SPGS set standards, carrying out spot checks at the plantations. He has established good forest roads that make plantation monitoring and management easy. He has also put in place fire control measures.

Challenges The main challenge Mr Mbonye faces is a shortage of labour. He has only six permanent employees in the three districts. To get around the labour problem, Mr Mbonye contracts specialised forestry operators who carry out silvicultural operations for tree plantation owners.

For example, during peak planting periods, Mr Mbonye employs over 100 people, many of them contractors.

Cash flow is another challenge that Mr Mbonye faces. Tree-planting is a long-term venture that requires sinking a lot of money without getting immediate returns.

Future plans Mr Mbonye hopes to plant on 1,000 hectares of land. He has so far planted on 600. After he reaches his target, he will start managing his plantations as a business by harvesting or selling 50 hectares every year before going into processing.

He will study the market and assess whether he needs a sawmill, and then will start

processing. Mr Mbonye advises investors to be patient and be interested in what they do. “Use trees as a saving, not as a business expecting returns within a short time,” he says. He also advises people to diversify because there might be a shortage of hardwoods in future.

“The government needs to support treegrowers because few people can manage to put up large plantations,” says Mr Mbonye. He regrets that some tree-growers supported by SPGS cut down their plantations when there was a delay in funding.

“There is no loss in forestry,” adds Mr Mbonye. “What you reap is much more than you invest, if you plan your activities well.”

Apart from growing trees, Mr Mbonye also manages his company, Q-Sourcing, which deals in human resources, recruitment, payroll industry and facilities management services.

The Bachelor of Science degree in Agriculture and Master’s degree in International Business holder has in the past ventured in a number of businesses including money exchange and real estate. He has worked with the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the World Bank and the Ministry of Finance.

The writer is the Country Representative Miti Magazine - Uganda Email: diana@mitiafrica.com

21

FORESTRY

Restoring a habitat to its natural state Brackenhurst Botanic Garden Limuru is alive with indigenous vegetation and animal life

BY MARK NICHOLSON

I

n a world where natural habitats are being destroyed daily by deforestation, degradation, desertification, monoculture, roads and urban sprawl, there is need both to conserve the ever-dwindling wild places and, where possible, restore habitats to their natural state. A 30-year project was initiated in 2000 in a corner of Limuru, Kiambu County, with the aim of recreating a natural forest. The project has just reached the half-way mark.

The project began in 2000/2001 to mark the millennium. After four years of replacing exotic trees (mainly eucalyptus, cypress (Cupressus lusitanica) and wattle (Acacia mearnsii ) with African trees, Brackenhurst Botanic Garden was founded in 2004 under the aegis of Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI). The latter decided to add restoration science to conservation, research, education and recreation, the traditional roles of botanic gardens.

The garden is located in Tigoni, near Limuru, in the highlands of Kenya, 25km from Nairobi.

Since its founding, the garden has replanted about 30 hectares with native trees on one side of a valley and on a hilltop. Part of the botanic garden is situated within the Brackenhurst Conference Centre, providing excellent outreach potential through conferences and meetings and an opportunity to educate visitors about indigenous restoration. But the bulk of the land is outside the compound and is dedicated to restoring native sub-montane forest, which is the natural vegetation in this upland region of good soils and an annual rainfall of 1000 -1400mm.

Site preparation Before replanting the site with indigenous

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species, the existing plantations of wattle, eucalyptus and cypress, as well as the main exotic invasive plants such as Cestrum aurantiacum and bugweed (Solanum mauritianum) had to be removed. Removal of the invasive species and eucalyptus regrowth has been a constant challenge for at least five years after planting of young trees and takes up a large proportion of expenditure and staff time.

Once the canopy closes, invasive plants are less of a challenge although Cestrum and bugweed can become dominant in the undergrowth. These invasive weeds are widespread throughout the high potential areas of Kenya. The weeds are the equivalent of Lantana camara, Jimson weed (Datura stramonium) and Nicotiniana glauca of drier regions.

In some restoration projects, like Karura, trees are planted to enrich an existing degraded forest. The Brackenhurst project is different in that it started on a clean slate - a bare piece

of ground from which all exotic trees had been removed. Stumps were removed in places but this proved a very expensive process, particularly for eucalyptus.

Starting from scratch had advantages and disadvantages. With no indigenous trees on the site for 100 years, there was no chance of natural regeneration. Conversely, there was the challenge of wattle regrowth as the seeds of this tough Australian acacia last for decades and come up in profusion after every fire or rainstorm. The advantage is that progress is easier to demonstrate visually.

Planting methods About 80,000 seedlings were planted during the first 15 years. About 60,000 of these have grown into trees. The main causes of death are drought, moles, honey fungus (Armillaria mellea) and browsing by duiker.

After propagating from wild collected seed, the seedlings were planted at about 2,500 per hectare. It is better to plant at a high density as

Indigenous forest replanted between 2001 and 2004.

The photograph was taken in 2010, when the forest was six to nine years old. (Photo: Mark Nicholson)

weaker trees can be culled as the forest grows.

Each tree was planted with bone meal and compost. Ideally for specimen trees, the hole should be square and about 80cm cube. However, in a reforestation project the labour required would be prohibitive. The best time to plant is early in the long rains (April) after at least 50mm of heavy rain.

Planting during the short rains (October - December) is risky as January to March is both hot and dry. Watering in a forestry project is not feasible.

Species selection Over 450 indigenous tree and shrub species have been propagated for this project with the aim of achieving high plant biodiversity. The species were mainly those found in the sub-humid, lower montane forests of the East African highlands and differ slightly from the forests around Nairobi such as Karura. The closest natural area is the southern Aberdare forests such as seen around the Gatemayu River. Climbers and lianas (often ignored in reforestation projects) were introduced once trees had reached a respectable height.

The first group of seedlings were common species found in the area of which the fastest-growing were Croton, Trema, Neoboutonia, Rauvolfia and Hagenia (Table 1). The slower-growing canopy and more unusual species were planted later. The slowest growing species recorded to date are Strombosia scheffleri, olive (Olea europea ssp. cuspidata) and Garcinia volkensii. One mistake we made was planting woodland genera and species like Erythrina, Juniperus, Combretum, Terminalia mollis and Pappea that were soon shaded out by forest species.

One of the difficulties in Kenya is that many species have neither English nor local names. Most people are put off by Latin (scientific) names so dendrology and arboriculture (the study of trees and their cultivation) remain minority interests. This is a great pity. A few local names are seen below, mainly in Kikuyu as the botanic garden is in a Kikuyu area. For the common trees, most ethnic groups from similar upland forest areas will have local names (Maa, Kalenjin, Meru, etc.).

Table 1: The 30 most common species planted Acokanthera oppositifolia / A. schimperi Poison arrow Afrocarpus falcatus

Small leaf podo

Apodytes dimidiata

Mugonyoni, muchogi

Bridelia micrantha

Mukoigo

Casaeria battiscombei

Muirongi

Celtis africana

Murundu

Cordia africana

Muringa

Croton macrostachyus

Mutundu

Miti January - March 2015

Croton megalocarpus

Mukinduri

Dombeya torrida

Mueku

Elaeodendron buchananii

Mutanga

Ficus thonningii; F. sur etc.

Mugumo

Hagenia abyssinica

Mumondo

Macaranga kilimandscharica

Mukuhakuha

Markhamia lutea

Muu, muho, mho

Neoboutonia macrocalyx

Mutundu (pioneer species)

Nuxia congesta

Muchorowe, mwanda

Olea europea ssp. cuspidata

Mutheru, muthamayu (olive)

Olea welwitschii

Mutharage (Elgon olive)

Podocarpus latifolius

Podo

Polyscias kikuyuensis

Mutati

Prunus africana

Mwiri

Rauvolfia caffra

Mwerere

Shirakiopsis elliptica

Sapium

Trema orientalis

Muhethu (pigeonwood)

Vepris nobilis Vitex keniensis

Meru oak

Warburgia ugandensis

Muthiga

Zanthoxylum gillettii

Muchagatha

Table 2: Some less common species planted Anthocleista grandiflora

Mutunguru

Cassipourea malosana / C. ruwensorensis Muthaithi / Chaetacme aristata

-

Chrysophyllum gorongosanum

Muthenia, mwagao

Cornus volkensii

-

Cylicomorpha parviflora

-

Diospyros abyssinica

Muiruthi

Drypetes gerrardii

Munenye

Fleroya rubrostipulata

-

Garcinia volkensii

Munyawa

Heywoodia lucens

Mutaigoka

Lepidotrichilia volkensii

Mundara, muthigitha

Lovoa swynnertonii

Mukongoro

Margaritaria discoidea

Mukarara

Mimusops kummel/ M. bagshawei

Mugambwa, mugunachano / -

Myrianthus holstii

Mutuya

Obetia radula

-

Ocotea kenyensis

Muthuta, muikoni

Ocotea usambarensis

Muthaiti, musili

Olinia rochetiana

Mwathathia

Peddiea fischeri

-

Pouteria adolfi-friedericii / P. altissima

-

Premna maxima

Muchichio

Schefflera abyssinica

Muwenyere, mwenyere

Strombosia scheffleri

Munyenye, muthiringu

Trichilia emetica

Mururi

Vepris glandulosa

-

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The first photo is of a eucalyptus plot in 2000. The other photo is taken 12 years later, after clearing and replanting with indigenous species. The land in the foreground is owned by the government so is still has gums, but the land on the other side is all native forest. Note the same tree at the top of the photo. (Photo: Mark Nicholson)

In addition, we planted ex situ1 , other unusual species from Kakamega, Eastern Arc Mountains, Shimba Hills and the coast. Among these are Elaeodendron schweinfurthianum (mtamba-keregende), Scorodophloeus fischeri (mugodoma), Strychnos innocua, Gigasiphon macrosiphon, Euphorbia cussonioides (githuri), and Zanthoxylum mildbraedii (simbari).

We grow them because they are rare or endangered and to preserve them in case their natural habitat is destroyed. With care, most of these species thrive even if the growth rate is slower.

Benefits of restoration After 15 years, the older forest is now over 90 per cent closed canopy in the original plantings.

The benefits are firstly environmental: the soil quality has improved greatly, with much more organic matter than one would find in wattle, eucalyptus or cypress/ pine plantations. Water infiltration is greatly increased as a result of the better structure and springs have returned.

In contrast, the rivers in almost all the valleys in which eucalyptus dominate are seasonal

Away from their normal habitat

1

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because the gums extract so much water for their growth.

The forest has an abundance of indigenous vegetables, particularly Basella alba (soap spinach) which is harvested regularly and is a popular vegetable among the Luhya community. In addition, we have planted 300 Ethiopian coffee plants, a species that originated in the deep shade of the highland forests of central and western Ethiopia.

Later on, the indigenous hardwoods will supply quality timber which can be extracted selectively and replanted. Cordia, Meru oak, Elgon olive and camphor all have potential as hardwood timbers, with Meru oak providing a good yield after 20 - 25 years.

Bird and animal life has increased. The insects that feed on the leaves of the native trees provide food for numerous insecteating birds, from sunbirds to shrikes. The flagship bird species like the silvery-cheeked hornbill, the white-starred robin, the hartlaubs turaco and others are returning, even as they gradually disappear from residential areas in urban Nairobi.

In 2014, we saw the first colobus monkey family take up residence now that the trees are tall enough to provide them with sanctuary.

Other mammalian species that have returned include bush baby (greater galago), fruit bats, genet cat, civet cat, white-tailed mongoose, black-tipped mongoose, porcupine, palm civet, hedgehog, among others, all because of the greater diversity of food in the forest. This allows Brackenhurst to offer both bird and tree walks and amplify income from ecotourism.

Monitoring In partnership with the Royal Botanic Gardens (Kew and Wakehurst), a further 8,000 trees have been planted in four sites to monitor survival and growth rates of over 50 species.

In the most exposed sites, survival of certain species is low owing to the strong winds and heavy browsing by grey duiker and moles. To reduce mortality, it is advisable to plant trees bigger than 80cm, although this increases transport costs.

Success of the restoration efforts undertaken at Brackenhurst will continue to be monitored and documented. This is essential for promoting the use of indigenous species in restoration efforts across Africa. Brackenhurst already provides an important model for East African habitat restoration initiatives and BGCI will continue to promote this example in locations where native forest is under threat.

Ecological restoration is a rewarding hobby on whatever scale it is practised but most of all, it should serve as a living collection of endangered plant species for future generations.

The writer is Director, Plants for Life, cofounder of Ecological Restoration Alliance with RBG Kew and five other Botanic Gardens, IUCN Tree Specialist and part of BGCI/ FFI Global Trees Campaign.

Email: mjlni@yahoo.com

Miti January - March 2015

PLANTATION FORESTRY

Jean-Paul Deprins, (left) Managing Director of Better Globe Forestry, is interviewed by Wanjiru Ciira, Managing Editor of Miti magazine. (Photo: Kangu Productions)

Pioneers in plantation forestry in Kenya’s ASAL Better Globe Forestry (BGF) celebrates 10 years of operations in Kenya this year. Miti spoke to the company’s Managing Director, Jean-Paul Deprins on the achievements, vision and mission and goals of the company. Below are excerpts from the interview: When was Better Globe Forestry established?

Better Globe Forestry was incorporated in Kenya in November 2004. That makes the company 10 years old. We now have also set up the Better Globe Forestry Foundation with the aim of increasing transparency and efficiency in dealing with our corporate social responsibility (CSR) programme.

What is the vision of the company?

Better Globe Forestry’s vision is about people and trees. In fact, the vision of our Chairman, who is also the founder of the Better Globe Group, is to plant as many trees as there are people on this planet. It is an ambitious, long-term goal, but one that is worth working towards.

0n the short term, our aim is to become the biggest tree-planting company active in arid and semi-arid lands (ASAL). For this we give ourselves 20 years. This goes together with a drive towards

Miti January - March 2015

poverty eradication aimed at all the smallhold farmers in the areas where we operate.

Where does the company operate?

Better Globe Forestry has initiated pilot plantations in the Kenyan arid and semi-arid lands (ASAL) where it has three projects for largescale afforestation. We will certainly expand our field of operations to neighbouring East African countries in the coming years. ASAL is where land is available for large-scale afforestation without putting food security in danger. Enormous portions of land are unexploited due to lack of possibilities and these areas are also confronted with huge poverty problems. Our projects are aimed at being a sustainable answer to these challenges.

What species have you planted and why did you choose these?

We have specialised in planting Melia volkensii, known as mukau in the local language. It is a hardwood from the mahogany family, but it has two principal characteristics that are important to us - the tree is drought-resistant and matures in less than 20 years. It also allows us to give good returns to the people who buy the trees upfront.

We believe that the massive poaching of hardwoods in countries like the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) will come to an end due to logistical and political realities. That is when Better Globe Forestry needs to be ready with its large-scale mukau plantations.

In addition, we are doing the preliminary studies for planting Acacia senegal and Acacia seyal on a large scale. These acacias produce gum arabic and are therefore a cash crop.

These two species will help us cover the

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short-term payback to the people who invested in the trees planted in East Africa, as we wait to generate returns from the processing of the hardwood melia. We have also set up a large-scale mango plantation.

Is there a relationship between the species you have planted or plan to plant and the rainforests of Africa?

We believe there will be, as today huge volumes of hardwoods like mahogany are poached from the African rainforests. Planting millions of domesticated mahogany in dry areas will have a tremendous influence in taking the pressure away from cutting trees in the rainforest.

What have been the company’s major achievements in the last 10 years?

The greatest achievement is to survive for 10 years in itself, without financial help from outside.

We are pioneering large-scale afforestation in ASAL and the main species we plant requires a lot of research. In this dry environment, every possible error can be a setback. However, we have managed to establish procedures and protocols that take care of the technical difficulties we have been facing.

It also took some time to translate our vision into a practical and efficient organisation with a clear mission. The way to go is complex and it was essential to simplify our initial ways of organising ourselves, which we are confident we have done now.

Now, tree-planting is closely related to and dependent on the interaction with the human environment. We have gained the confidence of the farmers and other people in the areas we work. They see and know our projects and they understand where we are going. This is essential for the long-term success of our plans.

We would also like to mention Miti magazine, through which we have reached thousands of people in different countries and made them realise that tree-planting is good business. We would never have achieved this educational goal without the great support we receive from partners like the Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI), The Kenya Forest Service (KFS), The World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), the University of Nairobi and the Sawlog Production Grant Scheme (SPGS) in Uganda. We have working memorandums of understanding with all of them.

You talk of agro-ecology the BGF way.

Please explain this.

An agro ecosystem is an interaction or a relationship between different components people, living organism and the environment in a very broad sense. The inputs and outputs to

26

such a system are quite complex. This means that agro ecosystems are different although their approach is long-term and holistic with different levels of inputs.

In the case of Better Globe Forestry Ltd, the people are small-scale farmers; the environment is arid and semi-arid lands, which makes the system very specific; and the crops are drought resistant, local trees which are intercropped with, for example, green grams.

Other inputs are tree and water donations, micro-finance assistance, education and capacity building. Actually, the main input is the system itself as a tool to eradicate poverty.

You are involved in micro-finance. Please explain how this fits into the BGF model.

Micro-finance is what allows farmers to get access to what is needed to provide their own inputs in the system. When for example farmers want to plant green grams to intercrop with the trees, they need some funds as a start. Microfinance allows them to purchase what they need and consequently to make money. It also allows them to take small loans for school fees and other facilities that might be problematic to them in their daily lives. Better Globe Forestry has supported K-REP Fedha in setting up a “Village Bank” with that aim and it is a huge success.

What benefits do farmers derive from BGF’s model?

To eradicate poverty, whatever is implemented on farms needs to be profitable and sustainable for farmers. To achieve that goal, they need help, not only at the beginning of the tree-planting, but all the way until harvesting. We provide, or help with the provision of, seedlings, water, money through micro-finance, knowledge and capacity building through our agroforestry advisers.

Moreover, BGF provides a market for the trees because we make an agreement

with farmers by which we commit to buy their trees at market rate when they mature, providing they have been maintained properly.

The farmer’s biggest input is maintaining the trees. Undoubtedly, labour has its worth!

Water is a major concern in drylands and everywhere else. What is the source of water for your plantations and how do you manage the commodity?

Water is not only a major concern, it is our biggest challenge and a very expensive one.

Before starting up a project, we study the hydrology of our sites carefully and of course seek not only expert advice but also advice from the local people. There are many ways to harvest and manage water. Our problem is of course the quantities needed to provide to young trees until they can survive on their own.

In the years to come, farmers’ water problems are bound to become our problems. It’s up to us to find tailor-made solutions, and they exist!

What is the source of your funding?

Better Globe Forestry has a principal-to-agent agreement with Better Globe AS in Norway and from 2015, other companies as well. These companies have developed several ways of “crowd funding” to finance the tree-planting.

Some of our projects have also attracted real direct investment.

Basically, Better Globe AS and the other companies sell trees to people and companies from all over the world and commit to a secure buy-back deal over 17 to 20 years.

Better Globe Forestry plants, maintains and harvests the trees on behalf of the customers of these other companies. Again, processing of the tree products will be done on site.

How do you make sure money goes where it is supposed to go? What checks

Miti January - March 2015

and balances do you have in place to guard against misuse of funds?

For a start, we are audited yearly and the inputs in Better Globe Forestry have to match the outputs in the books of Better Globe AS. We also have very serious and senior people on the Board of Better Globe Forestry who ask the right questions.

Again, every year we receive a delegation of people who have invested in trees. They are mostly from Scandinavia and want to see what we do with their investment. For them it is important to have a feel that all is going in the right direction. It is also an occasion to interact with Management here and ask the many

Miti January - March 2015

questions they have due to the distance between them and the project.

Internally we have good systems in place based on the ISO quality management system.

We are very strict on that. Moreover, over the years we have fine-tuned our internal financial controls and today any departure from the procedure would trigger an alarm.

There is usually concern about development “imposed� on the people by outsiders. How does BGF guard against this and what is your relationship with the host communities?

Most of the available land in ASAL belongs to a community in one way or another. There is a very long process we have to follow before we can start planting trees. The process goes roughly as follows: When it is our own industrial plantation, we start by writing a feasibility study based on the available knowledge at the time. We then establish contacts with the managers of the land and we need to convince them of our good intentions, the sustainability of the project and more important, the advantages for the community. They have to convince their members or/and the community and receive a mandate to go about the project with us.

A working party is then set up and regular meetings start. We then approach and ask for advice from other stakeholders like water authorities, the Forestry Service, the environmental management authorities, wildlife authorities and others. The project also needs to be approved by the District Development Committee of the area.

Moreover, if the government has a stake in the ownership of the land, any official document, be it a memorandum of understanding or a lease agreement, needs to go to the central administration or the Attorney General for approval, then back to the local officers for

signature. Meanwhile, we bring representatives of the community to our existing pilot projects to convince them that tree-planting is possible in a sustainable way in ASAL. An environmental impact assessment needs to be carried out. This document has an important social component that obliges us to interact with the community.

Only when we have gone through most of this long process can we start planning, budgeting and finally planting.

When working with contract farmers, the process is easier as there are no land issues involved. However, in all cases we need to involve and convince the people of the viability and benefits of our projects and we take the time to do this. So there is no way we could ever impose our ideas on the people.

Do you take into account gender parity in your operations?

Absolutely! Poverty eradication is impossible without taking women into account and working with them. We try to have 40 per cent women in our workforce as a company policy. However, it is not always possible to achieve this as women have many chores and are not always available for work outside the home.

If you were to start again the establishment of plantations, what would you do differently? What lessons have you learnt?

We would probably start the way we started. As a pioneer, one needs to be hardy enough to take some risks and crazy enough to navigate in the dark. We needed all these years to get a clear grip on the technical and financial aspects of our operations, based on careful gathering and recording of information.

I would say that with what we know now, we probably would start working with contract farmers earlier. We might even start up new projects working with them. The biggest lesson we learned is that it all takes much more time than expected and, as you know, time is money!

Where do you see the company in the next 10 years? The next 20 years?

We will definitely be the biggest afforestation company in ASAL and an authority for that matter. In matters of forestry, 20 years is not long and by that time our main concern will be to get the wood processing right and to know, prepare and supply the overseas markets with our finished products. For this we will need also to prepare a new generation of managers that will take over from us, the old guard.

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COMMERCIAL TREE-GROWING

Profitable but expensive venture Although more Ugandans have taken up commercial tree-growing, much still needs to be put right in the industry

BY SARAH AKELLO ESIMU

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ree-growing is a very profitable but expensive business and quite a number of forward-looking Ugandans have taken a keen interest in the venture. It is also a somewhat grey investment area with minimal competition, so those who engage in it are assured of good economic returns as long as they do it right and the climatic conditions remain favourable.

People engage in tree-growing for different reasons. These include but are not limited to commercial timber production, provision of fuel wood, production of building and transmission poles, trees for aesthetic value, use as wind breaks, eco-tourism, provision of shade, medicinal value, fodder for livestock, environmental protection, soil and water conservation.

Until recently in Uganda, tree-growing was a subsistence farming activity in virtually every part of the country. Commercial tree-growing was a preserve of the government as it were then. This has changed drastically, perhaps due to the ever-rising shortage of wood products, previously mainly obtained from natural forests that have now been cleared for agriculture, owing to the ever increasing population pressure and declining soil fertility.

A number of small-scale tree-growers have shown remarkable interest in tree-growing as evidenced by many woodlots scattered all over the country. On the other hand, large and

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medium-scale private tree-growers have mushroomed, especially in the west, central, north and eastern Uganda, where climatic and soil conditions are favourable and large chunks of land are available.

However, it is of great concern to forestry professionals and the general forestry fraternity that many tree farmers seem to be engaging in this expensive venture with minimal or no professional or technical support. This has led to relatively poor quality of forest plantations established in many parts of the country.

It is not uncommon for one to see trees that eventually grow very tall being planted below electricity transmission lines, or trees with extensive branching and rooting systems being planted near buildings in compounds. In other cases, ornamental trees with brittle branches are planted near buildings, leading to massive damage to buildings in case strong winds break some branches.

There are a number of factors to consider, in broad terms, in plantation establishment. These include site-species matching, quality planting material, timely planting (including gap filling), spacing, pruning, thinning and protection against pests and diseases, fire and damage by animals.

Apart from the favourable climatic and soil conditions that Uganda

is endowed with, the country is also lucky to have a supportive policy and legal framework that encourages private sector participation in tree-growing.

Three major government projects have contributed to the increase in tree cover in the last decade. These are the Sawlog Production Grant Scheme (SPGS), the Farm Income Enhancement and Forest Conservation Project (FIEFOC) and the National Forestry Authority’s (NFA) Carbon and Collaborative Forest Management planting projects.

These projects have encouraged farmers to take up tree-growing as a business and have led to the emergence of professionally managed plantations in Kiboga, Nakasongola, Mubende, Isingiro, Hoima, Kyenjojo, Masindi, Bushenyi, Nebbi, Arua, Gulu, Lira, Mayuge and Bugiri districts, among others.

The SPGS programme, which is funded by the European Union and Norwegian Government, supports commercial timber plantations; a community support initiative and a woodlot programme that targets institutions that consume a lot of wood like schools and prisons.

The commercial timber plantation category caters for farmers that own 25 hectares or

Miti January - March 2015

more of land. They should have sufficient money to plant trees and the programme reimburses about 50 per cent of the cost.

The community support initiative assists farmer groups interested in tree-growing. The farmers are required to prepare the land to the satisfaction of the project staff then the planting materials are provided to them.

Selected institutions for the woodlot planting programme are required to prepare the land. The programme then establishes and hands over the plantations to the institutions within a year or so for further maintenance.

SPGS offers the following incentives to the beneficiaries; grant financing, skills training, technical advice, information communication, subsidy of inputs, exposure visits, research and gender affirmative action.

FIEFOC was a Nordic / African Development Bank / Government of Uganda funded project, with the two components of forestry and agriculture. The forestry component had two sub-components of tree-planting and community watershed management.

The project was initially in several districts that were highly degraded and deforested. The major objectives of the project were re-vegetation of the degraded areas and establishment of woodlots at individual, community and institutional levels.

The project support was channelled through registered community watershed management and tree-planting groups in selected parishes.

The main species of tree planted were pines, grevillea (Grevillea robusta), eucalyptus, teak (Tectona grandis), mvule (Milicia excelsa), mahogany (Khaya spp or Entandrophragma spp), and grafted orange, mango and avocado trees.

Calliandra calothyrsus was also planted for fodder for livestock, firewood and soil and water conservation.

The size of planting depended on the area of land available and the capacity of the planters.

The project provided seedlings and other planting materials, technical backing of the district teams, training of the beneficiaries, facilitation of group formation and registration, with strong gender affirmative action in all areas.

The National Forestry Authority offered plantations for institutions but has also encouraged and supported forest-adjacent communities to establish woodlots under the Collaborative Forestry Management arrangements. The major objectives of the plantings are to reduce pressure exerted by the forest-adjacent communities on the natural high forests and generate income from the sale of tree products.

The NFA also has a community outreach programme where interested individual farmers

Miti January - March 2015

around NFA core plantation forest reserves are encouraged to plant trees on their own land as out-growers in a carbon sequestration project. It is worth noting that the government, through NFA, has encouraged interested private tree farmers to grow trees in the Central Forest Reserves (CFRs) under lease for a specified period.

Under the same arrangement, 5 per cent of the forest reserve land available for treegrowing is given to forest-adjacent communities interested in tree-growing. Over 70 per cent of SPGS clients grow their trees on government protected areas (Central Forest Reserves). Other incentives given by NFA include provision of free seedlings, technical advice, training where need arises, and law enforcement.

Challenges of tree-growing in Uganda Whereas tree-planting in Uganda has made some gains, much still remains to be done.

The challenges associated with tree-growing in Uganda include but are not limited to the following:- high costs of seeds/seedlings; inadequate land for tree- growing; rampant forest fires; outbreaks of diseases and pests; harsh weather conditions (drought and floods); inadequate technical advice; high labour costs; inadequate skilled labour; inadequate financing (bank loans); land tenure system limits on the choice of species; poor publicity on treegrowing opportunities and funding incentives; unwillingness by some tree-growers to seek professional advice on critical forestry issues; and limited government funding for treegrowing.

Opportunities At the same time, opportunities for tree-growing in Uganda exist. These include:- available land in CFRs under the mandate of NFA; a good,

equatorial climate; good soils; a supportive policy and legal framework; high demand for wood products; and availability of skilled forest technicians and professionals.

Suggestions for improvement

The Government of Uganda should operationalize the tree fund as enshrined in the National Forestry and Tree Planting Act 2003.

The government should declare some days in the year as tree-planting days and oblige each Ugandan to plant and maintain a specific number of trees. In the same vein, all government institutions should be made to plant trees around their institutions.

The government and other development partners should increase funding for treegrowing.

Tree-growing activities should be emphasised in districts that have a deficiency of wood products.

Encourage natural high forest restoration through enrichment planting, and woodland improvement.

Planting and maintenance of trees along the major national roads should be encouraged and made mandatory.

Parents should be encouraged to plant and maintain a tree whenever a child is born, in memory of the child.

Households practising agriculture should be encouraged to embrace agro-forestry.

The relevant government agencies and civil society organisations dealing in forestry should continually sensitise and raise public awareness on basic silvicultural practices.

The writer is a PhD student of Agricultural and Rural Innovations - Makerere University Email: sarahakellok@yahoo.com

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SUCCESSFUL INDUSTRY

Standing tall with high prospects Despite challenges, the future looks bright for the Uganda Electricity Distribution Co Ltd UEDCL Lugogo pole treatment plant

BY JAN VANDENABEELE

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he history of the Uganda Electricity Distribution Company Ltd (UEDCL) goes back to colonial times. It started with the Ugandan Electricity Board (UEB), which came into the limelight at the commissioning of the first hydro-electricity dam, at Owen Falls, back in 1957.

In 2001 there were reforms in the energy sector and UEB was privatised and split into three companies. The three companies were Uganda Electricity Generation Company Ltd (UEGCL), which was in charge of power generation; Uganda Electricity Distribution Company Ltd (UEDCL) in charge of power distribution; and Uganda Electricity Transmission Company Ltd (UETCL) in charge of transmission.

UEDCL owns all energy distribution assets up to power lines of 33 KV, including a pole treatment plant in Lugogo, bordering Kampala’s industrial area. A further evolution was the creation of Umeme Ltd, on 1st March 2005, the biggest energy distribution company in Uganda.

Umeme obtained a 20-year concession on operation, maintenance and upgrading of the distribution network, while UEDCL remained the asset owner. The plant itself changed its role from an in-house support unit for UEDCL to a fullfledged business unit dealing in creosote-treated electricity poles.

Miti interviewed Protaze Tibyakinura, UEDCL’s director of utility products, who runs the plant. The installed yearly capacity for treatment is 35,000 poles per year, of various sizes, while the operational capacity is about 30,000 poles.

However, the pressure cylinder’s size (solid heritage dating from colonial times), the location of the plant with limited space, the availability of raw material and the importation of the preservative put a limit to what can be produced.

The preservative they use is creosote oil; but Mr Tibyakinura is unhappy about its condition.

“The quality we get is not the same any more,” he says. “Previously, poles treated with creosote would last for 40 to 50 years; now they only last for 20 to 25 years.” Yet creosote is not cheap; it takes up 60-70 per cent of the value of a pole.

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Sourcing from different suppliers in South Africa, India, and the UK has not helped on the quality issue.

The location of the plant is an even bigger problem. Right now, the plant sits on 3.5 acres of land, and hires an adjacent 4.2-acre plot for off-loading poles and storage of raw poles. For

seasoning of poles to a 25 - 30 per cent moisture content, six months are required during the rainy season, and three to four during the dry season.

This all needs space, and the lease of land comes at a heavy cost.

Mr Tibyakinura would like to relocate the factory to a 200-acre plot, to be purchased. Some

Miti January - March 2015

15 - 20 acres would be used for the factory itself, with offices, storage space and the treatment itself, while the rest of the land would be planted with trees, for future supply. This would enable the plant to double its production capacity.

The other challenge of the supply of poles is relative though also very real. The plant specialises in 12 to 14-metre long poles, for “back-bone” lines of higher voltage, whereas 10-metre poles represent the highest volume available in the market. Good straight eucalyptus trees that can give 12 to 14-metre long poles are in short supply.

However, Mr Tibyakinura has worked out a tendering system that gives him an edge over the competition. One of his main cards is prompt payment, at a good unit price. Suppliers get their money within seven days. Guaranteed.

His tendering is open and national, and he has a selection of six suppliers. If need be, a simple “call of orders” can increase the number of poles that was stipulated in a “framework contract” won by a given supplier. It is hence a flexible supply system.

The plant buys Eucalyptus grandis and E. saligna poles, felled at the age of 10 to 12 years, in districts like Fort Portal, Mubende, Hoima, Bushenyi and Mityana, while trees from eastern locations like Mbale and Tororo are siphoned off to Kenya. Not all poles are accepted, and the rejection rate is about 10 per cent, overseen by a quality assurance section. If the section relaxes, the percentage immediately goes up.

Together with routine off-cuts to get straight butts, the rejected poles represent quite some waste wood, and Mr Tibyakinura is thinking about making better use of it, rather than only selling it as firewood. Electricity and charcoal production are options.

The future for wooden poles is certainly bright, with planned rural electrification, and whole swathes of the country being targeted for establishing power lines. The shift towards concrete poles will not come overnight, as the cost is high, and they are heavy. A 12-metre wooden pole weighs about 600-700kg, while a concrete one weighs two tonnes. Mr Tibyakinura notes that even an advanced economy like the United States of America continues to expand low-cost power lines using wooden poles.

That being said, the plant has embarked on its own eucalyptus growing scheme. This takes two forms. The first is an in-house tree-planting scheme, in which 36 hectares have already been planted, and 2015 will see another 36 hectares planted under the supervision of UEDCL’s forester.

The second way of planting is with outgrowers and started last year. Under this scheme, 253 hectares have been established, with 27

Miti January - March 2015

farmers. The initial target was 25,000 hectares, for the next five years, and with a minimum of 10 hectares per farmer.

UEDCL signs a memorandum of understanding (MoU) with each farmer, in which the duties of both parties are stipulated. The farmer has to prove ownership of land, put it under trees, and take good care of the seedlings.

UEDCL supplies the seedlings for free, and provides technical support of proper silvicultural standards. A forester visits the plantation each quarter, and UEDCL gets the first choice of purchase at prevailing market rates.

The MoUs are for 12 years, which Mr Tibyakinura finds a bit risky. “If the trees mature and the farmer sells them behind your back, what action can you take?” he asks. And what happens if a farmer loses interest in the trees and neglects his plantation when the trees are still sensitive to management?

After the first year of intervention, UEDCL will take stock and analyse the results. Some amendments in the MoU are likely, like a

signature from a government representative to boost the credibility of the agreement, and the option that the company maintains the trees in case of neglect, with the costs being deducted from the final price. The MoU lasts up to the harvest, meaning that any coppice belongs to the farmer.

Mr Tibyakinura is rightly proud of the factory he is managing, saying it is the only pole treatment plant with ISO certification in Uganda (ISO 9001:2008). So the systems are in place, and it cost one year of training to get them there The poles are certified by the Ugandan Bureau of Standards. An officer oversees a safety, health and environment policy, ensuring that rules are respected and pollution hazards are kept within limits, taking care of the people working at the plant well as the environment.

The writer is the Executive Director, Better Globe Forestry Email: jan@betterglobeforestry.com

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MUKAU & PLANTATION FORESTRY

Saving the Central African rainforests Growing commercial quantities of mukau in East Africa would present consumers with alternatives to mahogany and other hardwoods of the Congo Miti interviewed JOSHUA CHEBOIWO, PAULO CERUTTI and DENNIS GARRITY on the economic and environmental importance of planting mukau. Below are excerpts from the interview: How important is the volume of imports of mahogany from the Congo into East Africa?

Cheboiwo: It is very important for Uganda and Kenya because the two countries have restricted logging in indigenous forests, hence locking out the local wood markets’ access to hardwoods.

This is more serious for Kenya given the size of its market for hardwood timber and minimum access to local materials.

Imports have been on the increase for a number of reasons. One, with improved economic conditions, there is an increase in preference for hardwood furniture and fittings. Two, there is a booming real estate sector and the taste for exotic materials is expanding beyond the traditional areas of Nairobi and Mombasa, to Eldoret, Kisumu, Nakuru and other towns. There is an unfilled demand by a growing middle class

for furniture made out of hardwoods, something that was not significant some 10 years ago.

Cerutti: I guess it depends on what is considered “mahogany”, but our data show the percentages in Figure 1.

How long do these trees of the rainforest take to mature?

Cheboiwo: The trees being harvested may be 400 years old and can take not less 80 years to reach desired sizes for harvesting and colour.

Cerutti: For sapele (Entandrophragma cylindricum), which is the one I know well, the trees flower when 35 - 45 years old and fruit production starts when bole diameter is above 50cm. However, there is great variability as the tree is spread over a large area - from Cote d’Ivoire to Uganda. In all the countries I know,

harvesting is recommended when the diameter is well above 50cm. In Cameroon, minimum felling diameter is 100cm, in Congo it is 80cm.

What other species are extracted from the rainforest of the Eastern Congo and what is the relative importance of mahogany?

Cheboiwo: The key species destined for East African markets are the red timber range of Entandrophragma spp and Khaya anthotheca that are grouped as mahogany. The South Sudan market is dominated by white timber species that include white nongo (Albizia ssp) and nkalati (Aningeria and Chrysophylla). Some mvule (Milicia excelsa) and false mvule (Antiaris toxicaria) enter Kenya, not specifically from DRC but from Uganda and Tanzania.

Other species include Cordia abyssinica, Fagara microphylla and Pericopsis alata that rarely reach Kenya.

Figure 1. Species exported from the Eastern border of DRC (percentage) What impact does this extraction have on the rainforest, other species, and other activities like mining?

Garrity: Degradation and complete transformation of the forests. Roads built to access the logging sites lead to even more degradation as people move and settle in the forest. So, the extraction also leads to opening up of the forests for settlement.

Cheboiwo: Based on available information, the DRC rainforest covers 156 million hectares and is capable of producing 3 million cubic metres of wood per year. East Africa only legally imports about 70,000 cubic metres and, out of this, Kenya about 50,000 cubic metres. Even if we include illegal sources, it may not exceed 100,000 cubic metres. That is a meagre demand to impact negatively on the stability of DRC forests if prudent, sustainable management of the forest and processing technologies are adopted.

However, with growing demand, we may need to engage partners such as DRC to take stock of forest resources and sustainable offtake. This would ensure sustained supply without

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Miti October-December 2014

negatively impacting the forest environment and its ability to provide crucial services into the future.

Cerutti: There is not enough data specific to the DRC, and in particular the eastern forests, to determine the current impacts of extraction.

This is for two main reasons. One, it was only last year – 2014 – that the DRC government started approving management plans for a few of the logging concessions in the eastern part of the country. It is only by following forestry operations with the data present in those management plans (inventories, growth rates, harvesting rates, etc.) that, over the medium to long term, better knowledge on the impacts of harvesting can be gauged.

Two, most of the figures we have on export data record timber that is NOT extracted from logging concessions (with or without management plans), but from small to mediumscale operations occurring without following the prescriptions of a management plan. When compared to other countries in Central Africa for which we have recent data (see www.cifor. org/pro-formal), it seems that such small-scale operators in Eastern DRC are still able to find trees with very large diameters on which they can obtain better costs/benefits ratios. This could be an indication that, at least in terms of availability of the resource, impacts are still moderate.

However, the problem is that nobody (public or private) is recording such impacts, not only because harvesting occurs largely on an informal basis, but also because it occurs over large swathes of land that are difficult to monitor.

Miti October-December 2014

Is this illegal logging of rainforest related to funding of civil strife in the Eastern Congo?

Cerutti: I prefer “informal” to “illegal” logging because most of the people we work with in the forests of Eastern DRC are not provided with a law adapted to their needs and to the nature of their operations. Forest laws in the Congo basin, in general, maintain a focus on industrial, large-scale, export-oriented operations, and they are not adapted to the artisanal, small-scale operations that largely serve the timber market of East Africa.

We have not been conducting research with the specific aim of assessing whether logging is related to funding of civil strife, so the answer to

this question is “I don’t know.”

Cheboiwo: Like other natural resources that include minerals, timber has become low-lying fruits that can be easily transformed into cash by armed groups to finance their operations.

How sustainable is the current timber extraction in the rainforests of the Eastern Congo?

Cheboiwo: Difficult question to answer given that no inventory and annual extractions are available to balance the stock and make projections.

However, from reliable sources, valuable logs are getting scarcer in the border region with East Africa and loggers are moving deeper westwards into inaccessible areas. This is a sign of growing scarcity that can point to lack of sustainable practices currently. There is also lack of adequate infrastructure, patrols and skilled manpower to undertake some form of rationalisation in forest management towards sustainable pathways.

Cerutti: The short answer is “nobody knows”, although, at least in some places, for example around major cities like Kisangani in the East or in the North Kivu Province, there are indeed preliminary indications that harvesting has been increasing a lot in recent years, largely linked to a growing population and its needs for construction and infrastructure.

And of course, we should not forget that one of the major constraints on timber harvesting is the quality of infrastructure, e.g. roads. Given the huge investments East Africa is making on road and railway building and the prospects of improving the communication networks over the next decade or so, I think the need for monitoring (or regulating) what happens in those forests

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is even more urgent. For the moment, our data indicate that the Province of North Kivu is entirely affected and that harvesting is moving away from over-exploited areas in North Kivu to the Orientale Province (see map).

Are there ways of stemming the destruction of the Central African rainforest?

Cheboiwo: Yes, securing ownership. Currently there is overlapping ownership and claims between communities, clans, individuals and public agencies. There is an urgent need for forest sector reforms to include simple participatory and transparent procedures for concessions and licensing. There is need for more funding for purchase of equipment, facilities and hiring and training of manpower to undertake management and supervision of sector operations.

Garrity: Yes. A number of things. One; there should be controls and regulations on concessions so that large forests are not logged.

The other way of stemming the destruction is to develop the growing and processing of Melia volkensii (mukau), which is a good replacement for mahogany from the rainforest. Since there is demand for high quality mahogany, Melia needs to be grown on a large scale. This is possible and is a vision shared by Better Globe Forestry and ICRAF. We need to support small-scale mukau farmers, as well as plant Melia on a large scale.

This will eventually reduce demand for rainforest mahogany wood as there will be alternatives.

Support for small-scale farmers will bring additional income into the country-side, thus raising the standards of living.

Cerutti: For now, I would not talk about “destruction”. Harvesting is indeed occurring at a pace that increases with the growing population and needs, but deforestation rates remain comparatively low in DRC. A quick visit to Ghana or Cote d’Ivoire, or Kenya for that matter, or a click on a virtual map on the web, would help demonstrate the difference.

Nonetheless, demand, both national and regional, will grow, especially following infrastructural development. Some 20 to 30 years ago, Ghana and Cote d’Ivoire believed their forests would last forever. But they did not.

So, when asked about stemming such destruction, I would put on top of my list the suggestion to plan ahead and to monitor land use and land cover, two things that are currently not done in DRC. Without a clear plan of, say, where we want our forests to be in the next 20, 30 or 50 years and how we want them to be managed (ecologically, economically and socially), if at all, it is difficult to imagine why people would stop

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harvesting resources that provide them with much needed livelihoods.

In the case of Eastern DRC and the timber exported to eastern Africa, things are complicated by the fact that supply and demand are located in different countries, and I believe concerted, supra-national efforts must be made to try and come up with regional solutions to what I believe is a regional problem.

How would you describe Melia volkensii (mukau)?

Cheboiwo: It is a valuable dryland timber species that can substitute timber imports from Central and Rift Valley provinces, and offer on-farm diversification for households in the drylands. It can also provide green economy-based solutions to environmental conservation and climate mitigation.

Some have called mukau the mahogany of East Africa’s drylands – is this an accurate description?

Cheboiwo: Yes, it has the desired mahogany characteristics of red wood. With innovative marketing, it may penetrate the high-end market in urban areas to change consumer tastes. In Kenya in the 1960s, timber users were reluctant to take up cypress and pines as substitutes for indigenous species. Also, a few years ago, eucalyptus was considered inferior timber. Today, it serves about 70 per cent of timber uses in western Kenya.

A recent survey by KEFRI on market demand for mukau timber showed overwhelming demand that could not be matched by supply and there is therefore need to develop the supply to assure users of consistent supplies.

Garrity: Mukau is well adapted to drylands – it grows rapidly under dry conditions. And it produces a high quality mahogany wood.

How long does it take mukau to mature?

Cheboiwo: Mukau can take less than 20 years.

And in good sites, it can reach sizes that can provide medium sized logs at 10 years.

What effect would the planting and production of mukau have on the rainforests of Central Africa?

Garrity: It would reduce demand for wood from the rainforests. It would replace importation of mahogany and make the wood cheaper for buyers.

Cerutti: It is difficult to know in advance. CIFOR data from Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania indicate that timber traders, brokers and sellers of timber sourced in DRC have a long list of complaints about the difficulty of their job: the time it takes to get orders filled, if ever, the quality of the product they get, and the amount of informal payments along the road, among other complaints. All these contribute to increasing the price of timber in the destination market.

In theory, all other things being equal (and they rarely are), if the same market could be filled by a species that is acceptable to the final consumer as a substitute of DRC mahogany, delivered in good quantity and quality, and with much smaller transportation costs, traders might prefer to trade in local timber instead of going through the difficulties of getting it from the DRC.

Could the supply of well-seasoned and good quality mahogany from Melia volkensii have an influence on better and sustainable

Miti October-December 2014

The trees planted must be chosen carefully and planted with adequate spacing for both trees and food crops. The tree canopy needs to be managed efficiently to get maximum sunlight for the food crops.

Can Melia volkensii have its place amongst the species suitable for “evergreen agriculture”?

Garrity: Absolutely. This has been demonstrated in Kiambere and Kibwezi. The trees become an asset – adding value to the farmer – like a bank account.

management of DRC rainforests?

Cerutti: This is a very difficult question to answer.

One thing that can be said, however, is that for the time being, the sustainable management of DRC forests is entirely at the hands of the DRC government and the quality of laws that it enacts (and their enforcement), as well as in the hands of industrial logging companies and artisanal millers and the way they respect those laws.

There are several species harvested in DRC and mahogany is just one of them, albeit very important.

Only a comprehensive implementation of the forest law, with its requirements for forest inventories, management plans, set-asides, etc. can make sure that, whatever the species harvested and the market served, that timber has been harvested in a responsible way.

Miti January - March 2015

Production of more Melia volkensii in Kenya would be a commercial factor that producers in DRC would have to take into consideration.

This they surely would, maybe producing less mahogany, maybe more and of better quality, but the thing we would like to be sure of, is that production occurs sustainably.

What do you mean by “evergreen agriculture”?

Garrity: Integration of trees into crops.

“Evergreen Agriculture” is a vision for agriculture which includes not just annual crops but also trees grown for fuel wood, fruits or bio-fertiliser.

It is what was previously called inter-cropping.

It’s a type of agroforestry – trees are planted directly into the field with food crops.

What future do you see for mukau?

Garrity: Better Globe Forestry, KEFRI, ICRAF, and Miti have a shared vision for production of mukau. We want to produce mukau and make it a full-scale industry supporting small-scale farmers in drylands. Look at the example of Java in Indonesia where they have planted 1 million hectares of teak (Tectona grandis). The country benefits.

In the same way, if we planted mukau on a large scale and supported farmers in drylands growing the tree, it would be a source of income in areas that do not offer many opportunities for farmers. This would improve the economy of the areas and subsequently, the economy of the country.

We need to spread awareness of the potential of mukau wood – policy-makers need to know.

It’s a great opportunity for Kenya. As such, we are organising a conference in August 2015 for timber processors, KFS, KEFRI, investors, furniture-makers and other stakeholders. We need to talk about building an industry around a great Kenyan tree. We need to address the urgency of building a mukau timber industry, as it will be a major boost for the economy.

We need to take action urgently because mukau is becoming an endangered species.

There are very few model trees left. We need a private and public sector cooperation to develop quality seeds.

Joshua Cheboiwo is Deputy Director, Socioeconomics, Policy and Governance, Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI) Email: jkchemangare@yahoo.com Paulo Cerutti is a Forester, GIS & RS Analyst, Forests and Governance Programme, Centre for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) Email: p.cerutti@cgiar.org Dennis Garrity is Drylands Ambassador, United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification Email: d.garrity@cgiar.org

35

UGANDA’S DRYLANDS

‘Mental drought’ afflicts Uganda’s cattle corridor It’s all about attitude, says scholar of the problems encountered in semi-arid areas

BY ANTHONY EGERU

D

iagonally from south western to north eastern Uganda is an eco-region commonly referred to as the “cattle corridor”. It is Uganda’s semi-arid region. The region is synonymous with extreme climatic conditions, particularly drought and intermittent floods.

However, drought has made this eco-region more of a resounding crisis region from time to time; partly because its peoples are pastoralists and agro-pastoralists highly dependent on rainfed production systems. Thus, in the event of a drought, livestock herders and farmers are often in crisis mode.

How do we define drought? Drought can be considered as an extended period during which fresh water availability and accessibility is below normal, attributable to unfavourable distribution of rainfall, temperature, soil moisture and wind.

There are different forms of drought, namely, meteorological drought, agricultural drought and hydrological drought.

A number of factors may work jointly to create drought conditions in an area. These may include high-velocity wind for an extended period; high, above-average temperatures for prolonged periods; uneven distribution of rainfall characterised by long periods of below-average rains and low soil moisture content with uneven soil moisture distribution.

Uganda’s semi-arid region is essentially not rainfall deficient. As a matter of fact, the overall mean annual rainfall distribution in the cattle corridor and most of Uganda is far higher than the mean annual rainfall in most semi-arid regions of East Africa and the Horn of Africa.

Why then does the semi-arid region of Uganda get into crisis mode whenever there is a dry spell? The blame is often heaped on the poor rainfall distribution, high evapotranspiration and recently, climate change has become the buzz word for this eco-region. However, sporadic rainfall and high evapotranspiration are known characteristics of these eco-regions.

As such, the crisis modes in these regions can be attributed to the mental architecture

36

Rainfall distribution in East Africa and the Horn of Africa of the people at different decision-making levels. “Mental drought” thus describes the lack of systematic preparedness, mitigation, response and learning from past events to better tackle future droughts. From the household to the national and regional levels of decisionmaking, there is a compounding and increasing complexity of “mental drought”. It is therefore a systemic challenge that exposes fundamental weaknesses at institutional level.

The “mental drought” in Uganda’s cattle corridor can be illustrated using four examples: There is abundant herbaceous forage during the rainy periods. However, most of this

biomass is allowed to grow into fuel that is burnt during the dry season, even as the cattle keepers crisscross the district in search of pasture.

Bulking this grass into hay does not require any advanced technology or costs. Holding on to the notion that “nature will provide”, and continuing with seasonal migration despite reduced grazing land is an indicator of “mental drought”.

Storm discharge is not tapped and utilised but allowed to degenerate into floods. The water usage techniques applied do not allow for increased water conservation for prolonged usage on-site. Further, some of the interventions in the form of dams/ponds constructed by

Miti January - March 2015

Rainfall distribution in Uganda

the government and/or non-governmental organisations are not designed for multi-purpose use. In addition, some of these structures are so poorly designed that they are more like evaporation pans.

Despite drought being a slow on-set hazard, the response is normally characterised by superficial conclusions and a “quick fix attitude”. For example, food insecurity in the cattle corridor is often attributed to drought but is this reality? The challenge of food insecurity in this region could stem from poor infrastructure and connectivity set-up, poor soil nutrient

composition, low agricultural in-put access and use, and/or land degradation. Thus, the lack of systematic diagnosis and analysis of the challenges in the cattle corridor leads to snappy conclusions on a “common enemy” - drought.

There is a conflict between preferred interventions verses policy and practice. On the one hand, the government, through the different ministries (that is, Ministry of Water and Environment, Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Husbandry and Fisheries and Ministry of Disasters Preparedness) seeks to promote initiatives such as irrigation that are aimed at

View from Mt Kadam across Nakapiripirit towards Mt Moroto. The Karamoja plains are among Uganda’s driest areas. But all is relative and in the mind. Uganda’s semi-arid region receives annual rainfall that is high enough to allow for stable pastoral and agro-pastoral production all year round. The situation calls for a change of attitude, says Anthony Egeru. (Photo: Gerald Eilu)

alleviating the persistent drought challenges in the region. On the other hand, the Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development imposes taxes on the necessary in-puts, making them unaffordable for small-holder farmers. This lack of coordination within government agencies exposes a mental drought at higher levels of decision-making.

Moving forward It is evident that Uganda’s semi-arid region receives annual rainfall that is high enough to allow for stable pastoral and agro-pastoral production all year round. Addressing the drought challenges in the region requires a systematic dismantling of the “mental drought”. This has to be undertaken at different levels, using different skills and approaches.

A change of attitude is required, moving away from the “business as usual’’ way of doing things, to recognising the fact that systematic proactive action is needed to deal with actual and perceived drought events. This however requires transformation at various levels of decisionmaking, from household to national level. For example, systematic mapping, identification and diagnosis of challenges occurring in the cattle corridor could allow for easing of the cause of the problem, tackle the drought challenge and help dismantle the “mental drought” phenomenon.

The writer is Assistant Lecturer, Department of Environmental Management, Makerere University College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences Email: eanthony@caes.mak.ac.ug/egeru81@ gmail.com

Miti January - March 2015

37

CLIMATE

The Athi River at Kibwezi at the end of March 2014. Despite some rains, the water level is not very high. (Photo: Jan Vandenabeele)

Climate change is real in Kenya Changes in rainfall patterns and amounts, disappearing rivers and other differences all point to global warming

BY JAMES MUHINDI

K

enya’s economy, like that of many developing countries, is dependent on agriculture. Agriculture and associated industries, although not yet fully modernised, are the major employment sectors in the country. Over 70 per cent of the working population in the country is engaged in these sectors.

The dependence of the majority of farmers on rain-fed agriculture has made the economy extremely vulnerable to the vagaries of the weather. As a result, failure of rains and occurrence of drought during any growing season often leads to severe food shortages and loss of livestock.

Climate plays a key role in socio-economic activities. Understanding of climatic conditions such as the occurrence of extreme climatic events is vital in early warning programmes

38

and ensuring food security. In Kenya, rainfall is the most sensitive climatic element. Rainfall information is therefore required in the planning and management of most socio-economic activities. It is important to investigate past, present and future rainfall patterns.

The Kenyan climate is complex both in time and space. The country is prone to extreme climatic events such as drought and floods.

These have had severe negative impacts on key socio-economic sectors in the past. Recent impacts include the devastating 1997/98 floods and the 1999/2000 drought that resulted in loss of life, destruction of property and infrastructure, lack of food, deficient fresh water, energy and many other basic needs of society. Extreme climatic conditions have been around from time immemorial and are here to stay.

Geography of the country Kenya lies astride the equator between longitudes 34°E and 42°E and latitudes 5.5°N and 5°S. Uganda borders the country to the west, Tanzania and the Indian Ocean to the south, Somali to the east, and Ethiopia and Sudan to the north. The total area of the country is about 582,646 square kilometres.

The principal physical features include Mt Kenya, the highest mountain in the country, and the Aberdare Ranges in the Central Highlands, Mt Elgon in the western highlands bordering Uganda, and the Great Rift Valley running north to south, separating the western and eastern Highlands.

Kenya has several big lakes that include Lake Victoria to the west and Lake Nakuru, Lake Naivasha, Lake Turkana, Lake Bogoria, Lake Elementaita, Lake Baringo and Lake Natron, all in the Rift Valley.

Miti January - March 2015

Mean March - April - May rainfall distribution

Most rivers in the Rift Valley are seasonal. Two major rivers - the Tana and the Athi - run from Mt Kenya and the Aberdare Ranges to the south to drain into the Indian Ocean. Rivers Nyando, Nzoia, Migori, Mara and Yala run westwards from the western highlands, emptying into Lake Victoria.

Ewaso Ng’iro River, a major river in the north eastern part of the country, rises from the Aberdare Ranges then flows into the drier sections of the area. There it becomes seasonal, mainly due to the high evaporation brought about by the hot conditions.

Dry savannah grassland is dominant over the northern and some parts of the south eastern lowlands. These areas are generally referred to as the arid and semi-arid areas respectively. The areas have very low annual rainfall with high evaporation rates being dominant.

Tall grass savannah vegetation with scattered trees is dominant over the coastal areas, the Lake Basin and some parts of central Rift Valley, western highlands and eastern highlands. There is also mangrove forest along the coastal strip.

The western and eastern highlands have mountainous type of forest and grassland. Mt Kenya and Mt Elgon, which are ice-capped, have high mountain vegetation of mountain grassland and bamboo forest.

Climatology of rainfall Kenya generally experiences two seasonal rainfall peaks (bimodal) in most places. However, some stations in the western and central parts of the Rift Valley experience a tri-modal rainfall pattern.

The bimodal nature of rainfall corresponds with the northward and southward migration of the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).

Miti January - March 2015

Mean October-November-December rainfall distribution

The first peak or season, termed the “longrains” in the East Africa region, occurs from March to May (MAM) while the second, known as the “short-rains” is observed from October to December (OND). However, the western parts of the country receive considerable rain during the June - September (JJAS) season. This is associated with the incursion of the moist Congo air mass.

The January to February period is generally dry over most parts of the country. The north easterly monsoons, which are dominant at this time, are diffluent (tending to flow off) and dry.

The annual rainfall ranges from less than 250mm in the northern, eastern and south eastern parts, to over 2000mm in the central highlands, western highlands and the lake basin.

The main synoptic scale systems1 affecting rainfall in Kenya are: The position and strength of the subtropical high-pressure systems in the southwest Indian Ocean (Mascarene High), southeast Atlantic Ocean (St Helena High), North Atlantic Ocean (Azores/Saharan High), and the Arabian High to the northeast.

The position and intensity of the InterTropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) that follows the movement of the overhead sun. The presence of the north-south axis of the ITCZ is responsible for heavy rainfall, particularly over the western parts of the country as it moves eastwards, even in offseason periods. The differential strength of the sub-tropical high-pressure systems determines the relative positions of the ITCZ. The position and intensity of Tropical Cyclones (TCs). If they are located northeast of 1

This is large-scale systems

Madagascar island with central pressures of less than 1000mb2, they tend to pull the northsouth axis of the ITCZ eastwards to the western and central districts of the country and are responsible for heavy rainfall, even in off-season periods. Intense TCs that form close to the East African coast may also cause heavy rains over the Kenyan coast and parts of the eastern sector of the country through its spiral bands.

El-Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO). A strong El-Niño / La Niña results into very wet / dry conditions over most parts of the country.

The Congo air-mass. The convergence of this air mass from the Atlantic Ocean with the south easterly monsoons from the Indian Ocean results in heavy rainfall, especially over the western parts of the country in June to August.

Inter-seasonal annual waves - the QuasiBiennial Oscillations (QBO). The westerly or easterly phase of this oscillation affects our rainfall. However, research is still going on to find the exact nature of its influence on our rainfall.

The local factors that modify rainfall over most parts of Kenya include the large water bodies like Lake Victoria, complex topography with the Great Rift Valley and high mountains like Mt Kenya and Elgon. Local influences like landsea breezes and vegetation further complicate the rainfall distribution.

Climate change Climate change refers to a change in the state of the climate that persists for an extended period, typically decades or longer. The climatological period considered is at least 30 years.

2

Milli-bar

39

Mwiwe River in Kisasi, Kitui County. The photo was taken at the beginning of April 2013, during the “long rains” – the less reliable rains in Kitui. Note the eroded riverbanks and the absence of a continuous strip of riparian vegetation to anchor the river in its bed. (Photo: BGF)

An analysis of annual greenhouse gas emissions by sector indicates that at 21.3 per cent, power stations contribute the highest discharges. Others include industrial processes – 16.8 per cent; transportation fuels – 14.0 per cent; agricultural byproducts – 12.5 per cent; fossil fuel retrieval, processing and distribution – 11.3per cent; residential, commercial and other sources – 10.3 per cent; land use and biomass burning – 10.0 per cent; waste disposal and treatment – 3.4 per cent.

Climate change is now a reality from the following indicators: Increases in global average air and ocean temperatures; Widespread melting of snow and ice; and Rising global average sea level.

Climate change is caused by: Natural activities that include volcano eruptions, changes in the earth’s orbit tilt, ocean currents and solar variations among others, and Human activities such as industrial production (carbon dioxide-CO2), fossil energy burning (CO2 and others), agriculture and ruminants (methane-CH4), waste treatment (CH4 and nitrous oxide-N2O) and land use changes like deforestation (CO2) among others.

Of the two, human activities are the major cause of global warming and hence climate change through changes in the greenhouse gases (GHGs): CO , CH , N O, 2 4 2 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) etc. The GHGs affect the climate by altering the incoming solar and out-going infrared radiation energy balance (the greenhouse effect).

36.5

y = 0.0264x + 34.413 R2 = 0.5851

36.0

TEMPERATURE INoC

35.5 35.0 34.5

Some climate change signals have been observed in Kenya. These include: A rise in temperatures; Decreased rainfall; Reduced mountain glaciers; Increasing frequencies of extreme climate events (droughts and floods).

Some of the results of climate change in Kenya are a rise in sea level; resurgence of some diseases; rivers becoming seasonal or disappearing altogether; shrinking of lake levels; shifts in rainfall seasons (onset and cession dates); more frequent severe flooding and prolonged droughts; extinction of some plants and animal species; and conflicts over limited resources.

This graph shows the mean annual maximum temperature trend at Lodwar from 1960 to 2013. It is apparent from the graph that there has been a steady rise in temperature over north-western Kenya during the period. Temperature analysis over the rest of the country depicts the same increasing trend. This is a clear indication that climate change is real in the country.

34.0 33.5 33.0

ANNUAL MEAN MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE TREND AT LODWAR

2011

2008

2005

2002

1999

1996

1993

1990

1987

1984

1981

1978

1975

1972

1969

1966

1963

1960

YEAR 32.5

40

Climate change indicators in Kenya

The writer is a meteorologist at the Kenya Meteorological Department Headquarters, Nairobi Email: muhindi@meteo.go.ke

Some members of the Kenya Editorial Committee at a meeting on March 16, 2010. Clockwise from left: Jackson Mulatya, Fridah Mugo (partially hidden), Kaari Mundia, Wanjiru Ciira, James Kung’u, Jan Vandenabeele, Joshua Cheboiwo and Enock Kanyanya.

Jackson Mulatya

Joshua Cheboiwo

Leakey Sonkoyo

Mary Njenga

Rudolf Makhanu

Keith Harley

MITI KENYA TEAM Some members of the Uganda Editorial Committee at a meeting on March 5, 2014. Clockwise from left: Ponsiano Besesa, Patrick Byakagaba, Sande Dickens Bueno, Sarah Akello Esimu, Diana Ahebwe, Alice Okecha, Hillary Agaba and Gerald Eilu.

On the occasion of the publication of the 25th edition of Miti, we thank our partners The Kenya Forestry Service (KFS) Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI) The World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) The Department of Plant Science and Crop Protection of the University of Nairobi The Sawlog Production Grant Scheme (SPGS) for their invaluable support through the years.

Francis Gachathi

Dickens Sande Bueno

Gilbert Kadilo

In addition, we would not have achieved much, nor indeed survived, without the selfless dedication of members of our Editorial Committees both in Kenya and Uganda

We Salute You

We also value the contributions of Alex Oduor in Kenya as well as Paul Buyera and Dennis Kavuuma in Uganda, and numerous other contributors over the years.

Gerald Eilu

Sarah Akello Esimu

MITI UGANDA TEAM

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