neurographica : cerebra

neurographica: cerebra a visual index of the human brain

vol 1

compiled and edited by maria moon

neurographica: cerebra a visual index of the human brain

vol 1

compiled and edited by maria moon

copyright Š 2009 by maria moon

In any field, find the strangest thing and then explore it.

John A. Wheeler, physicist

Content

Cerebra Preface Visual Index 4000 BC– present Alphabetical Index Reference

i. ii. iii. iv. v.

cer·e·bra

n. a plural of cerebrum.

cer·e·brum

brain [brein] the centre of the nervous system

arabic chinese czech danish dutch estonian finnish french german greek hungarian icelandic indonesian italian japanese korean latvian lithuanian norwegian polish portuguese romanian slovak slovenian spanish swedish turkish

‫غامد‬، ‫خُم‬ 腦 mozek; mozkový hjerne brein, hersenen; hersenpeaaju aivot (au, *du) cerveau das gehirn εγκφαλος agy heili otak cervello; cerebrale 脳 뇌 smadzenes smegenys hjerne mózg cérebro (pe, *la) creier mozog; mozgový možgani cerebro hjärna beyin

Preface This book is a culmulative exploration of how the human brain has been represented throughout history. The inception of this study came from the desire to create a timeline of how the brain has been imaged as a preface for a larger body of work. Needless to say, what had started as a three week exploration quickly outgrew its original ambition. In its place is a compendium of images which has played a role in shaping, documenting, and enriching our understanding of the brain.

Inevitably, what I have found is that images many times serve as a reflection of cultural vision, attitudes, values and beliefs which can be traced through the subtle shifts in medium and expression. Following in suit, this book is sectioned by paper color into three collective parts: The initial section is printed on grey paper and displays dipictions of the brian from 8500 BC to 1510 AD. During this time, the brain was a mystery in its function and role in the human body. The organ of central thought and mind was thought to be in the heart, and at one time in the stomach.

As autopsies were eventually allowed, disparate parts of the nervous system were discovered and eventually understood to operate as one system.

The second section demarcates a turn in discovery and understanding. Tools and devices for viewing were invented and improved upon allowing scientists, physicians, and even artists, such as Leonardo da Vinci to observe, record, and advance the understanding of the brain. Equally important was the advent of the printing press which enabled dissemination of a growing body of discoveries, allowing scientists a platform by which to propose, discuss, and argue–essential to the advancement of science. From this point on, the anatomy of the cerebra is studied through careful descriptions and drawings. The cerebra takes on new understanding of having mechanicstic and evolutionary functions that maybe be subdivided in regions. It is no longer an appendage but has a psychology that is not entirely mechanistic but is understood to hold inner mysteries, as Freud introduced to the world.

The final section takes us to the present day, where improvements in technology–in exponential speed, might I add–open new worlds for discovieries and deliberations. Methods of examining the cerebra become more refined, both physically and psychologically in macro and microscopic views. With imaging inventions like the MRI, scientists can probe new paths of inquiry and also test old ideas and beliefs. Biology, circuitry, engineering and pscyhiatry offer new and, at times, conflicting views of the brain and of mental faculties. The brain continues to evolve in comparisions,

from a watch-like machine, to the hardwiring of a computer and currently to dynamic networks, where collective responses or paths and signals may be agents of processes for the body and mind.

This collection is by no means exhaustive nor edited from the specialized insight of an expert in science or the arts. Rather, it is the modest attempt of a designer to bring attention to the visual body of work that has developed for the most part, quietly, alongside with the discoveries that continue to shape our understanding of the brain today. It must be said that not all branches of neurology have been represented, and even then, some in meeker form than others. With that in mind, this book is designed to be improved upon with the hope that with further discoveries it can continue to evolve in parallel.

From one point of view the whole history of art may be summed up as the history of the gradual discovery of appearances.

Roger Fry

Approximate Year

verso Short description of corresponding image. Initial content was

collected from the Public Broadcasting Station’s series on the

Brain but quicking grew to include information from Wikipedia.org

and University of Washington’s Eric H. Chudler, PhD website:

http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/ehc.html

recto

Image

8500 bc The presence, forms and techniques used in artificial cranial deformation 1,515 skeletons found in 94 mostly pre-Hispanic archeological sites dating from the Preclassical, Classic and Postclassic periods. Biographical information was analyzed, based on a theoretical model of biocultural period, evidence was found for the relevance of both practices as diversity and as signs of distinction among the ancient Maya. The head was flattened by putting the new born infant’s head between two wooden boards creating a mouse trap like cradle, held in place with bindings. The soft skull slowly moulded to the cultural beauty ideal of flatness and after a few years the boards were removed permanently. The widespread practice of head shaping continued in many regions, including Europe, through the 19th century. Head shaping still occurs in some places such as isolated communities of South America.

4000 bc The first known writing on the brain is found in ancient Sumerian records from this period. The anonymous writer describes the euphoric mind-altering sensations caused by ingesting the common poppy plant.

2500 bc The ancient Egyptians believe that the heart is the most important organ in the body. To them, it is the essence of life as well as the source of good and evil. This reverence for the heart is seen in the Egyptian funerary guide, The Book of the Dead, which instructs that a dead man’s heart must be weighed against feathers to determine the balance of good to evil it contains. The brain, on the other hand, is considered a minor, unimportant organ. They discard it during the embalming process even as they ceremoniously preserve other organs for mummification. Despite this decided lack of interest, an ancient Egyptian record known as the Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus contains the first written account of the anatomy of the brain. Written by an unknown physician, the papyrus documents twentysix cases of brain injury along with various treatment recommendations.

heiroglyphics for “brain�

2000 bc Archaeological evidence dating from this time suggests that, a form of primitive brain surgeery that involved boring a hole through the skull, was widely practiced by prehistoric man.

Trepanized skulls with evidence of healing have been found at many sites, suggesting that the subjects of these operations survived. In South America, pre-Incan civilizations performed trepanation using surgical tools made of bronze and sharp-edged volcanic rock. The sheer number of trepanized skulls found at such sites indicates that this surgery was commonplace. The reason for the frequency of trepanation is not known, but archaeologists suspect that it was used for both spiritual and magical reasons, as well as to treat headaches, epilepsy and mental illness. As Dr. Cabrera noted, and as has been verified by other medical physicians, there are stone etchings which show a brain transplant. The prehistoric surgeons, it is evident, possessed knowledge several steps beyond modern-day surgery.

1500 bc The Vedas are a large corpus of texts originating in Ancient India. They form the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature and the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism. Vedic mantras are recited at Hindu pray-ers, religious functions and other auspicious occasions.

In these traditions, there are seven basic chakras, and they all exist within the subtle body, overlaying the physical body. There are two minor chakras mentioned in the ancient texts, the soma chakra, located just above the third eye, and the Anandakanda lotus, which contains the Celestial Wishing Tree (Kalpataru) of the Heart Chakra. Chakras function and relate within the systemic suite of the human bodymind. The philosophical theories and models of chakras as systemic vortices of energy were identified through the existential mystical practice of yoga in Ancient India where they were first codified.

The seven principal chakras are situated along the spinal cord from the base to the cranial chamber. Additionally, seven chakras, barely visible, exist below the spine. They are seats of instinctive consciousness, and constitute the lower or hellish world, called Naraka or patala. Thus, there are 14 major chakras in all.

1500 bc The Dhammapada, an anthology of 423 verses, has long been recognised as one of the masterpieces of early Buddhist literature. From ancient times to the present, the Dhammapada has been regarded as the most succinct expression of the Buddha’s teaching found in the Theravada Pali Canon of scriptures known as the Khuddaka Nikaya (“Minor Collection”) of the Sutta Pitaka.

Dhammapada, on the Mind Translated by Thomas Byrom As the fletcher whittles and makes straight his arrows, So the master directs his straying thoughts.

Like a fish out of water, stranded on the shore, Thoughts thrash and quiver, for how can they shake off desire?

They tremble, they are unsteady, they wander at their own will.

It is good to control them, and to master them brings happiness.

But how subtle they are, How elusive!

The task is to quieten them, and by ruling them to find happiness.

With single-mindedness the master quells his thoughts.

He ends their wandering.

Seated in the cave of the heart, he finds freedom.

How can a troubled mind understand the way?

If a man is disturbed he will never be filled with knowledge.

An untroubled mind, no longer seeking to consider What is right and what is wrong, a mind beyond judgements, watches and understands.

Know that the body is a fragile jar, and make a castle of your mind.

In every trial let understanding fight for you to defend what you have won.

For soon the body is discarded, then what does it feel?

A useless log of wood, it lies on the ground, then what does it know?

Your worst enemy cannot harm you As much as your own thoughts, unguarded.

But once mastered, no one can help you as much, Not even your father or your mother.

450 bc Alcmaeon, an early Greek physician, is the first to use anatomic dissection of animals as a basis for his theories.

He concludes from his studies that the brain, not the heart, is the central organ of sensation and thought. This idea directly contradicts the accepted theory of his time which holds that the heart is the true seat of intelligence. Alcmaeon also suggests that the optic nerves are light-bearing paths to the brain and that the eye itself contains light. This fanciful theory of the eye as a container of light is believed by many neuroscientists until the middle of the 18th century.

335 bc Aristotle states that the organ of thought and sensation is the heart and that the brain is merely a radiator designed to cool it.

He claims, however, that the organ of thought is not the same as the basis for thought. The basis for thought, which he calls the rational soul, is immaterial and can not be found anywhere within the body. Aristotle’s theories about memory ultimately prove to be more successful. He correctly surmises that the processes involved in short term memory (immediate recall) differ distinctly from those involved in long-term memory.

300 bc Herophilus and Erasistratus, two of the major biologists, are the first to dissect a human body and compare it with other animals.

They write the first detailed account of the structure of the brain and heart, and conclude that the seat of intelligence lies in the ventricles of the brain. They also discover the nervous system, which they classify into different types of nerves. In this classification, they make the important distinction between motor and sensory nerves.

170 bc Galen, a physician to the Roman gladiators, proposes that the brain is a glandular organ that contains four vital fluids or humors–blood, phlegm, choler, and black bile.

He believes that a person’s temperament and the functioning of his body are directly affected by the balance of these humors. For example, he argues that a person with an excess of black bile will have a melancholy temperament while a person with too much blood will be sanguine. Galen also states that the important mental faculties (memory, emotion, the senses and cognition) are situated in the ventricles of the brain. Galen’s theory of the bodily humors is enormously influential and remains the dominant theory for more than twelve hundred years.

1100–1500 AD Brain studies cease during the Middle Ages due to a church ban on human dissection and the study of anatomy.

Despite this restriction, primitive brain surgery continues to be performed by enterprising barbers who roam the countryside offering to remove the “stone of madness” or “pierre de follie” from the skulls of the mentally ill. The only true surgeons of this period are educated clerics who practice medicine, but carefully eschew anatomical studies so as not to run afoul of the church ban against the desecration of the body.

1341 Hua Shou of the Yuan Dynasty did textual research on the pathways of meridians and collaterals as well as their relationship with acupuncture points. In 1341 he wrote the book Exposition of the Fourteen Meridians, which further development the theory of meridians and acupuncture and moxibustion. Some of them laid emphasis on the theory and technique of a particular aspect. So different branches of acupuncture and moxibustion were formed.

1390 The skeleton, drawn in red and black ink, viewed from behind with the head hyperextended so that the face looks upward. From The Anatomy of the Human Body (Tashrih-i badan-i insan) written in Persian at the end of the 14th century by Mansur ibn Ilyas. Copy completed 8 December 1488 (4 Muharram 894 H) by Hasan ibn Ahmad, a scribe working in Isfahan. NLM MS P18, fol. 12b. Earliest recorded copy.

1510 Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci was an Italian polymath: scientist, mathematician, engineer, inventor, anatomist, painter, sculptor, architect, musician, and writer.

As a successful artist, he was given permission to dissect human corpses at the hospital Santa Maria Nuova in Florence and later at hospitals in Milan and Rome. From 1510 to 1511 he collaborated in his studies with the doctor Marcantonio della Torre and together they prepared a theoretical work on anatomy for which Leonardo made more than 200 drawings. It was published only in 1680 (161 years after his death) under the heading Treatise on painting.

1528 Albrecht Dürer was a noted German painter, graphic artist, and humanist. After receiving basic training in the arts from his father, a Nuremberg goldsmith, and painter Michael Wolgemut, Dürer visited Venice, where he was exposed to the artistic culture of the Italian Renaissance. Dürer was interested not only in the arts but pursued the sciences as well, including perspective and the proportions of the human body. He is best known for his woodcuts and engravings, especially in works with religious themes, such as those appearing in his noted edition of The Apocalypse which appeared in 1498.

Dürer’s Vier Bücher von menschlicher Proportion was written, designed and edited by the artist himself and is the first published attempt to apply the science of human anatomical proportions to aesthetics. It is divided into four parts: the first two parts discuss the proper proportions of the human form, the third part adjusts the proportions using mathematical rules, with examples of extremely fat and thin bodies, and the fourth shows the human figure in motion. Most notable are the numerous anthropometrical woodcuts and the first use of cross-hatching to show movement through shades and shadows in wood engraving.

1543 Andreas Vesalius, a Renaissance anatomist, publishes De Humani Corporis Fabrica (On the Workings of the Human Body).

One of the first known neuroscience textbooks. Lavishly illustrated, it contains major sections on the workings of the nerves and the brain.

Vesalius also disputes the prevailing doctrine that the higher functions of the brain are situated in the ventricles. He has discovered in his dissection studies that the brains of many animals (and all mammals), have the same ventricles as humans. Since animals have no soul, he reasons, the ventricles must not be the key to higher brain functions such as emotion and memory.

1649 René Decartes, a French philosopher and mathematician proposes the idea that the brain functions like a machine.

He claims that the nerves are filled with “animal spirits” that carry motor and sensory information to the ventricles of the brain much in the same way that hydraulic fluid travels through machines. Yet despite his belief that the hydraulic fluid movement theory explains brain function and behavior in animals, he concludes that it can not account for some of the higher mental faculties found in man such as intellect and emotion.

Instead, he argues for a dualistic system in which the organ of the brain is distinguished from the immaterial “mind.” In his view, it is the mind, not the brain, which contains a person’s thoughts and desires or “soul.” He also concludes that the pineal gland acting as a valve controls the flow of information to the body or mind.

1664 Thomas Willis, a professor at Oxford, writes the first monograph on brain anatomy and physiology, Cerebri Anatome.

In his book, he states that the cerebral hemispheres, which constitute 70% of the human brain, determine thought and action and are completely separate from the part of the brain that controls basic motor functions like walking. He also locates specific mental functions within the corpus callosum, corpus striatum and the cerebellum and introduces the words; ‘neurology,’ ‘hemisphere,’ ‘lobe,’ ‘pyramid,’ ‘corpus striatum,’ and ‘penduncle’ into the modern vocabulary. His work is influential in leading future neuroscientists to study the functional contributions of individual brain parts.

1772 Kawaguchi is the first man in Japan to dissect the brain, which did not figure very prominently in traditional medicine.

Kawaguchi’s teacher was opposed to publishing the notes. He didn’t want the famous Yamawaki to be contradicted. He was also afraid their findings, which could not be made use of in practice yet, would rock the very foundations of traditional medicine and jeopardize medical care throughout the country as a result. But his opposition was in vain. These were no longer the physicians of the 17th century, who only passed their knowledge on to their pupils. Kawaguchi had the woodcuts executed for him by Shunmei Aoki and proceeded to have his “Notes on Autopsy” (Kaishihen) published in 1772

1790 The author of this fine, manuscript treatise and sketchbook on physiognomy is unknown. The text is written in Dutch and was probably composed in the 1790s; it is possible that it was created as a dissertation by a medical student.

1791 Luigi Galvani, an Italian physiologist, proposes that “animal electricity” is a property of nerve and muscle.

He concludes this from experiments in which he causes frog muscles to twitch by touching them with wires. He believes that this twitching proves that electricity is flowing from the frog’s muscles to the nerve. This theory is later disproved when further studies show that the electricity in Galvani’s experiment was actually produced by a chemical reaction caused by acids present on the frog’s skin. Even so, his work is an important first step toward the modern understanding of the electrical basis of neural activity.

1808 Franz Joseph Gall, a German anatomist, founds the study of phrenology, which holds that a person’s character and personality can be discerned by reading the configuration of bumps on his head.

Gall states that the brain is composed of thirty-one personality organs, each with a specific mental function and each found at a specific location in the cerebral convolutions of the brain. He draws his conclusions from studies in which he examines the heads of specific groups of individuals, who he believes represent “the extremes of society” such as criminals or clergyman. One of the basic premises of phrenology is that the larger a particular convolution in a person’s brain the greater the role that particular personality attribute will play in his character.

According to Gall, combativeness, courage, the instinct to fight and the tendency to oppose could be found in “the posterior part of the inferior temporal convolution” while cautiousness, foresight, circumspection and the organ of melancholy lurked in the “supra-marginal convolution”.

As peculiar as these theories may seem, they were widely accepted at the time, perhaps because phrenology claimed to offer a method to objectively assess and judge the character of others. At the height of the phrenology craze, some people suggested that politicians should be chosen based on the shape of their skulls while others claimed to be able to detect signs of latent delinquency in children based on the bumps on their heads.

1811 Charles Bell, a Scottish surgeon, establisheds that the nerves for each of the senses can be traced from specific areas of the brain to their end organs.

For example, he makes distinctions between the cranial nerve, which is connected to chewing, and the cranial nerve, which controls muscles of expression. He also demonstrates that motor and sensory functions are anatomically separated in the spinal roots. Previously, it had been believed that the two functions were combined.

1817 James Parkinson publishes, “An Essay on the Shaking Palsy,� which describes the degenerative disease of the nervous system that now bears his name.

Parkinson states that the syndrome is characterized by an involuntary tremor in the limbs combined with difficulty in initiating and controlling movements. He notes that although it is physically debilitating, the disease generally does not affect the mental lucidity of the patient. Today Parkinsonism is widely studied by neuroscientists because of the insight it provides into the brain mechanisms that translate thoughts and intentions into physical actions.

1848 Phinease Gage, a railroad worker, survives a bizarre accident in which the frontal lobe of this brain is pierced by an iorn rod during an explosion.

Although he eventually recovers, he experiences profound mood and behavior changes. By all accounts, a quiet, industrious worker before the accident, Gage becomes a surly, combative man who can not hold down a job. This famous case, now found in countless neuroscience textbooks, was an important milestone in the study of the brain’s anatomy because it suggested that key parts of the personality resided in the frontal lobe.

These findings indirectly lead to the development of the procedure called lobotomy, which was based on the theory that removing portions of the frontal lobe could cure mental derangement and depression.

1855 Paul Brocca, a neurological clinician and researiner, determines the location of the speech center of the brain.

He bases his findings on his study of an institutionalized patient in Paris, France, who had suffered a stroke as the result of a syphilitic lesion on the left frontal lobe of his brain. This patient could understand language, but had lost his capacity for speech. In fact, he was called “Tan” because this was the only syllable he could still speak. Broca’s work with Tan and other brain-damaged patients convinces him that the integrity of the left frontal lobe is crucial to speech and that damage to this region results in aphasia. He eventually pinpoints the site of the speech center of the brain as being in the third gyrus of the prefrontal cortex. This section of the frontal lobe is now known as Broca’s area.

1867 Wilhelm Braune was a professor at the University of Leipzig. His Topographisch-anatomischer Atlas nach Durchschnitten an gefrornen Cadavern consists of over 30 color lithographs of frozen cross sections of human anatomy, many of them being the most aesthetic of that genre. Of the first plates, Braune states:“[they are] taken from the body of a powerful, wellbuilt, perfectly normal man, aged 21, who had hanged himself. The organs exhibited no pathological abnormalities. The body, which was brought unfrozen, was placed on a horizontal board.�

After sections were cut, thin paper was placed over them and tracings were made of the anatomical features. Similar techniques were used to create the supplement, Die Lage des Uterus und Foetus am Ende der Schwangerschaft, which features large folded plates.

1868 Donders conducted experiments using reaction time tasks. Donders’ work attempts to describe the processes going on in the mind, by analyzing cognitive activity into separate stages. Until Donder’s work, many scientists had assumed that the mental operations involved in responding to a stimulus occurred instantaneously. Donders was particularly interested in “timing the mind” and used a subtraction technique to time the different mental processes that the brain goes through when faced with different tasks.

Donders performed experiments using reaction time tasks in 1868. His was the first attempt to analyze and measure the component processes of a simple task.

1872 Charles Darwin adds to the study of the human psychology with the publication of his book, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals.

In it, he carefully traces the origins of emotional responses and facial expressions in humans and animals, making note of the striking similarities between species. While researching the book, Darwin conducted several experiments designed to induce anger or fear, using his children as subjects so that he could record their responses. Later, in an unpublished notebook, Darwin proposes the theory that blushing is a clear indication of consciousness. He notes that of all the animals only humans blush and claims that this is because they are the only ones capable of self-consciously imagining what others are thinking of them.

1874 Carl Wernicke publishes Der Aphasische Symptomencomplex an important work on aphasia.

Like Broca, Wernicke’s work centers on stroke victims with language difficulties, but his focus is not on those who have lost the ability to speak, but rather on a subset of aphasics who speak incomprehensibly.

Some of these patients can convey meaningful thoughts but have lost their ability to speak grammatically. Often they drop connective words such as “and,” “if” or “but” so that their speech has an abrupt telegraphic quality. Others can speak fluently but their speech seems to lack specific content as if they are no longer able to choose the precise words they mean. Weinke’s findings suggest that these particular kinds of aphasia, as distinct from the variety Broca described, result from damage to the area where the temporal and parietal lobes meet in the posterior of the brain’s left hemisphere. This part of the brain is now known as Wernicke’s area.

1875 Wilhelm Wundt, in Leipzig, Germany, sets up the first lab devoted to study human behavior and suggests that psychology should be regarded as a complementary scientific discipline to anoatomy and physiology.

Wundt is deeply interested in philosophy as well, and many of his students at the lab, known as the Institute for Experimental Psychology, are men who have studied philosophy at other German universities.

At the Institute, students are taught a wide range of philosophic and psychologic subjects including the study of attention and sensory processes. Wundt’s Institute becomes the model for most of the psychological laboratories established in Europe in subsequent years.

1876 Emil Kraepelin, a practicing psychiatrist, is the first to describe manic depression as a separate illness from schizophrenia (then known as demential praecox.)

1899 Aspirin, a derivation of salicyclic acid, is first parketed by the Bayer Drug Company as a pain reliever. It will not become available without a prescription until 1915.

1899 Sigmund Freud publishes his groundbreaking work, “The Interpretations of dreams.” In it, Freud describes dreams as “the royal road” to the unconscious mind, where repressed desires and urges are played out nightly. His central theory is that the unconscious mind drives much of human behavior even though civilized society stresses the importance of overriding primitive impulses with morality and reason. Yet this constant tension between a person’s repressed drives and his expected social actions often causes psychological distress. Freud suggests that one of the ways this tension is resolved is through the fantasy world of dreams. He also draws an important distinction between the manifest and latent content of dreams. In his view, the manifest content is the remembered elements of the dream or its apparent narrative. The latent content is the underlying thoughts and wishes the dream represents.

Freud argues that this latent content of dreams is based on fantasies related to the emotional experiences of childhood. Through psychoanalysis or “dreamwork,” a patient is able to uncover the unconscious wishes or motives that lie behind a particular dream and so gain a greater understanding of himself.

1899 On November 4th, 1906, during a lecture at the 37th Conference of South-West German Psychiatrists in Tübingen, the German neuropathologist and psychiatrist Alois Alzheimer (1864-1915, left) described “eine eigenartige Erkrankung der Hirnrinde” (a peculiar disease of the cerebral cortex). In the lecture, he dicussed “the case of a patient who was kept under close observation during institutionalisation at the Frankfurt Hospital and whose central nervous system had been given to me by director Sioli for further examination”. This was the first documented case of the form of dementia that would subsequently bear Alzheimer’s name.

An extract from the file, written by Alzheimer and dated November 26th, 1901 (below right) reads: She sits on the bed with a helpless expression. What is your name?

Auguste. What is your husband’s name? Auguste. Your husband? Ah, my husband. She looks as if she didn’t understand the question. Are you married? To Auguste. Mrs D? Yes, yes, Auguste D. How long have you been here? She seems to be trying to remember. Three weeks. What is this? I show her a pencil. A pen. A purse, key, diary and cigar are identified correctly. At lunch she eats cauliflower and pork. Asked what she is eating she answers spinach. When she was chewing meat and asked what she was doing, she answered potatoes and horseradish. When objects are shown to her, she does not remember after a short time which objects have been shown. in between she always speaks about twins. When she is asked to write, she holds the book in such a way that one has the impression that she has a loss in the right visual field. Asked to write Auguste D., she tries to write Mrs and forgets the rest. It is necessary to repeat every word. Amnestic writing disorder. In the evening her spontaneous speech is full of paraphrasic derailments and perseverations.

1906 Santiago Ramón y Cajal and Camille Golgi win the Nobel Prize for their work on the structure and function of the nerve cell. Their research details the basic changes that neurons undergo during the functioning of the nervous system and describes the mechanisms that govern the connective processes of nerve cells within the nervous system. Cajal is also the first to isolate the nerve cells located near the surface of the brain, which are now known as Cajal’s cells.

1908 Hans Berger demonstrates the first human electroencephalograph, an instrument for measuring and recording the electrical activity of the brain. Commonly known as the EEG or brainwave test, Berger’s invention is now used routinely as a diagnostic test in neurology and psychiatry and as a common tool in brain research. By 1908 the Austrian Psychiatrist Hans Berger discovered brainwaves- as we now know EEG, the first ones appropriately were named Alpha waves (8-12hz). He kept his discovery secret for almost 20 years - believing he was unraveling secrets of ESP. In the 1920s Berger obtained his first results in subjects who had skulls with gaps under the skin where bone was missing. He made recordings on moving photographic paper with a wavy spot of light!!

In 1934 Edgar Adrian and B.H.C. Matthews of the Cambridge Physiological Laboratory confirmed Berger’s research and published their results in the journal “Brain”, where they referenced Berger’s work. They used copper gauze electrodes wrapped in saline soaked lint. They wanted to call the Alpha waves the Berger rhythm, but Hans Berger was modest and rejected.

A page from Berger’s notebook illustrating early recordings of the human EEG.

EEG first captured by Hans Berger

1913 The technique of myelography was born when the ventricular system of the brain was accidentally visualized on a post-traumatic skull x-ray performed by Luckett in 1913. His original film is shown to the left.

Unfortunately for patients it turned out to be a highly toxic radioactive substance. It was only 20-30 years after its introduction that the medical profession began to suspect that the sudden and unusually high incidence of malignancies involving the brain and spinal cord might be related to thorium dioxide’s radioactivity.

1914 World War I begins.

1921 The Rorschach test, as it is now called, consists of ten standardized ink blots. Half of the ink blots are in black and white and the other half are in color. A subject is asked to describe what he sees in the visua lly ambiguous pictures and then his responses are analyzed or “scored” by the test giver. The test contains three scoring areas -- location, determinants and content. Location refers to how much and which part of the ink blot is described. Determinants refers to the patient’s description of the blot’s shape or color. Content, the most straightforward of the categories, refers to the types of objects described. Many psychiatrists have found animal and human sightings to be particularly useful clues to patients’ psyches. The Rorschach test, once widely used as an “open-ended” test for personality traits and disorders, has fallen out of favor in recent years because it is so difficult to independently validate the results.

1925 Our cytoarchitectonic brain map. Fig. 19 of the convex surface, Fig. 20 of the median surface of the human cerebrum (cf. p. 206 and Figs. 92 - 95).

1927 Cerebral angiography or arteriography is a form of medical imaging that visualizes the arterial and venous supply of the brain. It was pioneered

by Dr Egas Moniz in 1927, and is now the gold standard for detecting vascular problems of the brain.

1932 Lord Edgar Adrian and Sir Charles Sherrington win the Nobel prize in Medicine for their research on neuron function which details the mechanisms by which nerves transmit messages.

Drawing of overlapping neuronal fields by Sherrington

1934 Egas Moniz, a Portuguese neurologist, oversees a series of prefrontal leucotomies as a treatment for depression. Leucotomy, the precursor to the more extensive lobotomy, involves severing the connections between the prefrontal cortex and the rest of the brain. Of the twentyseven patients who have the surgery, twenty recover from depression and the other seven show improvement. Unfortunately, many also suffer from profound personality changes just as Phineas Gage did after his accidental leucotomy in 1848.

1936 Walter Freeman and James W. Watts perform the first lobotomy in the United States.

1936 The behaviorist theories at the time did well at explaining how the processing of patterns happened. However, they could not account for how these patterns made it into the mind.

Hebb combined up-to-date data about behavior and the mind into a single theory. And, while the understanding of the anatomy of the brain did not advance much since the development of the older theories on the operation of the brain, he was still able to piece together a theory that got a lot of the important functions of the brain right.

His theory became known as Hebbian theory and the models which follow this theory are said to exhibit Hebbian learning. This method of learning is best expressed by this quote from the book: When an axon of cell A is near enough to excite cell B and repeatedly or persistently takes part in firing it, some growth process or metabolic change takes place in one or both cells such that A’s efficiency, as one of the cells firing B, is increased This is often paraphrased as “Neurons that fire together wire together.” It is commonly referred to as Hebb’s Law. The combination of neurons which could be grouped together as one processing unit, Hebb referred to as “cell-assemblies”. And their combination of connections made up the ever-changing algorithm which dictated the brain’s response to stimuli.

Not only did Hebb’s model for the working of the mind influence how psychologists understood the processing of stimuli within the mind, but it also opened up the way for the creation of computational machines that mimicked the biological processes of a living nervous system. And while the dominant form of synaptic transmission in the nervous system was later found to be chemical, modern artificial neural networks are still based on the transmission of signals via electrical impulses that Hebbian theory was first designed around.

1937 World War II begins. It has been documented that the Axis Powers conducted experiments that included examination of the human brain in physical and psychological form.

1950 Karl Spense Lashley, an American neurophyschologist; conducts a series of experiements designed to uncover the neural components of memory, which he calls engrams.

1953 Nathaniel Kleitman and Eugene Aserinsky describe rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, a phenomenon they stumbled on while doing research on the sleeping patterns of children. Until then, scientists had assumed that the brain was passive and inactive during sleep. Aserinsky used an EEG to record the brain activity of a sleeping person and discovered that the electrical pattern was remarkably similar to that of someone who was awake. In contrast, the electrical waves between periods of REM sleep were slow and even, suggesting a brain at rest. Researchers now believe that people experience two kinds of sleep, orthodox and paradoxical, that alternate throughout the night in intervals of about 100 minutes. Orthodox sleep occupies 80% of the night and does not involve rapid eye movement. Paradoxical sleep (known as REM sleep) makes up the rest of the time and involves bodily movement as well as rapid eye movement. Newborns spend more than 20% of their sleep in the REM phase, which has led researchers to suspect that this part of sleep involves some sort of learning process.

1961 Georg Von Bekesy wins the Nobel Prize for his work on the function of the cochlea, a division of the inner ear. His research details the physical mechanism of stimulation within the cochlea, thus tracing the perception of sound to its fundamental anatomical elements.

1963 David Kuhl and Roy Edwards produced the first tomographs from emission data.

1967 Rogner Granit, Halden Keffer Hartline, and George Wald share the nobel prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discoveries concerning the primary physicological and chemical visual processes in the eye. Their research details how the eye passes images to the brain.

1971 R.N. Shepard and J. Metzler showed that response time in matching rotated 3-D images is proportional to angle of rotation.

1972 With the advent of computerized axial tomography (CAT or CT scanning), ever more detailed anatomic images of the brain became available for diagnostic and research purposes. The names of Oldendorf (in 1961) Godfrey Newbold Hounsfield and Allan McLeod Cormack (in 1973) are associated with this revolutionary innovation, which enabled much easier, safer, non-invasive, painless and (to a reasonable extent) repeatable neuro-investigation. Cormack and Housenfield won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1979 for this work. Original axial CT image from the dedicated Siretom CT scanner circa 1975. This image is a coarse 128 x 128 matrix; however, in 1975 physicians were fascinated by the ability to see the soft tissue structures of the brain, including the black ventricles for the first time (enlarged in this patient)

1974 M.E. Phelps, E.J. Hoffman, and M. M. Ter Pogossian develop the first Positron Emission Topography (or PET) scanner, a machine that provides visual information about the activity of the brain. A patient undergoing a PET scan is administered a substance that includes radioactive atoms that emit positively charged particles known as positrons. The gamma radiation that results from this process is sensed by detectors and converted into computer-generated images of the brain as it would appear in cross-section. Doctors use PET scans to monitor such things as blood flow and oxygen utilization in the brain.

Positron emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) provide real-time pictures of brain activity.

Radio-labeled glucose is injected into arteries that feed the brain.

Blood flow is modulated by brain activity. Pictures of radiation concentration show which brain areas are active

1975 Grunewald-Zuberbier et al found that, in periods free from stimulation, hyperactive children have higher alpha and beta amplitudes, more alpha waves and fewer beta waves, interpreted as a lower state of EEG arousal in the hyperactives.

Over the past two decades, neuroscientists have conducted an intense study of the brain’s electrical functioning. With the dawning of the “Digital Age”, the “art” of medical specialists who visually inspect EEG records has been enhanced by the “pattern recognition” capabilities of a computer technology called “QEEG” (quantitative electroencephalography).

In the late eighties, Dr. E. Roy John and his research team at the Brain Laboratories at New York University Medical Center published what has proven to be the seminal work in computer-assisted differential diagnosis of brain dysfunctions. (Science, 1988). Building on that work researchers, using QEEG and powerful computer analysis, have created an objective evaluation that is highly sensitive and specific for assessment and interpretation of human electroencephalography.

1975 More or less concurrently, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI or MR scanning) was developed. Rather than using ionizing or x-radiation, MRI uses the variation in signals produced by protons in the body when the head is placed in a strong magnetic field. Associated with early application of the basic technique to the human body are the names of Jackson (in 1968), Damadian (in 1972), and Abe and Paul Lauterbur(in 1973).

Lauterbur and Sir Peter Mansfield were awarded the 2003 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discoveries concerning MRI. At first, structural imaging benefited more than functional imaging from the introduction of MRI. During the 1980s a veritable explosion of technical refinements and diagnostic MR applications took place, enabling even neurological tyros to diagnose brain pathology that would have been elusive or incapable of demonstration in a living person only a decade or two earlier.

Scientists soon learned that the large blood flow changes measured

by H20-15 PET were also imaged by MRI. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) was born. Since the 1990s, fMRI has come to dominate the brain mapping field due to its low invasiveness, lack of radiation exposure, and relatively wide availability.

1979 Early techniques such as xenon inhalation provided the first blood flow maps of the brain. Developed in the early 1960’s by Niels A. Lassen, David H. Ingvar and Erik Skinhøj in southern Scandinavia it used the isotope xenon-133. Later versions would have 254 scintillators so a two-dimensional image could be produced on a color monitor. It allowed them to construct images reflecting brain activation from speaking, reading, visual or auditory perception and voluntary movement[1].

1981 Torsten Wiesel and David Hubel are co-recipients of the Nobel Prize for Physiology which they also share with Robert Sperry. Wiesel and Hubel’s research centers on how visual information is transmitted from the retina to the brain. Sperry’s work concerns the specialization of functions within the cerebral hemispheres of the brain.

1991 Edwin Neher and Bert Sakmann share the Nobel Prize for their work on the function of single ion channels which increased understanding of how cells communicate with each other. Single ion channels are like tunnels that run from the inside of the cell to the outside. Cells communicate with each other using the 20 to 40 ion channels they have. Neher and Sakmann developed a thin, glass micro-pipette, one thousandth of a millimeter in diameter, which allowed them to view these ions as electrical currents.

1991 The sense of smell long remained the most enigmatic of our senses. The basic principles for recognizing and remembering about 10,000 different odours were not understood. Richard Axel and Linda B. Buck solved this problem and in a series of pioneering studies clarified how our olfactory system works. They discovered a large gene family, comprised of some 1,000 different genes (three per cent of our genes) that give rise to an equivalent number of olfactory receptor types. These receptors are located on the olfactory receptor cells, which occupy a small area in the upper part of the nasal epithelium and detect the inhaled odorant molecules.

Each olfactory receptor cell possesses only one type of odorant receptor, and each receptor can detect a limited number of odorant substances. Our olfactory receptor cells are therefore highly specialized for a few odours. The cells send thin nerve processes directly to distinct micro domains, glomeruli, in the olfactory bulb, the primary olfactory area of the brain. Receptor cells carrying the same type of receptor send their nerve processes to the same glomerulus. From these micro domains in the olfactory bulb the information is relayed further to other parts of the brain, where the information from several olfactory receptors is combined, forming a pattern. Therefore, we can consciously experience the smell of a lilac flower in the spring and recall this olfactory memory at other times.

Richard Axel and Linda B. Buck were awared the Nobel Prize in 2003

1996 Alfred G. Gilman and Martin Rodbell share the Nobel prize for their discovery of G-protein coupled receptors and their role in signal transduction. G-proteins are important because they act as a kind of internal switchboard for the body’s various communication pathways. For this reason, they are sometimes described as “biological traffic lights.� The G-proteins within a cell respond to signals outside the cell such as light, smells, neurotransmitters, or hormones, and then translate these signals into internal cellular activities. Misfires in the G-proteins switchboard system can lead to the development of diseases such as diabetes, cholera and whooping cough.

1997 Stanley B. Prusiner wins the Nobel Prize for his discovery of a new genre of infectious agents known as prions. Normally, prions exist as harmless cellular proteins. However, they possess an innate capacity to convert their structures into highly stable configurations that can lead to the formation of harmful particles. Prusiner’s research implicated prions as infectious agents in several brain diseases that cause dementia in humans and animals. Prusiner’s discovery of this new principle of biological infection has also helped to provide important insights into the mechanisms underlying other types of dementia-related diseases, such as Alzheimer’s.

2000 Arvid Carlsson, Paul Greengard, and Eric Kandel share the Nobel prize for their discoveries concerning signal transduction in the nervous system. Signal transduction occurs when a message from one nerve cell is transmitted to another through a chemical transmitter. It takes place at special points of contact, called synapses. Each nerve cell can have thousands of such contacts with other nerve cells. Carlsson, Greengard, and Kandel’s research focuses on one type of signal transduction between nerve cells, known as slow synaptic transmission. Their discoveries have contributed to a greater understanding of the normal function of the brain as well as how disturbances in this signal transduction can give rise to neurologic and psychiatric diseases.

2005 The Blue Brain project is the first comprehensive attempt to reverseengineer the mammalian brain, in order to understand brain function and dysfunction through detailed simulations. In July 2005, EPFL and IBM announced an exciting new research initiative - a project to create a biologically accurate, functional model of the brain using IBM’s Blue Gene supercomputer. Analogous in scope to the Genome Project, the Blue Brain will provide a huge leap in our understanding of brain function and dysfunction and help us explore solutions to intractable problems in mental health and neurological disease.

At the end of 2006, the Blue Brain project had created a model of the basic functional unit of the brain, the neocortical column. At the push of a button, the model could reconstruct biologically accurate neurons based on detailed experimental data, and automatically connect them in a biological manner, a task that involves positioning around 30 million synapses in precise 3D locations.

In November, 2007, the Blue Brain project reached an important milestone and the conclusion of its first Phase, with the announcement of an entirely new data-driven process for creating, validating, and researching the neocortical column.

2007 Researchers led by Jean Livet, Joshua Sanes, and Jeff Lichtman have developed a technique that takes brain mapping to a new level, allowing them to label individual neurons in the brain in different colors. The technique, dubbed ‘brainbow’ by the researchers involved, could help scientists gain a better understanding of brain function than previous staining techniques allow. By permitting visual resolution of individual brightly colored neurons, this increase should greatly help scientists in charting the circuitry of the brain and nervous system.

Index

as of 02 April 2008

Alphabetical Index

A

Adrian, Lord Edgar Alcmaeon alzheimer animal electricity animal spirit Aristotle Aserinsky, Eugene Aspirin Axel, Richard

1932 450 BC 1899 1791 1649 335 BC 1953 1899 1991

B

Bekesy, Georg Von Bell, Charles Berger, Hans Blue Brain blushing Book of the Dead brainbow Braune, Wilhelm Broca, Paul Buck, Linda Buddhist literature

1961 1811 1929 2005 1872 2500 BC 2007 1867 1855 1991 1500 BC

Cajal, Santiago Ramon Camille Golgi Carlsson, Arvid CAT scan cerebral angiography chakras Cormack, Allan McLeod cytoarchitectonic

1906 1906 2000 1972 1927 1500 BC 1972 1925

da Vinci, Leonardo Darwin, Charles Descartes, Rene Dhammapada, The Donders, Franciscus dreams D端rer, Albrecht Dutch

1510 1872 1649 1500 BC 1868 1899 1528 1790

Edwards Roy EEG

1963 1929

Egyptian

C

D

E

Erasitratos

2500 BC 300 BC

F

Freeman, Walter Freud, Sigmund

1936 1900

G

Gage, Phineas Galen Gall, Franz Joseph Galvani, Luigi Gilman, Alfred G-protein Granit, Ragnar Greengard, Paul

1848 170 BC 1908 1791 1996 1996 1967 2000

H

Hartline, Haldan Keffer head shaping Head, Henry Hebb, D.O. Herophilus Hoffman, E.J. Hounsfield, Godfrey Hubel, David humors

1967 8500 BC 1911 1936 300 BC 1974 1972 1981 170 BC

I

IBM Ilyas, Mansur ibn India Ingvar, David H.

2005 1390 1500 BC 1979

K

Kandel, Eric Kawagachi Kleitman, Nathaniel Kraepelin, Emil Kuhl, David

2000 1772 1953 1896 1963

L

Lashley, Karl Spenser Lassen, Niels A. Lauterbur, Abe Lauterbur, Paul Lichtman, Jeff

1950 1979 1975 1975 2007

Alphabetical Index

M

N

Livet, Jean lobotomy manic depression Mansfield, Sir Peter Metzler, J Moniz, Egas MRI Neher, Edwin Nobel

2007 1936 1876 1975 1971 1934 1975

1991 1906, 1996, 1932, 1967, 1973, 1975, 1991, 1997, 2000

T

2000 BC 2000 BC 1500 BC 1543

Walt, George Watts, James W. Wernicke, Carl Wiesel, Torsten Willis, Thomas Wundt, Wilhelm WWI WWII

1967 1936 1874 1981 1664 1875 1914 1937

X

xenon

1979

V

W

P

Parkinson, James PET scan Phelps, M.E. phrenology Pogossian, M.M.Ter poppy prions Prusiner, Stanley Psychiatrie

1817 1974 1974 1908 1974 4000 BC 1997 1997 1896

R

REM Rodbell, Martin Rorschach, Hermann

1953 1996 1921

S

Sakmann, Bert Sanes, Joshua SECT Shepard, R.N Sherrington, Charles Shou, Hua signal transduction Skinhoj, Erik Smith, Edward stone of maddness Sumerian

1991 2007 1963 1971 1932 1341 2000 1979 2500 BC 1100 4000 BC

trepanation tumi Vedas, The Vesalius, Andreas

Reference

as of 02 April 2008

Reference

A

Adrian, Lord Edgar Alcmaeon alzheimer

animal electricity Aristotle Aspirin Axel, Richard

www.ibro.org/Pub_Main_Display.asp?Main_ID = 439 www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Cities/Croton.html neurophilosophy.wordpress.com/2006/11/03/100-years-of-alzheimers-dis ease/ www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/frankenstein/frank_birth.html www.library.usyd.edu.au/libraries/rare/medicine/aristotlecompleat.html www.aspirin.cz/aspirin/world/pioneer/index.asp nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2004/illpres/7_species.html

Bekesy, Georg Von Bell, Charles Berger, Hans

Blue Brain brainbow Braune, Wilhelm Broca, Paul Buck, Linda

www.dbc.uci.edu/~sustain/global/sensem/S98/Nunez/Noise.html www.library.otago.ac.nz/exhibitions/monro/cabinet10/inside2.html muse.jhu.edu/journals/perspectives_in_biology_and_medicine/v044/ 44.4millett_fig04.html http://bluebrain.epfl.ch/page17871.html www.sciencefriday.com/program/archives/200711023 www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/historicalanatomies/braune_home.html www.brown.edu/Research/Memlab/py47/diagrams.html nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2004/illpres/7_species.html

C

Cajal, Santiago Ramon Camille Golgi Carlsson, Arvid CAT scan cerebral angiography cytoarchitectonic

www.cerebromente.org.br/n17/history/cajal14b.jpg www.ibro.info/Pub_Main_Display.asp?Main_ID =109 nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2000/press.html www.imaginis.com/ct-scan/history.asp http://www.sismed.com.br/ingles/imagem.htm neptune.netcomp.monash.edu.au/staff/lseldon/Econ/Fig/Fig010.gif

D

da Vinci, Leonardo

Darwin, Charles

Descartes, Rene Dhammapada, The

D端rer, Albrecht Dutch

www.vam.ac.uk/vastatic/microsites/1384_leonardo/exhibition_themes/the_ minds_eye/ darwin-online.org.uk/content/contentblock?itemID =F1142&basepage =1&vie wtype =side&hitpage =141 www.answers.com/topic/descartes-mind-and-body-gif www.thebigview.com/buddhism/dhammapada.htmlDonders, Franciscus vlp. mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/experiments/data?id= exp42 www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/historicalanatomies/durer_home.html www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/historicalanatomies/dutch_home.html

E

EEG

Egyptian

Erasitratos

muse.jhu.edu/journals/perspectives_in_biology_and_medicine/v044/ 44.4millett_fig04.html www.cs.nyu.edu/artg/itp/Spring2005/Proposals/NYAMSpring2005ProfArthur GoldbergsProjectsCourseatNYU.html www.incois.gov.in/Tutor/science+society/lectures/illustrations/lecture9/era sistratos.html

B

F

Reference

Freeman, Walter Freud, Sigmund

G

www.neuralgourmet.com/2005/11/20/my_lobotomy_howard_dullys_ journey www.nytimes.com/packages/khtml/2006/04/24/health/psychol ogy/20060425_FREUD_AUDIOSS.html

Gage, Phineas

Galen

Gall, Franz Joseph

Galvani, Luigi

Gilman, Alfred

Greengard, Paul

neurophilosophy.wordpress.com/2006/12/04/the-incredible-case-of-phineas- gage/ www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/greek/popup/22_greek_doc1.html www.neurosurgery.org/cybermuseum/pre20th/phren/phrenology.html www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/frankenstein/frank_birth.html www.biochemj.org/bj/315/0281/bj3150281.htm nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2000/press.html Hartline, Haldan Keffer

H

head shaping Hebb, D.O.

Herophilus

Hubel, David

www.mesoweb.com/features/tiesler/04.html books.google.com/books?id=VNetYrB8EBoC&pg=PA107&dq=%22the+organiza tion+of+behavior%22+hebb&sig=xD5qGPEHZESTQHyyggICYpgO5CM#PPP1,M1 www.incois.gov.in/Tutor/science+society/lectures/illustrations/lecture9/era sistratos.html nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1981/press.html

I

K

Ilyas, Mansur ibn

www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/historicalanatomies/mansur_home.html

Kandel, Eric Kawagachi Kleitman, Nathaniel Kraepelin, Emil

nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2000/press.html www.flc.kyushu-u.ac.jp/~michel/publ/aufs/64/64.htm www.npi.ucla.edu/sleepresearch/Kleitman/Kleitman.htm www.psychologie.uni-heidelberg.de/willkomm/cfg/instber-2a.html

L

lobotomy

www.neuralgourmet.com/2005/11/20/my_lobotomy_howard_dullys_ journey

M

Moniz, Egas MRI

www.answers.com/topic/cerebral-angiography www.csmc.edu/7064.html

N

Neher, Edwin

brc.se.fju.edu.tw/nobelist/199x/p1991.htm

P

PET scan phrenology Prusiner, Stanley Psychiatrie

R Rorschach, Hermann

www.silent.se/ergonomics.php www.neurosurgery.org/cybermuseum/pre20th/phren/phrenology.html www.nature.com/nature/journal/v412/n6848/fig_tab/412739a0_F3.html www.erzwiss.uni-hamburg.de/personal/hoffmann/texte/kraepelin/kraepe lin.1896.html blogs.msdn.com/danielfe/archive/2005/09/15/467198.aspx Sakmann, Bert

S

Reference

Sherrington, Charles Shou, Hua signal transduction Smith, Edward

stone of maddness Sumerian

www.ibro.org/Pub_Main_Display.asp?Main_ID = 439 www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/historicalanatomies/huashou_home.html nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2000/press.html www.cs.nyu.edu/artg/itp/Spring2005/Proposals/NYAMSpring2005ProfArthur GoldbergsProjectsCourseatNYU.html www.niu.edu/acad/psych/Millis/History/2002/Treatment.htm www.ancientscripts.com/sumerian.html

trepanation

tumi

www.xenophilia.com/zb0021.htm www.atlantisrising.com/issue5/ar5top ten.html www.wku.edu/~sally.kuhlenschmidt/whimsy/trephin.htm

V

Vedas, The Vesalius, Andreas

www.harekrsna.com/philosophy/gss/sastra/knowledge/knowledge.htm www.edumed.org.br/cursos/history-form.htm

W

Walt, George Wernicke, Carl Willis, Thomas Wundt, Wilhelm

cf.hum.uva.nl/narratology/a06_eoffe.html www.uic.edu/depts/mcne/founders/page0101.html www.library.otago.ac.nz/exhibitions/monro/cabinet14/inside3.html psychclassics.asu.edu/Wundt/Physio/chap6.htm

T