neurographica : examen by m m

neurographica: examen a compendium of images used in neurological assessment

vol 2

compiled and edited by maria moon

neurographica: examen a compendium of images used in neurological assessment

vol 2

compiled and edited by maria moon

lead advisor

Anne Burdick

design advisors

Louis Danziger Simon Johnston

advisor

Jack Anderson, PhD Peter Cho Tim Durfee Eugene Lubenov, PhD

Content i ii iii iv v vi vii viii ix

Examen Preface Anatomy Eye Lateral Geniculate Nucleus V1窶天5 Prefrontal Cortext Inferior Temporal Cortex Alphabetical Index Bibliography / Source

examen

a means of weighing or testing

ex·am·ine v. to inspect or scrutinize carefully. 2 to observe, test, or investigate (a person's body or any part of it), esp. in order to evaluate general health or determine the cause of illness. 3 to inquire into or investigate. 4 to test the knowledge, reactions, or qualifications of (a pupil, candidate, etc.), as by questions or assigning tasks. 5 to subject to legal inquisition; put to question in regard to conduct or to knowledge of facts; interrogate: to examine a witness; to examine a suspect. Arabic

‫صحْفَي‬ َ

Bulgarian

проучвам, изследвам

Chinese

檢驗，細查

Czech

vyšetrit

Danish

undersøge

Dutch

onderzoeken

Estonian

läbi vaatama

Finnish

tutkia

French

examiner

German

untersuchen

Greek

εξετ ά ζω (ασθεν ή)

Hebrew

(‫ןוחבל )'פ‬, ‫קודבל‬

Hungarian

megvizsgál

Icelandic

skoða, athuga

Indonesian

memeriksa

Italian

esaminare

Japanese

くまなく調べる

Korean

진찰하다

Latvian

(par arstu) ; izmeklet

Lithuanian

apžiureti

Norwegian

undersøke

Polish

(z)badac

Portuguese

examinar

Romanian

a examina

Russian

осматривать

Slovak

vyšetrit'

Slovenian

pregledati

Spanish

inspeccionar, examinar

Swedish

undersöka, granska

Turkish

incelemek

examine. Dictionary.com. Kernerman English Multilingual Dictionary. K Dictionaries Ltd. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/examine (accessed: March 15, 2008).

Preface Progress in the fields of neurology and psychology, has left a rich trail of imagery. These images reflect of scientific endeavors and inquiries. As a part of the scientific process, visualizations developed with the primary role of recording, representing, and communicating discoveries. In addition, a second role for imagery developed in the field concurrentlyâ&#x20AC;&#x201C; the role as instrument, probing and examining areas of visual perception, intellect, and cognition. This volume was created to document the exploration and research of images that took on such intentions and remains a modest attempt to capture the few that have made notable contributions to our current understanding of the brain. What became quickly evident in researching this domain was that much of the visual materials, especially early images of the late 1800s, were to become the foundation of graphic design. It was where the natural phenomena of gestalt, perception, color, motion et cetera was teased, examined, and solidified. Some of the materials operated as such and directly tested vision, while others were important demonstrations of how visual and cognitive processes worked. It is worth noting that these images were not created entirely blank, without choice or consideration. The very nature of their function resulted in very graphic creations. In fact, these images were conscientiously functional and attempted optimal legibility. Their forms needed to operate with the purpose of engaging and exposing various aspects of the mind, while attempting to maintain objectiveness and precision. Taking note of this effort led to the second intent of this investigation: to identify important processes involved in the visual experience. The key points of interest were to distinguish elements that invoked qualities of distinction, clarity, and recognition. These qualities would ideally inform and be incorporated in the final installment of this series, which looks at ways in which specific cases of neurological and psychological data can be expressed through visual structure, figure, and form.

Vision is the art of seeing things invisible. Jonathan Swift

Name of test verso Short description of test related to corresponding image. The organization of content is approximately based on the visual processing path as outlined in Principles of Neural Science, p 550. Various sources were cross-referenced to determine the appropriate test and image, most notably Neuropsychological Assessment by Muriel D. Lezak and a list of neuropsycholgoical tests compiled by Dennis P.Swiercinsky. recto image

source text images (when only one source is listed, both image and text are from the listed source.)

loci

The Lockean-like (outer to inner) function of Müller’s three stages theory of perception: 1= External nature; 2 = Senses (including the specific energy of “material” nerves); 3 =the Sensorium (which is conceived of as an active perceiving mind or brain).

Ballantyne , Paul. 2008. http://www.comnet.ca/~pballan/section3 (210).htm. (accessed November 26, 3007).

Anatomy : the Visual Processing Pathway

The visual process pathway described in this section is based on the description presented in Principles of Neural Science 4th edition. ed. by Eric R. Kandel, James H. Schwartz, and Thomas M. Jessell. It is worth noting that though these processes are separated for discussion, in reality, they are not independent operations but work congrously within a network of neurons. As there are obvious limitations to being able to study the visual process in live human species, much of the current knowledge in this area is derrived from the research done on primates. The visual process in the eye is mechanical and begins with light entering in the eye. Light travels through the cornea and the pupil to the lens. The corneaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s shape helps to focus the light before entering the lens. The iris determines the size of the pupil, which shrinks in bright light limiting the amount of incoming light. In dim light, the iris expands the pupil, allowing more light to enter. the lens bends and focuses the light onto photoreceptors located at the back of the eye. The second part of the process is chemical. The photoreceptors convert light into electrical signals. The cones are responsive in bright light conditions. They detect and interpret colors and have the ability to discern small changes. The rods are active in dim conditions and are used for peripheral vision. Rods do not interpret colors and do not contribute to the function of visual acuity. The third part of the process is electrical. The nerve cells that sit ontop of the rods and cones pick up the signals converted by the photoreceptors and carry them to the optic nerve. The optic nerve takes the signals to the visual cortex, where the brain reinterprets the signals as what you are seeing.

optic nerve iris macula cornea

lens vitreous humor

The signals travel through the optic chiasm to the visual areas of the thalamus. There, signals enter the lateral geniculate nucleus, the main terminus for input to the visual cortex , where visual information is processed for perception. Signals are separated in the LGN for the primary visual cortex, V1 and V2, and V3, V4, V5. V1 sorts and organizes the signals into building blocks of visual images. Here, edges are determined by deconstructing the outlines of a visual image into short line segments of various orientation. Color processing occurs on a minimal level and the input of two eyes are combined. From here, signals are separated into two pathways, the ventral and dorsal pathways. The ventral pathway is described as the process dedicated to determining “what” is being observed, while the dorsal pathway is involved with constructing the localisation of “where.” Cells in V2 / V3 continue the separation of signals locatively towards the dorsal and ventral pathways, filtering the first levels of color, form, and depth towards the ventral pathway and depth and motion towards the dorsal pathway. The role of V3 is still being determined however, studies have indicated that the region may be sensitive to signals for shape and movement. V4 is located between V3 and the inferior temporal lobe and is where color and form is processed. Adjacent is the inferior temporal lobe where it has been determined to be the region where categorization of object, such as face matching occurs. In addition, attention has also been determined to be linked to this region as well. V5 is located in the middle temporal area and is the region where signals for movement is processed.

Lateral Geniculate Nucleus receives input from optic nerves and sends to V1

V3 motion

V2 figure / ground

V1 contrast orientation motion (simple) speed(simple) direction(simple) V2 figure / ground

V4 color form attention

PL V3 PFC

Dorsal Pathway

V2 TL ITC

Ventral Pathway

Prefrontal Cortex complex cognitive behaviors personality consciousness executive function conscious thought

Parietal lobe integrates sensory information visuospatial processing

PL V3 V5

PFC Dorsal Pathway

Occipital lobe vision color recognition

V2 TL ITC

Temporal lobe hearing emotional response memory speech smell

Ventral Pathway

Inferior Temporal Cortex higher level visual processing face perception

Anatomy : the Visual Processing Pathway Design operates on many different levels, the most noticable being the final perceived form. The trained eye is able to discern how the pieces come together to make the whole on many different levels. The designer‘s genius lies in the ability to craft the process of viewing and essentially, the experience of the message relayed. This ability lies directly in part with understanding what Gyorgy Kepes calls, ‘The Language of Vision.’ Understanding the path of visual processing is intregral to mastering the ‘The Language of Vision.’ However, within the process of creating, the designer’s task involves structural analysis and experimentation which plays between the execution of the final form and the under or internal structure from which the form ultimately emerges. As such, in curating this volume, a structural algorithm developed that was based on the subject of inquiry, the visual processing pathway. The order of content involved applying to the material the accepted flow of visual processing as the organizing principle. In addition, the location where the steps are thought to occur was also considered. This being the case, it is important to note that the following result is for all intents and purposes an index of research conducted by a designer. Some of the exams were shuffled outside of their normal place and situated by the premise in which they operate. For instance, optotypes are used to test vision in the eye, however it is categorized in a different section because a large percentage of the test relies of the patient’s ability to recognize and distinguish shapes in the first place, which occurs in the occipital lobe rather than the eye. In addition, rather than remaining a fixed representation or encapsulation, volume 2, like volume 1, is designed with a flexible binding so that as contributions are made in this particular field, this volume can evolve alongside. It is not to be considered an exhaustive guide for assessment or application. Rather, the intention of this survey is visual analysis of the materials that have been used for assessment.

The Berkeley Glare Test Developed by Bailey and Bullimore, this test is based on the Bailey-Lovie principle and takes the form of a single chart with a constant contrast of 10%. The chart is in the form of a triangle and is surrounded by an opal Plexiglas background, which can serve as a glare source. When used without the glare source, the chart is front-illuminated, independent of the surrounding glare source. When background illumination is desired, incandescent bulbs behind the Plexiglas screen can yield surround luminances of 30, 800, and 3,000 candelas per square meter. To determine the effects of glare on high-contrast visual acuity, the low-contrast chart can be replaced by the high-contrast Bailey-Lovie chart. The test is designed for use at a distance of 1 m. The eye being tested is corrected with the appropriate lens for this viewing distance. The method of specifying visual acuity is by means of a visual acuity reading (VAR) scale. This is a logarithmic scale that gives 5 points for each line of letters read (each line consists of 5 letters) and one point for each additional letter.

Grosvenor, Theodore. The Aging Eye: Problems That Affect Acuity And Contrast Sensitivity. http://opt.pacificu.edu/ce/catalog/16554-go/ ageacuity.html. (accessed January 21, 2008).

eye

Vision Contrast Test Contrast sensitivity is the ability to see light against dark or differentiate between different contrast levels and is one of the factors that most influences overall functional visual acuity. Without sufficient low-contrast visual acuity, individuals may have trouble driving, bicycling, and even walking in low-light conditions and other situations characterized by low-contrast lighting. Some feel that this measurement gives a more realistic assessment of sportsrelated acuity. Contrast sensitivity can be tested using plates, wall charts or electronic devices This vision test is performed in a variety of light conditions meant to imitate what the subject would encounter in daily life. Developed by Dr. Arthur Ginsburg, the FACT sine-wave grating chart tests five spatial frequencies (sizes) and nine levels of contrast. The task of the patient is to report the orientation of each grating in each row until the orientation cannot be determined. When the test is completed, the data are plotted and compared to a â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;normalâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; contrast sensitivity curve. Two separate Vistech charts are available: the VCTS- 6500 for distance testing, and the VCTS-6000 for near testing. A projector slide, the VCTS-500S, has also been available.

Grosvenor, Theodore. The Aging Eye: Problems That Affect Acuity And Contrast Sensitivity. http://opt.pacificu.edu/ce/catalog/16554-go/ ageacuity.html. (accessed January 21, 2008).

eye

Blind Spot Locate the blind spot in your left eye by shutting the right eye and fixating the upper cross with the left eye. Hold the book about 15 inches from the eye and move it slightly nearer and farther from the eye until the circle on the left disappears. At this point the circle occupies the blind spot in the left eye. If you fixate the left eye on the lower cross, the gap in the black line falls on the blind spot and the black line is seen as continuous.

Principles of Neural Science 4th edition. ed. Eric R. Kandel, James H. Schwartz, and Thomas M. Jessell. United States, McGraw-Hill, 2000. p 525.

eye

Ophthimus System: High-Pass Resolution Perimetry The HRP test targets consist of a bright circular core surrounded by darker borders. The dimensions and luminances are carefully calculated to make the target invisibly melt into the background if unresolved (try viewing the figure from various distances to see the vanishing effect). The short test distance, 0.15 m, causes powerful foreshortening of peripherally presented targets, and powerful parallax effects in the monitorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s glass envelope. These effects are compensated in software, so the rings always appear as true rings of correct angular dimensions. 14 different sizes are used, stepped by 0.1 of a logarithmic unit (1 decibel, dB). The largest ring nearly fills a full quadrant. Limitations of monitor technology precludes measurement of thresholds inside 5Â° from fixation unless test distance is increased with the CentRing test.

On High-pass Resolution & Rarebit Perimetry. http://www.oft.gu.se/webdiagnos/Perimetry/Perimetry.html. (accessed March 1, 2008).

eye

Resolution Acuity Chart A standard test used in research laboratories to evaluate contrast detection per se consists of striped patterns matched up with uniformly grey targets of the same mean luminance. A similar scheme is used clinically in preferential looking techniques 3. Target resolution thresholds are usually expressed as the smallest angular size at which subjects can discriminate the separation between critical elements of a stimulus pattern such as a pair of dots, a grating or a checkerboard. To administer this test we simply ask the patient: “Are the stripes on the left or right side?” The implicit assumption of this test is that if the patient can answer the question correctly, then the visual system must have detected the spatial contrast present in the pattern. The stripes get finer towards the bottom of the chart and the width of the finest bars that can be distinguished from a uniform field is a measure of detection acuity called the minimum angle of detection (MAD). The amount of contrast required to achieve a particular value of MAD is an alternative measure of performance which is directed at a slightly different question: how much stimulus contrast is required to detect a pattern? Although measures of contrast sensitivity are useful for refining our characterization of the detection process, here we are concerned with the simpler job of establishing the finest pattern which can be detected when contrast is maximum. Notice that the patient’s task is so simple to understand that memory, experience and other cognitive factors are minimized. Furthermore, we do not require that the patient resolve the individual stripes since we don’t ask any questions about the nature of the pattern other than where it is located. In short, this test is aimed at the very bottom layer of the recognition pyramid.

http://research.opt.indiana.edu/Library/MethodsForDiscrim. (accessed March 3, 2008). Visual Acuity. http://webvision.med.utah.edu/KallSpatial.html#types.(accessed January 20, 2008.)

eye

Worth Dot Test The Worth 4 dot test, also known as the Worth dot test, is a clinical test for suppression of either the right or left eye. Suppression occurs during binocular vision when the brain does not process the information received from either of the eyes. This is a common adaptation to strabismus, amblyopia, and aniseikonia. During the Worth 4 dot test, the patient, wears anaglyphic glasses (with one red lens over one eye, usually the right, and one green lens over the other eye, usually the left). The patient is shown a modified flashlight (torch) with four holes, approximately 1 cm in diameter, organized in a diamond shape. Traditionally, the holes are arranged with the top hole showing only red light, the left and right showing only green light, and the bottom showing white light. Because the red filter blocks the green light and the green filter blocks the red light, it is possible to determine if the patient is using both eyes simultaneously in a coordinated manner. With both eyes open, a patient with normal binocular vision will appreciate four lights. If the patient either closes or suppresses an eye they will see either two or three lights. If the patient does not fuse the images of the two eyes, they will see five lights. The testing distance can be varied to assess the size the area of suppression of the patient’s visual field. If the flashlight is held at 16 inches (40 cm), the lights appear larger and tests for a large area of suppression. If the flashlight is held at a greater distance (traditionally 10 feet or 3 metres), a smaller area is tested.

“Worth Dot Test.” Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worth_4_dot_test. (accessed March 3, 2008). Grosvenor, Theodore. The Aging Eye: Problems That Affect Acuity And Contrast Sensitivity. http://opt.pacificu.edu/ce/catalog/16554-go/ ageacuity.html. (accessed January 21, 2008).

eye

Eye Alignment Near Card To screen for binocular vision problems, it is important to test for both eye alignment and sensory fusion. The screening tests described below will enable the occupational therapist to detect strabismus, large heterophoria, poor convergence, and suppression or decreased stereopsis. As with acuity testing for children or adults with cognitive and perceptual problems, it is wise to test at near before distance. Positioning is important, and the occupational therapist should try to find the positioning that best permits the patient to attend and concentrate on the task.

above maddox rod opposite eye alignment near card below top example of a patient reporting that the horizontal line is seen three spaces above the center. This represents a 3-prism diopter right hypophoria. below bottom example of a patient reporting that the vertical line is seen three spaces left of center. This represents a 3-diopter exophoria.

Scheiman, Mitchell. Understanding and Managing Vision Deficits: A Guide For Occupational Therapists, Second Edition. (Slack Incorporated, New Jersey) p 96-100.

eye

Bagolini Test The Bagolini striated glass test consists of optically plano lenses marked with fine parallel striations at 45° on one glass and 135° on the other. When a spotlight is viewed through the glasses each produces a line image at 90° to the axis of the striation. A patient with the peripheral suppresion scotoma typical of a unilateral horizontal manifest strabismus more easily sees an oblique image. The method entails the following steps, glasses are placed in front of his eyes and he is questioned about the number of lights seen and the number and position of the lines. If two lines are seen, he should be asked if they cross or are seen separated. The patient is then asked to describe or draw the exact position of the lines. Difficulties arise if the lines are reported as crossing: the examiner must establish if they cross through the light or above or below it. The patient is also asked if he seees two lines all the time or if one or other of them disappears. If both lines are seen to cross on the light he should be questioned about a possible gap in one line resulting from a central or paracentral scotomoa. Bagolini glasses are used to diagnose or confirm the presense of normal or abnormal binocular single vision in the primary position or an eccentric position of gaze and to assess if a patient is able to appreciate two lights and lines can obtain and maintain a symmetrical cross when the deviation is corrected with prisms, implying the presence of at least sensory fusion.

Bagolini striated glasses, showing line images perpendicular to the striations.

Results of the Bagolini test (a) bifoveal or anomalous binocular single vision (b) two lines, signifying a manifest strabismus with normal retinal correspondence

“Diagnosis and Management of Ocular Motility Disorders .“ Google Books. http://books.google.com/books?id=rCABZ8MzkWAC&pg=RA3PA124&lpg=RA3-PA124&dq=bagolini+glasses&source=web&ots=cmqG_. (accessed February 19, 2008).

eye

Amsler Grid This simple screening test is used to assess the macula (the center of the retina). The Amsler Grid consists of evenly spaced horizontal and vertical lines printed on black or white paper. A small dot is located in the center of the grid for fixation. While staring at the dot, the patient looks for wavy lines and missing areas of the grid. The administrator is especially interested in the following when testing vision with the Amsler Grid: “Are you able to see the corners and sides of the square?” “Do you see any wavy lines?” “Are there any holes or missing areas?” If the lines of grid do not appear straight and parallel or there are missing areas, the practitioner will examine the back of the eye (macula) very closely. This test is frequently given to patients for home use to monitor macular degeneration. When using the test at home, notify the doctor if any changes in the appearance of the Amsler Grid are detected.This test is especially helpful for monitoring vision at home.

An Amsler grid, as it might be viewed by a person with age related macular degeneration.

“Amsler Grid.” Eye-Q.http://www.stlukeseye.com/eyeq/amsler.asp Retina NZ. http://www.retina.org.nz/images/amsler2.jpg. (accessed January 20, 2008).

eye

King-Devick Test The projected King-Devick, which is available from Bernell, Inc, consists of 3 charts printed on clear acetate. Charts are projected at a distance of 10 feet (3 meters) with an overhead projector. The athlete stands and must call out the letters, from left to right, as quickly as possible without making errors. The time and errors are recorded on each of 3 sub-tests as well as the overall time for all the tests. The examiner should note any head movements made when taking the test because they indicate that the athlete is having a problem moving his or her eyes.

Grosvenor, Theodore. The Aging Eye: Problems That Affect Acuity And Contrast Sensitivity. http://opt.pacificu.edu/ce/catalog/16554-go/ ageacuity.html. (accessed January 20, 2008).

eye

After Image / Mccollough Effect The McCollough effect is a phenomenon of human visual perception in which colorless gratings appear colored depending on (contingent on) the orientation of the gratings. It is an aftereffect requiring a period of induction to produce it. For example, if someone alternately looks at a red horizontal grating and a green vertical grating for a few minutes, a black-and-white horizontal grating will then look greenish and a black-and-white vertical grating will then look pinkish. The effect was discovered by Celeste McCollough in 1965. To obtain the effect, first look at a test image similar to that on the top opposite page. It should contain oppositely oriented gratings of lines, such as horizontal and vertical as shown here. Next, stare alternately at two induction images similar to the ones directly beneath the top image. One image should show one orientation of grating (here horizontal) with a colored background (red) and the other should show the other orientation of grating (here vertical) with a different, preferably oppositely colored background (green). Each image should be gazed at for several seconds at a time, and the two images should be gazed at for a total of several minutes for the effect to become visible. Stare approximately at the centre of each image, allowing the eyes to move around a little. After several minutes, look back to the test image; the gratings should appear tinted by the opposite color to that of the induction gratings (i.e., horizontal should appear greenish and vertical pinkish).

â&#x20AC;&#x153;McCollough Effect.â&#x20AC;? Wikipedia.org. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McCollough_effect. (accessed March 16, 2008).

eye

Lighthouse Near Visual Acuity Test The Lighthouse distance visual acuity charts were introduced with optotypes based on Sloan letters. The testing distance was generally 10 feet (recorded in feet) with the patient walking toward the chart or the chart brought toward the patient when the largest line could not be seen. The visual acuity was then recorded as the smallest line seen (e.g., 10/160), hand motion (HM), counts fingers (CF), light projection (LPROJ), light perception (LP), or no light perception (NLP). Counts fingers and hand motion was viewed by many clinicians as an inaccurate method of recording functional visual acuity and is generally no longer accepted by low vision practitioners.

Rosenthal , Bruce P. 2008. http://www.lighthouse.org/education-services/professional-education/patient-management/managing-thepatient-with-low-vision/structured/ (accessed March 1, 2008). Wilkinson , Michael. 2006. http://opt.pacificu.edu/ce/catalog/15911-LV/VisRehab.html (accessed January 21, 2008).

eye

Kay Vision Test When the Kay Picture Test was conceived, the picture tests used in the assessment of children’s visual acuity were universally regarded as inaccurate and considered only as a guide or comparison of sight in the two eyes. Hazel Kay sought to produce pictures that accurately measured visual acuity in the same way as Snellen’s letters and that young children could easily recognise. Over a two-year period more than 60 pictures were drawn according to the physiological principles employed in Snellen’s letter construction: the component parts of a construction grid subtend 1 minute of arc at the nodal point when viewed at the correct distance. Thirty-eight pictures were found to be suitable for further testing, and these were shown to 56 children between 24 and 42 months old who were asked to identify each picture. The 26 most recognizable pictures were then shown to 100 children between 19 and 42 months old (results shown below). Two pictures that scored below 80% and were eliminated*. Apple Bird Clock Duck Flower Phone Scissors Train Wheel

98% 99% 96% 99% 98% 94% 93% 99% 88%

Boat Car Cup Egg* Girl Plane Case Tree Umbrella

82% 100% 81% 74% 86% 80% 89% 88% 90%

Boot 97% Cat 93% Dog 96% Fish 95% House 100% Pram* 78% Tea Pot 93% Van 97%

Research on 160 people comparing the picture test with the Snellen test showed a very high correlation coefficient of 0.9043. Next each picture was tested for accuracy to within one line of Snellen acuity. Five pictures were eliminated as being less than 80% accurate (case, train, wheel, pram and girl). The Kay Picture Test contains only those pictures proven to be both recognizable and accurate.

Kay Pictures. 2008. http://www.kaypictures.co.uk/research.html (accessed March 1, 2008). Skillen, Jennifer. 2004. http://www.ssc.education.ed.ac.uk/courses/VI&multi/jskillen.html (accessed January 21, 2008).

eye

Lateral Geniculate Nucleus receives input from optic nerves and sends to V1

Test No SSD1 Stereo Depth is a precise measure of one of the important factors of depth perception. The reliability of test results is high. It provides an excellent measure of binocular skill.

Optisurgicare. http://optisurgicare.com/titmus2a.php. (accessed February 19, 2008).

LGN

Lang Stereo Test The Lang Stereotest was created to simplify stereopsis screening in children. It is based on two principles: random dots and cylindrical gratings. Random dots of Jules are currently used in stereograms. When seen monocularly, they do not provide form cues, whereas in binocular vision stereoscopic forms are recognized. The disadvantage of most random dots is that they require red/green or polarized glasses. Cylindrical screens were invented by the Swiss Ophthalmologist and physiologist W. R Hess (Nobel Prize 1949) in 1912. The images of the two eyes are separated by a system of fine parallel cylindrical strips. Beneath each cylinder there are two fine strips of pictures, one seen by the right, the other seen by the left eye. These two methods were combined for the first time in the Lang Stereotest. This technique has two advantages: no glasses are required and the eye movements of children can be easily observed.

University Eye Center at Carl Gustav Carus Dresden. http://augen.uniklinikum-dresden.de/bilder/schielen/bild31.jpg. (accessed January 20, 2008).

LGN

Stereopsis Also in the 1960s, Bela Julesz invented random-dot stereograms. Unlike previous stereograms, in which each half image showed recognizable objects, each half image of the first random-dot stereograms showed a square matrix of about 10,000 small dots, with each dot having a 50% probability of being black or white. No recognizable objects could be seen in either half image. The two half images of a random-dot stereogram were essentially identical, except that one had a square area of dots shifted horizontally by one or two dot diameters, giving horizontal disparity. The gap left by the shifting was filled in with new random dots, hiding the shifted square. Nevertheless, when the two half images were viewed one to each eye, the square area was almost immediately visible by being closer or farther than the background. Julesz whimsically called the square a Cyclopean image after the mythical Cyclops who had only one eye. This was because it was as though we have a cyclopean eye inside our brains that can see cyclopean stimuli hidden to each of our actual eyes. Random-dot stereograms highlighted a problem for stereopsis, the correspondence problem. This is that any dot in one half image can realistically be paired with many same-colored dots in the other half image. Our visual systems clearly solve the correspondence problem, in that we see the intended depth instead of a fog of false matches. Research began to understand how.

In the stereoscope the random-dot images are placed behind a rectangualr opening. If one inner square of dots is displaced so the left and right inner squares are closer together (1) the square is perceived in front of the larger pattern. If the inner squares are shifter so that the two squares are further apart (2), the square is perceived behind the larger pattern.

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Steropsis.â&#x20AC;? Wikipedia.org. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereopsis. (accessed March 16, 2008). Principles of Neural Science 4th edition. ed. Eric R. Kandel, James H. Schwartz, and Thomas M. Jessell. United States, McGraw-Hill, 2000. p 563.

LGN

V1 contrast orientation motion (simple) speed (simple) direction (simple)

Localization Hyperacuity Target localization involves discriminating differences in the spatial position of segments of a test object, such as a break or discontinuity in contour. Visual acuity measured in this way is called Vernier acuity (a type of hyperacuity) and the discontinuity is specified in terms of its angular size. The eye’s resolution is generally considered to be ‘normal’ if two points that are one minute of an arc (one sixtieth of a degree) apart can be seen as separate. However, the eye has some visual abilities that far outperform this, such as the detection of an offset between two lines. This ability is termed Vernier Acuity (and the eye’s fantastic ability is used in the reading of micrometers). Resolution, localization or detection tasks produce hyperacuity or levels of performance over and above the recognition (normal visual acuity) limit and indicate that the mechanisms involved in making such judgements are not restricted to the retinal level (Westheimer, 1972; Waugh and Levi, 1995).

The task of localization. The figures below is an example of Vernier acuity.

Visual Acuity. http://webvision.med.utah.edu/KallSpatial.html#types.(accessed March 21, 2008). Howarth, Peter. January 23, 2008. http://www-staff.lboro.ac.uk/~huph/hyperacuity.html. (accessed February 19, 2008).

Visual Acuity Tasks Target detection requires only the perception of the presence or absence of an aspect of the stimuli, not the discrimination of target detail (fig 1). The task of detection involves stating whether or the spot or line is present. The Landolt C and the Illiterate E are other forms of detection used in visual acuity measurement. The task required here is to detect the location of the gap (fig 2). figure 1. (a) bright test object on a dark background, (b) dark test object on a light background

figure 2. (a) Landolt C and (b) the Illiterate E

Visual Acuity. http://webvision.med.utah.edu/KallSpatial.html#types. (accessed February 19, 2008.)

(a)

(b)

Arden Plate Test Introduced in 1978 by C.S. Arden, it was one of the first contrast sensitivity tests designed for clinical use. The test is in the form of a 6-page booklet, with each page displaying several sine-wave gratings of varying contrast and spatial frequency. Each grating is oriented vertically, with the contrast varying from the top to the bottom. For each grating, the examiner or the patient gradually moves a card (which masks the grating) downward over the page until the point is reached at which the grating is seen. At that point, the examiner records the contrast from a scale provided with the grating. After a practice trial, the procedure is repeated for each of the six plates.

Grosvenor, Theodore. The Aging Eye: Problems that Affect Acuity and Contrast Sensitivity. http://opt.pacificu.edu/ce/catalog/16554-GO/ AgeAcuity.html. (accessed January 21, 2008.)

Visual Perceptual Skills Discrimination test Clinically, we subclassify visual analysis dysfunction into four categories: visual discrimination, visual closure, visual figure ground and visual memory. These three subtests valued the ability of the child to be aware of the distinctive features of forms, including shape, orientation, and size. The three subtests are identical in their construction, administration, and scoring. Each test is made up of 16 different plates with stimuli that becomes more complex. The figure (opposite) is an illustration of one of the early stimuli used in the Discrimination subtest. The child must choose the matching figure form among five choices.

Scheiman.Understanding and Managing Vision Defecits. p 75-76.

Visual Perceptual Skills Spatial Relationship Subtest Clinically, we subclassify visual analysis dysfunction into four categories: visual discrimination, visual closure, visual figure ground and visual memory. These three subtests valued the ability of the child to be aware of the distinctive features of forms, including shape, orientation, and size. The three subtests are identical in their construction, administration, and scoring. Each test is made up of 16 different plates with stimuli that becomes more complex. The figure (opposite) is an illustration of one of the early stimuli used in the Spatial Relationship subtest. The child must choose the matching figure form among five choices.

Scheiman. Understanding and Managing Vision Defecits. p 75-76.

Benton Judgement Of Line The Benton Judgment of Line Orientation Test (BJLOT) is a widely used neuropsychological test measuring visuospatial judgment. This test requires the patient to match lines based on their orientation to one another. It requires appreciation of relatively precise angles and the relative orientation of objects in space.

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Rehabilitation of Neuropsychological Disorders.â&#x20AC;? Google Books.http://books.google.com/books?id=EAJiYwg5fFAC&pg=PA137&lpg=PA 137&dq=benton+judgement+of+line&source=web&ots=o7pjpSSGPS&sig=UqRV_uco2VxxbHWi_rmWywwxc8k. (accessed January 21, 2008).

Shadow / Highlight Effect The natural assumption that the source of light is from above and shadow below, is an example of how our visual system operates with some fair amount of assumptions. It is also an example of how a large degree of what is considered to be seen is constructed internally in the mind.

Highlights and shadows provide information about depth. The shadows indicate that the left hand image is convex, whereas the right hand image appears concave.

The Perception of Depth. http://webvision.med.utah.edu/KallDepth.html. (accessed January 21, 2008).

The Melbourne Edge Test Developed by Verbaken and Johnson in 1986, this test was based on the idea that contrast sensitivity for a single edge appears to be a reliable indicator of the contrast sensitivity function peak. The test makes use of the boundary between light and dark backgrounds, rather than a grating. The test is made up of 20 circular stimuli 2.5 cm, approximagely (1 inch), in diameter. Each of the circles, or disks, presents an edge that separates light and dark backgrounds with gradually reducing contrast. The identifying feature is the orientation of the edge. The patient is shown a key card that presents four circles, having horizontal, vertical, and obliquely oriented dividing lines; and the patient is asked to identify the orientation of each of the test edges.

Grosvenor, Theodore. The Aging Eye: Problems That Affect Acuity and Contrast Sensitivity. http://opt.pacificu.edu/ce/catalog/16554-GO/ AgeAcuity.html (accessed January 21, 2008).

Humphrey Visual Field Test The visual field is the total area in which objects can be seen in the peripheral vision while the eye is focused on a central point. Currently, the Humphrey visual field test is administered as an automated perimetry, wherein repeated light stimulus of varying intensities appears in different parts of the field. Fields are charted on the basis of patient’s perception of these lights, while his/her eye is focused on a central spot. The results obtained from the patient are then compared with those of the age matched normal population and the amount of damage is quantified. It is a simple, painless out patient procedure and takes only about 15 minutes. This test is invaluable in diagnosing, and monitoring the treatment in patients with glaucoma. A patient typically requires multiple sittings of this investigation over a period of time to monitor the progression of the disease. It is also useful in certain neurological conditions and in some conditions affecting the optic nerve of the eye.

“Humphrey Visual Field.” Vistech Eye Center. http://www.visitech.org/humphrey-visual-fields.html Basics of Seeing Motion. http://www.abonet.com.br/abo/665/abo66505.htm. (accessed January 22, 2008).

V2 / V3 V2–figure / ground V3–motion

Attneave Cat Psychologist Attneave showed that information is concentrated at points of maximum curvature and that “redundant visual stimulation results from either (a) an homogeneous color, or (b) a contour of homogeneous direction or slope. Attneave’s famous cat demonstrates that large sections of straight line segments that can be left out without altering the image content.

“The Perception of Visual Information.“ http://books.google.com/books?id=T_KNSWU4uz4C&pg=PA196&lpg=PA196&dq=attneave’s+cat& source=web&ots=PitORFdbEK&sig=OsdzvSVm14sLQB1bs6Gxng_vgdY#PPA196,M1. (accessed January 22, 2008).

Gestalt Although Max Wertheimer is credited as the founder of the movement, the concept of Gestalt was first introduced in contemporary philosophy and psychology by Christian von Ehrenfels (a member of the School of Brentano). The idea of Gestalt has its roots in theories by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Immanuel Kant, and Ernst Mach. Wertheimer’s unique contribution was to insist that the Gestalt is perceptually primary, defining the parts of which it was composed, rather than being an “additional” element over and above the components parts, as von Ehrenfels earlier Gestalt-qualität had been. Both von Ehrenfels and Edmund Husserl seem to have been inspired by Mach’s work Beiträge zur Analyse der Empfindungen (Contributions to the Analysis of the Sensations, 1886), in formulating their very similar concepts of Gestalt and Figural Moment, respectively. Early 20th century theorists, such as Kurt Koffka, Max Wertheimer, and Wolfgang Köhler (students of Carl Stumpf) saw objects as perceived within an environment according to all of their elements taken together as a global construct. This ‘gestalt’ or ‘whole form’ approach sought to define principles of perception – seemingly innate mental laws which determined the way in which objects were perceived. These laws took several forms, such as the grouping of similar, or proximate, objects together, within this global process. Although Gestalt has been criticized for being merely descriptive, it has formed the basis of much further research into the perception of patterns and objects (ref: Carlson, Buskist & Martin, 2000), and of research into behavior, thinking, problem solving and psychopathology.

illustrations included in Kurt Koffka’s Perception: An introduction to the Gestalt-theorie, 1922

Green, Christopher D. Perception: An introduction to the Gestalt-theorie , Koffka, 1922. http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Koffka/Perception/perception.htm “Gestalt Psychology.” Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestalt_psychology. (accessed January 22, 2008).

Gestalt: Proximity The principle of proximity or contiguity states that things which are closer together will be seen as belonging together. In the example on the opposite page, the groups we see are 1 + 2 = as one group 3 + 4 = as another group Similarly, on the left, three groups of dots in three lines.

Gestalt Theory of Visual Perception. http://www.users.totalise.co.uk/~kbroom/Lectures/gestalt.htm. (accessed January 22, 2008).

Gestalt: Similarity The fundamental principle of gestalt perception is the law of prägnanz (German for conciseness) which says that we tend to order our experience in a manner that is regular, orderly, symmetric, and simple. Gestalt psychologists attempt to discover refinements of the law of prägnanz, and this involves writing down laws which hypothetically allow us to predict the interpretation of sensation, what are often called “gestalt laws.” Similarity means there is a tendency to see groups which have the same characteristics so in this example, there are three groups of black squares and three groups of white squares arranged in lines. The principle of similarity states that things which share visual characteristics such as shape, size, color, texture, value or orientation will be seen as belonging together.

Gestalt Theory of Visual Perception. http://www.users.totalise.co.uk/~kbroom/Lectures/gestalt.htm. (accessed January 22, 2008).

Color Vision Test At City University (CU) we developed a new color vision test that works well with every kind of color deficient observer and a simplified version of this test is now available on the web (For a detailed description of the CU Dynamic Color Vision Test see: Barbur et al, Proc. Roy. Soc.B., 258, pp 327-334, 1994). The movie below displays a moving “colored” square that is buried in flickering luminance contrast noise. The square changes color as the movie plays. You may be able to see the color for some or all of the time. If you have some form of severe color deficiency, you will have difficulty in seeing the “colored” square moving all the time. The movie lasts for 90 seconds and all you need do is play it and remember if the “colored” square disappeared at any time during the movie. The absence of the moving square may only last for 2 to 3 seconds, before you see it reappearing in a different color. This temporary disappearance of the pattern is what you have to watch for in the test. When this happens, you may like to confirm this with your optometrist who will be able to diagnose the type and severity of your color deficiency loss.

City University of London. http://www.city.ac.uk/avrc/colourtest.html. (accessed January 21, 2008).

Gestalt: Good Continuation Related to principle of good continuation, there is Seeing things as whole lines (sequential) is clearly important. But â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;being in wholes meansâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; that few interruptions change the reading of the whole lines.

A to O and O to D are two lines. Similarly, C to O and O to B are two lines.

The principle of continuity predicts the preference for continuous figures. We perceive the figure as two crossed lines instead of 4 lines meeting at the center.

Gestalt Theory of Visual Perception. http://www.users.totalise.co.uk/~kbroom/Lectures/gestalt.htm. (accessed January 22, 2008).

Gestalt: Closure Related to principle of good continuation, there is a tendency to close simple figures, independent of continuity or similarity. This results in a effect of filling in missing information or organizing information which is present to make a whole In the circle at the top its seen easily. In the other to figures itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s a little more complex. The second figure can be read as two overlapping rectangles (the gestalt) whereas it can also be seen as three shapes touching; a square and two other irregular shapes. The final shape can be seen as a curve joining three squares or as three uneven shapes touching.

Gestalt Theory of Visual Perception. http://www.users.totalise.co.uk/~kbroom/Lectures/gestalt.htm. (accessed January 22, 2008).

Gestalt: Area And Symmetry The principle of area states that the smaller of two overlapping figures is perceived as figure while the larger is regarded as ground. The principle of the symmetrical figure is that it is seen as a closed figure. Symmetrical contours thus define a figure and isolate it from its ground. The principle of symmetry describes the instance where the whole of a figure is perceived rather than the individual parts which make up the figure.

Gestalt Theory of Visual Perception. http://www.users.totalise.co.uk/~kbroom/Lectures/gestalt.htm. (accessed February 19, 2008).

Gestalt: Properties The key principles of Gestalt systems are emergence, reification, multistability, and invariance. Emergence is demonstrated by the perception of the Dog Picture, which depicts a Dalmatian dog sniffing the ground in the shade of overhanging trees. The dog is not recognized by first identifying its parts (feet, ears, nose, tail, etc.) Instead, the dog is perceived as a whole, all at once. Reification is the constructive or generative aspect of perception, by which the experienced percept contains more explicit spatial information than the sensory stimulus on which it is based. Multistability (or multistable perception) is the tendency of ambiguous perceptual experiences to pop back and forth unstably between two or more alternative interpretations. This is seen for example in the Necker cube, and in Rubin’s Figure / Vase illusion shown to the right. Invariance is the property of perception whereby simple geometrical objects are recognized independent of rotation, translation, and scale; as well as several other variations such as elastic deformations, different lighting, and different component features. Emergence, reification, multistability, and invariance are not separable modules to be modeled individually, but they are different aspects of a single unified dynamic mechanism.

Emergence

Reification

Invariance

Gestalt Theory of Visual Perception. http://www.users.totalise.co.uk/~kbroom/Lectures/gestalt.htm. (accessed January 22, 2008). “Gestalt Psychology.” Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestalt_psychology. (accessed January 22, 2008).

Multistability

Gestalt: Common Fate Suppose both principles of proximity and similarity are in place â&#x20AC;&#x201C; then a movement takes place â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the dots begin to move down the page. They appear to change grouping.

Gestalt Theory of Visual Perception. http://www.users.totalise.co.uk/~kbroom/Lectures/gestalt.htm. (accessed January 22, 2008).

Block Counting Task The Block Counting task at age level X, is another Binet test that lends itself well to the study of reasoning processes. The material consists of two-dimension drawings of three-dimensional block piles. The subject must count the total number of blocks in each pile by taking into account the ones hidden from view. Several studies comparing right and left hemisphere patients on this task have found mildly to significantly impaired performances by right hemisphere patients relative to those with left hemisphere lesions. Moreover, among patients with right hemisphere lesions, those who exhibited left visuospatial inattention made many more errors on 25-item modification of the Binet drawings than patients with right-sided damage who did not display the inattention phenomenon.

Swiercinsky, Dennis P. 2001. http://www.brainsource.com/nptests.htm. (accessed March 2, 2008). LeZak, Muriel D. Neuropsychological Assessment. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003. p 501.

LEA The LEA optotpyes were designed in 1976 and calibrated against the Snellen E, the reference optotype of those days. The size of the 1.0 (20/20, 6/6) symbols was found to be 7.5â&#x20AC;&#x2122; of arc (HyvĂ¤rinen et al. 1980). The Hiding Heidi pictures are printed at 100%, 25%, 10%, 5%, 2.5% and 1.2% contrast. The test is performed well within the visual sphere of the infant/child and depicts how low contrast visual information is perceived by the child. Our expressions are conveyed by faint shadows on our face, especially faint on very fair Nordic faces or on very dark faces. In infants, young children and children and adults at early developmental level visual acuity cannot be measured with optotype tests because of communication difficulties. Then an estimate of the function of some parts of visual pathways can be made by using grating acuity measurements. The LEA Gratings is an easy test to assess grating acuity. The test can be used at different distances and with two different presentation techniques

Hiding Heidi

LEA optotype

LEA. http://www.lea-test.fi/. (accessed January 20, 2008).

Halstead Category Test This test measures concept learning. It examines flexibility of thinking and openness to learning. It is considered a good measure of overall brain function. Various forms of this test exist. In this test of abstracting ability, the stimulus figures making up the 208 items are projected on a screen. Six sets of items, each organized on the basis of different principles, are followed by a seventh set made up of previously shown items.

Swiercinsky, Dennis P. 2001. http://www.brainsource.com/nptests.htm. (accessed March 2, 2008). LeZak. Neuropsychological Assessment. p 480.

V4 color form attention

10 Sticks This ten-item test is first administered as a copying task The examiner remains seated beside the patient throughout the first “match condition’ part of the test. He gives the patient four wooden sticks (approximately) inches long and 1/4 inch wide with a 1/2 inch blackened tip) and then makes a practice pattern with two other sticks, instructing the patient to copy his pattern exactly. The examiner does not proceed until he is satisfied that the patient understands and can perform this two-stick problem. The examiner then gives the test by constructing each design in numbered order the examiner. On completing the ten copy items, the examiner moves to the other side of the examining table so that he is seated opposite the patient. He constructs the same two-stick practice pattern he made originally, but this time asks the patient to “make your pattern look to you like mine looks to me.’ If the patient does not understand, the examiner demonstrates the right-left and up-down reversals with the practice pattern. Once again, when the examiner is confident that the patient knows what is expected of him, he gives the items of the test again in the same order as the first time. There is no time limit, but rather patients are encouraged to take as much time as they feel they need to be accurate. Each condition is scored for the number of failed items. On the reversal condition, the test is discontinued after five consecutive failures.

LeZak. Neuropsychological Assessment. p 408.

Visual Perceptual Skills Visual Closure (4â&#x20AC;&#x201C;13 year olds) Clinically, we subclassify visual analysis dysfunction into four categories: visual discrimination, visual closure, visual figure ground and visual memory. This subtest evaluates the ability of the child to be aware of clues in the visual stimulus that allows him or her to determine the final percept without the necessity of having al the details present. The test is made up of 16 different plates with stimuli that become more complex. The figure (opposite) is an illustration of one of the early stimuli used in this test. The child is asked to look at the picture on top and find the one that would look like the top form if the lines were connected or completed.

Scheiman.Understanding and Managing Vision Defecits. p 77â&#x20AC;&#x201C;78.

Visual Perceptual Skills Form Constancy Subtest Clinically, we subclassify visual analysis dysfunction into four categories: visual discrimination, visual closure, visual figure ground and visual memory. These three subtests valued the ability of the child to be aware of the distinctive features of forms, including shape, orientation, and size. The three subtests are identical in their construction, administration, and scoring. Each test is made up of 16 different plates with stimuli that becomes more complex. The figure (opposite) is an illustration of one of the early stimuli used in the Form constancy subtest. The child must choose the matching figure form among five choices.

Scheiman. Understanding and Managing Vision Defecits. p 75-76.

Stroop Test This brief procedure examines attention, mental speed, and mental control. The Stroop Task is a psychological test of our mental (attentional) vitality and flexibility. The task takes advantage of our ability to read words more quickly and automatically than we can name colors. If a word is printed or displayed in a color different from the color it actually names; for example, if the word “green” is written in blue ink (as shown in the figure to the left) we will say the word “green” more readily than we can name the color in which it is displayed, which in this case is “blue.” The cognitive mechanism involved in this task is called directed attention, where you have to manage your attention, inhibit or stop one response in order to say or do something else.

Swiercinsky, Dennis P. 2001. http://www.brainsource.com/nptests.htm. (accessed March 2, 2008). Encarta. http://encarta.msn.com/media_461543610/stroop_test.html. (accessed March 2, 2008).

Ishihara Color Vision Charts While working at the Military Medical School Shinoby Ishihara was asked to devise a test to screen military recruits for abnormalities of color vision. His assistant was a color blind physician who helped him test the plates. The first charts were hand painted by Ishihara in water colors using hiragana symbols. The test consists of a number of colored plates, each of which contains a circle made of many different sized dots of slightly different colors, spread in a seemingly random manner. Within the dot pattern, and differentiated only by color, is a number. What, or even if, a number is visible indicates if and what form of color blindness the viewer has. The full test consists of thirty-eight plates, but the existence of a deficiency is usually clear after no more than four plates. Common plates include a circle of dots in shades of green and light blues with a figure differentiated in shades of brown or a circle of dots in shades of red, orange and yellow with a figure in shades of green; the first testing for protanopia and the second for deuteranopia. Patients are shown the plates and asked to identify the embedded image, shape, or letter. A simulation of how plate A may look to an individual who is color blind.

http://www.nig.ac.jp/color/barrierfree/barrierfree1-8.html. (accessed March 22, 2008). Hyperacuity. http://www-staff.lboro.ac.uk/~huph/hyperacuity.htm. (accessed March 22, 2008). â&#x20AC;&#x153;Ishihara.â&#x20AC;? Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ishihara_color_test. (accessed January 20, 2008).

Visual Perceptual Skills Sequential memory subtest (4â&#x20AC;&#x201C;13 year olds) This subtest evaluates the ability of the child to recognize and recall visually presented information when sequence is important, such as in spelling. The test is made up of 16 different plates with stimuli that becomes more complex. The figure (opposite) is an illustration of one of the early stimuli used in this test. The child is asked to look at a series of pictures for 5 seconds. After the stimulus is removed, he or she is asked to select the one that has the same sequence from among four choices.

Scheiman. Understanding and Managing Vision Defecits. p 77-78.

Visual Perceptual Skills Memory Subtest (4â&#x20AC;&#x201C;13 year olds) This subtest evaluates the ability of the child to recognize and recall visually presented information. The test is made up of 16 different plates with stimuli that become more complex. The figure (opposite) is an illustration of an illustration of one of the early stimuli used in the test. The child is asked to look at an isolated picture for 5 seconds. After the stimulus is removed, he or she is asked to select the one that looks the same from among five choices.

Scheiman. Understanding and Managing Vision Defecits. p 77-78.

Visual Perceptual Skills Figure Ground Subtest (for 4â&#x20AC;&#x201C;13 year olds) Clinically, we subclassify visual analysis dysfunction into four categories: visual discrimination, visual closure, visual figure ground and visual memory. This subtest evaluates the ability of the child to attend to a specific feature or form while maintaining an awareness of the relationship of this form to the background information. This test is made up of 16 different plates with stimuli that becomes more complex. The figure (opposite) is an illustration of one of early stimuli used in this test. The child is asked to look at the picture on top and find the exact form from among the forms below.

Scheiman. Understanding and Managing Vision Defecits. p 77â&#x20AC;&#x201C;78.

Visual Motor Integration Test (4â&#x20AC;&#x201C;8 years old) This test evaluates the childâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ability to integrate visual information processing and fine motor skills by assessing his or her ability to accurately copy a visual stimulus. The child is presented with pictures of increasing complexity and is asked to reproduce the pictures as accurately as possible. The figure opposite is a sample of some of the forms used in this test.

Scheiman. Understanding and Managing Vision Defecits. p 79, 81.

Gottschaldt Flexibility of Closure Of the factors identified in early factorial analysis of perception, one that has proved particularly fruitful in personality research is flexibility of closure. A common type of test for this factor requires the identification of a figure amid distracting and confusing details. Two items from a test with a high loading in this factor, Gottschaldt figures, are shown on the opposite page. In one early investigation, for example, persons who excelled in flexibility of closure had high self-ratings on such traits as socially retiring, independent of the opinions of others, analytical, interested in theoretical and scientific problems, and disliking rigid systematization and routine. Approaching the problem from a different angle, Witkin and his associates identified the ability to resist the disruptive influences of conflicting contextual cues as an important variable. In a long-term study of perceptual spatial orientation.

Anastasi, Anne. Psychological Testing. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1998. p 626. John A. Popplestone and Marion White McPherson, An Illustrated History of American Psychology (Akron: The University of Akron Press, 1994). p 54.

Paper Form Board This test uses nonobjective materialâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;fragmented circles, triangles, and other geometric figuresâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;to elicit perceptual organizing behavior. It calls on perceptual scanning and recognition and the ability to perceive fragmented percepts as wholes. In its standard form, it is a 64-item multiple-choice paper and pencil test with norms based on a 20-minute time limit. Gazzaniga and LeDoux (1978) showed how the procedures used in examining performance on this kind of perceptual puzzle problem can alter the findings. Their reported observations were limited to one split-brain patient who, without seeing the puzzle pieces, formed simple designs significantly better with his left than his right hand. However when the whole form was presented to each visual field with instructions to select the correct set of fragmented pieces, the subject performed very well under both conditions.

LeZak. Neuropsychological Assessment. p 358-359.

Optical Illusion Some optical illusions are variants of the embedded figure problem. L. Cohen (1959) used the number of figure-ground or alternate figure reversals, i.e., the â&#x20AC;&#x153;rate of apparent change (RAC)â&#x20AC;? to measure perceptual fluctuation in normal control subjects and a brain injured population. Brain injured subjects reported fewer reversals of the Rubin Vase (see v3, figure Multistability) than did the control group. Of the brain injured population, those with lesions on the right reported fewer reversals than did those with left hemisphere damage. Frontal lobe patients differed from this pattern in that no right-left differential occurred, and except for those patients with bilateral frontal lesions, who saw the most reversals of all, the reversal rate of patients with frontal lobe lesions was the slowest (Teuber, 1964). Illusions involving line size and angle distortions have been used to examine the differential effects of lateralized brain damage on visual perception. The most extensive work has been done with the familiar MĂźller-Lyer illusion. Two studies have shown that left-sided lesions tend to be associated with an accentuation of the illusion. (Houlard et al., 1976; Barton, 1969).

LeZak. Neuropsychological Assessment. 365. Broom, Kate. http://www.users.totalise.co.uk/~kbroom/Lectures/gestalt.htm. (accessed January 22, 2008).

Hidden Figures Test The hidden figures task requires the subject to identify the hidden figure by marking the outline of the simple figure embedded on the more complex one. At the most difficult levels, the subject has to determine which of two intricate designs contains the simpler figure.

LeZak. Neuropsychological Assessment. p 362-363, 362-363.

Perceptual Inference Subjects are shown a schematic drawing of an object and asked to guess what that object might be if the drawing were completed. A total of four clues are given for each of thirteen items, where each clue added more information. The subject is instructed to guess an object from an incomplete illustration, to make an inference from minimal information.

Schwartz, Theodore, editor. Socialization as Cultural Communication: Development of a Theme in the Work of Margaret Mead. Berkeley: University of California Press, [1980?] c1976 1980. http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft1p300479/. (accessed January 21, 2008.)

Allen Optotypes Allen optotypes were developed by Henry Allen in 1957 by virtue of their “interest value for preschool children and the consistency of their recognition distances” (American Journal of Ophthalmology 1957; 44:38-41). Trials at that time indicated that the selected pictures could be recognized at a distance of 15 feet by normal 3-year olds and at a distance of 20 feet by normal 4-year olds. The pictures were sized to provide a visual acuity comparable to that of the 20/30 “E” distance target. The Allen pictures were an improvement over picture charts then and are still in common use today. Handheld Allen picture optotypes are commercially available on printed cards from several sources; they are also incorporated into several screen based visual acuity testing systems and projectors.

Andreas Marcotty and Elias I. Traboulsil. Allen-Style Optotype Size Accuracy in Five Popular Visual Acuity Testing Systems. July 2004.

Continuous Performance Test Tests that require intense attention to a visual-motor task are used in assessing sustained attention and freedom from distractibility. (e.g., Vigil; Connors Continuous Performance Test)

Swiercinsky, Dennis P. 2001. http://www.brainsource.com/nptests.htm. (accessed March 2, 2008). unknown author. 2007. http://pebl.sourceforge.net/battery.htm.l (accessed March 2, 2008).

Synesthesia Test This test applies to synesthetes whose “cross-wiring” enables them to see and visualize numbers-as-colors. (About 1 in 200 people.) Scan the square (on opposite page). Do you discern any particular shape? What is it? (If you have this particular form of synesthesia, the shape should be quickly apparent. If it takes a while to see, you are probably not a “colors-numbers” synesthete.)

Ramachandran, V. S. A Brief Tour of Human Consciousness. New York: Pi Press. 2004. p 20.

D2 Test of Attention This procedure measures selective attention and mental concentration and was developed by Brickenkamp (1981) and modeled after other cancellation tasks (Bourdon, cited in Brikenkamp, 1981). It can be given individually or as a group measure. This test is composed of 14 lines with 47 letters each. The target is the letter ‘d’ with two quotation marks (“) either above, below, or separated, one mark (’) above and one mark below. Distractors are the letter “p” with one to four marks and the letter “d” with one, three, or four marks. The subject’s task is to mark as many targets per line as possible. The time limit is 20 seconds per line.

Spreen, Otfried and Esther Strauss. A Compendium of Neuropsychological Tests. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. p 241.

Optotype A Snellen chart is an eye chart used by eye care professionals and others to measure visual acuity. Snellen charts are named after the Dutch ophthalmologist Herman Snellen who developed the chart in 1862. A Snellen chart is an eye chart used by eye care professionals and others to measure visual acuity. Snellen charts are named after the Dutch ophthalmologist Hermann Snellen who developed the chart in 1862. A patient taking the test covers one eye, and reads aloud the letters of each row, beginning at the top. The smallest row that can be read accurately indicates the patient’s visual acuity in that eye. The symbols on an acuity chart are formally known as “optotypes.” In the case of the traditional Snellen chart, the optotypes have the appearance of block letters, and are intended to be seen and read as letters. They are not, however, letters from any ordinary typographer’s font. They have a particular, simple geometry in which: The thickness of the lines equals the thickness of the white spaces between lines and the thickness of the gap in the letter “C” The height and width of the optotype (letter) is five times the thickness of the line

Optotypes. http://www.spamula.net/blog/2004/01/optotypes.html. (accessed April 1, 2008). “Snellen Chart.” Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snellen_chart. (accessed January 20, 2008).

The Mooney Closure Faces Test The Mooney Face Test was developed by Craig Mooney and his results published in 1957 as “Age in the development of closure ability in children.” In the test, participants are shown low-information two-tone pictures of faces, and are asked to identify features and distinguish between real and “false” faces. Since facial recognition occurs mainly in the right hemisphere of the brain, it is a test of right-brain functionality and a concept he called “perceptual closure,” or the ability to form coherent mental pictures with very little visual information.

“Mooney Face Test.” Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mooney_Face_Test. (accessed March 16, 2008). Beaumont, J. Graham and Peter M. Monti. 1983. New York, Guilford Press. p 92.

Street Completion Test Several sets of incomplete pictures have been used to examine the perceptual closure capacity. Poor performance on gestalt completion tests has generally been associated with right brain damage. Relationships between performances on the gestalt completion tests and on a subjective contours task indicated that, unlike patients with right hemisphere damage, the patients with left-side lesions used a common solution mechanism for solving both gestalt completion and subjective contour problems. Fozard et all (1977) noted that performance on closure tests appears to be independent of performance on facial recognition tests, suggesting that two different perceptual processes having different anatomical correlates underlie the two different tests.

Examples of fragmented or “closure” figures, taken from Street’s (1931) “Gestalt Completion Test.”

Spreen, Otfried and Esther Strauss. A Compendium of Neuropsychological Tests. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. pg 356. Pylyshyn, Zenon. 19XX http://www.bbsonline.org/Preprints/OldArchive/bbs.pylyshyn.html (accessed March 2, 2008).

Self-ordered Pointing Test In the self-ordered pointing test, the same set of stimulus items is arranged in different layouts on different pages, and subjects are required to point to a different item on each page. Successful performance involves working memory and requires the subjects to organize the stimulus information, maintain a record, and monitor responses. The stimuli used in the longest list (12 items) of Petrides and Milnerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s (1982) abstract design tasks are shown in figures on opposite pages.

LeZak. Neuropsychological Assessment. p 209.

Right Left Test The purpose of this test is to assess the discrimination of left from right. There are two forms used, the Benton form and the Culver form. The Benton form consists of 32 commands progressing from ‘Show me your left hand’ to the indication of ‘Which hand is on which ear.’ on pictures (untimed). The Culver form requires the indication of right or left for each of 20 pictures of hands and feet in various position; this test is timed.

LeZak. Neuropsychological Assessment. p 518.

Visual Evoked Potential Test In the VEP, electrodes are mounted over the visual part of the childâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s brain, towards the back of the head. The child sits in front of a television screen where a pattern is presented. A toy is dangled in front of the television to attract the childâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s attention to the center of the screen. The VEP is the electrical response of the brain to a simple patterned stimuli similar to the gratings used in the Teller Acuity cards. The VEP stimulus alternates, the black bars become white, the white bars become black, and the stripes become narrower and narrower. In a ten-second trial the gratings go from very wide to very narrow. The big ones make big signals and the small ones make smaller signals until you can no longer distinguish them from the ongoing electrical activity of the brain. A calculation is then done to fit a line to the data in order to come up with an estimate of acuity.

Electrophysiology. http://www.e-advisor.us/electrophysiology/vep.php (accessed January 20, 2008).

V5 may detect motion; all of V5 functions are yet to be discovered.

Swank, John. 2002. http://www.johnswank.com/johnswankcom/tova.htm. (accessed January 20, 2008).

Motion: Velocity Transposition The size of the target in proportion to the size of the background affects strikingly its perceived speed. This phenomenon is called velocity transposition and can be regarded as a form of motion constancy. It takes into account that the retinal image velocity, like retinal image extent, is inversely proportional to the distance of the imaged object from the observer. Velocity transposition can be demonstrated most simply by using two squares, each of which is moved behind a separate aperture with the size proportion of the squares and their apertures being 1:2. Observes, asked to adjust the velocity of one display until it appears to match that of the other, typically give an equality match when the physical speed of movement of the large aperture is set at almost twice the speed of the motion of the small aperture. This general effect of target size and its background on perceived speed has been recently confirmed and further elaborated by Ryan & Zanker; it also extends to motion extrapolation. Thus, perceived velocity of an object depends on the relation of object size relative to aperture size as well as on its physical speed in that it maintains constancy of an objectâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s velocity despite variations in its distance and corresponding retinal projections.

Velocity transposition. When an observer is asked to adjust the speeds of the two squares until they match in perceived speed, the square in a must move about twice as fast than that in b (motion field a is double the size of motion field b). That is, if a motion field is transposed in its linear dimensions, the stimulus speeds need to be transposed in an approximately like amount for perceived velocity to appear equal.

Basics of Seeing Motion. http://www.abonet.com.br/abo/665/abo66505.htm. (accessed January 22, 2008).

Motion: Retinal Image Induced Motion, Autokinesis Stationary visual context, a condition mentioned before to increase motion sensitivity can also lead to illusions of motion. In such cases, motion is attributed to the wrong part of the visual display, for example, when the moon is seen racing through the clouds on a windy night. The moving clouds induce motion of the quasi-stationary moon (34). Another example of induced motion is the experience that our train starts moving while actually another train leaves the platform. When the induced and inducing objects are in close spatial proximity, the effect is referred to as motion contrast, whereas induced motion typically refers to conditions in which test and inducing objects are spatially separated. An easy experimental demonstration of induced motion is a luminous stationary dot presented inside a large, luminous diamond or circle in a dark room). When the circle is displaced (steadily moved or successively presented at two positions), it is the dot that will normally be seen to move in opposite direction. Under both real and stroboscopic motion conditions, one of two stimuli needs to be larger, enclosing the other. If the larger stimulus is moved, all or at least part of its motion is attributed to the smaller, enclosed stimulus. The enclosing figure is presumed to serve as a frame of reference relative to which the smaller stimulus is displaced(

Induced motion (adapted from Ehrenstein (12); see also Duncker (34)). A stationary dot appears to move in opposite direction to the actual displacement of the surrounding circle

Basics of Seeing Motion. http://www.abonet.com.br/abo/665/abo66505.htm. (accessed January 22, 2008).

Motion: Contrast and Assimilation When two targets travel at the same speed against a field of dots that move with a horizontal gradient of velocity, the target which is traveling faster than its immediate surround appears to have a larger absolute velocity than the target which is traveling slower than its immediate surround. This phenomenon reminds on brightness contrast and is analogously referred to as motion contrast; it has been recently shown to rely likewise on lateral inhibitory interactions among specialized neuronal detectors. Conversely, an example of motion assimilation has been reported by Bressan. She obtained an analog of brightness assimilation in the velocity domain. The stimulus display consisted of two sets of three horizontal rows each. Dots moved horizontally at a constant speed across the screen; whenever a dot disappeared at one end of the screen a new dot appeared on the other end, producing a continuous stream of moving elements. The velocities of the test rows were varied across trials, and were slightly more or less. Observers had to compare the apparent velocity of the two test rows and to report which row appeared to be moving faster. Under these conditions, the test row flanked by high-speed rows looked faster not only when it actually was as fast as the other, flanked by low-speed rows, but even when it was actually slower. In order to be perceived as travelling at the same speed, the test-dot velocity in the upper set could be at least 0.6째/s slower than in the lower set. Velocity assimilation. (a) Brightness assimilation (MunkerWhite effect). Mid-grey patches (of identical luminane) appear darker on the left and lighter on the right, respectively; (b) Bressan effect. The arrows represent the stimulus velocities. Although the solid dots of the upper set and of the lower set are moving with the same physical speed, those in the upper set appear to be moving faster than those in the lower set.

Basics of Seeing Motion. http://www.abonet.com.br/abo/665/abo66505.htm. (accessed January 22, 2008).

Motion Retinal image motion can result from displacement either of the object relative to a stationary environment, or of the observer relative to a stationary object. Both object and observer can also move together. All these conditions cause changes in the pattern of stimulation at the retina, but despite these we retain an appropriate representation of both our position in space as well as that of the object. Occasionally, errors do occur in our perception of motion, and these can be very instructive in understanding the nature of motion perception. For instance, illusory percepts of motion can arise from static patterns. Striking examples of apparent motion arising from a stationary black-and-white patterns are given in the image on the right. Most observers see a “sliding motion” of the inset relative to the surround. When the figure is slowly moved, the inner disk appears to float relative to the concentric annulus. Eye movements cannot account for this illusion, since it persists in stabilized vision where apparent motion is perceived not only for the disk, but also for the ring). This illusion is an example of intrafigural apparent motion and is possibly based on the modulating activity of slow hyperpolarizing potentials of “configural units” in cortical area V4. Not only do we perceive a structured meaningful world, but we see it composed of distinct objects some stationary, others moving in various directions at different rates of speed. An initial answer that one might think of is that changes in displacement of an image on the retina are detected. In fact, many cortical cells are sensitive to motion across the retina and thus could signal such changes. However, a problem arises with this simple account if you consider self-motion of the observer in the environment). Changes in retinal location can be due either to objects moving in the environment or to movements of the observer. How the perceptual system resolves the locus of motion constitutes a primary problem of motion research.

Basics of Seeing Motion. http://www.abonet.com.br/abo/665/abo66505.htm. (accessed January 22, 2008).

Motion: Adaptation And Aftereffects Prolonged inspection of a moving stimulus leads to a gradual decrease in perceived speed resulting from motion adaptation. For example, a slowly rotating spoke wheel viewed peripherally appears to slow down and ultimately come to an apparent standstill, although its physical speed is unchanged. When the speed of the wheel is slightly reduced, the perceived rotation resumes, but now in the opposite direction. The subsequent effects of motion adaptation can be vividly observed if you stare at a waterfall for some time and then look at a stationary scene, for example, the adjacent rocks. The scene will appear to be moving upward. This is called the waterfall illusion and is a striking example of a motion aftereffect. Motion aftereffects typically consist on illusory motion in opposite direction to previous exposure to continuous motion in the same direction. They provide evidence that motion perception is not merely bound on stimulus motion and indicate the dynamics of special direction-sensitive motion-units which are selectively adapted during stimulation.

Spiral aftereffect (adapted from Dvorรกk (1870), see Broerse, Dodwell, & Ehrenstein. Successive motion contrast in opposite direction is observed after rotation of the depicted spiral pattern. During rotation this spiral pattern will simultaneously induce opposite, expanding and contracting, motion aftereffects in retinally adjacent areas (inspection time of 30 s). The eyes cannot execute movements of expansion and contraction at the same time

Basics of Seeing Motion. http://www.abonet.com.br/abo/665/abo66505.htm. (accessed January 22, 2008).

Mach Motion Wheels Sector disc (Sektorenscheibe) in rapid motion used by Ernst Mach for his studies of visual perception (1865) When spum, the human eye perceives gradiated bands of different brightnesses either side of the gradient that are not present in the original image.

Department III. Max Planck Institute for the History of Science. http://www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/en/resrep00_01/Jahresbericht_2_5_section.html. (accessed January 21, 2008).

Dynamic Visual Acuity DVA involves the ability to detect detail when there is relative movement between the player and the object. It generally involves binocular vision. An athlete with good DVA is able to move his or her eyes, rather than the head or body, to follow the action. Dynamic visual acuity can be tested with a Kirschner rotator, which is an oculorotor device utilizing a Snellen chart projected onto a rotating mirror. Some doctors also test DVA using a dynamic acuity disc that can be purchased from Bernell, Inc. The disc is put it on a standard record player turntable and can test acuity at various speeds. The large letters on the disc are 10/30 (3/9) and small ones are 10/15 (3/4.5). DVA can be measured at 78, 45, and 33 rpm.

Laukkanen, Hannu and McCart, Emily. (2006) http://opt.pacificu.edu/ce/catalog/16593-NO/16593-NO.html. (accessed January 21, 2008).

Parietal Lobe / Inferior Temporal Cortex Parietal Lobeâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;integrates sensory information visuospatial processing Inferior Temporal Cortexâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;higher level visual processing face perception

ITC

Ventral Pathway

The Line Bisection Test The Line Bisection test simply requires the patient to determine the mid-point of a horizontal line. The line is presented on a piece of paper centered with respect to the patientâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s midline. The patient is asked to mark or indicate the exact middle of the line. The test is scored by measuring the deviation from the patientâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s perceived midpoint to the true center of the line. A deviation toward the ipsilateral side of the lesion is usually indicative of USI/N. For example, a patient with a right parietal lobe lesion would bisect the line more toward the right of the center. The deviation from the true midpoint of the line can depend on the extent or severity of the patientâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s USI/N. One of the problems associated with the line bisection test is that there are many different versions of it and the different versions are not standardized. Some investigators also feel that other factors, such as hemianopia, might influence the results of this test. One study found that the line bisection test missed 40% of USI/N patients. However, test-retest reliability was found to be 0.97 using an intra-class correlation coefficient (ICC). This indicates good reliability for the test. top normal subject performance bottom perceived midpoint for a patient with USI/N caused by right brain lesion

Laukkanen, Hannu and McCart, Emily. (2006) http://opt.pacificu.edu/ce/catalog/16593-NO/16593-NO.html. (accessed January 21, 2008).

Neglect Test In this test, patients cross out forty lines that are arranged pseudorandomly on a page. Albert (1973) reports that control subjects (subjects with no brain damage) cross out every line but that patients with neglect cross out fewer lines in the neglected half of the page than in the other half.

left Left-lesioned patient right Right-lesioned patient exhibiting neglect

Poizner, Howard, Edward S. Klima, and Ursula Bellugi. What the Hands Reveal About the Brain. Boston: MIT, 1990. pg 187. Laukkanen, Hannu and McCart, Emily. (2006) http://opt.pacificu.edu/ce/catalog/16593-NO/16593-NO.html. (accessed January 21, 2008).

The Clock Test The Clock Test is a part of the Behavioral Inattention Test battery that can be used as a test for representational inattention. There are different versions of the test, but all share the common theme of requiring that a clock face be drawn from memory. For patients with USI/N, the numbers on the clock are typically drawn or skewed towards the side of the circle ipsilateral to the brain lesion.

Clock test performance of USI / N patient with right brain lesion.

Laukkanen, Hannu and McCart, Emily. (2006) http://opt.pacificu.edu/ce/catalog/16593-NO/16593-NO.html. (accessed January 21, 2008).

Benton Revised Visual Retention The Benton test utilizes 10 cards, each containing one or more simple geometric figures. In the standard administration, each card is exposed for 10 seconds and the respondent is told to draw what was on the card immediately after its removal. The test thus requires spatial perception, immediate recall, and visuomotor reproduction of drawings. Performance is scored in terms of number of cards correctly reproduced and total number of errors.

Errors by a brain-injured patient on Benton Revised Visual Retention Test (Copying administration.) Upper design in each item is sample, lower is repondentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s copy. In addition to distortions and size errors, note omission of small peripheral figures in designs v and vii.

Anastasi. Psychological Testing. p 486.

The Rey-Osterreith Complex Figure The Rey-Osterreith Complex Figure (ROCF) was devised in 1941 by the Swiss psychologist Andre Rey (cited in Lezak, 1983) for the purpose of assessing perceptual organization and visual memory in brain injured subjects. Since that time, wide use of the Rey-Osterreith Complex Figure has been reported, yet little empirical data can be found to support its use. Waber and Holmes (1986) reported that the ROCF “permits assessment of a variety of cognitive processes, including planning and organizational skills and problem-solving strategies, as well as perceptual, motor, and memory functions.” It is quick, easy, and inexpensive to administer. Test administration, when described, was generally consistent with Osterreith’s standardized procedure. Lezak (1983) describes the procedure as follows: The subject is first instructed to copy the figure, which has been so set out that its length runs along the subject’s horizontal plane. The examiner watches the subject’s performance closely. Each time the subject completes a section of the drawing, the examiner hands him a different colored pencil and notes the order of colors. Time to completion is recorded and both test figure and the subject’s drawings are removed. This is usually followed by one or more recall trials.

Dumont, Willis. 2001. http://alpha.fdu.edu/psychology/rocf.htm. (accessed March 1, 2008). Poizner, Klima, and Bellugi. What the Hands Reveal About the Brain. pg 184.

Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test This test evaluates visual-perceptual and visual-motor functioning, yielding possible signs of brain dysfunction, emotional problems, and developmental maturity.

Swiercinsky, Dennis P. 2001. http://www.brainsource.com/nptests.htm. (accessed March 2, 2008). Anastasi. Psychological Testing. p 487.

Cancellation Test In cancellation tests, numbers, letters, words and/or images are presented in either a structured on unstructured format. Each element (letter, number, etc.) occurs the same number of times on each side of the test. Subjects are instructed to either cross out or circle one specific type of element in the presentation, such as the letter ‘E’. The product of this exercise can then be examined for the difference in the number of cancellations performed on the halves of the test. For controls, there is no systematic bias in the number of items cancelled on each side of the test, but people with unilateral neglect usually cross out considerably more items on the right side than on the left side of the test. Examples of cancellation of tests include the C’s and E’s Test, the 2 and 7 Cancellation Test, the Star Cancellation Test, the Bells Test, the Test of Visual Neglect, and Navon Figures.

Original navon figures

Groome, David. An Introduction to Cognitive Psychology Processes and Disorders. http://www.psypress.com/groome/figures.asp. (accessed January 21, 2008).

Unilateral Spatial Inattention / Neglect: Mesulam and Weintraub Test Mesulam and Weintraub developed a test of visual scanning which they believed would be effective in evaluating hemispatial neglect. The Mesulam â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Weintraub Cancellation task consists of four test forms utilising structured and unstructured arrays of verbal and non-verbal stimuli. Subjects are asked to circle all of the targets they can find using different coloured pencils so that after every ten targets or a specified time the subject changes pencils so that their search pattern may be identified. The targets are the letter â&#x20AC;&#x153;Aâ&#x20AC;? in the verbal and the symbol in the nonverbal arrays. These authors reported that normal adults less than 50 years old could complete each of the four tests without error in less than two minutes. Those older than 50 would be expected to make no more than one error per array and those over 80 would still be considered to function within the normal range with as many as four omissions per array.

Examples of gradiant of neglect for patients that have unilateral spatial neglect.

Dawes, Sharon and Graeme Senior. 2002. http://www.usq.edu.au/users/senior/Posters/NAN%202001%20MWCT.htm (accessed January 21, 2008).

Drawing Test (with model) This test may be administered with or without models. In this example, the test was administered with a model. Drawings of the right-lesioned patients showed spatial disorganization, left hemisphatial neglect, and lack of perspective.

Right-brain lesion subjects

Poizner, Klima, and Bellugi. What the Hands Reveal About the Brain. pg 194.

Left-brain lesion subjects

WAIS-R: Block Design Test In the Wechsler block design test, subjects assembles either four or nine three-dimensional blocks, the surfaces of which are colored red or withe or half-red and half-white, to match a two dimensional model of the top surface. Hearing patients with right-hemisphere damage consistently demonstrate greater impairment than patients with left hemisphere damage. Right-hemisphere damage impairs the maintenance of the overall configuration and increases the likelihood of a piecemeal approach to the problem. In contrast damage to the left hemisphere produces little change in patientsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; treatment of the overall configuration of the design. Left-lesioned subjects do, however, often err on the internal features of the design and tend to make more errors on the right-handed side of the design.

Poizner, Klima, and Bellugi. What the Hands Reveal About the Brain. pg 177.

Drawing Test (without model) This test may be administered with or without models. In this example, the test was administered without using a model. Patients were asked to draw a clock with two hands and numbers; a daisy, an elephant, a cube, and a house. Patients that suffer from damage to the left hemisphere would lack attention to the right side of their images and patients with right hemisphere damage would have difficulty with the left side of their drawings.

Poizner, Klima, and Bellugi. What the Hands Reveal About the Brain. pgs 175, 179.

Visual Mask Problem Cross-hatching or shading over simple drawings, letters, or words may destroy the underlying percept for some patients. Luria (1965, 1966) found this disability among patients whose lesions involved the occipital lobe; left hemisphere patients experienced difficulty with letters and right hemisphere patients were unable to identify such simple drawings as a clock face or a table when they were shaded.

right Perception of crossed-out figures by patients with optic agnosia below Samples of visual masking test

LeZak. Neuropsychological Assessment. p 368.

Optic Ataxia Ataxia usually follows damage to the neocortex and is the inability to conduct meaningful movements or movements on command in the absence of paralysis or other sensory impairments (Kolb & Whishaw, 1996). Optic ataxia occurs when the patient has a deficit in reaching under visual guidance that cannot be explained by motor, somatosensory, visual field deficits or acuity deficits. The involvement of the posterior parietal cortex in visuomotor behavior has been extensively illustrated. The parietal lobe is divided into two functional regions. One involves sensation and perception, the other involves integrating sensory input, primarily with the visual system. It is this second region that is of concern for optic ataxia.

Participants are asked to draw a line around a shape, place a dot at the center of the circle and cross. Example A is the result of the experiment completed by a patient who has optic ataxia. The second example shows the disappearance of the signs of optic ataxia in the same patient after an injection of caffeine

Denes , Gianfranco and Luigi Pizzamiglio. 1999. Handbook of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology. (London, Psychology Press) p 461. University of Johannesburg. http://general.rau.ac.za/psych/Resources/Honours/Neuropsych/Downloads/downloadstr/Frontal%20lobes/ design%20fluency.jpg (accessed March 9, 2008).

Aphasia Tests (various) Several aphasia and language tests examine level of competency in receptive and expressive language skills. (e.g., Reitan-Indiana Aphasia Screening Test) In the example to the right, subjects are shown the image and asked to identify objects that they recognize.

Swiercinsky, Dennis P. 2001. http://www.brainsource.com/nptests.htm. (accessed March 2, 2008). University of Johannesburg. http://general.rau.ac.za/psych/Resources/Honours/Neuropsych/Downloads/downloadstr/Frontal%20lobes/ design%20fluency.jpg (accessed March 2, 2008).

Facial Recognition Test This test was developed to examine the ability to recognize faces without involving a memory component. The patient matches identical front views, front with side views, and front views taken under different lighting conditions. The originaltest has 22 stimulus cards and calls for 54 separate matches. Six items involve only single responses and 16 items call for three matches to the sample photograph.

These photograph illustrate the three parts of the test: (a) matching of identical front-views. (b) matching of front-view with three-quarter views. (c) matching of frontview under different lighting condiions.

LeZak. Neuropsychological Assessment. p. 351-352.

ITC

Declarative Memory Test Memory engrams of declarative knowledge or experience are ultimately stored in the cerebral association cortices, as a consequence of the structural and functional reorganization of neural circuits. In humans and monkeys, declarative memory formation has been assessed by pair-association tests, which evaluate the learning of new associative relationships between paired words or figures. The inferior temporal (IT) cortex is thought to store visual pair-association memory because monkey IT cortex neurons can encode new associations between visual objects and because lesions of this cortex produce mnemonic deficits. However, it remains unclear whether the mnemonic functions of the IT cortex are related to molecular specialization in this region. A candidate for such a molecular correlate is brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), which is suggested to mediate activity-dependent synaptic plasticity, even in mature nervous systems. BDNF induces morphological changes in axonal and dendritic complexity, and its expression is regulated by changes in neuronal activity. Thus, we hypothesized that BDNF is upregulated in the monkey IT cortex during the formation of visual pair-association memory. Such upregulation may cause neuronal circuit reorganization of the IT cortex, and would modulate stimulus selectivity of IT neurons so that they would encode new stimulus−stimulus associations between visual objects. Here we tested this hypothesis by mRNA quantitation in combination with three experimental strategies. First, we used split-brain monkeys for intra-animal comparison of mRNA expression, rather than comparing separate groups of animals, eliminating genetic and cognitive variations between individuals. Second, we used a visual memory task as the control rather than using a no-task condition. Each split-brain monkey did a visual pair-association task using one hemisphere and a control visual memory task using the other hemisphere. Use of the control visual memory task balanced the amount of visual input and motor activity of the two hemispheres. Third, we trained the monkeys to first learn a ‘rule’ or ‘strategy’ component of the tasks with training stimulus sets; a test

stimulus set was then introduced for new learning of declarative components of the task (Results). Before the learning process with the test stimulus was complete, the animals were perfused, and brains processed for mRNA quantitation. With this experimental design, we found BDNF mRNA upregulation in area 36 of the IT cortex during the formation of pair-association memory, but not in areas involved in earlier stages of visual processing.

Wataru Tokuyama, Hiroyuki Okuno1, Takanori Hashimoto, Yue Xin Li, and Yasushi Miyashita. http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v3/n11/ full/nn1100_1134.html (accessed March 9, 2008),

ITC

Prefrontal Cortex complex cognitive behaviors personality consciousness executive function conscious thought

Dorsal Pathway

PFC

Five Point Test This test measures the production of novel designs under time constraints. Figural fluency tests have been developed as nonverbal analogues to word fluency tasks. Jones-Gotman and Milnerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s design fluency task (1977) has several problems that restric its widespread use. In an attempt to overcome some of these limitations, regard et al. (1982) provided an alternative figural fluency tasks, the Five-Point test. Administration of the test requires having subjects produce as many different figures as possible by connecting the dots within each rectangle.

LeZak. Neuropsychological Assessment. p 203.

PFC

7 / 24 Test This completely nonverbal memory task has the virtue of testing visospatial recall without requiring either keen eyesight or good motor control. In the original version of this test, seven poker chips are randomly placed on a 6 x 4 checkerboard. Presentation is in 10-second units. After each 10-second exposure, the subject attempts to reproduce the original seven chip pattern with nine chips and an empty board. Learning trials are repeated until the subject masters the task or has exhausted 15 trials. After each trial, the examiner notes the number of correctly placed chips. On the first trial this number represents the immediate visual recall span. The total number of trials and the time taken to learn the task is also recorded. Retesting is conducted after five minutes, 30 minutes, and 24 hours. Patients who cannot learn 7/24 in 15 trials are tested a week later with five chips. If they fail this simpler task after 15 trials, the following week the test is repeated with three chips.

LeZak. Neuropsychological Assessment. p. 457.

PFC

Elithorn Perceptual Maze Elithorn’s mazes are based on his view that ‘perceptual skills are phylogenetically fundamental components of intelligent behavior.’ Elithorn originally intended the Perceptual Maze test to be a cluture-free, nonverbal ‘intelligence test.’ One version of the test consists of 18 lattice-type mazes that rquire the subject to trace a line as quickly as he can from the top to the bottom of the lattice through as many of the randomly placed choice points as possible. Thus besides perceptual activities, the patient must comprehend a somewhat complex task, count, keep track of several numbers and the paths they represent, and choose between alternate routes.

LeZak. Neuropsychological Assessment. p. 368-369.

PFC

Porteus Maze The Porteus Maze Test is a nonverbal test of performance intelligence. It is a graded set of paper forms on which the subject traces the way from a starting point to an exit; the subject must avoid blind alleys along the way. There are no time limits. The mazes vary in complexity from simple diamond shape for the average three-year-old to intricate labyrinths for adults. There are three sets of mazes: the original (the Vineland series), and two supplements, the Extension and the Supplement.

Porteus Maze Test. Center for Psycholgical Studies. http://www.cps.nova.edu/~cpphelp/PMT.html (acceessed March 4, 2008). LeZak. Neuropsychological Assessment. p 511.

PFC

Match Problem Remove a specified number of matchsticks, leaving a specified number of squares or triangles.

Anastasi. Psychological Testing. p 407.

PFC

Benton Visual Retention Test The Benton Revised Visual Retention Test is a widely used instrument that assesses visual perception, visual memory, and visuoconstructive abilities. Because it measures perception of spatial relations and memory for newly learned material, it is used in clinical diagnosis of brain damage and dysfunction in children and adults, as well as in research. The Benton, as it is usually called, has three alternate forms, each of which consists of ten designs. In addition, there are four possible modes of administration. Test interpretation is based on an assessment of the number and types of errors made and involves several levels of analysis for diagnostic purposes. The examiner compares the examineeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s obtained scores with the expected scores found in the norm tables. When examining the difference between these scores for the number correct, the wider the discrepancy in favor of the expected score, the more probable it is that the examinee has suffered neurological impairment.

Benton Visual Retention Test. Center for Psycholgical Studies. http://www.cps.nova.edu/~cpphelp/BVRT.html (accessed March 4, 2008).

PFC

Booba / Kiki Test Two shapes, one with curves and one with points, are shown and viewers are asked to pick the shape that is ‘booba’ and ‘kiki.’ 95-98 percent of respondents pick the blob as booba and the jagged shape as kiki. This is also true for non-English-speaking Tamillians for home the shapes bear no resemblance to visual shapes of the Tamil alphabet corresponds to B or K. The effect demonstrates the brain’s ability to engage in cross-model abstraction of properties such as jaggedness or curviness. Our preliminary results suggest that the effect is compromised in patients with left angular gyrus lesions who also have difficulties with metaphor.

Ramachandran. A Brief Tour of Human Consciousness. p 73.

PFC

Which shape looks like the word ‘booba” and which one looks like “kiki”?

Poppelreuter Overlapping Test This test was originally devised by Poppelreuter (1917) to study the psychological effects of heead injuries incurred in World War 1. The patient is asked to name as many of the objects as he can. Patients can fail this test in several ways. One noted difference is the inability to percive more than one object at a time or to shift gaze that may accompany a posterior lesion and pasivity or intertia of gaze, perseverated responses, or confused responsese that are more likely to be associated with an anterior lesions.

LeZak. Neuropsychological Assessment.p 364. University of Johannesburg. http://general.rau.ac.za/psych/Resources/Honours/Neuropsych/Downloads/downloadstr/Frontal%20lobes/ design%20fluency.jpg (accessed March 9, 2008).

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Barron Welsh Art Figure Preference Test First developed in the 1950s, this test has been used widely in research. The procedure is simple and the test is widely applicable to adults and children. The test takers merely indicate whether they ‘like’ or ‘dont’ like’ each of 400 black and white geometric designs. Subsequent research suggested that performance on the scale may be related to creativity not only in art but also in other fields (Barron, 1965; Welsh, 1975, 1980). There is a considerable accumulation of data on the relation of the Barron-Welsh scale to personality variables.

Anastasi. Psychological Testing. p 630.

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Design Fluency Test The Design Fluency Test that was developed as a nonverbal counterpart of Thurstone’s Word Fluency Test that is used to examine conceptual productivity. In the first–free condition –trial, the subject is asked to ‘invent’ drawings that represent neither actual objects nor nameable abstract forms, e.g. geometric shapes, and that are not merely scribbles. After being shown examples of acceptable and unacceptable drawings, subjects are given five-minutes in which to make up as many different kinds of drawings as they can, “many” and “different” being emphasized in the instructions. The second, four-minute trial is the fixed four line condition in which acceptable drawings are limited to four lines, straight or curved. Again the subject is shown acceptable and unacceptable examples and the instructions place emphasis on the subject’s making as many different drawings as possible. Frontal lobe patients tended to have reduced output on both free and fixed conditions relative to normal subjects and patients with posterior lesions. Patients with rightsided lesions generally tended to have lower productivity (except right posterior patients on the free condition), and those with right frontal lesions were least productive. Patients with frontal – particularly right frontal – and right central lesions showed the greatest tendency to preservation relative to the control group on both free and fixed conditions.

LeZak. Neuropsychological Assessment.. p 520. University of Johannesburg. http ://general.rau.ac.za/psych/Resources/Honours/Neuropsych/Downloads/downloadstr/Frontal%20lobes/ design%20fluency.jpg (accessed March 9, 2008).

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Memory for Designs Models There are any number of abbreviated tests of memory for designs that call for a five- or ten-second exposure followed immediately or after a brief delay, by a drawing trial in which the subject attempts to depict what he remembers.

LeZak. Neuropsychological Assessment. p. 368-369.

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Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale—III This set of 13 separate “subtests” produces measures of memory, knowledge, problem solving, calculation, abstract thinking, spatial orientation, planning, and speed of mental processing. In addition to summary measures of intelligence, performance on each subtest yields implications for different neurofunctional domains. The set of tests takes about an hour or more to administer. The WAIS-III is often the foundation for a comprehensive neuropsychological assessment.

Swiercinsky, Dennis P. 2001. http://www.brainsource.com/nptests.htm. (accessed March 2, 2008).

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Cognistat This screening test examines language, memory, arithmetic, attention, judgment, and reasoning. It is typically used in screening individuals who cannot tolerate more complicated or lengthier neuropsychological tests.

Blocks used in a section of test.

Swiercinsky, Dennis P. 2001. http://www.brainsource.com/nptests.htm. (accessed March 2, 2008). Cognistat. 2005. http://www.cognistat.com/osCommerce/index.php. (accessed March 2, 2008).

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Son Nonverbal Intelligence Test The SON-nonverbal test is a general intelligence test for children between the ages of 2.5 and 7 years. It assesses a broad spectrum of cognitive abilities without involving the use of language. This makes it especially suited to children with difficulties in the area of language and verbal communication and for children for whom English is not the first language. SON comprises six different subtests which are administered in the order below: Mosaics

Copy different mosaic patterns using

Categories Sort cards into two groups according to the category to which they belong; Two must be chosen that have the same thing in common. Puzzles

Three to six separate puzzle pieces together to form a whole.

Analogies

Sort discs into two compartments on the basis of form and/or color and/or size; Solve an analogy problem.

Situations

Half of each of four pictures is printed. The missing halves must be matched up; one or two pieces are missing from a drawing and the correct piece(s) must be selected from a number of alternatives.

Patterns

Copy a simple pattern; copy complex patterns.

Mosaics test

Analogy test

The sub-tests can be grouped into two types: reasoning (Categories, Analogies and Situations) and spatial performance tests, (Mosaics, Puzzles and Patterns). The performance tests are so-called because the item is solved while manipulating the test stimuli. In the reasoning tests the correct solution is chosen from a number of given alternatives. However, perceptual, spatial and reasoning ability play a role in all of the sub-tests.

SON-R Nonverbal Intelligence Test. Test and Test Research. http://www.testresearch.nl/sonre/sonr5e.html. (accessed January 21, 2008).

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Fluency Test Different forms of this procedure exist, evaluating nonverbal mental flexibility. Often compared with tests of verbal fluency. Participants are asked to look at various designs and complete cognitive tasks.

Swiercinsky, Dennis P. 2001. http://www.brainsource.com/nptests.htm. (accessed March 2, 2008). Public Service Commission of Canada. 2007. http://www.psc-cfp.gc.ca/ppc/assessment_pg2_kc_e.htm. (accessed March 2, 2008).

Figure Completion Identify the figure that logically completes the series.

Figure Analogies Identify the relationship between the first two figures, then select the answer figure that bears the same relationship to the third figure.

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Visual Retention Test With the goal of minimizing verbal meditation, Warrington and James developed a multiple-choice recognition test. Twenty 5 x 5 inch white squares, each containing four blackened squares variously positioned so that no two stimulus figures are alike, comprise the test material. Following a two second exposure of each stimulus figure, the patient must choose the identical figure from a set of four similar figures. A second administration follows the first, differing in duration of exposure (10 seconds) and in a 180Â° rotation of the stimulus figures. Three error scores result, one for each administration and one for their sum. A significant association between performance on Block Design and this test attests to its usefulness for evaluating visuospatial perceptual processing.

LeZak. Neuropsychological Assessment. p 369 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 370.

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Paper Folding Test The Paper Folding test involves showing participants a sequence of folds in a piece of paper, through which a set of holes is then punched. The participants must choose which of a set of unfolded papers with holes corresponds to the one they have just seen.

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Spatial Visualization Ability.â&#x20AC;? Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatial_Visualization_Ability (accessed March 4, 2008). RK. 2007. http://www.smart-kit.com/s741/paper-folding-and-cutting-with-circles/ (accessed March 2, 2008).

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Visual Search This test is part of both the computer assisted and the manual forms of the Repeatable-Cognitive-PerceptualMotor batter. The test booklet of the manual form contains four versions of the 9 x 9 checker board pattern stimulus figures. The subjectâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s task is to indicate in which of the outlying grids is the position of the two little black squares like that of eight center test grids. The test is scored for time and errors. In its original format, using 16 stimulus figures projected on a screen, brain damaged patients performed the Visual Search task at a much slower rate than normal control subjects, and considerably more slowly than neurologically intact psychiatric patients. (G. Goldstein et al., 1973). Error scores did not discriminate between these groups. Time scores have also proven useful in evaluating the effects of medication changes on the mental functioning of epileptics. (R. Lewis and Kupke, 1977).

LeZak. Neuropsychological Assessment. p 369 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 370.

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Swiercinsky, Dennis P. 2001. http://www.brainsource.com/nptests.htm. (accessed March 2, 2008).

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Raven Standard Progressive Matrices The Standard Progressive Matrices (SPM) was designed to measure a person’s ability to form perceptual relations and to reason by analogy independent of language and formal schooling, and may be used with persons ranging in age from 6 years to adult. It is the first and most widely used of three instruments known as the Raven’s Progressive Matrices, the other two being the Coloured Progressive Matrices (CPM) and the Advanced Progressive Matrices (APM). All three tests are measures of Spearman’s g. The SPM consists of 60 items arranged in five sets (A, B, C, D, & E) of 12 items each. Each item contains a figure with a missing piece. Below the figure are either six (sets A & B) or eight (sets C through E) alternative pieces to complete the figure, only one of which is correct. Each set involves a different principle or “theme” for obtaining the missing piece, and within a set the items are roughly arranged in increasing order of difficulty. The raw score is typically converted to a percentile rank by using the appropriate norms.

Raven Standard Progressive Matricies. Center for Psycholgical Studies. http://www.cps.nova.edu/~cpphelp/RSPM.html (accessed March 4, 2008).

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Wisconsin Card Sort Test The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test® (WCST) is a neuropsychological test of “set-shifting”, i.e. the ability to display flexibility in the face of changing schedules of reinforcement. Similar in concept to the Category Test, this procedure also measures the ability to learn concepts. It is considered a good measure of frontal lobe functioning. Initially, a number of stimulus cards are presented to the participant. He or she is then given a stack of additional cards and asked to match each one to one of the stimulus cards, thereby forming separate piles of cards for each. The participant is not told how to match the cards; however, he or she is told whether a particular match is right or wrong. The original WCST used paper cards and was carried out with the experimenter on one side of the desk facing the participant on the other. Since the early 1990s, however, computerized versions of the task have been available, the most recent version being the windowscompatible version 4.0.[2] The latter has the advantage of automatically scoring the test, which was quite complex in the manual version. The test takes approximately 12-20 minutes to carry out and generates a number of psychometric scores, including numbers, percentages, and percentiles of: categories achieved, trials, errors, and perseverative errors.

Swiercinsky, Dennis P. 2001. http://www.brainsource.com/nptests.htm. (accessed March 2, 2008). “Wisconsin Card Sort.” Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wisconsin_card_sort (accessed March 4, 2008). University of Johannesburg. http://general.rau.ac.za/psych/Resources/Honours/Neuropsych/Downloads/downloadstr/Frontal%20lobes/ design%20fluency.jpg (accessed March 2, 2008).

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Leiter International Performance Scale In an effort to construct tests applicable across cultures, psychometricians have followed a variety of procedures, an example being the Leiter International performance Scale. A distinctive feature of the Leiter scale is the almost complete elimination of instructions, either spoken or pantomime. Each test begins with a very easy task of the type to be encountered throughout that test. The comprehension of the task is treated as part of the test. The materials consist of a response frame, (illustrated on opposite page) with an adjustable card holder. All tests are administered by attaching the appropriate card, containing printed pictures, to the frame. The test take chooses the blocks with the proper response pictures and inserts them into the frame. The Leiter scale was designed to cover a wide range of functions, similar to those found in verbal scales. Among the tasks included are: matching identical colors, shades of gray, forms, or pictures; copying a block design; picture completion; number estimation; analogies; series completion; recognition of age differences; spatial relations; footprint recognition; similarities; memory for a series; and classification of animals according to habitat. Administered individually, with no time limit, these tests are arranged into year levels from 2â&#x20AC;&#x201C;18.

Anastasi. Psychological Testing. p 299 â&#x20AC;&#x201C;300.

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Naglieri Nonverbal Test A typical nonverbal test item from the Naglieri Nonverbal Ability Test (NNAT) is shown in the figure. A student must see the patterns formed by the shapes organized into groups, then choose an answer that completes the pattern. Actual test items use blue, white, and yellow because these colors are most easily perceived by those with color-impaired vision. In this example, the child has to understand that the three shapes form a pattern throughout the three-by-three matrix. The circle forms a diagonal line from the bottom right to the top left. The triangles and the squares form their own alternating pattern; once the child understands it, he or she can choose the correct option

Naglieri, Jack. 2002. Nonverbal Assessment of Ability. http://www.dukegiftedletter.com/articles/vol5no4_tt.html. (accessed January 21, 2008).

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General Competency Test: Level 2 The purpose of the General Competency Test: Level 2 (GCT2) is to assess an individualâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s general cognitive ability - the ability to use reasoning skills to solve problems required for officer level positions. It can be used to assist managers in making selection decisions for appointment or for placement in training programs, identifying training and development needs, and counseling for career transitions. The General Competency Test: Level 2 (GCT2) consists of 90 multiple-choice questions, with no sub-tests. There are five types of questions:

Vocabulary Figural Relations Number and Letter Series Numerical Problems Analytical Reasoning

The GCT2 takes about 2 1/2 hours to write, including time for administrative purposes. When the test is used for screening purposes, the minimum pass mark is 51/90. Managers can use a higher cut-off score depending on the level of ability required by the position. The Personnel Psychology Centreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s 48-hour scoring service sends results to the test centre which in turn informs the candidates of their scores. There are two types of figural relations questions. above Identify the figure that logically completes the series. below Identify the relationship between the first two figures, then select the answer figure that bears the same rela-tionship to the third figure.

Public Service Commission of Canada. http://www.psc-cfp.gc.ca/ppc/assessment_pg2_ka_e.htm. (accessed March 16, 2008). Public Service Commission of Canada. 2007. http://www.psc-cfp.gc.ca/ppc/assessment_pg2_kc_e.htm. (accessed March 2, 2008).

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Making Objects: Demonstration Item Draw specified objects using only a set of given figures, like circle, triangle, etc. any givn figure may be used repeatedy for the same object and may be changed in size, but no other figures or lines may be added.

Anastasi. Psychological Testing. p. 406.

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Trail Making Tests A and B These tests measure attention, visual searching, mental processing speed, and the ability to mentally control simultaneous stimulus patterns. These tests are sensitive to global brain status but are not too sensitive to minor brain injuries. The Taylor Number Series was the original form of the test which consisted of connecting a series of numbers from 1 to 50. Partington revised the test and renamed it A Test of Distributed Attention, but not long after, the name of the test was once again changed, this time to the Partington Pathway Test. Around 1944, the test became part of the Army Individual Test of General Ability and was given the name Trail Making Test, and is now part of the Halstead-Reitan Test Battery. The test was standardized by Partington and Leiter who found the test to be a good predictor of general mental ability. The test consists of two parts, A and B, and since it is a test of speed, the examiner should stress the importance of time and efficiency. Part A consists of encircled numbers from 1 to 25 randomly spread across a sheet of paper. The object of the test is for the subject to connect the numbers in order, beginning with 1 and ending with 25, in as little time as possible. Part B is more complex than A because it requires the subject to connect numbers and letters in an alternating pattern (1-A-2-B-3-C, etc.) in as little time as possible. Because Part B requires more thought processing and attention on behalf of the subject, it takes longer to complete the test. Normally, the entire test can be completed in 5 to 10 minutes. Scores are calculated by adding the time it takes for the subject to complete Part A with the time it takes to complete Part B, so it is extremely important for one to understand the directions fully before the pencil touches the paper and time begins. If an error is made, the examiner will point it out to the patient for correction and have them return to and continue from the correct location while the clock remains running. Errors are recorded and the patient continues with the test.

above Test A right Test B

Swiercinsky, Dennis P. 2001. http://www.brainsource.com/nptests.htm. (accessed March 2, 2008). Assessing and Counseling Older Drivers. http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/PEOPLE/injury/olddrive/OlderDriversBook/images/Trail-Making.gif (accessed March 2, 2008). Alsworth, Melonie.1997. http://neuro.psyc.memphis.edu/NeuroPsyc/np-test1.htm#trails (accessed March 4, 2008).

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Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test The development of the Stanford-Binet IQ test initiated the modern field of intelligence testing. The StanfordBinet itself started with the French psychologist Alfred Binet who was charged by the French government with developing a method of identifying intellectually deficient children for placement in special education programs. As Binet indicated, case studies may be more detailed and at times more helpful, but the time required to test large numbers of people would be huge. Unfortunately, the tests he and his assistant Victor Henri (1892-1940) developed in 1896 were largely disappointing (Fancher, 1985). Later on, Alfred Binet and physician Theodore Simon collaborated in their work concerning mental retardation in French school children. Between 1905 and 1908, their research at a school for boys in Grange-aux-Belles, France led to the development of the Binet-Simon tests. Employing questions of increasing difficulty, this test measured such things as attention, memory, and verbal skills. Binet cautioned people that these scores should not be taken too literally because of the plasticity of intelligence and the inherent margin of error in the test (Fancher, 1985). In 1916, Stanford psychologist Lewis Terman released the “Stanford Revision of the Binet-Simon Scale” or the “Stanford-Binet” for short. With the help of several graduate students and validation experiments, he removed several of the Binet-Simon test items and added completely new ones.

A Binet test kit

http://www.flyfishingdevon.co.uk/salmon/year3/psy339evaluation-evolutionary-psychology/binet-test-materials.jpg. (accessed January 20, 2008). “Stanford Binet IQ Test.” Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford-Binet_IQ_test. (accessed January 19, 2008).

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Evaluation of Directionality Reversal frequency test (5â&#x20AC;&#x201C;15 year olds) This test consists of three subtests that assess different aspects of directionality. This test evaluates the existence, nature, and frequency of occurrence of receptive letter and number reversals (reversals that the child can recognize). In this test, the child is asked to mark off those letters and numbers that are written backward or reversed. (opposite page). Once seated properly, the child is asked to carefully work through the six lines of the test worksheet and cross out the numbers or letters that appear backward. This test is untimed and the child is allowed to erase marks. Nevertheless, it is important for the examiner to observe and take into consideration the amount of time it takes and the ease with which the child completes the task.

For the Gardner Reversal Frequency Test; Recognition subtest, the child is asked to mark off those letters and numbers that are written backward or reversed.

Scheiman. Understanding and Managing Vision Defecits. p 73, 75.

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Rorschach Projective Technique This familiar inkblot test is used to evaluate complex psychological dynamics. Persons with brain injury have been shown to produce certain kinds of responses that can complement other tests and help to understand personality changes associated with brain injury.

Swiercinsky, Dennis P. 2001. http://www.brainsource.com/nptests.htm. (accessed March 2, 2008). The Hermann Rorschach Archives and Museum. http://www.stub.unibe.ch/html/rorschach/en/ (accessed March 2, 2008).

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Mental Re-orientation Test This test is an example of a spatial orientation test devised for neuropsychological studies (see figure opposite). The “Little Men” figures can be presented by slide projection or on cards. Each of the four positions is shown eight times; in half the cases the black disc is on the figure’s right, in half on the left. The subject’s task is to state whether the back disk is on the figure’s right or left side. Before and after the test, the subjects were given 12 trials of a simple right-left discrimination task (indicating whether a black circle was right or left of a white one) that did not involve reorientation in order to evaluate accuracy of simple rightleft discrimination. Comparing small subgoup samples, Ratcliff found that patients with right posterior lesions made more errors than any other group. Although patients with bilateral posterior damage made the second highest number of errors, differences between this patient group and the groups with the lowest error scores (control, nonposterior, left posterior) did not reach statistical significance.

LeZak. Neuropsychological Assessment. p 542.

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WAIS Object Assembly This test contains four cut-up figures of familiar objects given in order of increasing difficulty. In order of presentation, the objects are a manikin, a profile, a hand, and an elephant. All responses are scored for both time and accuracy. Although each item has a time limit (2 min for the two easiest puzzles, three min for the others), partially complete responses receive credit, too. All the items are administered to every subject. Object assembly has the lowest association with general intellectual ability of all the Performance scale subtests and is second only to Digit Spain in weakness on this factor. Like block design, it is a relatively pure measure of the visuospatial organization ability. it requires little abstract thinking.

LeZak. Neuropsychological Assessment. p 284.

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Rosenzweig Picture-Frustration Study The Rosenzweig Picture Frustration test consists of 24 cartoon pictures, each portraying two persons in a frustrating situation. Each picture contains two “speech balloons,” a filled one for the “frustrator” or antagonist, and a blank one for the frustrated person, or protagonist. The subject is asked to fill in the blank balloon with his or her response to the situation, and the responses are scored in relation to a number of psychological defense mechanisms.

“Rosenzweig Picture Frustration Study.” Encyclopedia of Psychology. 2nd ed. Ed. Bonnie R. Strickland. Gale Group, Inc., 2001. eNotes.com. 2006. 4 Mar, 2008 <http://www.enotes.com/gale-psychology-encyclopedia/rosenzweig-picture-frustration-study> Jean-Louis Swiners et Jean-Michel Briet. 2004, 2005. http://www.intelligence-creative.com/450_resilience_creative.html (accessed march 4, 2008).

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Boehm Test The Boehm Test of Basic Concepts-Revised (BTBCR) was developed to measure the understanding of basic positional concepts of young children, that is, whether individuals in kindergarten, Grade 1, and Grade 2 can correctly identify a picture from among a choice of three when presented with verbal cues incorporating such terms as over, least, left, and so on. Based on these results, children can be identified as deficient in conceptual development, with resultant curricular implications.

Boehm, Anne. Center for Psycholgical Studies. http://www.cps.nova.edu/~cpphelp/BTBC-R.html (accessed March 16, 2008).

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Otis-Lennon School Ability Test The Otis-Lennon School Ability Test (OLSAT), published by Harcourt Assessment, Inc. — a subsidiary of Pearson plc — is a test of abstract thinking and reasoning ability of children pre-K to 18. The Otis-Lennon is a group-administered (except preschool), multiple choice, taken with pencil and paper, measures verbal, quantitative, and spatial reasoning ability. The test yields verbal and nonverbal scores, from which a total score is derived, called a School Ability Index (SAI). The SAI is a normalized standard score with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 16. With the exception of pre-K, the test is administered in groups. OLSAT is not an IQ test. The test has twenty-one subtests, organized into five areas, and an equal number of verbal and non-verbal items is included at each area. The five areas are:

Verbal comprehension Verbal reasoning Pictorial reasoning Figural reasoning Quantitative reasoning

“Otis-Lennon School Ability Test.” Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otis-Lennon_School_Ability_Test . (accessed March 16, 2008). Anastasi. Psychological Testing. p 324.

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Differential Aptitude Test One of the most widely used multiple aptitude batteries is the Differential Aptitude Tests. First published in 1947, the DAT has been revised periodically. This battery was designed principally for use in the educational and career counseling of students in Grades 8â&#x20AC;&#x201C;12. Although not utilizing factor analysis in its construction, the authors of the DAT were guided in their choice of tests that might be factorial research, as well as by practical counseling needs. The DAT yields the following eight scores: Verbal Reasoning, Numerical Ability, Abstract Reasoning, Clerical Speed and Accuracy, Mechanical Reasoning, Space Relations, Spelling and Language Usage.

Anastasi. Psychological Testing. p 392â&#x20AC;&#x201C;393.

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Personal Orientation This test calls for the patient : 1 to touch the parts of his body named by the examiner 2 to name parts of his body touched by the examiner 3 to touch those parts of the examinerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s body the examiner names 4 to touch his body in imitation of the examiner and 5 to touch his body according to numbered schematic diagrams of the body. A sixth task tests for astereognosis by asking for the names of seen and felt objects. A comparison of left and right hemisphere damaged patientsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; performances on this task indicates that the left hemisphere patients have greatest difficulty following verbal directions, whereas patients with right hemisphere lesions are more likely to ignore the left side of their body, orientation associated with left posterior lesions appears to be an aspect of a more global aphasic disorder; or it may follow from incomprehension of how single parts relate to a whole structure (De Renzi and Scotti, 1970). Disturbances of body schema occurring with frontal lesions seem to result from disturbances in scanning, perceptual shifting, and postural mechanisms (Teuber, 1964). Using part 5 of the this test, which is mostly nonverbal, F. P. Bowen (1976) showed that Parkinson patients, whose lesions primarily involve subcortical areas, suffered some defects in body orientation. Those whoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s symptoms were predominantly left-sided or bilateral made many more errors than patients with predominantly right-sided symptoms.

Swiercinsky, Dennis P. 2001. http://www.brainsource.com/nptests.htm. (accessed March 2, 2008). LeZak. Neuropsychological Assessment. p 539.

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Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test This set of 13 separate “subtests” produces measures of memory, knowledge, problem solving, calculation, abstract thinking, spatial orientation, planning, and speed of mental processing. In addition to summary measures of intelligence, performance on each subtest yields implications for different neurofunctional domains. The set of tests takes about an hour or more to administer. The WAIS-III is often the foundation for a comprehensive neuropsychological assessment.

“banana”

LeZak. Neuropsychological Assessment. p 307–308.

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Healy Test No. 2 Healy Test No. 2 is a “picture context instrument” designed to test cognitive abilities through non-verbal means. The test’s original manual, found in the Stoelting archives by Dr. Madsen, gives explicit directions on its administration, even suggesting the exact words to be spoken to the tested individual: “‘Here is a picture–it begins here’ (pointing to demonstration picture) ‘where the boy is getting dressed. It shows the same boy, remember, the same boy, doing one thing after another during the same day.’ (Point along the first row, then along the second, to indicate clearly the sequence in which the pictures come.) ‘You see in each picture a piece is missing. Here’ (pointing to them) ‘are a lot of small pieces, they fit in any of the spaces. But there are more pieces than you can use. The point is to pick out the piece that you think is needed, that is best, to complete the sense of the picture. For instance, What is gone here?’ (pointing to demonstration picture). ‘Yes, a shoe.’ If incorrect answer is given, which is very rare, Examiner says, ‘No, he is dressing and he is stooping for his other shoe.’ ‘Now, which is the shoe that he must have?’ If correct shoe is selected Examiner says ‘Yes. This one’ (pointing to low shoe) ‘wouldn’t be right because he must have a high shoe to match the other one.’” Twenty minutes are allowed to complete the test. William Healy, the test’s developer, claimed in the manual that “one of the most brilliant men in America took the full 20 minutes and wanted more in which to finish.. finally leaving a piece in place that gave a total score of 90.” The perfect score is 100, tallied by adding up numbers printed on the backs of the small pieces. Healy observes in the manual that perfection was achieved only occasionally by “youngsters of high ability...and by some adults who have established reputations for achievement, and then records have been equaled very rarely indeed by others, for instance, by a domestic cook...[who] was found to be well known as having exceptionally good common sense and judgment.”

Early IQ Test. http://www.kshs.org/cool/cooltest.htm. (accessed January 21, 2008).

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Boston Diagnostic Aphasia Examination Broad diagnosis of language impairment in adults. The Boston Diagnostic Aphasia Examination is a comprehensive, multifactorial battery designed to evaluate a broad range of language impairments that often arise as a consequence of organic brain dysfunction. The Examination is designed to go beyond simple functional definitions of aphasia into the components of language dysfunctions (symptoms) that have been shown to underlie the various aphasic syndromes. Thus, this test evaluates various perceptual modalities (e.g., auditory, visual, and gestural), processing functions (e.g., comprehension, analysis, problem-solving), and response modalities (e.g., writing, articulation, and manipulation). This approach allows for the neuropsychological analysis and measurement of language-related skills and abilities from both ideographic and nomothetic bases, as well as a comprehensive approach to the symptom configurations that relate to neuropathologic conditions.

author unknown. Center for Psycholgical Studies. http://www.cps.nova.edu/~cpphelp/BDAE.html. (accessed March 1, 2008). Johnston, Elizabet. 1997. http://pages.slc.edu/~ebj/IM_97/Lecture10/L10.html (accessed March 1, 2008).

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Army Intelligence Test The American IQ promoters scored a great coup during World War I when they persuaded the Army to give IQ tests to 1.7 million inductees. It was the world’s first mass administration of an intelligence test, and many of the standardized tests in use today can be traced back to it: the now ubiquitous and obsessed-over SAT; the Wechsler, taken by several million people a year, according to its publisher; and Terman’s own National Intelligence Test, originally used in tracking elementary school children. All these tests took from the Army the basic technique of measuring intelligence mainly by asking vocabulary questions (synonyms, antonyms, analogies, reading comprehension). The army’s use of intelligence tests during World War I lent new credibility to the emerging profession of psychology, even as it sparked public debate about the validity of the tests and their implications for American democracy. Intelligence testing influenced American society long after the war that had launched it. The tests were revised for use in schools and promoted the “tracking” systems of segregating students into ability groups according to test results. Intelligence testing fueled eugenics programs and were also widely invoked by those who pressed successfully to restrict immigration to the United States. Match your wits with World War I-era recruits with questions from actual army intelligence tests.

Lemann, Nicholas. 1999. http://www.time.com/time/time100/scientist/other/iq.html (accessed March 16, 2008). History Matters. http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/5293. (accessed March 16, 2008). Robert M. Yerkes (1921) “Psychological Examining in the United States Army,” Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, Vol. XV. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. http://www.understandingrace.org/history/science/race_intel.html (accessed January 22, 2008).

PFC

Thematic Apperception Test This projective test is most commonly used to examine personality characteristics that may aid in understanding psychological or emotional adjustment to brain injury. Historically, the Thematic Apperception Test or TAT has been amongst the most widely used, researched, and taught projective psychological tests. Its adherents claim that it taps a subject’s unconscious to reveal repressed aspects of personality, motives and needs for achievement, power and intimacy, and problem-solving abilities. The TAT is popularly known as the picture interpretation technique because it uses a standard series of 30 provocative yet ambiguous pictures about which the subject must tell a story. In the case of adults and adolescents of average intelligence, a subject is asked to tell as dramatic a story as they can for each picture, including: what has led up to the event shown what is happening at the moment what the characters are feeling and thinking, and what the outcome of the story was. For children or individuals of limited cognitive abilities, instructions ask that the subject tell a story including what happened before and what is happening now, what the people are feeling and thinking and how it will come about. The 30 cards are meant to be divided into two “series” of 15 pictures each, with the pictures of the second series being purposely more unusual, dramatic, and bizarre than those of the first. Suggested administration involves one full hour being devoted to a series, with the two sessions being separated by a day or more. Several cards in the test are present in order to ensure that the subject is able to be provided with cards picturing individuals of the same gender. Eleven cards (including the blank card) have been found suitable for both sexes, by portraying no human figures, an individual of each sex, or an individual of ambiguous gender. Each story created by a subject is carefully analyzed to uncover underlying needs, attitudes, and patterns of reaction. The TAT is a projective test in that, like the Rorschach test, its assessment of the subject is based on what he or she projects onto the ambiguous images. Swiercinsky, Dennis P. 2001. http://www.brainsource.com/nptests.htm. (accessed March 2, 2008). School of Community Health Sciences and Social Care. University of Salford. http://www.chssc.salford.ac.uk/healthSci/psych2000/images/Tat.jpg (accessed March 2, 2008). “Thematic Apperception Test. “ Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thematic_Apperception_Test (accessed march 3, 2008).

PFC

Human Gaze Prediction Image Test Using an eye tracking device, custom coded program, and everyday images, the Koch Lab at California Institue of Technology has conducted an experiment which crossreferences the data from the recorded response of subjects, their eye movements, and the time of stimuli. For the experiment, subjects were shown several images for a duration of 2 seconds. The images used incorporated combinations of inanimate objects, faces, objects that have facial features in indoor and outdoor settings. The experiment had two phases. In the first phase, subjects were asked to rate “How interesting was the image?” The second phase involved a search task, where subjects were asked to locate a specific object in successively shown images. Combining the collected data, bottom-up saliancy map models, and face detection developed by P. Viola and M. Jones, the Koch Lab was able to analyze the gazing path of several subjects and as a result has been able to propose improved models for predicting fixation and gaze. In addition, they were able to further suggest that facial recognition should be considered as part of the bottomup saliency pathway.

below visualisations of tracked viewing path opposite image from test

Cerf, Moran, Jonathan Harel, Wolfgang Einhäuser, and Cristof Koch. Jan 26, 2008. http://books.nips.cc/papers/files/nips20/ NIPS2007_1074.pdf. (accessed on March 22, 2008).

PFC

Unpictured Listed below are additional neuropsychological tests that do not have images available to the public via the internet or accessible publications. One of the reasons is the materials gathered are assessment tools. Protecting access is one of the tactics used by testing companies to insure integrity in the scoring system. I have included their names as visual materials seem to be a key component in how the assessment is conducted. Ammons Quick Test

Memory Assessment Scales

This test has been used for many years to help assess premorbid intel-

This is a comprehensive battery of tests assessing short-

ligence. It is a passive response picture-vocabulary test.

term, verbal, and visual memory.

Boston Naming Test

Quick Neurological Screening Test

Assessing the ability to name pictures of objects through spontaneous

This is a rapid assessment to identify possible neurologi-

responses and need for various types of cueing. Inferences can be drawn

cal signs, primarily in motor, sensory, and perceptual

regarding language facility and possible localization of cerebral damage.

areas.

Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System

Ruff Figural Fluency Test

Assesses key areas of executive function (problem-solving, thinking flex-

This visual procedure complements verbal fluency tests

ibility, fluency, planning, deductive reasoning) in both spatial and verbal

in assessing ability to think flexibly but using visual

modalities, normed for ages 8-89.

stimuli rather than words.

Hooper Visual Organization Test

Shipley Institute of Living Scale

This procedure examines ability to visually integrate information into whole

Comparison of vocabulary knowledge and ability to figure

perceptions. It is a sensitive measure of moderate to severe brain injury.

out abstract sequential patterns has been established as a sensitive measure of general brain functioning.

Kaplan Baycrest Neurocognitive Assessment Assesses cognitive abilities in adults, including attention, memory, verbal

Symbol Digit Modalities Test

fluency, spatial processing, and reasoning/conceptual shifting.

Screening test for children and adults to detect cognitive impairment. For ages 16-84, this visual recognition test

Kaufman Short Neuropsychological Assessment

helps discriminate malingered from true memory impair-

Measures broad cognitive functions in adolescents and adults with mental

ments.

retardation or dementia. Memory Malingering Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery

Test of Memory and Learning (TOMAL) tests for children

This is a set of several tests designed to cover a broad range of functional

and adolescents measures numerous aspects of memory,

domains and to provide a pattern analyses of strengths and weakness

assessing learning, attention, and recall.

across areas of brain function. The tests reflect a quantitative model of A. R. Luriaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s qualitative assessment scheme.

Swiercinsky, Dennis P. 2001. http://www.brainsource.com/nptests.htm. (accessed March 2, 2008).

Index and Bibliography

Alphabetical Index Evaluation of Directionality

viii

—

unpictured

PFC

prefrontal cortex

Parietal Lobe

Eye Alignment Near Card

eye

ITC

Inferior Temporal Cortex

Facial Recognition Test

ITC

LGN

Lateral Geniculate Nucleus

Five Point Test

PFC

Fluency Test

PFC

General Competency Test: Level 2

PFC

Reversal frequency test (5 –15 year olds)

10 Sticks V4

PFC

Gestalt

7 / 24 Test

PFC

After Image / Mccollough Effect

eye

Area And Symmetry

Allen Optotypes

Closure

Ammons Quick Test

—

Common Fate

Amsler Grid

eye

Good Continuation

Aphasia Tests (various)

Properties

Arden Plate Test

Proximity

Army Intelligence Test

PFC

Similarity

Attneave Cat

Gottschaldt Flexibility of Closure

Bagolini Test

eye

Halstead Category Test

Barron Welsh Art Figure Preference Test

PFC

Healy Test No. 2

PFC

Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test

Hidden Figures Test

Hooper Visual Organization Test

—

Benton Judgement Of Line

Human Gaze Prediction Image Test

PFC

Revised Visual Retention

Humphrey Visual Field Test

Visual Retention Test

PFC

Ishihara Color Vision Charts

Blind Spot

eye

Kaplan Baycrest Neurocognitive Assessment

—

Block Counting Task

Kaufman Short Neuropsychological Assessment —

Boehm Test

PFC

Kay Vision Test

eye

Booba / Kiki Test

PFC

King-Devick Test

eye

Boston Diagnostic Aphasia Examination

PFC

Lang Stereo Test

LGN

Boston Naming Test

—

LEA V3

Cancellation Test

Leiter International Performance Scale

PFC

Cognistat

PFC

Lighthouse Near Visual Acuity Test

eye

Color Vision Test

Localization Hyperacuity

Continuous Performance Test

Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery

—

Continuous Performance Test

Mach Motion Wheels

D2 Test of Attention

Making Objects: Demonstration Item

PFC

Declarative Memory Test

ITC

Match Problem

PFC

Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System

—

Memory Assessment Scales

—

Design Fluency Test

PFC

Memory for Designs Models

PFC

Differential Aptitude Test

PFC

Memory Malingering

—

Mental Re-orientation Test

PFC

Drawing Test with model

Motion

without model

Adaptation And Aftereffects

Dynamic Visual Acuity

Contrast and Assimilation

Elithorn Perceptual Maze

PFC

Induced Motion, Autokinesis

Motion

Velocity Transposition

Vision Contrast Test

eye

Naglieri Nonverbal Test

PFC

Visual Acuity Tasks

Neglect Test

Visual Evoked Potential Test

Visual Mask Problem

eye

Visual Motor Integration Test (4– 8 years old)

Optic Ataxia

Visual Perceptual Skills

Optical Illusion

Ophthimus System High-Pass Resolution Perimetry

Optotype V4

Mesulam and Weintraub Test

Discrimination test

Figure Ground Subtest (for 4–13 year olds)

Otis-Lennon School Ability Test

PFC

Form Constancy Subtest

Paper Folding Test

PFC

Memory Subtest (4–13 year olds)

Paper Form Board

Sequential Memory Subtest (4–13 year olds) PFC

Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test

PFC

Spatial Relationship Subtest

Perceptual Inference

Visual Closure (4–13 year olds)

Personal Orientation

PFC

Visual Retention Test

PFC

Poppelreuter Overlapping Test

PFC

Visual Search

PFC

Porteus Maze

PFC

WAIS Object Assembly

PFC

Quick Neurological Screening Test

—

WAIS-R: Block Design Test

Raven Standard Progressive Matrices

PFC

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale—III

PFC

Resolution Acuity Chart

eye

Wisconsin Card Sort Test

PFC

Right Left Test

Worth Dot Test

eye

Rorschach Projective Technique

PFC

Rosenzweig Picture-Frustration Study

PFC

Ruff Figural Fluency Test

—

Self-ordered Pointing Test

Shadow / Highlight Effect

Shipley Institute of Living Scale

—

Son Nonverbal Intelligence Test

PFC

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test

PFC

Stereopsis

LGN

Street Completion Test

Stroop Test

Symbol Digit Modalities Test

—

Synesthesia Test

Test No SSD1

LGN

Berkeley Glare Test, The

eye

Clock Test, The

Line Bisection Test, The

Melbourne Edge Test , The

Mooney Closure Faces Test, The

Rey-Osterreith Complex Figure , The

Thematic Apperception Test

PFC

Trail Making Tests A and B

PFC

Unilateral Spatial Inattention / Neglect

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