West African Tribal Art Study Guide

WEST AFRICAN TRIBAL ART STUDY GUIDE

SECTION B Exhibition catalogue images and content Discussion questions for educators SECTION A An introduction to African histor y, and political and cultural traditions The Museum of Art – Deland is proud to present the West African Tribal Art Study Guide as an educational resource to the exhibition catalogue West African Tribal Art: Sculptures, Textiles & Artifacts.

WEST AFRICAN TRIBAL ART: SCULPTURES, TEXTILES & ARTIFACTS STUDY GUIDE

Museum of Art - DeLand Museum of Art - DeLand

WEST AFRICAN TRIBAL ART: SCULPTURES, TEXTILES & ARTIFACTS STUDY GUIDE

The Museum of Art – Deland is proud to present the West African Tribal Art Study Guide as an educational resource to the exhibition catalogue West African Tribal Art: Sculptures, Textiles & Artifacts. SECTION A An introduction to African histor y, and political and cultural traditions SECTION B Exhibition catalogue images and content Discussion questions for educators

Sponsored in part by the State of Florida, Department of State, Division of Cultural Aﬀ airs, and the Florida Council on Arts and Culture.

Museum of Art - DeLand

Museum of Art - DeLand Staﬀ

Copyright 2015 Museum of Art – DeLand, Florida. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or any other method without written consent by the Museum of Art – DeLand, Florida

Board of Trustees (2014 - 15)

Cover: Headdress (ere egungun), Yoruba, Nigeria, carved wood, plastic bird and beads, painted mirror, native and trade fabrics and paint

George S. Bolge, Chief Executive Oﬃcer Dorothy Dansberger, Director of Finance & Operations Pattie Pardee, Director of Development Lisa Habermehl, Director of Marketing David Fithian, Curator of Art and Exhibitions Pam Coﬀman, Curator of Education Tariq Gibran, Registrar Teri Peaden, Manager of Downtown Museum Suzi Tanner, Manager of Guest Services, Membership & Special Events

Museum of Art - DeLand, Florida 600 North Woodland Boulevard, DeLand, Florida, 32720 Museum of Art - DeLand Downtown 100 North Woodland Boulevard, DeLand, Florida 32720 MoArtDeLand.org

Judy Thompson, President Gen. Lee Downer, Vice President Linda Colvard Dorian, Past President Mary Jeanne Ludwig, Treasurer Dr. John Wilton, Secretary Dennis Aylward Samuel Blatt Bill Booth Manny De La Vega Jewel Dickson Desiree Freeland Dr. Deborah Goldring Larry Griﬃn John Horn Everett (Ray) Johnson Frances Massey Robin May Deborah McShane Katrina Pﬁster Dagny Robertson Marty Suarez Ian Williams

West African Tribal Art: Sculptures, Textiles & Artifacts Exhibition Museum of Art - DeLand, Florida, July 17 - October 4, 2015 West African Tribal Art: Sculptures, Textiles & Artifacts Study Guide Author Pam Coﬀman Design & Production Lisa Habermehl Photography Tariq Gibran Printing E.O. Painter Printing Co. DeLeon Springs, Florida

Museum of Art - DeLand, Florida 600 North Woodland Boulevard, DeLand, Florida, 32720 Museum of Art - DeLand Downtown 100 North Woodland Boulevard, DeLand, Florida 32720 MoArtDeLand.org

Cover: Headdress (ere egungun), Yoruba, Nigeria, carved wood, plastic bird and beads, painted mirror, native and trade fabrics and paint

Museum of Art - DeLand Staﬀ

Board of Trustees (2014 - 15)

Museum of Art - DeLand Sponsored in part by the State of Florida, Department of State, Division of Cultural Aﬀ airs, and the Florida Council on Arts and Culture.

Utilitarian & Ceremonial Objects

Suggested Classroom Questions and Activities

Educational Resources

West African Cultures and Kingdoms Nok/Nok Figurine Culture The Sahelian Kingdoms Kingdom of Ghana Mali Empire Songhai Empire Nigeria Ile Ife/Ife and Yoruba Benin Kingdom Asante/Ashanti Empire Côte d’Ivoire Cameroon and the Cameroon Grasslands

10 10 11 12 13 14 14 15 15 16 17 17

Religion in Africa Traditional Religions Christianity in Africa Islam in Africa

19 19 19 20

Slavery in Africa The Trans-Saharan Slave Trade The Atlantic Slave Trade Slavery Statistics

21 21 22 23

African Oral History, Storytelling and Folktales Oral History and Storytelling Folktales

24 24 24

African Art Overview Religion Patronage The African Artist Sculpture Masks Human Figures Textiles Jewelry Utilitarian and Ceremonial Objects The Influence of Traditional African Art on Modern Western Art

24 24 26 26 26 27 28 29 31 32 33 34

Masks and Headdresses Dan – Côte d’Ivoire and Liberia Wobe and Guéré – Côte d’Ivoire and Liberia Kom – Cameroon Grasslands Igbo and Ibibio – Nigeria Bamana – Mali Mende – Sierra Leone Yoruba – Nigeria

34 34 36 37 39 41 43 44

Textiles

Ashanti/Asante Ghana

47 47

Introduction

Modern Day Africa

Ancient African Kingdoms Egypt Nubia/Kush Aksum/Axum

8 8 9 9

Table of Contents

8 8 9 9

Ancient African Kingdoms Egypt Nubia/Kush Aksum/Axum

Modern Day Africa

Introduction

34 34 36 37 39 41 43 44

24 24 26 26 26 27 28 29 31 32 33 34

24 24 24

African Oral History, Storytelling and Folktales Oral History and Storytelling Folktales

21 21 22 23

Slavery in Africa The Trans-Saharan Slave Trade The Atlantic Slave Trade Slavery Statistics

19 19 19 20

Religion in Africa Traditional Religions Christianity in Africa Islam in Africa

10 10 11 12 13 14 14 15 15 16 17 17

Textiles

47 47

Ashanti/Asante Ghana

Educational Resources

Suggested Classroom Questions and Activities

Utilitarian & Ceremonial Objects

Introduction

When you think of Africa what images come to mind? Do talking cartoon animals and songs from Disney’s Lion King pop into your head? Do you imagine being on a safari trekking over a grassy savannah in search of lions, elephants and other wild animals; or hiking through a jungle filled with exotic sounds and lush vegetation; or perhaps riding high atop a camel through the hot, dry desert? Do you envision a dark mysterious place inhabited by people dressed in animal skins with colorful feather headdresses or poor hungry, barefoot sad-eyed children? Do you think of Africa as a country like the United States and Canada or perhaps a continent like Australia and Asia?

Africa is a dynamic, tremendously rich continent full of history and culture and is the birthplace of many great civilizations. There is scientific evidence that Africa is where humanity began based on the fact that the oldest human bones, about three million years old, were discovered in Kenya.

Many of our ideas about Africa are based on stereotypes that are propagated by the media, books, movies and television. Africa is not the “Dark Continent” we might imagine based upon such perceptions. In fact, Africa is the second largest continent in the world, (Asia is the first). It makes up more than 20 percent of the world's land area and is about three times the size of Europe or the United States. It is a vast, complex and diverse continent composed of 54 sovereign states and countries including island-nations along its coast. In 2013 the estimated population of Africa was 1.033 billion people, approximately 15% of the world's population.

Some of the world’s longest rivers are located on the continent including the Nile, Niger, Zaire and Zambezi. Mount Kilimanjaro is the highest mountain in Africa and the highest free -standing mountain in the world at 19,341 feet. The world’s largest desert, the Sahara, which covers 3,500,000 square miles, is located in Africa and extends from the Atlantic to the Red Sea. Algeria is the largest country by area and the Seychelles is the smallest country by area. Nigeria is the most populated country in Africa and the 10th most populous country in the world, and the Seychelles is the smallest country in Africa by population.

The African continent is bounded by the Mediterranean Sea, the Red Sea, the Indian Ocean, and the Atlantic Ocean. It is divided in half almost equally by the Equator.

The continent can be separated into five major regions including North Africa, East Africa, West Africa, Central Africa and South Africa. These diverse regions all have unique animal and plant communities, and climates influenced by their distance from the sea, wind direction, ocean temperature, and elevation. As a result, the African environment includes mountain highlands and glaciers, tropical rainforests, savannahs and deserts.

The African continent is bounded by the Mediterranean Sea, the Red Sea, the Indian Ocean, and the Atlantic Ocean. It is divided in half almost equally by the Equator.

Modern Day Africa Exploring the history of Africa beginning with the period Before the Common Era (BCE) and moving through European colonialism reveals a complex tapestry of contrasts: vast empires, small villages and nomadic tribes, royal palaces, magnificent mosques, sophisticated centers of learning, and elaborate art forms often fashioned from the plentiful supply of gold. Small towns and villages were consolidated to form powerful empires and a network of provincial and overseas trade routes were created. Wealthy emperors and kings fought wars to expand their territory and control trade, and Islam was spread across the continent. A primary factor in the growth and evolution of civilizations on the African continent was the diverse history of crop and animal domestication, with various points of origin and unique adaptations as techniques and crops spread from one region to another. The development of a method for farming that integrated cattle-raising with agriculture was an important technological breakthrough that contributed to this growth. There are many different cultural and ethnic groups throughout Africa numbering in the hundreds, with each group having its own special identity, demonstrated through its music, clothing, religion, food, art, traditions and social customs. It is estimated that 1500-2000 languages are spoken throughout Africa. In some areas the people live very traditionally in small rural villages and in other areas they live in large urban cities and towns. There are many different cultural and ethnic groups throughout Africa numbering in the hundreds, with each group having its own special identity, demonstrated through its music, clothing, religion, food, art, traditions and social customs. It is estimated that 1500-2000 languages are spoken throughout Africa. In some areas the people live very traditionally in small rural villages and in other areas they live in large urban cities and towns. A primary factor in the growth and evolution of civilizations on the African continent was the diverse history of crop and animal domestication, with various points of origin and unique adaptations as techniques and crops spread from one region to another. The development of a method for farming that integrated cattle-raising with agriculture was an important technological breakthrough that contributed to this growth. Exploring the history of Africa beginning with the period Before the Common Era (BCE) and moving through European colonialism reveals a complex tapestry of contrasts: vast empires, small villages and nomadic tribes, royal palaces, magnificent mosques, sophisticated centers of learning, and elaborate art forms often fashioned from the plentiful supply of gold. Small towns and villages were consolidated to form powerful empires and a network of provincial and overseas trade routes were created. Wealthy emperors and kings fought wars to expand their territory and control trade, and Islam was spread across the continent.

Modern Day Africa

Ancient African Kingdoms Egypt

Ancient and medieval Africa saw the rise of numerous civilizations and major trading empires often featuring large cities which were centers for art and learning. Egypt, considered to be the first great African kingdom, is recognized as one of the three earliest civilizations in the world. The Egyptian civilization emerged in North Africa along the lower section of the Nile River, in the Nile Valley, around 3200 BCE and continued until 332 BCE. The early Egyptian people who settled along the Nile River were organized into Upper Egypt to the south and Lower Egypt to the north, and were eventually united into a large kingdom by the first Pharaoh, Menes. This united area stretched along a major portion of the Nile into what is modern day Sudan.

The arrival of Alexander the Great in 332 BCE marked the beginning of the decline of Egyptian influence and way of life. Around 30 BCE the ever expanding Roman Empire took control of Egypt and maintained control for several centuries until Arab Muslims from the Middle East came to power. Eventually almost all knowledge of Egypt's glorious past was lost.

Ancient Egypt is divided into three major kingdoms by time: the Old Kingdom, the Middle Kingdom, and the New Kingdom. It was during these periods that Ancient Egypt was at its strongest. The times between the Kingdoms are called intermediate periods. Ancient Egypt was ruled by Pharaohs who were the supreme leaders. They ruled both upper and lower Egypt and served as the political and religious leaders and were considered to be the main intermediaries to the gods and sometimes given the status of gods. Pyramids and secret tombs were constructed as burial places for the Pharaohs. The burial sites contained a variety of treasures, food, furn iture and other items that might assist the Pharaohs in the afterlife.

Religion was extremely important in the lives of ancient Egyptians. They worshiped a wide variety of gods and goddesses who often had both human and animal forms. The concept of an afterlife was an important part of the religion and culture in Egypt, and preserving the body was a key element of this belief. The Egyptians developed an elaborate embalming process, known as mummification, to preserve the body and keep it from decaying. The Egyptian people made their tools and weapons from bronze, and pioneered the building of massive pyramids and temples. They also developed mathematics, writing known as hieroglyphics, an innovative system of medicine, irrigation and agricultural production techniques, the first ships, and left a lasting legacy upon the world. The Egyptians continued to spread their culture across Northern Africa, creating kingdoms in Ethiopia, Sudan and various surrounding regions at different points during the Pharaonic period. Egypt shone as a powerful civilization and historic cultural force over a period of three thousand years.

Egypt

Ancient African Kingdoms

9 Aksum had access to several different trade routes including major waterways such as the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden, and the Nile River making it a major center of trade. Traders from central Africa, Persia, India, and Egypt brought their goods to Aksum. The city of Adulis was located on the Red Sea coast and was the major port city in Aksum. A variety of products were traded through this port including salt, gold, ivory, gems, cloth, glass, and olive oil. Some traders traveled from as far away as the Roman Empire and India to acquire goods at Adulis. Aksum (ahk-soom) was located south of Kush on a rugged plateau on the Red Sea, in what are the modern countries of Eritrea and Ethiopia. The kingdom of Aksum began to rise in power and expand around 100 CE. It reached its peak around 350 CE when King Ezana (Ay-zah-nah) conquered the Kingdom of Kush/Nubia. During this time it was one of only four major international superpowers of its day along with Persia, Rome and China. Aksum continued to control the region until around 940 CE.

Aksum/Axum Nubia was a land rich with resources including gold mines, iron ore, incense and ivory. Another name for Nubia was the “Land of Gold”, and it was the source for much of the gold used in Egypt. Gold was important because it was the earthly manifestation of the sun and represented the force of life, or “soul” (kra). Nubia was also the center of the iron trade in the ancient African world, and because of its location and resources, was an important trade link between subSaharan Africa, North Africa and the Mediterranean world. The Nubian people converted to Christianity in the year 540 CE. Initially an Egyptian colony from the 16th century BCE, Nubia became an independent kingdom around 1070 BCE. It was divided into two main regions: Lower Nubia and Upper Nubia. The kingdom lasted for over 1400 years, becoming a major power in Northeast Africa. The region was often referred to as the "Land of the Bow" because of its archers’ skills with bow and arrow on the battle field. In 727 BCE, Kush took control of Egypt and ruled until the Assyrians arrived in 656 BCE. After Rome conquered Egypt the Nubian kingdom began to weaken and eventually collapsed sometime in the 300s CE. Egypt was not the only important civilization in ancient African history. The civilization of Nubia (modern Sudan), was located along the Nile River, south of Egypt. The most prosperous period of Nubian civilization was that of the kingdom of Kush which endured from about 800 BCE to about 320 CE. The two neighboring civilizations of Egypt and Nubia shared close ties and a long history with many similarities in government, culture, and religion. Like the Egyptians, the Kushites built pyramids, worshiped Egyptian gods, and mummified the dead. The black pharaohs in Egyptian history were actually Nubian or Sudanese kings.

Nubia/Kush Egypt was not the only important civilization in ancient African history. The civilization of Nubia (modern Sudan), was located along the Nile River, south of Egypt. The most prosperous period of Nubian civilization was that of the kingdom of Kush which endured from about 800 BCE to about 320 CE. The two neighboring civilizations of Egypt and Nubia shared close ties and a long history with many similarities in government, culture, and religion. Like the Egyptians, the Kushites built pyramids, worshiped Egyptian gods, and mummified the dead. The black pharaohs in Egyptian history were actually Nubian or Sudanese kings. Initially an Egyptian colony from the 16th century BCE, Nubia became an independent kingdom around 1070 BCE. It was divided into two main regions: Lower Nubia and Upper Nubia. The kingdom lasted for over 1400 years, becoming a major power in Northeast Africa. The region was often referred to as the "Land of the Bow" because of its archers’ skills with bow and arrow on the battle field. In 727 BCE, Kush took control of Egypt and ruled until the Assyrians arrived in 656 BCE. After Rome conquered Egypt the Nubian kingdom began to weaken and eventually collapsed sometime in the 300s CE. Nubia was a land rich with resources including gold mines, iron ore, incense and ivory. Another name for Nubia was the “Land of Gold”, and it was the source for much of the gold used in Egypt. Gold was important because it was the earthly manifestation of the sun and represented the force of life, or “soul” (kra). Nubia was also the center of the iron trade in the ancient African world, and because of its location and resources, was an important trade link between subSaharan Africa, North Africa and the Mediterranean world. The Nubian people converted to Christianity in the year 540 CE.

Aksum/Axum Aksum (ahk-soom) was located south of Kush on a rugged plateau on the Red Sea, in what are the modern countries of Eritrea and Ethiopia. The kingdom of Aksum began to rise in power and expand around 100 CE. It reached its peak around 350 CE when King Ezana (Ay-zah-nah) conquered the Kingdom of Kush/Nubia. During this time it was one of only four major international superpowers of its day along with Persia, Rome and China. Aksum continued to control the region until around 940 CE. Aksum had access to several different trade routes including major waterways such as the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden, and the Nile River making it a major center of trade. Traders from central Africa, Persia, India, and Egypt brought their goods to Aksum. The city of Adulis was located on the Red Sea coast and was the major port city in Aksum. A variety of products were traded through this port including salt, gold, ivory, gems, cloth, glass, and olive oil. Some traders traveled from as far away as the Roman Empire and India to acquire goods at Adulis.

Nubia/Kush

The people of Aksum developed a written language, minted their own coins, and developed terraced farming and irrigation. They did not build pyramids like the Egyptians or Nubians. Instead they built tall towers, called stelae, which had elaborately carved inscriptions that celebrated great victories or achievements, stone doors, and false windows. These stone monoliths were the largest in the ancient world with one of the towers standing nearly 100 feet high.

According to legend the kingdom of Aksum and the Ethiopian royal dynasty that followed was founded by Emperor Menelik I who was the son of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba. This dynasty continued until the last ruler, Haile Selassie, died in 1975. It has also been claimed that Aksum is the home of the Biblical Ark of the Covenant that holds the "Tablets of Law" inscribed with the original Ten Commandments.

Archaeologists believe that the Nok culture may have been the first complex civilization in West Africa dating from around 1000 BCE until around 500 CE when it mysteriously vanished. Evidence of this culture was first discovered in 1928 when tin miners in central Nigeria unearth ed a cache

The people of Aksum believed in one god known as Mahrem, and they believed that their king was directly descended from this god. They also worshiped the spirits of nature and honored their dead ancestors. When King Ezana became ruler of Aksum he converted to Christianity around 325 CE and established it as the kingdomâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s official religion making that the longest lasting achievement of the kingdom. Today, Ethiopia, where ancient Aksum was located, is home to millions of Christians.

Nok/Nok Figurine Culture

Several events during the 6 th and 7th centuries CE, including the successful Persian invasion of Yemen, Syria, and Egypt, followed by Arab conquests from the mid -7th century onwards contributed to the demise of the kingdom of Aksum.

West African Cultures and Kingdoms

Nok/Nok Figurine Culture

11 All of these kingdoms were destined to become significant places because of the resources within their Around 500 CE the Sahel (sahil) area in West Africa, south of the Sahara desert, became an important region connected by trade with various parts of Africa, Europe and Asia. One development that contributed to this was the use of camels instead of horses as a means of transportation, allowing for long-distance travel across the Sahara. Between the 9 th to 16th centuries this region flourished, becoming the basis for several distinct empires including Ghana, Mali and Songhai, known as the Sahelian kingdoms.

The Sahelian Kingdoms The purpose or function of these sculptures remains unknown, but it has been conjectured that they represented dead members of the Nok community, served as votive offerings at a shrine, functioned as grave markers, or were used as charms to prevent crop failure, infertility, and illness. There is also evidence that by 550 BCE the Nok culture was engaged in farming and iron smelting. Scholars have suggested that the society eventually evolved into the later Yoruba Kingdom of Ife. Researchers have determined that most of the life size terracotta heads were sculpted by hand, evidence of an advanced artistic society in West African that existed contemporaneously with Ancient Greece, Ancient Egypt and Kush, as well as other North and East African civilizations. The majority of the sculptures are of people with large, elongated heads, hollow almond -shaped eyes, and large parted lips. The exaggeration of facial features is puzzling since the statues â&#x20AC;&#x2122; proportions of the head, body and feet are accurate. This has resulted in some people describing the statues as alien or extraterrestrial. of unique terracotta artifacts unlike any on record. Since the style of sculpture and the people who created it were unknown, the culture was named Nok, after the location where the sculptures were discovered.

of unique terracotta artifacts unlike any on record. Since the style of sculpture and the people who created it were unknown, the culture was named Nok, after the location where the sculptures were discovered. Researchers have determined that most of the life size terracotta heads were sculpted by hand, evidence of an advanced artistic society in West African that existed contemporaneously with Ancient Greece, Ancient Egypt and Kush, as well as other North and East African civilizations. The majority of the sculptures are of people with large, elongated heads, hollow almond -shaped eyes, and large parted lips. The exaggeration of facial features is puzzling since the statues â&#x20AC;&#x2122; proportions of the head, body and feet are accurate. This has resulted in some people describing the statues as alien or extraterrestrial. The purpose or function of these sculptures remains unknown, but it has been conjectured that they represented dead members of the Nok community, served as votive offerings at a shrine, functioned as grave markers, or were used as charms to prevent crop failure, infertility, and illness. There is also evidence that by 550 BCE the Nok culture was engaged in farming and iron smelting. Scholars have suggested that the society eventually evolved into the later Yoruba Kingdom of Ife.

The Sahelian Kingdoms Around 500 CE the Sahel (sahil) area in West Africa, south of the Sahara desert, became an important region connected by trade with various parts of Africa, Europe and Asia. One development that contributed to this was the use of camels instead of horses as a means of transportation, allowing for long-distance travel across the Sahara. Between the 9 th to 16th centuries this region flourished, becoming the basis for several distinct empires including Ghana, Mali and Songhai, known as the Sahelian kingdoms. All of these kingdoms were destined to become significant places because of the resources within their

boundaries and traders and merchants from other lands who wanted those resources. Arab traders came from North Africa to trade salt, a commodity literally worth its weight in gold. Commodities that were central to this trade included gold, kola nuts and slaves (salt mining used slave labor to mine the mineral). The major salt mines were located at Taudenni, 500 miles north of Timbuktu. The Sahelian kingdoms’ access to the Senegal and Niger Rivers provided them with the perfect location to ship salt to other parts of Africa. The Saharan trade routes and the salt trade contributed to the accumulation of wealth; movement of people, information and ideas; and linked the African empires to the European world. It was through their interaction with Arab traders that the West Africans were exposed to Islamic religious beliefs, Muslim business practices and appreciation for literacy.

The sequential Sahelian kingdoms of Ghana, Mali and Songhai (song-gahy) eventually established universities and other centers of learning that equaled and, in some cases, surpassed those found in Europe and the Middle East. Each kingdom reached a zenith but then one after another fell into decline.

Ghana continued to thrive until the mid-1200s but started losing power when Muslim raiders began attacking the empire. The Muslims’ main goal was to convert as many people to Islam as possible, but they also wanted control of the salt-gold trade. Ghana fought the Muslims for more than thirty years, but many smaller provinces began to break off to form their own kingdoms and a terrible drought contributed to the demise of the kingdom of Ghana.

Kingdom of Ghana

Ghana was known as the land of gold even though no gold mines were actually located in the kingdom. It was Ghana’s monopoly over the trade of the gold from notoriously well-concealed mines that gave it this name. Salt and gold were equally valuable due to supply and demand, and it was this trade that was largely responsible for Ghana’s development into a powerful, stable centralized kingdom. According to one narrative, it was noted that the king of Ghana had 200,000 warriors and an additional 40,000 archers at his command.

The earliest of the Sahelian kingdoms, Ghana (or Wagadou), encompassed what is now modern Northern Senegal and Southern Mauritania near the southern border of the Sahara. It is believed that a group of people called the Soninke, who spoke Mande, founded Ghana as early as the year 300 CE, and it thrived until around 1200 CE. (Note: the ancient Kingdom of Ghana was located about four hundred miles northwest of modern Ghana and is not related either geographically or culturally.)

Salt was mined to the northeast of Ghana in the Sahara Desert, and Arab traders from the north had to travel through Ghana to trade their salt for gold. They also traded other goods from the north like dried fruit, leather, cotton cloth, and copper. The king of Ghana controlled the gold salt trade routes across West Africa, and he collected taxes from any traders on all goods entering or leaving his land. It was through a sophisticated method of administration and taxation that Ghana accumulated its wealth.

Kingdom of Ghana

13 The death of Mansa Kankan Musa in the mid-14th century precipitated the demise of Mali. Internal squabbling between ruling families weakened the government and its network of states started to unravel. Then, in 1430, a group of Berbers seized much of Mali's territory, including Timbuktu. By 1500, what had once been the Mali Empire had been reduced to just the Madinka homeland, and by the 17th century it had decentralized into a number of small independent chiefdoms. Although Islam was the primary religion of Mali and the one practiced by the Mansas, the people were not forced to convert. As a result, a version of Islam emerged that combined Islamic beliefs with the local traditions. Under the rule of Mansa Musa, the laws of the Koran were incorporated into the justice system, and large cities such as Timbuktu and Gao became international centers of Islamic learning and culture with elaborate mosques and libraries. The major cities became meeting places for poets, scholars, and artists, and a university, perhaps the first in the world, was built at Timbuktu. The cities of Gao, Djenne and Timbuktu were also the sites of large mosques. One of the most notable leaders of Mali was Mansa Musa, nephew of Sundiata, who ruled from 1307 to 1337. He doubled the land area of Mali making it a larger kingdom than any in Europe at the time. Mansa Musa introduced Islam as the royal religion of Mali making it one of the first Muslim states in northern Africa. As a practitioner of Islam, Mansa Musa embarked on a hajj or pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324. Mansa Musa was very wealthy, and it is said that on his travels to Mecca he took a great number of people along with him including soldiers, officials, attendants, maids and slaves. He also had camels loaded with gold. When he arrived in Egypt, Mansa Musa paid homage to the sultan with gifts of gold, and distributed so much gold that its value was decreased by 10 to 25 percent. Under the rule of Sundiata and his successors, Mali became a vast empire that eventually stretched from the Atlantic coast south of the Senegal River to the city of Gao on the east of the middle Niger, and extended through the country of the Malinke to the Sahel and southern Saharan "ports" of Walata and Tadmekka. The Mali Empire also included the gold fields of Bumbuk and Bure and the great cities of Timbuktu, Djenne (jenny), and Gao on the Niger River and extended to the salt mines of Taghaza. This vast empire was organized into numerous smaller vassal kingdoms and provinces that were each led by a governor called a ferba. Like Ghana, Mali flourished because of the gold-salt trade and a system of taxation, but unlike Ghana, Mali was the site of three immense gold mines. The Mali Empire, also known as the Mandingo Empire or Manden Kurufa, was a West African empire of the Mandinka people. It was located on the Niger River to the west of Ghana in what is today Niger and Mali. It began to grow in importance as the Kingdom of Ghana began to decline around 1230 CE, reaching its peak in the 1350s. The empire of Mali was formed when Sundiata,(s-oo-n-d-ee-ah-t-ah), also known as the Lion King, gained control in 1230 CE. He was a royal slave and magician who rose to the position of Mansa, the Mandinka word meaning "king of kings" or "emperor", by uniting the tribes of the Mandinka and overthrowing the ruling Soso people.

Mali Empire The Mali Empire, also known as the Mandingo Empire or Manden Kurufa, was a West African empire of the Mandinka people. It was located on the Niger River to the west of Ghana in what is today Niger and Mali. It began to grow in importance as the Kingdom of Ghana began to decline around 1230 CE, reaching its peak in the 1350s. The empire of Mali was formed when Sundiata,(s-oo-n-d-ee-ah-t-ah), also known as the Lion King, gained control in 1230 CE. He was a royal slave and magician who rose to the position of Mansa, the Mandinka word meaning "king of kings" or "emperor", by uniting the tribes of the Mandinka and overthrowing the ruling Soso people. Under the rule of Sundiata and his successors, Mali became a vast empire that eventually stretched from the Atlantic coast south of the Senegal River to the city of Gao on the east of the middle Niger, and extended through the country of the Malinke to the Sahel and southern Saharan "ports" of Walata and Tadmekka. The Mali Empire also included the gold fields of Bumbuk and Bure and the great cities of Timbuktu, Djenne (jenny), and Gao on the Niger River and extended to the salt mines of Taghaza. This vast empire was organized into numerous smaller vassal kingdoms and provinces that were each led by a governor called a ferba. Like Ghana, Mali flourished because of the gold-salt trade and a system of taxation, but unlike Ghana, Mali was the site of three immense gold mines. One of the most notable leaders of Mali was Mansa Musa, nephew of Sundiata, who ruled from 1307 to 1337. He doubled the land area of Mali making it a larger kingdom than any in Europe at the time. Mansa Musa introduced Islam as the royal religion of Mali making it one of the first Muslim states in northern Africa. As a practitioner of Islam, Mansa Musa embarked on a hajj or pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324. Mansa Musa was very wealthy, and it is said that on his travels to Mecca he took a great number of people along with him including soldiers, officials, attendants, maids and slaves. He also had camels loaded with gold. When he arrived in Egypt, Mansa Musa paid homage to the sultan with gifts of gold, and distributed so much gold that its value was decreased by 10 to 25 percent. Under the rule of Mansa Musa, the laws of the Koran were incorporated into the justice system, and large cities such as Timbuktu and Gao became international centers of Islamic learning and culture with elaborate mosques and libraries. The major cities became meeting places for poets, scholars, and artists, and a university, perhaps the first in the world, was built at Timbuktu. The cities of Gao, Djenne and Timbuktu were also the sites of large mosques. Although Islam was the primary religion of Mali and the one practiced by the Mansas, the people were not forced to convert. As a result, a version of Islam emerged that combined Islamic beliefs with the local traditions. The death of Mansa Kankan Musa in the mid-14th century precipitated the demise of Mali. Internal squabbling between ruling families weakened the government and its network of states started to unravel. Then, in 1430, a group of Berbers seized much of Mali's territory, including Timbuktu. By 1500, what had once been the Mali Empire had been reduced to just the Madinka homeland, and by the 17th century it had decentralized into a number of small independent chiefdoms.

Mali Empire

Songhai Empire

The Songhai Empire (sohn-guy) was located in Western Africa south of the Sahara Desert and along the Niger River. At its peak, it stretched well over 1,000 miles from the current modern day country of Niger to the Atlantic Ocean. The Songhai Empire lasted from 1464 CE to 1591 CE and was one of the largest Islamic empires in history.

The present day country in West Africa known as Nigeria is fairly new, but the area has a history that stretches back for thousands of years, even before that of the Nok culture. Virtually all the native races of Africa are represented in Nigeria, attesting to its great diversity of people and culture. Some of the important cultures that developed in the region included the Kanem-Bornu, Hausa states, Oyo, Ibibio Kingdom, Nri, Warri, Igbo states, Ife -Yoruba, and Benin.

It is thought that the Songhai people settled at Gao as early as 800 CE, establishing it as the capital in the 11th century. Songhai had been an important trade center under the rule of the Mali Empire. As the empire began to wane, a strong Songhai military leader, Sunni Ali, led his forces in a succession of victorious battles conquering the remaining parts of the Mali Empire including the important trading cities of Timbuktu and Djenne bringing all of the regions under his rule. It was through Sunni Ali’s leadership that Songhai became the largest and most powerful of all the Sahelian kingdoms.

Nigeria

After the death of Sunni Ali, his son and successor was unable to consolidate support among the Islamic community, and he was overthrown in 1493 by Muhammed Askia who became the first ruler of the Askia dynasty (1492–1592). Like Masa Musa, Muhammed Askia made an elaborate pilgrimage to Mecca. During his reign, Muhammed Askia’s focus was on consolidating administrative power, reinvigorating the trans-Saharan trade, and installing Islam as a unifying force.

Under the rule of the Askia Dynasty, the Songhai Empire reached its zenith. Timbuktu and Djenne flourished, regaining their status as centers of Islamic learning, and the religion of Islam was actively promoted. Unfortunately the Songhai Empire had a short history. The Moroccans used superior weaponry to seize the salt mines at Taghaza in 1585, and they went on to conquer Gao and Timbuktu. Moorish soldiers occupied the Songhai cities, beginning a reign of terror that lasted well into the eighteenth century, making the trade routes treacherous. Drought and disease also contributed to a weakened economy. In the east, the rise of other large powerful states took the trans-Saharan trade and the western routes away from Songhai. Just as the Ghana and Mali empires before it, the Songhai Empire’s demise was due in part to the inability to govern such a vast region, political infighting, and changes in trade routes and climate.

Gold, kola nuts, and slaves were traded for salt, cloth, cowrie shells, and horses. The slave trade became an important part of the Songhai Empire, and slaves were considered to be a commodity. Most of the slaves were captured during raids on nearby regions. Without slaves, the transport of goods across the Sahara Desert to Morocco and the Middle East would have been extremely difficult. Slaves were also sold to Europeans to work in Europe and the Americas.

Nigeria

Songhai Empire

15 The Benin Kingdom experienced a “Golden Age” between 1300 and 1700 CE as it grew in wealth, power and size. Trade with the Portuguese and Europeans increased as did demand for Benin’s remarkable arts, crafts and exotic crops. Their wealth also increased dramatically when they began trading slaves. The Oba enjoyed his wealthy lifestyle, established many exquisite palaces and courts in Benin City and maintained a powerful army to protect the kingdom. Around 1180 the Ogiso was accused of misrule, and he and his family were exiled precipitating a time of turmoil, infighting and great change. Finally, a young man called Eweke became king. He was the first in a long line of dynastic rulers known as Obas. Under the control of the powerful god-like Obas, the kingdom began to flourish and expand its boundaries. The Benin Kingdom is not the same as the modern day country of Benin in West Africa. Its early history began between 900 – 1300 CE when a group of small villages located in the West African rainforests joined forces to improve security and trading opportunities as a unified kingdom, known as Igodomigodo. The people were ruled by a dynasty of kings called Ogisos (meaning “Kings of the Sky”). Between 800 –1400 CE the people constructed what is known today as the Walls of Benin City, considered to be the largest man-made structure in the world, the remains of which are still present today. The Benin Kingdom (beh-neen) was one of three kingdoms including Ijebu and Owo located within present-day southern Nigeria that trace their origins to the ancient city of Ile-Ife, the cradle of Yoruba culture. According to oral histories, all three claim that their founders were the sons of the Yoruba deity Odudua, who was the first ruler of that city. Even though Owo and Ijebu were composed primarily of Yoruba peoples and Benin was ethnically Edo, they shared aspects of courtly culture including titles, ceremonial paraphernalia, and art forms.

Benin Kingdom The city of Ife began to develop as a major artistic center between 700 and 900 CE reaching its zenith during the 12 th-15th centuries. Artisans worked in a variety of materials including bronze, stone and terracotta. Sculptures representing important people were often depicted with large heads because of the belief that the Ase, inner power and energy of a person, resided in the head. The rulers were often shown with their mouths covered so that the power of their speech would not be too great. Individuals were not idealized, but the office of the king was portrayed in an idealized manner. Ile-Ife or Ife (ee-lay ee-fay) in the southwestern part of Nigeria is said to be the oldest Yoruba (yoh-roo-bah) city dating back to 500 BCE. It is the city where the Yoruba believe that the gods descended to earth and their civilization began. The name, Ile Ife, literally means place of dispersion. According to Yoruba tradition, Ife was founded by the deities Oduduwa (oh-do-dowah) and Obatala who created the world. Obatala fashioned the first humans out of clay while Oduduwa became the first divine king of the Yoruba people.

Ile Ife/Ife and Yoruba Ile-Ife or Ife (ee-lay ee-fay) in the southwestern part of Nigeria is said to be the oldest Yoruba (yoh-roo-bah) city dating back to 500 BCE. It is the city where the Yoruba believe that the gods descended to earth and their civilization began. The name, Ile Ife, literally means place of dispersion. According to Yoruba tradition, Ife was founded by the deities Oduduwa (oh-do-dowah) and Obatala who created the world. Obatala fashioned the first humans out of clay while Oduduwa became the first divine king of the Yoruba people. The city of Ife began to develop as a major artistic center between 700 and 900 CE reaching its zenith during the 12 th-15th centuries. Artisans worked in a variety of materials including bronze, stone and terracotta. Sculptures representing important people were often depicted with large heads because of the belief that the Ase, inner power and energy of a person, resided in the head. The rulers were often shown with their mouths covered so that the power of their speech would not be too great. Individuals were not idealized, but the office of the king was portrayed in an idealized manner.

Benin Kingdom The Benin Kingdom (beh-neen) was one of three kingdoms including Ijebu and Owo located within present-day southern Nigeria that trace their origins to the ancient city of Ile-Ife, the cradle of Yoruba culture. According to oral histories, all three claim that their founders were the sons of the Yoruba deity Odudua, who was the first ruler of that city. Even though Owo and Ijebu were composed primarily of Yoruba peoples and Benin was ethnically Edo, they shared aspects of courtly culture including titles, ceremonial paraphernalia, and art forms. The Benin Kingdom is not the same as the modern day country of Benin in West Africa. Its early history began between 900 – 1300 CE when a group of small villages located in the West African rainforests joined forces to improve security and trading opportunities as a unified kingdom, known as Igodomigodo. The people were ruled by a dynasty of kings called Ogisos (meaning “Kings of the Sky”). Between 800 –1400 CE the people constructed what is known today as the Walls of Benin City, considered to be the largest man-made structure in the world, the remains of which are still present today. Around 1180 the Ogiso was accused of misrule, and he and his family were exiled precipitating a time of turmoil, infighting and great change. Finally, a young man called Eweke became king. He was the first in a long line of dynastic rulers known as Obas. Under the control of the powerful god-like Obas, the kingdom began to flourish and expand its boundaries. The Benin Kingdom experienced a “Golden Age” between 1300 and 1700 CE as it grew in wealth, power and size. Trade with the Portuguese and Europeans increased as did demand for Benin’s remarkable arts, crafts and exotic crops. Their wealth also increased dramatically when they began trading slaves. The Oba enjoyed his wealthy lifestyle, established many exquisite palaces and courts in Benin City and maintained a powerful army to protect the kingdom.

Ile Ife/Ife and Yoruba

Highly skilled craftsmen and artisans made major contributions to the wealth of Benin. From iconic bronze sculptures to brightly woven textiles, they were responsible for creating the many works of art, including religious objects, ceremonial weapons, masks, animal heads , figurines, busts and plaques so important to their culture. Most of the art was made from bronze, brass, clay, ivory and wood and was produced for the Oba to illustrate achievements of the empire or to narrate mythical stories. Iconic imagery depicted religious, social and cultural issues that were central to people’s beliefs, and many bronze plaques featured representations of the Oba. They wove cotton fabrics with stripes of color.

Unfortunately, history began to repeat itself and after 1700 civil wars erupted over who should be the next Oba resulting in a huge decrease in population and a decline in the kingdom’s wealth and power. Another contributing factor was the decline in the slave trade causing Benin to lose one of its major sources of revenue. By the late 1800s the race was on between European countries to colonize Africa, and Great Britain had its sights set on Benin. The final blow came in 1897 when a series of treaty disputes and an incident in which Benin warriors killed a group of British officials led to the invasion of Benin City by British troops. The troops burned down the city, looted its valuable artworks, exiled the Oba and took control.

The kingdom continued to expand and over the course of the 18 th century controlled most of the surrounding peoples, including the Dagomba. By 1750 the Asante Empire was the largest and most powerful state in the region. Its wealth and prosperity was based on mining and trading in gold and slaves. The Asante became famous for their gold and brass crafts, woodcarvings, furniture, and brightly colored woven cloth, called kente.

Asante/Ashanti Empire

According to legend, a meeting of all the clan heads of each of the Asante settlements was called just prior to independence from the Denkyira, who had conquered the Asante in the early 17 th century. In this meeting, the Golden Stool was commanded down from the heavens by Okomfo Anokye, the priest or sage advisor, to Asantehene Osei Tutu. The Golden Stool floated down, from the heavens straight into the lap of Osei Tutu. Okomfo Anokye declared the stool to be the symbol of the new Asante Union (Asanteman), and allegiance was sworn to the Golden Stool and to Osei Tutu as the Asantehene. The Golden Stool remains sacred to the Asante as an icon of the Asante Kingdom, and it functions like a national flag, embodying the political and cultural soul of the nation.

Sometime between the 11 th and 13th centuries the Asante (ah-shan-tay) and various other Akanspeaking people migrated into the forest belt of present-day Ghana and established small states in what is present-day Kumasi. It wasn’t until the 1670s that these separate chiefdoms were united by Osei Tutu (oh-say-too-too) through a combination of diplomacy and warfare including the defeat of their mutual oppressor, the Denkyira. In the late 1690s Osei Tutu assumed the title of Asantehene (ah-shan-te-hey-nay), king, and founded the Asante Empire. Under his leadership, the empire grew politically and militarily. He built a capital, Kumasi, and created the legend of the Golden Stool (the sika 'dwa) to legitimize his rule and began celebrating the Odwira, or yam festival, as a symbol of national unity.

Asante/Ashanti Empire

17 Cameroon is located on the west coast of central Africa and is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Guinea, to the northwest by Nigeria, to the northeast by Chad (with Lake Chad at its northern tip), to the east by the Central African Republic and to the south by Congo-Brazzaville (Republic of the Congo), Gabon and Equatorial Guinea. The Cameroon Grasslands is a lush expansive area located in the mountainous region of western Cameroon. The area is home to a large number of related peoples including the three major ethnic groups composed of the Bamilike, Bamum and Bamenda Tikar. The kingdom of the Bamum is the oldest, dating to the sixteenth century.

Cameroon and the Cameroon Grasslands During the 18 th century in the pre-European era, the indigenous people of Côte d’Ivoire were protected from European colonialism by the inhospitable coastline and the kingdoms of the Krou, Senoufo, Lubi, Malinké and Akan. France made its initial contact with Côte d'Ivoire in 1637. Later when the French began a major push towards colonial exploitation of Côte d'Ivoire, they met with fierce resistance. Eventually the French took control, trading for ivory, and establishing coffee and cocoa plantations, which are still the backbone of the economy. In 1843 and 1844, th e French government signed treaties with the kings of the Grand Bassam and Assinie regions, who placed their territories under a French protectorate. The French gradually extended the area under French control until, by 1915, they dominated. The area now known as Côte d'Ivoire is located on the south coast of West Africa and is bordered to the north by Mali and Burkina Faso, to the east by Ghana, to the south by the Gulf of Guinea, to the southwest by Liberia, and to the northwest by Guinea. Little is known about the early history, but historians believe that it was a melding place for various African ethnic groups who were either displaced or absorbed by the ancestors of the present inhabitants. Today Côte d'Ivoire is home to more than 60 different indigenous tribes and even more sub clusters including the Baoule, Bete, Senufo, Agni, Malinke, Dan, and Lobi, each with its own distinct identity and traditions.

Côte d'Ivoire By the 19 th century under the rule of King Osei Bonsu the Asante territory covered nearly all of present-day Ghana including the coast, where they traded with the British. The Asante traded gold and slaves in exchange for guns and other European goods and as a result the culture prospered and flourished. In the 19 th century as the Europeans began to ban the slave trade and began focusing their efforts on their colonization of Africa the Asante fought several wars with the British. After a series of defeats by the British, the Asante kingdom began to weaken and decline. After nearly a century of resistance to British power, the Asante kingdom was finally declared a Crown Colony in 1902 following the uprising known as the Yaa Asantewa War. Like many other West African kingdoms, gold was an integral component of Asante art, belief and a political symbol of the king’s sovereign power. Asante gold was obtained as a form of tribute or as a booty of war. The gold was worked by artisans from conquered territories who introduced regional sculptural forms that were adopted for official use at the kingdom's capital in Kumasi.

Like many other West African kingdoms, gold was an integral component of Asante art, belief and a political symbol of the king’s sovereign power. Asante gold was obtained as a form of tribute or as a booty of war. The gold was worked by artisans from conquered territories who introduced regional sculptural forms that were adopted for official use at the kingdom's capital in Kumasi. By the 19 th century under the rule of King Osei Bonsu the Asante territory covered nearly all of present-day Ghana including the coast, where they traded with the British. The Asante traded gold and slaves in exchange for guns and other European goods and as a result the culture prospered and flourished. In the 19 th century as the Europeans began to ban the slave trade and began focusing their efforts on their colonization of Africa the Asante fought several wars with the British. After a series of defeats by the British, the Asante kingdom began to weaken and decline. After nearly a century of resistance to British power, the Asante kingdom was finally declared a Crown Colony in 1902 following the uprising known as the Yaa Asantewa War.

Côte d'Ivoire The area now known as Côte d'Ivoire is located on the south coast of West Africa and is bordered to the north by Mali and Burkina Faso, to the east by Ghana, to the south by the Gulf of Guinea, to the southwest by Liberia, and to the northwest by Guinea. Little is known about the early history, but historians believe that it was a melding place for various African ethnic groups who were either displaced or absorbed by the ancestors of the present inhabitants. Today Côte d'Ivoire is home to more than 60 different indigenous tribes and even more sub clusters including the Baoule, Bete, Senufo, Agni, Malinke, Dan, and Lobi, each with its own distinct identity and traditions. During the 18 th century in the pre-European era, the indigenous people of Côte d’Ivoire were protected from European colonialism by the inhospitable coastline and the kingdoms of the Krou, Senoufo, Lubi, Malinké and Akan. France made its initial contact with Côte d'Ivoire in 1637. Later when the French began a major push towards colonial exploitation of Côte d'Ivoire, they met with fierce resistance. Eventually the French took control, trading for ivory, and establishing coffee and cocoa plantations, which are still the backbone of the economy. In 1843 and 1844, th e French government signed treaties with the kings of the Grand Bassam and Assinie regions, who placed their territories under a French protectorate. The French gradually extended the area under French control until, by 1915, they dominated.

Cameroon and the Cameroon Grasslands Cameroon is located on the west coast of central Africa and is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Guinea, to the northwest by Nigeria, to the northeast by Chad (with Lake Chad at its northern tip), to the east by the Central African Republic and to the south by Congo-Brazzaville (Republic of the Congo), Gabon and Equatorial Guinea. The Cameroon Grasslands is a lush expansive area located in the mountainous region of western Cameroon. The area is home to a large number of related peoples including the three major ethnic groups composed of the Bamilike, Bamum and Bamenda Tikar. The kingdom of the Bamum is the oldest, dating to the sixteenth century.

18 Africa’s Empires and Kingdoms, 500 BCE to 1500 CE

Historically these groups have been organized and ruled by a centralized patrilin eally-inherited king, or Fon, who is supported by a secret society of men. Prior to the colonial period, the Fon served as a religious, economic, and political leader who was considered to be divine. It was believed that the Fon was endowed with supernatural powers that allowed him to change into an animal – an elephant, leopard, or buffalo. The succession of Fons controlled trade, protected the people, guaranteed the fertility of the fields and women, oversaw the spiritual, social and economic well-being of the people and were great patrons of the arts. Art objects were symbols of power and position in the hierarchy. Carved portraits of the Fons were displayed at major ceremonies to enhance the kings’ prestige and to demonstrate their ancestral right to rule. In addition to the portraits, ancestral figures and masks were important art objects that were displayed in the Fon’s palace. Other artifacts of the royal office included headdresses, beaded thrones, bracelets, necklaces, pipes, leopard skins, elephant tusks, swords, commanders’ sticks, fans, dishware, horns, and terracotta bowls. Many other items signifying prestige and power were produced within the Grassland area, including large house-posts, door and window frames carved with human and animal figures, thrones, stools and tables decorated with small heads and figures, large bowls, carved horns for royal feasts, terracotta and bronze pipes drums, metal gongs and other musical instruments that were played during royal and state ceremonies.

Art objects were symbols of power and position in the hierarchy. Carved portraits of the Fons were displayed at major ceremonies to enhance the kings’ prestige and to demonstrate their ancestral right to rule. In addition to the portraits, ancestral figures and masks were important art objects that were displayed in the Fon’s palace. Other artifacts of the royal office included headdresses, beaded thrones, bracelets, necklaces, pipes, leopard skins, elephant tusks, swords, commanders’ sticks, fans, dishware, horns, and terracotta bowls. Many other items signifying prestige and power were produced within the Grassland area, including large house-posts, door and window frames carved with human and animal figures, thrones, stools and tables decorated with small heads and figures, large bowls, carved horns for royal feasts, terracotta and bronze pipes drums, metal gongs and other musical instruments that were played during royal and state ceremonies. Prior to the colonial period, the Fon served as a religious, economic, and political leader who was considered to be divine. It was believed that the Fon was endowed with supernatural powers that allowed him to change into an animal – an elephant, leopard, or buffalo. The succession of Fons controlled trade, protected the people, guaranteed the fertility of the fields and women, oversaw the spiritual, social and economic well-being of the people and were great patrons of the arts.

Historically these groups have been organized and ruled by a centralized patrilin eally-inherited king, or Fon, who is supported by a secret society of men.

Africa’s Empires and Kingdoms, 500 BCE to 1500 CE

19 Christianity was introduced in Egypt and North Africa in the 1st or early 2 nd century CE due in part to their close proximity to Palestine and Jerusalem, the seat of Christendom. Initially there was no written sacred text or doctrine to guide the early Christians, and as a result there were many interpretations of what Jesus' teaching really meant. This led to the development of Christians with varying and distinctive doctrines within the first centuries of the religion. After gaining a foothold in North Africa, Christianity continued to spread slowly west from Alexandria and southeast to Ethiopia. King Ezana of Ethiopia made Christianity the official religion in the 4 th century CE.

Christianity in Africa Recognizing these similarities may help explain why many African societies accepted the introduction of Christianity and Islam into their communities. • • • • • • • • •

God is creator of all things. God sustains creation God provides for and protects creation God rules over the universe God is all powerful (omnipotent) God is all knowing (omniscient - knows everything that happens in the world) God is viewed as a parent (sometimes as a father and sometimes as a mother) God supports justice Human beings cannot directly know God.

Professor John Mbiti, a leading scholar and author on African religions, identified the following as shared concepts in the way God is viewed in African, Christian, Islamic, and Judaic religions: Belief in the supernatural and spirit world is important in many African religious practices. Spirits can represent good or evil, humans/ancestors or in some belief systems animal/nature spirits. Most African religions express a strong belief that people continue to live, through their spirits, after death. However, this belief does not lead to ancestor worship, instead the spirits of the ancestors are honored, remembered and respected. Despite the ethnic and cultural diversity in Africa, there are certain similarities in religious and spiritual beliefs throughout the continent. All African societies have a belief in God. There are some groups who believe in one supreme God while others worship multiple Gods. However, even in African polytheistic religions, there is usually one God who is identified as the Supreme Being responsible for creating the world. Another similarity is the impact of religious beliefs and practices in all aspects of daily African life including work, social interactions, political organization, educational practices, family structure, ceremonies and rituals, and moral codes.

Traditional Religions

Religion in Africa Traditional Religions Despite the ethnic and cultural diversity in Africa, there are certain similarities in religious and spiritual beliefs throughout the continent. All African societies have a belief in God. There are some groups who believe in one supreme God while others worship multiple Gods. However, even in African polytheistic religions, there is usually one God who is identified as the Supreme Being responsible for creating the world. Another similarity is the impact of religious beliefs and practices in all aspects of daily African life including work, social interactions, political organization, educational practices, family structure, ceremonies and rituals, and moral codes. Belief in the supernatural and spirit world is important in many African religious practices. Spirits can represent good or evil, humans/ancestors or in some belief systems animal/nature spirits. Most African religions express a strong belief that people continue to live, through their spirits, after death. However, this belief does not lead to ancestor worship, instead the spirits of the ancestors are honored, remembered and respected. Professor John Mbiti, a leading scholar and author on African religions, identified the following as shared concepts in the way God is viewed in African, Christian, Islamic, and Judaic religions: • • • • • • • • •

Recognizing these similarities may help explain why many African societies accepted the introduction of Christianity and Islam into their communities.

Christianity in Africa Christianity was introduced in Egypt and North Africa in the 1st or early 2 nd century CE due in part to their close proximity to Palestine and Jerusalem, the seat of Christendom. Initially there was no written sacred text or doctrine to guide the early Christians, and as a result there were many interpretations of what Jesus' teaching really meant. This led to the development of Christians with varying and distinctive doctrines within the first centuries of the religion. After gaining a foothold in North Africa, Christianity continued to spread slowly west from Alexandria and southeast to Ethiopia. King Ezana of Ethiopia made Christianity the official religion in the 4 th century CE.

Religion in Africa

20 20

In 312 CE Emperor Constantine made Christianity the official religion of the ever expanding Roman Empire. The Romans recognized the importance of establishing a single sacred text to exert their control over Christianity so they assembled a collection of early Christian writings proclaiming that they were inspired by God and provided evidence and authentication of the life and teachings of Jesus. These collected writings became known as the New Testament. Under control of the Romans, all other versions of Christianity such as those of the Gnostic and Coptic Christians in Africa were labeled as heresy, and the practitioners faced repression and in some cases persecution.

For the most part, the Muslims were tolerant of traditional African religions and did not force Africans to convert to Islam. This flexibility complimented a similar attitude of many traditional

Later, as the Portuguese, Dutch and other Europeans began to arrive in parts of Africa, the influence of Christianity was strengthened, and over approximately two hundred years during the colonization of Africa there was a rapid expansion of Christianity. Colonial rule provided a politically peaceful and supportive environment for the work of Christian missionaries. However, the missionariesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; primary goal was to convert as many Africans to Christianity as possible rather than to provide support or justification for the colonial governments. Eventually tensions grew between the missionaries and African Christians as tolerance for the combining of traditional African religious practices with those of Christianity abated. By the late 19 th century there were African Christians who left the churches established by the missionaries and formed their own churches. Over the past century, there have been a wide variety of African Christian movements, some of which are quite different from one another.

Arab military conquests established Muslim rule across North Africa between the 7 th and 9th centuries. Other factors that contributed to the growth of Islam in Africa included the founding of trading centers, the movement of populations, and the affiliation with local ruling elites. The rise of Islam led to the formation of new communities in Africa as well as a restructuring of existing African communities and empires based on Islamic models.

The rise of the Atlantic slave trade and its later decline presented even more challenges to the Christian religion in Africa due in part to its contradictory stand on slavery. The Roman Catholic Church and main Protestant denominations in Europe did not oppose the slave trade, and some Christian leaders argued that the Bible supported the practice of slavery. Even if Churches did not openly support the slave trade by not opposing it directly, they were seen as condoning the practice. There were also churches that benefited financially from the contributions made by Christian traders who had become wealthy as a result of their involvement in the trade.

The introduction of Islam in Africa began in the 7 th century CE soon after the religion was founded. The spread of Islam throughout the African continent was neither simultaneous nor consistent, but followed a gradual and adaptive path moving from three directions: from north Africa across the Sahara to Bilad al-Sudan; from Egypt southward, up the Nile valley, and west to Darfur and Wadai; from the Arabian peninsula across the Red Sea to the Horn of Africa, and from there further south to the coast of East Africa.

Islam in Africa

For the most part, the Muslims were tolerant of traditional African religions and did not force Africans to convert to Islam. This flexibility complimented a similar attitude of many traditional

21 Slavery was practiced in Arabia before the founding of Islam and became a component of Islamic traditions. Muslims were active participants in the expansion of the trans-Saharan slave trade

The Trans-Saharan Slave Trade What is agreed upon is that Africans were subjected to several forms of slavery over the centuries, including chattel slavery under the Muslims through the trans-Saharan and East African slave trade and the Europeans through the Atlantic slave trade. Both of these slave trades created an external demand for enslaved people as a commodity and some African societies could and did supply slaves. While the Atlantic slave trade was dying down around 1850, the trans-Saharan and East African slave trades were at their peaks. There is no consensus on the issue of the long-term effects of Islam on African slavery. Some scholars contend that Islamic law helped regulate slavery, thus limiting its abuses, and because Islam encouraged the freeing of slaves upon their master's death, it increased instances of emancipation. Other scholars maintain that Islam led to the expansion of slavery, arguing that at the time when slavery was growing in the parts of Africa comin g under Islamic influence, slavery was declining in most of medieval Europe. Many ancient civilizations practiced some form of slavery, and history suggests that this is true for various kingdoms in Africa. However, the topic of slavery on the African continent generates a great deal of heated debate and discussion between Afrocentric and Eurocentric scholars and historians. Some academics argue that slavery was practiced in different areas in Africa prior to Arabic and European contact, but it differed from "chattel slaveryâ&#x20AC;?, the practice of treating human beings as mere property, which was practiced in North and South America. Slaves were obtained through a variety of methods including capture in warfare, as a form of tribute from weaker states, through the purchase or trade of slaves, or birth to slave families.

Slavery in Africa In some regions of the continent, the increase in European colonial control contributed to the rise of Islam as a dominant religion, because it was viewed as a viable alternative to the Christianity brought by European missionaries. From its beginning, Islam fostered the importance of education and was dedicated to teaching the young. In Africa, Muslim scholars built libraries and opened schools. In some cities Islamic universities became centers of learning and scholarship. African religions facilitating an acceptance of Islam. When conversion of communities did take place, it happened over a period of time, with the people gradually adopting some Islamic practices and beliefs while maintaining some of their indigenous beliefs and practices. This process of slow conversion and adaptation is testimony to the openness and flexibility of both African indigenous religious systems and Islam.

African religions facilitating an acceptance of Islam. When conversion of communities did take place, it happened over a period of time, with the people gradually adopting some Islamic practices and beliefs while maintaining some of their indigenous beliefs and practices. This process of slow conversion and adaptation is testimony to the openness and flexibility of both African indigenous religious systems and Islam. From its beginning, Islam fostered the importance of education and was dedicated to teaching the young. In Africa, Muslim scholars built libraries and opened schools. In some cities Islamic universities became centers of learning and scholarship. In some regions of the continent, the increase in European colonial control contributed to the rise of Islam as a dominant religion, because it was viewed as a viable alternative to the Christianity brought by European missionaries.

Slavery in Africa Many ancient civilizations practiced some form of slavery, and history suggests that this is true for various kingdoms in Africa. However, the topic of slavery on the African continent generates a great deal of heated debate and discussion between Afrocentric and Eurocentric scholars and historians. Some academics argue that slavery was practiced in different areas in Africa prior to Arabic and European contact, but it differed from "chattel slaveryâ&#x20AC;?, the practice of treating human beings as mere property, which was practiced in North and South America. Slaves were obtained through a variety of methods including capture in warfare, as a form of tribute from weaker states, through the purchase or trade of slaves, or birth to slave families. While the Atlantic slave trade was dying down around 1850, the trans-Saharan and East African slave trades were at their peaks. There is no consensus on the issue of the long-term effects of Islam on African slavery. Some scholars contend that Islamic law helped regulate slavery, thus limiting its abuses, and because Islam encouraged the freeing of slaves upon their master's death, it increased instances of emancipation. Other scholars maintain that Islam led to the expansion of slavery, arguing that at the time when slavery was growing in the parts of Africa comin g under Islamic influence, slavery was declining in most of medieval Europe. What is agreed upon is that Africans were subjected to several forms of slavery over the centuries, including chattel slavery under the Muslims through the trans-Saharan and East African slave trade and the Europeans through the Atlantic slave trade. Both of these slave trades created an external demand for enslaved people as a commodity and some African societies could and did supply slaves.

The Trans-Saharan Slave Trade Slavery was practiced in Arabia before the founding of Islam and became a component of Islamic traditions. Muslims were active participants in the expansion of the trans-Saharan slave trade

that grew significantly from the 10 th to the 15 th century, as vast African empires such as Ghana, Mali, Songhai, and Kanem-Bornu developed south of the Sahara.

Muslim law dictated that Muslims could not enslave other Muslims; new slaves could be recruited only by birth into slavery or by capture in war; and a slave who converted to Islam usually remained a slave. Muslim law required owners to treat slaves well and provide medical treatment, but slaves had no right to be heard in court, could not own property, could marry only with permission of their owner, and were the property of their masters/owners. Many slaves converted to Islam, but that did not guarantee their freedom nor did it provide freedom to their children.

African rulers and members of large trading families or institutions were the primary people involved in the slave trade. African slave traders would raid villages or take prisoners of war to

The Berber speaking peoples had been involved in trade across the Sahara desert with West African people for a thousand years prior to the coming of Islam to North Africa. As the Muslim conquests of North Africa and incursions in the southern regions expanded during the 7 th and 8th centuries, their victorious leaders took Berber captives, most of whom were eventually enrolled in Muslim armies. This marked the beginning of the external slave trade in Africa. .

The Atlantic Slave Trade took place between the 14 th and 19th centuries and had a dramatic, and in many cases, devastating impact throughout the African continent. Following a triangular route between Africa, Europe, and the Americas, the Atlantic slave trade was fueled by the increased European demand for gold, other trade goods and raw materials for manufacturing. Portugal was the first of several European nations including the Dutch, French, Spanish, and British who engaged in the Atlantic Slave Trade. Most Africans who were victims of the Atlantic slave trade were sent to Brazil and the Caribbean basin to work on plantations that grew sugar, tobacco, rice, indigo, and cotton. The African slaves were sought after because they tended to live longer on the tropical plantations than did European or Native American laborers. In addition to their adaptability to the climate, African slaves were cheap labor by European standards. In comparison to Brazil and the Caribbean, only about five percent of the slaves were sent the United States.

Many more African slaves were forced into military service, and by the 9 th century entire slave armies were active across the whole of the Islamic Empire. Muslim traders became a driving force in the export of African slaves, via the Sahara from West to North Africa, following a route similar to other trade goods, such as gold and salt. As this market for salt and other trade goods expanded, so did the demand for slaves to work in agriculture and mining. African women were taken as concubines and as domestic servants, and some of the men were used as eunuchs who worked as bodyguards and as confidential servants.

The Atlantic Slave Trade

The Atlantic slave trade created even greater demand and opened a new market for Arab slave traders. Even though the Europeans abolished slavery in the 1800s, around 1850, the transSaharan and East African slave trades were at their peaks. Slavery continued in some parts of Africa and much of the Islamic world until the end of World War I.

The Atlantic Slave Trade

African rulers and members of large trading families or institutions were the primary people involved in the slave trade. African slave traders would raid villages or take prisoners of war to

that grew significantly from the 10 th to the 15 th century, as vast African empires such as Ghana, Mali, Songhai, and Kanem-Bornu developed south of the Sahara.

23 Statistics for the Atlantic slave trade which lasted from the mid-15th to the late-19th century vary as well. Depending upon the source, it is estimated that European and American slave traders purchased between 10 and 15 million slaves from west and west central Africa during that time period. The term African diaspora has been historically applied to the descendants of the West and Central Africans who were enslaved and shipped to the Americas in the Atlantic slave trade. There is much controversy surrounding the statistics regarding the impact of the trans-Saharan and Atlantic slave trades. The trans-Saharan slave trade lasted for over 9 centuries, and some historians suggest that at least 10 million African men, women, and children were enslaved during that time. Other sources state that the number of slaves is closer to 28 million. It has been proposed that the trans-Saharan slave trade resulted in as many deaths as that of the Atlantic trade since the routes across the desert compared to the European slave ships were equal in hardship and brutality.

Slavery Statistics However, slavery had become so deeply ingrained in the African economy and society that despite the abolition of the practice, it was not until the 1930s that legalized slavery in Africa was almost totally eliminated. The outlawing of slavery did not suspend the need for inexpensive laborers for agriculture, industry, and other work projects, and as a result, numerous methods evolved for coercing Africans to work without pay or for minimal compensation. The 18th century marked the beginning of the Age of Enlightenment in Western Europe and a transition from an agrarian to an industrial economy. These transitions in humanitarian and economic focus contributed to an anti-slavery movement in the Western world. In 1807 there was a move to ban the slave trade in Britain and the United States. Britain outlawed the practice of slavery in all British territory in 1833; France did the same in its colonies in 1848. In 1865, following the American Civil War, the U.S. government adopted the 13 th Amendment to the Constitution, ending slavery in the United States. The Atlantic slave trade continued until 1888, when Brazil followed suit and abolished slavery. Slaves were imprisoned in horrendous dark, dirty fortresses along the coast of western Africa until they were herded onto the boats sailing for the Americas. They had very little food or water and no space in the dank dungeons to move around. Once on the ships, on the journey known as the Middle Passage, the captives were frequently chained in pairs, shackled wrist to wrist or ankle to ankle and crammed between decks in spaces so small they could not stand. The holding areas were dark, stifling hot, airless holes that were breeding grounds for diseases. It is estimated that between 1.5 and 2 million slaves died while crossing the Atlantic, and many more died in the forts while still in Africa. sell in markets on the coast. The introduction of firearms in Africa during the 17 th century resulted in slave raids that increased in both scale and effectiveness. E uropean and American buyers traded goods such as cloth, iron, firearms, liquor, and decorative items for the slaves. By the 18th century slave raids penetrated farther inland, and the captives were forced to march sometimes for several hundred miles to markets on the coast.

sell in markets on the coast. The introduction of firearms in Africa during the 17 th century resulted in slave raids that increased in both scale and effectiveness. E uropean and American buyers traded goods such as cloth, iron, firearms, liquor, and decorative items for the slaves. By the 18th century slave raids penetrated farther inland, and the captives were forced to march sometimes for several hundred miles to markets on the coast. Slaves were imprisoned in horrendous dark, dirty fortresses along the coast of western Africa until they were herded onto the boats sailing for the Americas. They had very little food or water and no space in the dank dungeons to move around. Once on the ships, on the journey known as the Middle Passage, the captives were frequently chained in pairs, shackled wrist to wrist or ankle to ankle and crammed between decks in spaces so small they could not stand. The holding areas were dark, stifling hot, airless holes that were breeding grounds for diseases. It is estimated that between 1.5 and 2 million slaves died while crossing the Atlantic, and many more died in the forts while still in Africa. The 18 th century marked the beginning of the Age of Enlightenment in Western Europe and a transition from an agrarian to an industrial economy. These transitions in humanitarian and economic focus contributed to an anti-slavery movement in the Western world. In 1807 there was a move to ban the slave trade in Britain and the United States. Britain outlawed the practice of slavery in all British territory in 1833; France did the same in its colonies in 1848. In 1865, following the American Civil War, the U.S. government adopted the 13 th Amendment to the Constitution, ending slavery in the United States. The Atlantic slave trade continued until 1888, when Brazil followed suit and abolished slavery. However, slavery had become so deeply ingrained in the African economy and society that despite the abolition of the practice, it was not until the 1930s that legalized slavery in Africa was almost totally eliminated. The outlawing of slavery did not suspend the need for inexpensive laborers for agriculture, industry, and other work projects, and as a result, numerous methods evolved for coercing Africans to work without pay or for minimal compensation.

Slavery Statistics There is much controversy surrounding the statistics regarding the impact of the trans-Saharan and Atlantic slave trades. The trans-Saharan slave trade lasted for over 9 centuries, and some historians suggest that at least 10 million African men, women, and children were enslaved during that time. Other sources state that the number of slaves is closer to 28 million. It has been proposed that the trans-Saharan slave trade resulted in as many deaths as that of the Atlantic trade since the routes across the desert compared to the European slave ships were equal in hardship and brutality. Statistics for the Atlantic slave trade which lasted from the mid-15th to the late-19th century vary as well. Depending upon the source, it is estimated that European and American slave traders purchased between 10 and 15 million slaves from west and west central Africa during that time period. The term African diaspora has been historically applied to the descendants of the West and Central Africans who were enslaved and shipped to the Americas in the Atlantic slave trade.

African Oral History, Storytelling and Folktales

Oral History and Storytelling

African art encompasses a broad geographically and culturally diverse array of forms representing art from prehistoric times to the present. African artifacts have been discovered dating back 70,000 years, and recent discoveries suggest that the earliest forms of visual expression may be found in Africa. When discussing traditional African art, North Africa (especially regions that border the Mediterranean Sea), Christian art of Ethiopia, and the ancient art of Egypt are typically discussed as separate movements with their own unique traditions.

Most ancient and medieval African cultures did not have written languages, so much of the history was preserved in the form of oral stories that were memorized and passed from one generation to the next. These traditional oral sources of African histories included poems, praise songs, and accounts of past events. Official oral historians, known as griots (gree-oh), recorded the peoples' and courts' histories. The position of griot could be held by both males and females. The griot committed to memory all of the important events that occurred in the village. They could recite everything from births, deaths, and marriages, to battles, hunts, and the successions of kings often with musical accompaniment. Some griots could recount the villagers’ ancestry going back centuries and could speak for hours or even for days. Rulers relied on griots as their trusted advisors and they used the griots’ knowledge of history to shed light on current problems.

Overview

The legacy of the griot contributed to the development of a rich tradition of folklore. The griot tradition continues to be an important and vibrant part of African culture.

African Art

Folktales

Tricksters and animals play a common role in African folklore. The stories differ within ethnic groups but they all share the common goals of entertaining and more importantly teaching lessons of a moral value or of survival.

The oral storytelling tradition has thrived for generations in Africa because of the absenc e of written languages. It is a tradition rich with folk tales, myths, legends, proverbs, tongue twisters, and riddles. Folk tales and stories function as a means of communicating and handing down traditions and customs from one generation to the next. The folk tales and myths are more than mere forms of entertainment. They teach many lessons that prepare the youth for adulthood and maintain the culture and history of the people.

Folktales

African Art

The legacy of the griot contributed to the development of a rich tradition of folklore. The griot tradition continues to be an important and vibrant part of African culture.

Overview

Oral History and Storytelling

25 The last element which includes balance and proportion and material choices is probably the o nly element that coincides with Western art elements. The other four elements are used to describe the arts’ intuitive, religious and aesthetic value to the peoples of the varying African regions. These elements define the qualities that are essential in African art in order to relate to the seen and unseen world in which the people live. 1. Resemblance to a human figure for purpose of conveying ideas. 2. Luminosity representing shiny and unflawed skin. 3. Youthfulness representing vitality and fertility. 4. Reserved demeanor representing a person in control – self-composure. 5. Balance and proportion through material choices.

Understanding African cultures without having knowledge of traditional African art is impossible. The term "traditional" can be misleading when used to describe a rigid adherence to old forms, but in this context it includes art forms that are actively being practiced by artists who ar e incorporating innovations and new ideas into their work. Other challenges to understanding African art have been a lack of adequate documentation, the myth of the “primitive”, and the assumed anonymity of the African artist. To fully appreciate the form, function and symbolic meanings of traditional African arts, it is essential to study them in their cultural contexts. Unlike western art, traditional African arts were, and continue to be, multi-functional and multi-sensory. A critical distinction between western and African art is its experiential, “alive” nature. Most African art encompasses movement, music, dance, performance, and visual art rolled into one. When the art is part of public festivals, displays, rituals and ceremonies, active audience participation may be an essential aspect in the performance. However, when the art objects are not in use, they are often hidden away from public view and are housed in personal, familial or community shrines.

The following elements or characteristics of African art provide a simple method for classifying and defining the art.

African art objects are an integral part of everyday communal life made to serve social, religious, or political functions and to provide continuity from birth, through adulthood, to death and becoming the spirit of an ancestor. African art can indicate levels of status, leadership or occupation. Some objects can only be used by men and others only by women. Even though they are produced within a traditional framework, the intent and purpose of the artifacts can vary over time and have different meanings for individuals or ethnic groups.

In western culture aesthetics refers to those principles governing the nature and appreciation of beauty, especially in visual art. In many African languages the word for “beautiful” and “good” are the same. When defining African aesthetics, the idea of beauty is present but there is equal emphasis on the importance of the “good” or moral values conveyed by the art.

The following elements or characteristics of African art provide a simple method for classifying and defining the art. To fully appreciate the form, function and symbolic meanings of traditional African arts, it is essential to study them in their cultural contexts. Unlike western art, traditional African arts were, and continue to be, multi-functional and multi-sensory. A critical distinction between western and African art is its experiential, “alive” nature. Most African art encompasses movement, music, dance, performance, and visual art rolled into one. When the art is part of public festivals, displays, rituals and ceremonies, active audience participation may be an essential aspect in the performance. However, when the art objects are not in use, they are often hidden away from public view and are housed in personal, familial or community shrines.

1. Resemblance to a human figure for purpose of conveying ideas. 2. Luminosity representing shiny and unflawed skin. 3. Youthfulness representing vitality and fertility. 4. Reserved demeanor representing a person in control – self-composure. 5. Balance and proportion through material choices. These elements define the qualities that are essential in African art in order to relate to the seen and unseen world in which the people live. The last element which includes balance and proportion and material choices is probably the o nly element that coincides with Western art elements. The other four elements are used to describe the arts’ intuitive, religious and aesthetic value to the peoples of the varying African regions.

Religion

Religion has been one of the major forces in the global history of art and this is true for African art as well. Despite the fact that the majority of Africans are now Muslim or Christian, traditional religious beliefs and practices have endured and continue to play a central role in the lives of African people, providing meaning for the individual as well as the community group.

The position of the artist is highly regarded and respected in many African societies. The artist is responsible for creating masks and sculptures that manifest deeper spiritual dimension, as well as aesthetic qualities. To be considered an accomplished or master artist, the works must be understandable and acceptable to those who would see and use them, and be capable of communicating emotional responses that are born from a deeper mystical inspiration.

Two of the predominant themes in traditional African religion are first, the belief in opposing characteristics – duality; and second, a world inhabited by numerous invisible spirits, each with unique powers and personalities, which are actively engaged in the lives of people. These concepts are expressed through art objects with dual functions such as a spiritual use and also one for governing or entertainment. Art objects can be used as vehicles for communication between the world in which the people live and the spirit world of gods, ancestors and nature. Religious beliefs are also reflected in the art that is created for marriage ceremonies, initiation rituals, funerals and celebrations, and for honoring leaders and ancestors.

Training for the African artist may last for years and usually involves acquiring skills in traditional carving and metal-working techniques. To learn these skills an artist may apprentice in the workshop of a master, or sometimes these skills are passed down from father to son from one generation to the next. In addition, the artist must learn how this training relates to the social and religious traditions of the objects he creates.

Patronage

Although very few traditional African artists are known by name, it is not accurate to say that African art is anonymous. Many of the artists’ work alone, in families, or as apprentices in workshops under the tutelage of a master artist. African artists face a number of restrictions, yet they still manage to express individual imagination and to employ new materials and techniques. If these changes result in a more effective art form, they become accepted into the tradition.

In Africa, as well as in Europe, much of the art has been created under the patronage of royal families and important political and religious leaders. The rich and powerful have commissioned portraits, insignia and emblems to record their history and ensure their legacy. Many of the royal portraits exude a sense of power, perfection and beauty, and are usually embellished with the symbols of the royal office. Community groups, occupational organizations, and societies for men and women are also important patrons of the arts in Africa.

The African Artist

Patronage

27 African sculpture is often highly stylized and symbolic. Proportions are deliberately distorted to emphasize the most important elements. For example, in African culture the head is considered to be the seat of wisdom and personality and in sculpture it is usually enlarged so that it accounts for about one-fourth to one-third of the total height of a human figure instead of the one to seven ratio that is found in nature. In contrast, the hands and feet are generally regarded as unimportant and hence show little detail or attention. Personal attributes such as decorative scarification and hair styles may be incorporated into the design. Portraits pay great attention to accurately capturing these features so that figures may immediately be identified with the person   

Composition – balanced, formal symmetrical arrangements of line; use of scale for symbolic effect; shape and form in figures and masks to evoke integrity and dignity. Texture - skilled craftsmanship, attention to detail and quality of finish. Highly polished surfaces which represent a youthful healthy skin reflect the idea of beauty and virtue, while rough dirty surfaces suggest fear and evil. Many African carvings portray the idealized human figure in its prime, brimming with health and strength, and celebrating fertility or virility. In royal sculpture they also convey a sense of composure and dignity. Shape - African masks take on many forms. They can be oval, circular, rectangular, elongated, heart-shaped, animal or human, or any combination of these.

The following elements or stylistic characteristics form a common foundation for the African sculptural tradition: Perhaps the greatest contribution African art has made to world culture is its excellent tradition of sculpture, especially masks and the human figure. Both of these sculptural forms play a prominent role in African traditions providing a strong social and spiritual connection within the community. The masks and figures are not created to be worshipped. Rather they serve as symbols of forces, ideas, historical events and myths which are very real and sacred in traditional African society. Sculpture also serves to symbolize authority and performs important roles in maintaining social control.

Sculpture It is also believed that the tools of the artist have a spirit, and when tools are passed down through different generations they sometimes inherit the spirit and skills of their previous owners. This concept of 'oneness' of nature is the ecological vision that informs all African tribal culture. For African artists who work with wood there is a belief that trees possess a living spirit and their wood is the most natural home for the spirit in the mask or sculpture. In preparation for the sculpting process the artist may engage in a purification ritual. It is thought that the life of the tree is governed by the same natural and supernatural forces that guide the artist and the community. Before a tree can be cut down certain ceremonies and sacrifices must take place to show respect to the spirit of the tree and request its permission for the carving and transfer of its spirit into the mask or sculpture. This transfer of spirit can greatly in crease the power of the object. If the tree cracks during these preparations, it cannot be used.

For African artists who work with wood there is a belief that trees possess a living spirit and their wood is the most natural home for the spirit in the mask or sculpture. In preparation for the sculpting process the artist may engage in a purification ritual. It is thought that the life of the tree is governed by the same natural and supernatural forces that guide the artist and the community. Before a tree can be cut down certain ceremonies and sacrifices must take place to show respect to the spirit of the tree and request its permission for the carving and transfer of its spirit into the mask or sculpture. This transfer of spirit can greatly in crease the power of the object. If the tree cracks during these preparations, it cannot be used. It is also believed that the tools of the artist have a spirit, and when tools are passed down through different generations they sometimes inherit the spirit and skills of their previous owners. This concept of 'oneness' of nature is the ecological vision that informs all African tribal culture.

Sculpture Perhaps the greatest contribution African art has made to world culture is its excellent tradition of sculpture, especially masks and the human figure. Both of these sculptural forms play a prominent role in African traditions providing a strong social and spiritual connection within the community. The masks and figures are not created to be worshipped. Rather they serve as symbols of forces, ideas, historical events and myths which are very real and sacred in traditional African society. Sculpture also serves to symbolize authority and performs important roles in maintaining social control. The following elements or stylistic characteristics form a common foundation for the African sculptural tradition:  



African sculpture is often highly stylized and symbolic. Proportions are deliberately distorted to emphasize the most important elements. For example, in African culture the head is considered to be the seat of wisdom and personality and in sculpture it is usually enlarged so that it accounts for about one-fourth to one-third of the total height of a human figure instead of the one to seven ratio that is found in nature. In contrast, the hands and feet are generally regarded as unimportant and hence show little detail or attention. Personal attributes such as decorative scarification and hair styles may be incorporated into the design. Portraits pay great attention to accurately capturing these features so that figures may immediately be identified with the person

Masks they represent. People are also invariably represented in the prime of life, full of vigor; to show an individual young and dependent or old and infirm would be insulting. Wood is the primary medium of African sculpture, but many other materials are employed as well including copper alloys, iron, ivory, pottery, unfired clay and, infrequently, stone.

Face and helmet masks, Côte d’Ivoire, Nigeria, Sierra Leone carved wood and native pigments

Masked Dogon Dancers (Men on stilts representing young women.) 1999, Los Altos Cohen Collection ©Kathleen Cohen

In Africa the mask is much more than a sculptural form. Masks are meant to be part of a larger multi-media spectacle or performance incorporating sound and movement. African masks are meant to be seen in motion. The dance, song, and music which accompany these masks are equally important in the overall meaning and purpose of the masquerade. Any one – young, old, male or female can be a performer in a masquerade. However, the masquerade dancers are usually young men who portray both male and female characters. During these masquerade ceremonies it is believed that the mask comes alive, and the mask and its wearer transcend the physical to become the vehicle through which the invisible world of spirits becomes visible to humans. Masks that are used in religious rituals are considered sacred and typically worn by men. The mask usually hides the identity of the person who is wearing it and serves as a support for spirits, allowing the wearer to transform into something different or to take on the identity of what the mask suggests or represents.

One of the longest, most vibrant and stylistically diverse traditions of mask making comes from the continent of Africa. In many of Africa’s ethnic groups, masks play an important role in the daily life of the community. For these groups, masks are created for many purposes: to teach, entertain, initiate, venerate, mourn, judge, celebrate, or worship.

Face and helmet masks, Côte d’Ivoire, Nigeria, Sierra Leone carved wood and native pigments

Masked Dogon Dancers (Men on stilts representing young women.) 1999, Los Altos Cohen Collection ©Kathleen Cohen

Masks

they represent. People are also invariably represented in the prime of life, full of vigor; to show an individual young and dependent or old and infirm would be insulting. Wood is the primary medium of African sculpture, but many other materials are employed as well including copper alloys, iron, ivory, pottery, unfired clay and, infrequently, stone.

Figurative sculptures can be crafted from wood, iron, clay, bronze, and ivory. Their function mirrors that of African masks by transmitting the

29 Single twin figure (ere ibeji) Yoruba, Nigeria, carved wood, indigo and camwood powder

Traditionally the human figure is the main subject in African threedimensional art. Figurative sculptures can be made to honor or appease local spirits and deities. They can serve as vehicles to maintain family relationships between individuals and spirits of the deceased who provide protection and prosperity in return for the establishment of a shrine and regular offerings. They can be created to personify abstract concepts such as communal and family unity, moral codes and spiritual beliefs. Sculptures of the human figure can be used in ceremonies and rituals. They can represent power, divinity, cult, ancestor or other figures. In many instances these sculptures are made to mark events or stages of life, like fertility, birth, transition, or death.

Human Figures Incorporation of bold patterns that are either painted or carved is a powerful, expressive and important element in African mask design. Some of the patterns and designs show an influence of the decorative ideals of Islamic Art. Most patterns are geometrical and symmetrical and have symbolic meaning. For example, parallel, zigzag, cruciform, curved and spiral lines could represent scarification marks or tattoos. These patterns could indicate social status or have magical or religious powers. Square and triangular checkerboard grids, interlacing crosses and geometric forms are frequently added as decorative details on African masks. A variety of complex braided hairstyles can adorn the top of the head. Varying geometric patterns can sometimes be used to distinguish male and female masks. African masks vary greatly in design based on the area of origin. Frequently the masks are carved to resemble animals, especially in groups where animals are thought to be guardian spirits of their human ancestors. Some masks combine human and animal features as a way to unite man with his natural environment. In Africa this bond with nature is of great importance, and masks have always been used to express this relationship. Most African masks are made from wood, and mask usage is often connected to areas where wood is available. However, masks can be made from other materials including bronze, brass, copper, ivory, terracotta, raffia and textiles. Cowrie shells, beads, bone, vegetab le fiber, feathers, animal hide and other materials are often used to embellish the masks. Wooden masks are often painted or blackened with charcoal. If a mask is made for funeral rituals they may be painted white to represent a ghost. Other colors traditionally used in masks are musty red, yellow ochre and indigo. These colors are made from natural dyes and pigments created from vegetables, plants, seeds, tree bark, soil and insects. Occasionally sacrificial blood may be added to increase their spiritual power. There are various styles of masks including face masks, helmet masks and crest masks. The masks can be tied to the face with bands or held there by a scarf or a wig made of raffia. Some have a horizontal peg inside for the dancers to hold bet ween their teeth.

Most African masks are made from wood, and mask usage is often connected to areas where wood is available. However, masks can be made from other materials including bronze, brass, copper, ivory, terracotta, raffia and textiles. Cowrie shells, beads, bone, vegetab le fiber, feathers, animal hide and other materials are often used to embellish the masks. Wooden masks are often painted or blackened with charcoal. If a mask is made for funeral rituals they may be painted white to represent a ghost. Other colors traditionally used in masks are musty red, yellow ochre and indigo. These colors are made from natural dyes and pigments created from vegetables, plants, seeds, tree bark, soil and insects. Occasionally sacrificial blood may be added to increase their spiritual power. There are various styles of masks including face masks, helmet masks and crest masks. The masks can be tied to the face with bands or held there by a scarf or a wig made of raffia. Some have a horizontal peg inside for the dancers to hold bet ween their teeth. African masks vary greatly in design based on the area of origin. Frequently the masks are carved to resemble animals, especially in groups where animals are thought to be guardian spirits of their human ancestors. Some masks combine human and animal features as a way to unite man with his natural environment. In Africa this bond with nature is of great importance, and masks have always been used to express this relationship. Incorporation of bold patterns that are either painted or carved is a powerful, expressive and important element in African mask design. Some of the patterns and designs show an influence of the decorative ideals of Islamic Art. Most patterns are geometrical and symmetrical and have symbolic meaning. For example, parallel, zigzag, cruciform, curved and spiral lines could represent scarification marks or tattoos. These patterns could indicate social status or have magical or religious powers. Square and triangular checkerboard grids, interlacing crosses and geometric forms are frequently added as decorative details on African masks. A variety of complex braided hairstyles can adorn the top of the head. Varying geometric patterns can sometimes be used to distinguish male and female masks.

Human Figures Traditionally the human figure is the main subject in African threedimensional art. Figurative sculptures can be made to honor or appease local spirits and deities. They can serve as vehicles to maintain family relationships between individuals and spirits of the deceased who provide protection and prosperity in return for the establishment of a shrine and regular offerings. They can be created to personify abstract concepts such as communal and family unity, moral codes and spiritual beliefs. Sculptures of the human figure can be used in ceremonies and rituals. They can represent power, divinity, cult, ancestor or other figures. In many instances these sculptures are made to mark events or stages of life, like fertility, birth, transition, or death. Figurative sculptures can be crafted from wood, iron, clay, bronze, and ivory. Their function mirrors that of African masks by transmitting the

Single twin figure (ere ibeji) Yoruba, Nigeria, carved wood, indigo and camwood powder

laws, moral codes, and history of each group to its youth; providing a means of communication between people and supernatural forces and beings; and indicating the wealth and status of their owners. Like the masks, figures that are considered to have spiritual or transformative powers are usually kept hidden from public view except for special rituals or ceremonies, and, just as with the masks, each culture has its own sculptural style.

Realism or physical resemblance is generally not the goal in African sculptures of the human figure. Most figurative sculptures exhibit distorted, simplified and exaggerated human features that are a departure from natural proportions. While it is true that sculptural styles vary between cultures, there are some common characteristics such as static poses, arms held to the side, eyes in the frontal position, weight equally distributed on both feet, large stomachs, large hands and feet, protruding navels, and elongated heads. In many African societies the head is believed to have a special role in guiding oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s destiny and success. It is the source of character and emotion and is symbolized in the sculpture by making the head larger than the body. Multi-figure sculptures employ scale to denote hierarchical status and representation with the most important individual depicted as the largest figure, while those of lesser importance decrease in size proportionately.

Power figures are thought to be imbued with spiritual powers that address very specific issues such as healing, divination, protection or oath taking. Power figures can be created for an individual who may share its powers with others, or to serve an entire community, promoting a more general state of well-being. Power figures are made to hold materials that are endowed with mystical power. They are designed as human forms to which many types of materials such as rope, string, feathers, nails, mirrors, or shells can be attached. Each figure has its own identity and life cycle of events and achievements. These figures are treated with utmost respect for the power they wield and the help they provide those seeking assistance.

Ancestor figures are kept in family homes/shrines and can be passed down through the family. They are cared for by family elders who make ritual offerings to them to ensure the well-being of the family and its lineage. Ancestor figures are created as a sign of respect for the deceased ancestors and to keep from angering their spirits. These sculptures are not created to symbolize a spirit; they are created to contain the spirit of the deceased person. Ancestor figures can be created to keep the memory of great chiefs alive, and to justify the authority and power of the current chiefs. These sculptures are meant to reinforce the importance of family continuity and the perpetuation of the tribe or clan. Although every figure is the portrait of a specific person, the image is generalized and not specific.

Reliquary or funerary figures function as guardians which protect a container housing the ancestral remains. The figures do not represent the ancestors themselves; rather, they are the spirit guardians of the bones, placed there to ward off evil which might desecrate the ancestral remains. It is believed that the bones of the deceased are imbued with the power that the ancestor had during their lifetime, and these powers can be called upon to help the living.

31 Colonization of Africa by Europeans introduced cloth to new areas and provided new materials for local textile arts. This introduced new techniques and technology to African artists who began adopting industrial yarns and dyestuffs, machine sewing, embroidery and appliqué in imported cloth. Tie dye and resist dye are the most common dyeing techniques used in African textiles. In addition to dyeing, African artists also incorporate a variety of fabric-decorating techniques including appliqué designs sewn on in contrasting fabrics, embroidery with brightly colored threads, stamping, and painting. Decorative designs range from relatively plain to extremely intricate, consisting of geometric forms or figures such as animals and birds, and may include metallic or shiny threads for added enhancement. Many of the decorative textile patterns and designs have names and are associated with particular plants, animals, events and proverbs, or incorporate Arabic script, Roman letters and numerals, or images of contemporary objects. African weavers have always taken great pride in the weaving of beautiful cloth. As various civilizations flourished throughout Africa, much of the cloth was woven from locally grown cotton. In some areas, camel and sheep wool was spun into cloth; and fabric was also made from the raffia palm, jute, flax and silk. Weaving is done on several types of looms. In many African societies, men and women are responsible for different stages of cloth production including the weaving process. In one technique fibers are woven into narrow strips of cloth that are typically sewn together and then cut into patterns for clothing. In a second method, colored threads are woven together to create richly textured fabrics. Africa has a long history of textile arts that is comparable with traditional textile arts world-wide. African woven textiles can be traced back to at least 2000 BCE in Egypt where remnants of linen and drawings of looms have been found in ancient tombs. There is evidence that the making of bark cloth predates the development of woven textiles in most parts of Africa. Woven fiber pieces dating back to the ninth century CE have been found in Nigeria, and woven cotton cloth dating to the eleventh century has been recovered in Mali.

Left, Wrap, Yoruba: tie and sew indigo-dyed trade cloth Middle, Wrap, Côte d'Ivoire: cotton, damask trade cloth, folded and dyed Right, Wrap, Yoruba; tie and indigo-dyed trade cloth

Textiles Africa has a long history of textile arts that is comparable with traditional textile arts world-wide. African woven textiles can be traced back to at least 2000 BCE in Egypt where remnants of linen and drawings of looms have been found in ancient tombs. There is evidence that the making of bark cloth predates the development of woven textiles in most parts of Africa. Woven fiber pieces dating back to the ninth century CE have been found in Nigeria, and woven cotton cloth dating to the eleventh century has been recovered in Mali.

Left, Wrap, Yoruba: tie and sew indigo-dyed trade cloth Middle, Wrap, Côte d'Ivoire: cotton, damask trade cloth, folded and dyed Right, Wrap, Yoruba; tie and indigo-dyed trade cloth

African weavers have always taken great pride in the weaving of beautiful cloth. As various civilizations flourished throughout Africa, much of the cloth was woven from locally grown cotton. In some areas, camel and sheep wool was spun into cloth; and fabric was also made from the raffia palm, jute, flax and silk. Weaving is done on several types of looms. In many African societies, men and women are responsible for different stages of cloth production including the weaving process. In one technique fibers are woven into narrow strips of cloth that are typically sewn together and then cut into patterns for clothing. In a second method, colored threads are woven together to create richly textured fabrics. Tie dye and resist dye are the most common dyeing techniques used in African textiles. In addition to dyeing, African artists also incorporate a variety of fabric-decorating techniques including appliqué designs sewn on in contrasting fabrics, embroidery with brightly colored threads, stamping, and painting. Decorative designs range from relatively plain to extremely intricate, consisting of geometric forms or figures such as animals and birds, and may include metallic or shiny threads for added enhancement. Many of the decorative textile patterns and designs have names and are associated with particular plants, animals, events and proverbs, or incorporate Arabic script, Roman letters and numerals, or images of contemporary objects. Colonization of Africa by Europeans introduced cloth to new areas and provided new materials for local textile arts. This introduced new techniques and technology to African artists who began adopting industrial yarns and dyestuffs, machine sewing, embroidery and appliqué in imported cloth.

Textiles

32 32

In contemporary African culture most people wear Western clothing, but traditional dress made from locally woven cloth represents a sense of national pride. For example, the Asante people of Ghana still make Kente cloth, a textile that was once made only for their kings. In modern African society Kente is comparable to an evening gown or tuxedo in Western cultures. It is worn or used on ceremonial occasions to bring honor and prestige to the proceedings.

There are similarities and differences between the various regions in Africa when it comes to the design and meaning of jewelry. Jewelry can be worn to prevent harm from coming to a person or their families. It can be handed down from mother to daughter as part of a marriage dowry. Jewelry may be used as a means of barter exchange for other goods. It can serve as a form of protection from evil spirits. Jewelry can signify status or cultural affiliation and can be used to tell stories. Today, as in the past, African jewelry is also worn to enhance personal beauty and celebrate the skill and artistry of the craftsman.

Even though the production of textiles varies from place to place and is influenced by societal and technological change, weaving continues to flourish and remains a vital occupation in many parts of Africa.

African jewelry, like textiles, has a long history that dates back at least 75,000 years. Jewelry has been made from a variety of materials such as animal teeth, bone, fruit seeds, straw, string, shells, ivory, amber, precious stones, wood, trade beads and metals including silver and gold. These materials have been fashioned into charms, necklaces, rings, chains, bracelets, ankle bangles and head adornments. Jewelry pieces decorated with cowrie shells are highly valued. In A selection of necklaces: glass (African and European made); ostrich egg shell; some medieval African coconut shell; ceramic; myrrh; animal teeth; cast metal bauxite; snake vertebrae; and copal (African amber) kingdoms jewelry was often made from the readily accessible supply of gold. Ivory was especially popular for charms, trinkets and small masks, and was used for arm and leg bangles. Elaborate beadwork created from trade beads or locally crafted African beads is often used for prestige items due to its costly, labor intensive demands.

Jewelry

33 Left, Three mbira or sanza (thumb piano) contemporary African crafts, recycled brake fluid and insect spray cans, hand-forged iron and nails. Right, Balafon musical instrument, Mali, wood, calabashes, silkworm membrane, rawhide and cotton cord

Utilitarian and Ceremonial Objects The African sculptural tradition extends to everyday utilitarian and ceremonial objects that serve communal as well as personal needs. Each culture created its own set of symbols and artistic styles which were understood in the community. Many of these objects bridge the personal, social and religious traditions of the people. For example, in some communities a stool is an intensely personal item for use only by its owner. However, it can also "house" the soul of an individual and, as such, is a significant and powerful symbol. This is true for many African utilitarian and ceremonial objects. Everyday objects such as weaving pulleys, bowls, stools, headrests, walking sticks, chests, combs, spoons and chairs, while made for practical use, were also crafted to beautify daily life. The form and decorative details of such objects could provide information about a specific individual, ethnic affiliation, social status or rank. Ceremonial objects such as figurative staffs were sometimes carried by representatives of chiefs and kings, symbolizing their power and authority. Regardless of the objectsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; function, the artistic creativity and craftsmanship of such works clearly reflect the African aesthetic.

Ceremonial objects such as figurative staffs were sometimes carried by representatives of chiefs and kings, symbolizing their power and authority. Regardless of the objectsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; function, the artistic creativity and craftsmanship of such works clearly reflect the African aesthetic. Everyday objects such as weaving pulleys, bowls, stools, headrests, walking sticks, chests, combs, spoons and chairs, while made for practical use, were also crafted to beautify daily life. The form and decorative details of such objects could provide information about a specific individual, ethnic affiliation, social status or rank. The African sculptural tradition extends to everyday utilitarian and ceremonial objects that serve communal as well as personal needs. Each culture created its own set of symbols and artistic styles which were understood in the community. Many of these objects bridge the personal, social and religious traditions of the people. For example, in some communities a stool is an intensely personal item for use only by its owner. However, it can also "house" the soul of an individual and, as such, is a significant and powerful symbol. This is true for many African utilitarian and ceremonial objects.

Left, Three mbira or sanza (thumb piano) contemporary African crafts, recycled brake fluid and insect spray cans, hand-forged iron and nails. Right, Balafon musical instrument, Mali, wood, calabashes, silkworm membrane, rawhide and cotton cord

Utilitarian and Ceremonial Objects

34 Face Mask Dan, Côte d’Ivoire carved wood trade and native cloth, animal and vegetable fiber, and aluminum nails

The traditional art of Africa has played a decisive role in the evolution of modern Western art. In In Europe, during the early 1900s, increased exposure of African art, especially masks and other African sculpture, served as a catalyst for many innovations in the avantgarde movement. Seeking alternatives to realistic representation and the rigid traditions of the Paris Salon, artists such as Pablo Picasso, Henri Matisse, Maurice de Vlaminck, André Derain and Amedeo Modigliani were inspired by the abstract approach to the human form in African sculpture and began incorporating those elements into their works. Picasso began experimenting with African motifs and formal qualities, as exemplified by his seminal Les Demoiselles d'Avignon (www.moma.org/explore/conservation/demoiselles/). This painting of women with cubistic bodies and mask-like faces became a symbol of modern art throughout the twentieth century.

Dan – Côte d’Ivoire and Liberia c. 17th to Mid-20th Centuries

Masks and Headdresses African art with its emphasis on sculptural forms continues to influence artistic production globally. Many contemporary artists still find inspiration in the visual forms, nature of materials and intrinsic aesthetic value of African art. The influence of African art was not confined to the avant-garde in France. German Expressionist artists such as Paul Klee, George Grosz and Max Beckman created works that reflected elements found in African art. In the United States, several exhibitions of works by Picasso as well as works by the American artist Max Weber introduced the public to this new style of art. During the Harlem Renaissance, artworks by some African American artists including Elizabeth Catlett, Romare Bearden and Lois Mailou Jones drew upon African images and motifs. This expression of the traditions and legacy of their African heritage became one of the hallmarks of the Harlem Renaissance.

Masks and Headdresses c. 17th to Mid-20th Centuries

Dan – Côte d’Ivoire and Liberia

Face Mask Dan, Côte d’Ivoire carved wood trade and native cloth, animal and vegetable fiber, and aluminum nails

The Influence of Traditional African Art on Modern Western Art

African art with its emphasis on sculptural forms continues to influence artistic production globally. Many contemporary artists still find inspiration in the visual forms, nature of materials and intrinsic aesthetic value of African art.

The influence of African art was not confined to the avant-garde in France. German Expressionist artists such as Paul Klee, George Grosz and Max Beckman created works that reflected elements found in African art. In the United States, several exhibitions of works by Picasso as well as works by the American artist Max Weber introduced the public to this new style of art. During the Harlem Renaissance, artworks by some African American artists including Elizabeth Catlett, Romare Bearden and Lois Mailou Jones drew upon African images and motifs. This expression of the traditions and legacy of their African heritage became one of the hallmarks of the Harlem Renaissance.

The Dan live mostly in the western part of the Côte d’Ivoire and into eastern Liberia. The area to the south is mostly forests bordered to the north by a savannah. The Dan comprise a loose confederation of villages of approximately 350,000 individuals. Their economy is primarily agricultural augmented with hunting and fishing. The Dan

The Influence of Traditional African Art on Modern Western Art

35 So called passport masks are another style of mask found in the Dan culture. These small masks, usually less than eight inches tall, are miniature copies of family masks. They are sewn onto a piece of cloth and kept in a leather pouch. These masks can serve as witnesses during initiation ceremonies, protect the owner when he is away from home and be offered libations. Like the majority of African masks, the Dan mask is usually part of a complete costume. Most costumes include a headdress, wide skirt made of palm fiber, and a cloth cape, which completely hides the wearerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s body in order to evoke a particular forest spirit. The fiber represents the wild forest while the cloth represents civilized human society and the mask is a mediator between these two worlds. A masked and costumed dancer will speak in the language of the spirits and his words are interpreted by a wise man. In some Dan ceremonies, dancers perform masked rituals on stilts. The original function of many masks has been lost, and now they are used for entertainment, emerging only for festivals or events organized for tourists and visitors. There are various styles and categories of Dan masks. Masks that have narrow eyes and an oval face are described as gle mu, female-featured masks. Masks with angular, pentagonal silhouettes, a beard and tubular eyes are gle gon, male masks. Two categories of Dan masks are the kagle or deangle. Common features of kagle masks include wood material with triangular eye holes, protruding disc-like or triangular cheekbones, overhanging brow, large open mouth, and no chin. Deangle mask characteristics include wood construction, oval faces, slit-like eyes, full lips with a few teeth showing, and elegant curve of the forehead. Eyes that are almost closed convey a sense of serenity and a white clay band across the eyes represents the cosmetic decoration used by women as adornment on special occasions. The addition of cowrie shells can symbolize wealth and prestige and the honor which is given to the mask. Masks are the most important Dan art form and are central to their cultural life and social organization. Each village can have masks that vary in style and purpose. However, even when the features are similar the Dan believe that each mask spirit is unique with distinct physical attributes, character traits and specific roles in the community. The Dan believe that their world is split into two domains: the human domain which is represented by the village and its people; and the spiritual domain which is represented by the forest and its spirits. Masks may function as intermediaries between the community and the forest initiation camp; they can ward off bush fires during the dry season; they can be used in ceremonies for both war and peace-making; and for entertainment within the village. have the reputation of being fierce warriors, always battling their neighbors. Each village is governed by a chief and a council of elders. Male associations or societies, some that are secret, help maintain social and political unity within the community. One such secret group, the Leopard Society acts as a major regulator of Dan life and initiates young men into adulthood. Leopard Society masks are guarded by the Go master. The Poro Society, which is found in some form throughout the western coast of Africa, is the most important mask-using group. The Poro of Liberia and Sierra Leone exerts its political influence in a number of chiefdoms and is involved in legal matters and the education of boys.

have the reputation of being fierce warriors, always battling their neighbors. Each village is governed by a chief and a council of elders. Male associations or societies, some that are secret, help maintain social and political unity within the community. One such secret group, the Leopard Society acts as a major regulator of Dan life and initiates young men into adulthood. Leopard Society masks are guarded by the Go master. The Poro Society, which is found in some form throughout the western coast of Africa, is the most important mask-using group. The Poro of Liberia and Sierra Leone exerts its political influence in a number of chiefdoms and is involved in legal matters and the education of boys. The Dan believe that their world is split into two domains: the human domain which is represented by the village and its people; and the spiritual domain which is represented by the forest and its spirits. Masks may function as intermediaries between the community and the forest initiation camp; they can ward off bush fires during the dry season; they can be used in ceremonies for both war and peace-making; and for entertainment within the village. Masks are the most important Dan art form and are central to their cultural life and social organization. Each village can have masks that vary in style and purpose. However, even when the features are similar the Dan believe that each mask spirit is unique with distinct physical attributes, character traits and specific roles in the community. There are various styles and categories of Dan masks. Masks that have narrow eyes and an oval face are described as gle mu, female-featured masks. Masks with angular, pentagonal silhouettes, a beard and tubular eyes are gle gon, male masks. Two categories of Dan masks are the kagle or deangle. Common features of kagle masks include wood material with triangular eye holes, protruding disc-like or triangular cheekbones, overhanging brow, large open mouth, and no chin. Deangle mask characteristics include wood construction, oval faces, slit-like eyes, full lips with a few teeth showing, and elegant curve of the forehead. Eyes that are almost closed convey a sense of serenity and a white clay band across the eyes represents the cosmetic decoration used by women as adornment on special occasions. The addition of cowrie shells can symbolize wealth and prestige and the honor which is given to the mask. Like the majority of African masks, the Dan mask is usually part of a complete costume. Most costumes include a headdress, wide skirt made of palm fiber, and a cloth cape, which completely hides the wearerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s body in order to evoke a particular forest spirit. The fiber represents the wild forest while the cloth represents civilized human society and the mask is a mediator between these two worlds. A masked and costumed dancer will speak in the language of the spirits and his words are interpreted by a wise man. In some Dan ceremonies, dancers perform masked rituals on stilts. The original function of many masks has been lost, and now they are used for entertainment, emerging only for festivals or events organized for tourists and visitors. So called passport masks are another style of mask found in the Dan culture. These small masks, usually less than eight inches tall, are miniature copies of family masks. They are sewn onto a piece of cloth and kept in a leather pouch. These masks can serve as witnesses during initiation ceremonies, protect the owner when he is away from home and be offered libations.

Wobe and Guéré – Côte d’Ivoire and Liberia

The Wobe and Guéré people occupy the dense forests in the southwest of the Côte d’Ivoire and the southeast of Liberia. Even though modern scholars combine the Wobe and Guéré under one name, We, meaning "men who easily forgive," the people themselves use the old names. The We population is estimated at 100,000. They have a culture that is similar to the neighboring Dan. The We people grow a variety of crops, but the economy of farming and hunting has been largely replaced by laboring in the diamond camps or working on the rubber plantations. Both ethnic groups are governed by confederations. The primary leader is a military chief who also acts as a civil authority. The family units also play an important role in We social life.

Wobe and Guéré – Côte d’Ivoire and Liberia

Face mask, Guéré, Côte te d’Ivoire/Liberia carved wood, native pigments, vegetable fiber and ape hair

Like the Dan, masks are an important art form for the We. Masks are owned by families and used by individual lineage members in the context of social or political commentary, for initiations, funerals and entertainment. There is a tendency to incorporate imaginative and heterogeneous elements into the anthropomorphic looking face such as a bird’s beak, ears or other wild animal characteristic. In contrast to the Dan masks, the We masks are inclined to be more expressionistic and are often characterized by a frightening appearance with distorted and exaggerated features, enlarged triangular nose, a gaping open mouth and tubular eyes.

The worldview for the We is clearly divided into two parts: the human world with its villages, people, domestic animals and cultivated land; and the bush and forests with its animals and the spirits of the rivers and streams. The We people believe that crossing from one world into the other without permission can be extremely dangerous so elaborate masquerades are performed to gain access for the purpose of hunting or traveling to neighboring villages or markets.

Face mask, Guéré, Côte te d’Ivoire/Liberia carved wood, native pigments, vegetable fiber and ape hair

37 Kom religion focuses on ancestral spirits which are embodied in the skulls of the deceased ancestors. The eldest living male in each family lineage is charged with protecting and maintaining the skulls, and all members of an extended family recognize the skulls as common heritage. There are a number of rites and ceremonies associated with this religious practice. Each village is governed by a leader, the Fon, carved wood, native pigments, rattan, trade and native fabrics, fiber, cowrie shells, animal hair, copper alloys and who is selected by his predecessor and who is aluminum usually the head of the dominant lineage within that community. Each Fon is served by a council of elders which advises him on all important decisions and which also plays an important role in the selection of the next Fon. Face mask, Guéré-Wobe, Côte d’Ivoire

The Kom population is estimated at about 30,000. The economy is reliant on farming and raising of livestock. They believe that women make the soil more fruitful, so they are responsible for the planting and harvesting of the crops, while men are responsible for clearing the fields for planting and practice some nominal hunting. The Kom occupy part of a larger cultural area known collectively as the Western Cameroon Grasslands and live in the northern part of Northwest Province.

Kom – Cameroon Grasslands This mask’s oval shape, facial features like the slit, oval eyes, and adornments indicate that it is intended to be female. This kind of mask could be used for generations; each person who used a mask could add materials to it, so that it changed appearance and meaning over time.

We masks are usually made from wood and embellished with diverse materials such as cowrie shells, bells, nails and feathers. Adding embellishments such as shells, bells, nails, fibers and feathers to a mask or sculpture was thought to reinforce the power of an object. This mask’s oval shape, facial features like the slit, oval eyes, and adornments indicate that it is intended to be female. This kind of mask could be used for generations; each person who used a mask could add materials to it, so that it changed appearance and meaning over time.

Kom – Cameroon Grasslands The Kom occupy part of a larger cultural area known collectively as the Western Cameroon Grasslands and live in the northern part of Northwest Province. The Kom population is estimated at about 30,000. The economy is reliant on farming and raising of livestock. They believe that women make the soil more fruitful, so they are responsible for the planting and harvesting of the crops, while men are responsible for clearing the fields for planting and practice some nominal hunting. Face mask, Guéré-Wobe, Côte d’Ivoire

Each village is governed by a leader, the Fon, carved wood, native pigments, rattan, trade and native fabrics, fiber, cowrie shells, animal hair, copper alloys and who is selected by his predecessor and who is aluminum usually the head of the dominant lineage within that community. Each Fon is served by a council of elders which advises him on all important decisions and which also plays an important role in the selection of the next Fon. Kom religion focuses on ancestral spirits which are embodied in the skulls of the deceased ancestors. The eldest living male in each family lineage is charged with protecting and maintaining the skulls, and all members of an extended family recognize the skulls as common heritage. There are a number of rites and ceremonies associated with this religious practice.

38 Helmet mask Kom, Cameroon Grasslands carved wood and organic accretions

Helmet mask Kom, Cameroon Grasslands carved wood and organic accretions

Helmet mask Kom, Cameroon Grasslands carved blackened wood and native pigments

Stylistic features common to many anthropomorphic masks from the northwestern part of the Cameroon Grasslands include rounded, smooth face; straight nose with pronounced nostrils; almond-shaped eyes rimmed with kaolin; and a protruding, gaping mouth with pointed teeth. Pointed front teeth were considered an ideal of male and female beauty, as evidenced today in old people whose teeth were chipped in their youth to create this effect. The full cheeks and the open mouth with teeth suggest prosperity and wellbeing. Helmet masks are carved out of a section of tree trunk and hollowed to fit over the wearer's entire head.

Helmet mask Kom, Cameroon Grasslands carved blackened wood and traces of pigment

Representations of the human head in Kom art reflect the importance of the skull and the veneration of the ancestral spirits. Almost all decorated utilitarian objects and masks have references to skulls. Statuary often represents the Fon (head chief), and many types of beaded and ivory objects, including stools which symbolize the seat of royal power, are related to the Fon's investiture. Various types of masks are associated with performances of the kwifoyn, an influential male secret society which acted as the Fon's executive body in ritual, political, and legal matters.

Helmet mask Kom, Cameroon Grasslands carved blackened wood and native pigments

Helmet mask Kom, Cameroon Grasslands carved blackened wood and traces of pigment

39 Throughout these various regions there are some similar themes and spirits in the Igbo masking traditions. Two of the most important mask types among the Igbo are those that idealize the qualities of young women, and those representing the powers of men. Maiden masks are always worn by men in masquerade ceremonies and represent the ideals of youthful feminine grace and Certain Igbo masks contrast beauty to bestiality, the feminine to the masculine, and black to white. Northern Igbo Mmwo Society masks represent the spirits of deceased maidens and their mothers with masks symbolizing beauty. Among the Southern Igbo, the Ekpe Society engages contrasting masks to represent the beauty and peacefulness of the maiden spirit with the ugliness and aggression of the elephant spirit. The Eastern Igbo are best known for masquerades associated with the harvest festival, in which the forms of the masks are determined by tradition, though the content of the play varies from year to year. Ekpo masks can be regarded as beautiful (mfon), others as ugly (idiok). Many have particular names and roles. Some spirits are benevolent, others malevolent. The lack of overall political and religious centralization among the Igbo has been conducive to the development of a great variety of art styles and cultural practices. Igbo masks are an important art form and play an integral role in culture, but the function and styles vary from village to village. An outstanding characteristic of some Igbo masks is that they are painted chalk white, the color of the spirit. Numerous masks are created to incarnate unspecified spirits of the dead, forming a vast community of souls. Masks are part of elaborate masquerade costumes used for sacred rituals, initiations, funerals, public festivals, satirizing unacceptable behavior and providing models for both male and female ideals. Some masks appear at only one festival, but many appear at numerous festivals. Music, costumes, theatrical dance and participation from the entire village, create a festive, carnival-like atmosphere for public masquerades. There are some shared religious beliefs among all the Igbo people, but many religious practices are locally organized, with the most effective unit of religious worship being the extended f amily. Periodic rituals and ceremonies may activate the lineage (larger kinship unit) or the village, which is the widest political community. The Igbo are polytheistic and believe that there are three levels of divine beings. The highest level is the supreme god, or Chukwu. Underneath Chukwu are lesser gods, called Umuagbara, and under these are the Ndi Ichie, the spirits of the dead. They view death as a transient phase between the living and the spirit world. Mainly farmers and merchants, the Igbo also hunt and fish. There is no centralized government for the regions, and within the individual villages decisions are made by almost everyone in the community. Each village does have established institutions such as a council of elders (a group based on age), a council of chiefs, an association for women, and secret societies. This form of governance simultaneously emphasizes individual actions and community living. The Igbo, sometimes referred to as Ibo, are the second largest group of people living in southern Nigeria and number some ten million individuals. The country is composed of four distinct areas with one common language.

Igbo and Ibibio â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Nigeria The Igbo, sometimes referred to as Ibo, are the second largest group of people living in southern Nigeria and number some ten million individuals. The country is composed of four distinct areas with one common language. Mainly farmers and merchants, the Igbo also hunt and fish. There is no centralized government for the regions, and within the individual villages decisions are made by almost everyone in the community. Each village does have established institutions such as a council of elders (a group based on age), a council of chiefs, an association for women, and secret societies. This form of governance simultaneously emphasizes individual actions and community living. There are some shared religious beliefs among all the Igbo people, but many religious practices are locally organized, with the most effective unit of religious worship being the extended f amily. Periodic rituals and ceremonies may activate the lineage (larger kinship unit) or the village, which is the widest political community. The Igbo are polytheistic and believe that there are three levels of divine beings. The highest level is the supreme god, or Chukwu. Underneath Chukwu are lesser gods, called Umuagbara, and under these are the Ndi Ichie, the spirits of the dead. They view death as a transient phase between the living and the spirit world. The lack of overall political and religious centralization among the Igbo has been conducive to the development of a great variety of art styles and cultural practices. Igbo masks are an important art form and play an integral role in culture, but the function and styles vary from village to village. An outstanding characteristic of some Igbo masks is that they are painted chalk white, the color of the spirit. Numerous masks are created to incarnate unspecified spirits of the dead, forming a vast community of souls. Masks are part of elaborate masquerade costumes used for sacred rituals, initiations, funerals, public festivals, satirizing unacceptable behavior and providing models for both male and female ideals. Some masks appear at only one festival, but many appear at numerous festivals. Music, costumes, theatrical dance and participation from the entire village, create a festive, carnival-like atmosphere for public masquerades. Certain Igbo masks contrast beauty to bestiality, the feminine to the masculine, and black to white. Northern Igbo Mmwo Society masks represent the spirits of deceased maidens and their mothers with masks symbolizing beauty. Among the Southern Igbo, the Ekpe Society engages contrasting masks to represent the beauty and peacefulness of the maiden spirit with the ugliness and aggression of the elephant spirit. The Eastern Igbo are best known for masquerades associated with the harvest festival, in which the forms of the masks are determined by tradition, though the content of the play varies from year to year. Ekpo masks can be regarded as beautiful (mfon), others as ugly (idiok). Many have particular names and roles. Some spirits are benevolent, others malevolent. Throughout these various regions there are some similar themes and spirits in the Igbo masking traditions. Two of the most important mask types among the Igbo are those that idealize the qualities of young women, and those representing the powers of men. Maiden masks are always worn by men in masquerade ceremonies and represent the ideals of youthful feminine grace and

Igbo and Ibibio â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Nigeria

beauty. Maiden maskers perform with great dramatic flair in order to entertain both human and spirit audiences.

Maiden masks are used predominantly during agricultural festivals to invoke the protection of the maiden spirit for the living and to promote abundant harvests, fertility and prosperity for the community. They are also part of funeral ceremonies for prominent members of the community where they function, along with other appropriate spirits, as escorts for the deceased into the spirit world.

The Ibibio religion is based on paying tribute to the village ancestors. Ekpo is the Ibibio Face mask (mmwo) word for “ancestor,” and failing to appease Igbo, Nigeria these ancestors will result in the wrath of carved wood and native pigments the Ekpo Society. It is believed that ancestors who achieved important status and high rank while living, usually the heads of families, have the ability to control the fortunes of their descendants. These important ancestor spirits have the power to afflict those who fail to make the proper offering or those who fail to observe kinship norms.

Red, orange, yellow and black pigments are frequently applied to maiden masks to hig hlight their elaborate carvings representing the female crested hairstyle. Other types of masks represent various spirits that can be benevolent or malevolent such as those who died young, violently, or who behaved badly. These spirits do not go on to the Village of the Ghosts, are not reborn and are believed to wander the earth in bitterness and anger.

The Ibibio political and religious practices share similar characteristics with those of the Igbo. Traditionally Ibibio society consists of communities composed of large families. Villages are governed by a group of elders and the heads of extended families. Their decisions are enforced by members of the Ekpo Society who play a political, legislative, judiciary and religious role in the village.

The Ibibio, like the Igbo, do not constitute a single group but several networks of independent communities. Approximately two million Ibibio live in Nigeria between the Delta and the Cross River and are regarded as the most ancient of all the ethnic groups in Nigeria. There are two main divisions of Ibibio, the western Anang and the southern Eket. They are farmers whose traditional crops include yams, plantains and maize. They also engage in the extraction and export of palm oil.

41 The traditional Bamana are a patrilineal and patrilocal society and they practice a form of government based on extended family units that range from 100 to 1000 members. These family units are organized into villages with a head chief whose position is determined by kinship ties within the community. The political, social, educational and religious functions of the village are overseen by six major initiation societies. The religion of the Bamana is directly related to the initiation societies. Even though most Bamana claim to be Muslim, many people still follow their traditional beliefs in ancestor worship. The Bamana, members of the Mande culture, are the largest ethnic group within Mali numbering approximately 2,500,000. The triangle of the Bamana region that is divided in two parts by the Niger River, makes up the larger part of present day western and southern Mali. Due to the dry savannah climate, the people who live in the rural villages rely on subsistence farming and hunting.

Bamana â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Mali These black masks represent corrupt, amoral, ugly and evil souls sentenced at death to perpetual ghosthood. The function of these masks is to maintain social order and propitiate the ancestors. They appear only at night, well after the mfon masks have retired. Many Ibibio idok masks have distorted facial features that represent disease and deformity.

Face mask, hinged jaw Ibibio, Nigeria carved wood, trade and native pigments and rattan

Considered good and beautiful, mfon masks embody the souls of people whose lives on earth were productive and morally unblemished. The idiok masks are often of naturalistic appearance and have hinged jaws. Two types of masks that are part of the ancestor cult are the idiok which is ugly and evokes wandering spirits and the mfon, which is handsome and represents spirits who have reached paradise. White and yellow-faced mfon masks come out during daytime burial festivities honoring the recent dead, and also at annual agricultural festivals.

The Ekpo Society masks, costumes and music represent the predominant art forms in Ibibio society. Two types of masks that are part of the ancestor cult are the idiok which is ugly and evokes wandering spirits and the mfon, which is handsome and represents spirits who have reached paradise. White and yellow-faced mfon masks come out during daytime burial festivities honoring the recent dead, and also at annual agricultural festivals. Considered good and beautiful, mfon masks embody the souls of people whose lives on earth were productive and morally unblemished. The idiok masks are often of naturalistic appearance and have hinged jaws. These black masks represent corrupt, amoral, ugly and evil souls sentenced at death to perpetual ghosthood. The function of these masks is to maintain social order and propitiate the ancestors. They appear only at night, well after the mfon masks have retired. Many Ibibio idok masks have distorted facial features that represent disease and deformity.

Bamana â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Mali

Face mask, hinged jaw Ibibio, Nigeria carved wood, trade and native pigments and rattan

The Bamana, members of the Mande culture, are the largest ethnic group within Mali numbering approximately 2,500,000. The triangle of the Bamana region that is divided in two parts by the Niger River, makes up the larger part of present day western and southern Mali. Due to the dry savannah climate, the people who live in the rural villages rely on subsistence farming and hunting. The traditional Bamana are a patrilineal and patrilocal society and they practice a form of government based on extended family units that range from 100 to 1000 members. These family units are organized into villages with a head chief whose position is determined by kinship ties within the community. The political, social, educational and religious functions of the village are overseen by six major initiation societies. The religion of the Bamana is directly related to the initiation societies. Even though most Bamana claim to be Muslim, many people still follow their traditional beliefs in ancestor worship.

The Ekpo Society masks, costumes and music represent the predominant art forms in Ibibio society.

There are several styles of Chiwara masks/headdresses including vertical, horizontal, or abstract that may be identified as male or female. Styles vary by region. The wooden sculpted figure is attached to a basket-style cap that worn on top of the dancer’s head. Long black raffia is secured to the cap to form a costume that covers the dancer’s face and body. Each of the six societies has distinctive masks and or headdresses that are used in their ceremonies and rituals. The members of the Tji Wara Society use a headdress that represents a mythical being which came from the sky and taught man the secrets of farming and agriculture. This being, Tji Wara or Chiwara (chee-wah-rah), is represented in the form of part antelope and part man. Antelopes are considered to have a tremendous amount of spiritual energy exhibited by their grace and beauty. Chiwara ceremonies are performed twice a year, when crops are planted and after the harvest, to honor the best farmer in the village. The Jo Society serves as a framework for the other initiation societies and, until a few decades ago, Jo initiation was required for all the males in the village. It is through the seven year Jo initiation that the men attain the required knowledge of ancestral traditions and societal concepts of the moral conduct of life which contribute to the overall wellbeing of the individual and the community. The initiation culminates in a ritual death and rebirth of the successful initiate. Initiation societies have become less essential in modern Bamana life due to the introduction of Islam, colonialism and urbanization.

During the ceremony, the male dancers hold long sticks to represent the forelegs of the antelope. The dancers bend

A typical female Chiwara headdress represents the earth. She carries a baby antelope that symbolizes human babies. Both the mother and child have long straight horns to denote the desired growth for the millet. Water is represented by raffia that is attached to the headdress. The typical male Chiwara headdress can be identified by its singular curved horn and upright mane. An intricately carved zigzag pattern, which usually forms the neck, signifies the sun’s path between the period of solstices and/or the bounding stride of the antelope. Together the male and female pair stresses the complementary nature of the female and male and the need for cooperation and unity essential to successful farming. The male sun and the female earth are both essential for the growth of crops and, thus, the survival of humans.

Headdress (chi wara) Bamana, Mali carved wood, rattan, vegetable fiber, copper, trade cloth and pigeon quills

During the ceremony, the male dancers hold long sticks to represent the forelegs of the antelope. The dancers bend

Headdress (chi wara) Bamana, Mali carved wood, rattan, vegetable fiber, copper, trade cloth and pigeon quills

Each of the six societies has distinctive masks and or headdresses that are used in their ceremonies and rituals. The members of the Tji Wara Society use a headdress that represents a mythical being which came from the sky and taught man the secrets of farming and agriculture. This being, Tji Wara or Chiwara (chee-wah-rah), is represented in the form of part antelope and part man. Antelopes are considered to have a tremendous amount of spiritual energy exhibited by their grace and beauty. Chiwara ceremonies are performed twice a year, when crops are planted and after the harvest, to honor the best farmer in the village.

The Jo Society serves as a framework for the other initiation societies and, until a few decades ago, Jo initiation was required for all the males in the village. It is through the seven year Jo initiation that the men attain the required knowledge of ancestral traditions and societal concepts of the moral conduct of life which contribute to the overall wellbeing of the individual and the community. The initiation culminates in a ritual death and rebirth of the successful initiate. Initiation societies have become less essential in modern Bamana life due to the introduction of Islam, colonialism and urbanization.

Some of the best know Mende masks are associated with are helmet-shaped, smooth, black masks used during ceremonies the girls are trained for their future adult homemaking, sexual matters, and the proper attitude

43 the Sande Society. The sowei or bundu the initiation of girls. During these roles and are instructed in childcare, towards husbands and authority. All

Public masquerades are an important part of Mende life, mediating between community at large and the societies that are central to education and social development. Much of the Mende art is associated with the two societies and is used in initiation and healing ceremonies. All manifestations of the spirits, including use of the masks, are performed for religious ceremonies. The masks are created to be aesthetically pleasing to the spirits, and it is hoped that, through their continual use, the spirits will agree to embody the dancer during the ceremony.

Helmet mask (bundu), Mende, Sierra Leone carved and blackened wood

Children are educated in government-sponsored schools, but they receive education in traditional cultural values in two community based associations known as the Sande or Bundu and Poro Societies. The two societies are divided by gender with the Poro for men and the Sande for women. The primary role of both societies is the same in that they intend to teach people the expectations of the community, uphold moral values, preside over public life, and share the responsibility for making political, economic and judicial decisions. The Mende believe that most illness is a result of transgressions against the rules of conduct laid down by one or both of the societies. In Mende religion, Ngewo is the creator and ruler of the universe and is assisted by the ancestors and other Nga-fa (spirits). The people appeal to both Ngewo and Nga-fa for protection and fertility for the community and the individual. The Mende people live in an area that occupies nearly 12,000 square miles in the m odern country of Sierra Leone. They are one of the two largest ethnic groups in Sierra Leone with a population of about one million. Their economy is derived primarily from farming and the sale of palm oil. Extended families are an important part of the social and political structure. Villages and towns are governed by councils made up of family leaders, and each district is presided over by an officer appointed by the central government.

Mende â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Sierra Leone down and butt their heads up and down and scratch the earth with sticks representing a hoeing motion and antelope movements. The male dancers are accompanied by a female chorus which praises the virtues of the ideal farmer. The women also dance behind the men mimicking their movements.

down and butt their heads up and down and scratch the earth with sticks representing a hoeing motion and antelope movements. The male dancers are accompanied by a female chorus which praises the virtues of the ideal farmer. The women also dance behind the men mimicking their movements.

Mende â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Sierra Leone The Mende people live in an area that occupies nearly 12,000 square miles in the m odern country of Sierra Leone. They are one of the two largest ethnic groups in Sierra Leone with a population of about one million. Their economy is derived primarily from farming and the sale of palm oil. Extended families are an important part of the social and political structure. Villages and towns are governed by councils made up of family leaders, and each district is presided over by an officer appointed by the central government. In Mende religion, Ngewo is the creator and ruler of the universe and is assisted by the ancestors and other Nga-fa (spirits). The people appeal to both Ngewo and Nga-fa for protection and fertility for the community and the individual. Children are educated in government-sponsored schools, but they receive education in traditional cultural values in two community based associations known as the Sande or Bundu and Poro Societies. The two societies are divided by gender with the Poro for men and the Sande for women. The primary role of both societies is the same in that they intend to teach people the expectations of the community, uphold moral values, preside over public life, and share the responsibility for making political, economic and judicial decisions. The Mende believe that most illness is a result of transgressions against the rules of conduct laid down by one or both of the societies. Helmet mask (bundu), Mende, Sierra Leone Public masquerades are an important part of Mende life, carved and blackened wood mediating between community at large and the societies that are central to education and social development. Much of the Mende art is associated with the two societies and is used in initiation and healing ceremonies. All manifestations of the spirits, including use of the masks, are performed for religious ceremonies. The masks are created to be aesthetically pleasing to the spirits, and it is hoped that, through their continual use, the spirits will agree to embody the dancer during the ceremony.

the Sande Society. The sowei or bundu the initiation of girls. During these roles and are instructed in childcare, towards husbands and authority. All

The Yoruba people constitute an ethnic group which lives in southwest and northern Nigeria and southern and central Benin. With over 40 million in population, the Yoruba form one of the largest ethnic groups in Africa. They are divided into approximately twenty separate subgroups which were traditionally autonomous kingdoms. Agriculture and farming are the economic mainstays even for the Yoruba who live in cities.

Yoruba – Nigeria Mende girls become members of the Sande Society when they reach puberty. The sowei masks represent female water spirits and have an idealized female face whose aesthetic reflects the culture’s religious and philosophical ideals. Characteristics of the masks include black shiny skin, high forehead, rings around the neck, and elaborate hair styling that suggests good health and a well-to-do social condition. The high forehead represents character, wisdom and promises of prosperity. The rings at the neck can symbolize the concentric ripples created as the spirit emerges from the water as well as folds of fat, considered to be a sign of beauty, fertility, vitality and health. The facial features of the masks conform to strict conventions of beauty and have symbolic meaning. For example, the closed or only slightly open mouth suggests seriousness and silence. Individual and elaborately designed coiffures are prominent feature of the mask. The hairstyle designs function as both personal beauty statements and reflections of social prestige among the Sande. Intricate braids, weavings and buns reflect factual Mende hairstyles. Embellishments such as birds, snakes, cooking pots, cowrie shells, amulets, charms, crests and crowns refer to Sande traditions, proverbs and teachings.

Unlike many other large African ethnic groups, the Yoruba tend to organize and live in large cities rather than smaller villages. The Yoruba do not have a centralized government or authority figure. The political and social systems vary by region, with unified allegiance paid to the large urban center in each area. Every town has an Oba (leader), who is considered to be a direct descendant of the city’s founding Oba. The Oba can achieve his position by inheritance, participation in title associations, or being personally selected by an Oba already in power. Title associations similar to those in other African ethnic groups assist the Oba in making decisions and play an important role in assigning and balancing power within the cities.

The masks are carved by men from a single block of wood. Although women throughout Africa often act as intermediaries between the spirit world and the earthly world, the Mende tradition is unique because it is the only known masking tradition in Africa where the masks are exclusively worn by women. The mask is worn by the ndoli jowei (‘the sowei who dances’) along with a black raffia and textile costume which completely conceals her identity. During the masquerade, the female dancer takes care that her costume contains no opening other than a narrow slit for the eyes, to prevent contact with the fearful, all-consuming power of spirit that possesses her. The dance attendants keep the sowei masks in the same enclosure where Sande medicine is kept.

Yoruba – Nigeria

Headdress (ere egungun) Yoruba, Nigeria carved wood, plastic bird and beads, painted mirror, native and trade fabrics and paint (Cover image)

Mende girls become members of the Sande Society when they reach puberty. The sowei masks represent female water spirits and have an idealized female face whose aesthetic reflects the culture’s religious and philosophical ideals. Characteristics of the masks include black shiny skin, high forehead, rings around the neck, and elaborate hair styling that suggests good health and a well-to-do social condition. The high forehead represents character, wisdom and promises of prosperity. The rings at the neck can symbolize the concentric ripples created as the spirit emerges from the water as well as folds of fat, considered to be a sign of beauty, fertility, vitality and health. The facial features of the masks conform to strict conventions of beauty and have symbolic meaning. For example, the closed or only slightly open mouth suggests seriousness and silence. Individual and elaborately designed coiffures are prominent feature of the mask. The hairstyle designs function as both personal beauty statements and reflections of social prestige among the Sande. Intricate braids, weavings and buns reflect factual Mende hairstyles. Embellishments such as birds, snakes, cooking pots, cowrie shells, amulets, charms, crests and crowns refer to Sande traditions, proverbs and teachings.

45 Egungun has two meanings in the Yoruba language – one is the name for the masquerade tradition honoring deceased ancestors. The other meaning is translated as “powers concealed” and refers to any masked performer or masquerade. Egungun masquerade costumes are commissioned and worn by men. The making of a costume is a complex process that can involve a tailor, diviner, the society leader, and sculptor if a mask is required. Owning an Egungun masquerade costume is a demanding responsibility that brings personal prestige and demonstrates a man’s commitment to his extended family, which is held in great esteem by the Yoruba. The Yoruba create numerous art Headdress (ere gelede) forms including wood, brass and Yoruba, Nigeria terracotta sculpture, masks, pottery, carved wood and native pigments weaving, beadworking and metal pieces. Masks and figures are prominent in Yoruba cultural and religious traditions. Helmet masks carved in the form of a human face are worn during Gelede ceremonies. The Epa masks display great variety depending on the individual town or village. They are generally worn during funerals or rites of passage ceremonies and are composed of many elements – usually a humanface helmet mask topped by an elaborate standing figure. The Egungun Society has both men and women members who represent the community’s lineages. Egungun masquerades are performed at funerals or other special family occasions, as well as at yearly or biennial Egungun festivals. Several societies are responsible for maintaining the social, religious and educational traditions within the community. For example, the Gelede (gehl-eh-day) Society is led by elderly women but both men and women can be members. The focus of the society is to honor the power of elderly women and female ancestors. The Epa is connected with both the ancestors and agriculture. The Ogboni Society performs a range of political and religious functions and its members are generally considered to be part of the nobility of the various Yoruba kingdoms of West Africa. The Yoruba religion consists of a pantheon of gods numbering well over 400. The supreme creator god, Olodumare or Olorun, reigns over the orisha (deities) and nature spirits who live among the rocks, trees and rivers. The Yoruba believe that after death they enter into the realm of the ancestors where they still have influence on earth. They view the world as a continuum composed of the living and the dead with the ancestor ever present in the life of an individual, his or her family, and town.

The Yoruba religion consists of a pantheon of gods numbering well over 400. The supreme creator god, Olodumare or Olorun, reigns over the orisha (deities) and nature spirits who live among the rocks, trees and rivers. The Yoruba believe that after death they enter into the realm of the ancestors where they still have influence on earth. They view the world as a continuum composed of the living and the dead with the ancestor ever present in the life of an individual, his or her family, and town. Several societies are responsible for maintaining the social, religious and educational traditions within the community. For example, the Gelede (gehl-eh-day) Society is led by elderly women but both men and women can be members. The focus of the society is to honor the power of elderly women and female ancestors. The Epa is connected with both the ancestors and agriculture. The Ogboni Society performs a range of political and religious functions and its members are generally considered to be part of the nobility of the various Yoruba kingdoms of West Africa. The Yoruba create numerous art Headdress (ere gelede) forms including wood, brass and Yoruba, Nigeria terracotta sculpture, masks, pottery, carved wood and native pigments weaving, beadworking and metal pieces. Masks and figures are prominent in Yoruba cultural and religious traditions. Helmet masks carved in the form of a human face are worn during Gelede ceremonies. The Epa masks display great variety depending on the individual town or village. They are generally worn during funerals or rites of passage ceremonies and are composed of many elements – usually a humanface helmet mask topped by an elaborate standing figure. The Egungun Society has both men and women members who represent the community’s lineages. Egungun masquerades are performed at funerals or other special family occasions, as well as at yearly or biennial Egungun festivals. Egungun has two meanings in the Yoruba language – one is the name for the masquerade tradition honoring deceased ancestors. The other meaning is translated as “powers concealed” and refers to any masked performer or masquerade. Egungun masquerade costumes are commissioned and worn by men. The making of a costume is a complex process that can involve a tailor, diviner, the society leader, and sculptor if a mask is required. Owning an Egungun masquerade costume is a demanding responsibility that brings personal prestige and demonstrates a man’s commitment to his extended family, which is held in great esteem by the Yoruba.

The facial part of this mask represents a male with a protruding beard. It has classic almond shaped eyes with pierced circular holes for pupils, and black painted eye lashes that rim the eyes. The nose is strong, and teeth show through the parted lips. Black stained scarification lines are incised on the forehead and both cheeks, although those on the forehead are smaller. These types of marks are called pélé, which many communities in southwestern Yorubaland regard as “gems” on the human face. A small black cross is prominently placed on each cheek. Overall, the facial features exemplify superiority and serenity. The upper part of the helmet mask is also decorated with a tension drum (dundun) and a pair of over-sized ears, modeled after those of a hare.

Originally, Gelede masks/headdresses were worn by females, but eventually the role shifted to male dancers. The masquerade costumes are worn at festivals marking the new agricultural season. The Gelede masquerades take place during the day and the related Efe masquerades at night honoring the women of the community, especially the powerful awon iya wa or “our mothers” which include both the elderly women of the community and the ancestors of Yoruba society. Gelede performances function as a form of public commentary about social and spiritual matters within the community, and as a method to help shape the society, and those within it, in constructive ways. Duality is an important concept in the Gelede Society and they believe that along with women’s ability to give life, they are known to possess powers to end it. Women can benefit their society by bringing fertility and prosperity and, conversely, they can be harmful, causing disease, scarcity and calamities. The dancers can express this idea through their headdresses and movements, and they can also entertain and educate, through elements of everyday life, the Yoruba ideals of male and female behavior.

Headdress (ere gelede), Yoruba, Nigeria carved wood and native pigments from the collection of Jean Colker

The masks are worn at an angle on the top of the head, with pairs of men wearing similar masks as they perform the dance. Masks and headpieces vary from woman to woman, each representing something different. They can show who they are, ask for blessings, sing of praise, or literally anything focusing on the good or bad “our mothers” bring to them. The Gelede headdress often consists of two parts, a lower mask and an upper superstructure. The lower mask depicts a woman's face, its composure expressing the qualities of calmness, patience, and "coolness" desired in Yoruba women. The static expression and simplicity of this portion of the headdress contrasts with the vitality and diversity of the superstructure which can depict current events with images of politicians, or signs of modernity and technology, such as airplanes and motorcycles, in an effort to elicit audience discussion.

Headdress (ere gelede), Yoruba, Nigeria carved wood and native pigments from the collection of Jean Colker

The Asante cloth called Kente is undeniably the most admired and easily recognized of all African textiles. Kente comes from the word kenten, which means "basket." The Asante also refer to Kente as nwentoma or "woven cloth." Historically each Asante king would consult with master weavers, during his reign, to create a new Kente design. This new Kente design had to be chosen with great care because its pattern and symbolic meaning would always be associated with this particular king.

47 Prestige wrap (Kente) Ashanti, Ghana narrow strip woven prestige cloth of silk, rayon and cotton

The Ashanti or Asante people live in modern day central Ghana and number about 1.5 million people. The Asante region is a remnant of the Ashanti Empire. The Ashanti are known for their expertise in a variety of crafts including weaving, Kente cloth, wood carving, ceramics, and metallurgy/goldsmithing. All of the crafts are created by men except for pottery, which is primarily a female activity. However, only men are permitted to make pottery pots and pipes.

Ashanti/Asante – Ghana

Textiles c. 17

to Mid-20th Centuries

The depiction of animals in Gelede masks can serve as metaphors for human actions and attributes, or as illustrations of popular proverbs and songs that often accompany the masks’ appearance. Animals in devouring motifs are an important means of conveying the concept of competing forces in social as well as spiritual realms. Snakes symbolize the positive feminine qualities of patience, coolness and power. A snake coiled around the front of a mask or headdress can signify cautious vigilance as in the saying "the snake sleeps but continues to see.” Such images of modern machinery and technology in Gelede masks can have multiple connotations. They may evoke the dynamics of change in society and praise for the positive benefits that can derive from such inventions as airplanes, sewing machines and cars. Yet these same inventions can have spiritual implications as well for they are sometimes seen as resulting from extraordinary powers, like those ascribed to "our mothers”—for whom the Gelede masquerade is performed. One of "our mothers’ " powers is the ability to transform into birds and other flying creatures capable of traveling great distances with ease. The image of a plane flying on the Gelede headdress can represent the transformative powers of "our mothers," encouraging them to use such powers for the progress and benefit of society.

Such images of modern machinery and technology in Gelede masks can have multiple connotations. They may evoke the dynamics of change in society and praise for the positive benefits that can derive from such inventions as airplanes, sewing machines and cars. Yet these same inventions can have spiritual implications as well for they are sometimes seen as resulting from extraordinary powers, like those ascribed to "our mothers”—for whom the Gelede masquerade is performed. One of "our mothers’ " powers is the ability to transform into birds and other flying creatures capable of traveling great distances with ease. The image of a plane flying on the Gelede headdress can represent the transformative powers of "our mothers," encouraging them to use such powers for the progress and benefit of society. The depiction of animals in Gelede masks can serve as metaphors for human actions and attributes, or as illustrations of popular proverbs and songs that often accompany the masks’ appearance. Animals in devouring motifs are an important means of conveying the concept of competing forces in social as well as spiritual realms. Snakes symbolize the positive feminine qualities of patience, coolness and power. A snake coiled around the front of a mask or headdress can signify cautious vigilance as in the saying "the snake sleeps but continues to see.”

Textiles c. 17

to Mid-20th Centuries

Ashanti/Asante – Ghana The Ashanti or Asante people live in modern day central Ghana and number about 1.5 million people. The Asante region is a remnant of the Ashanti Empire. The Ashanti are known for their expertise in a variety of crafts including weaving, Kente cloth, wood carving, ceramics, and metallurgy/goldsmithing. All of the crafts are created by men except for pottery, which is primarily a female activity. However, only men are permitted to make pottery pots and pipes. The Asante cloth called Kente is undeniably the most admired and easily recognized of all African textiles. Kente comes from the word kenten, which means "basket." The Asante also refer to Kente as nwentoma or "woven cloth." Historically each Asante king would consult with master weavers, during his reign, to create a new Kente design. This new Kente design had to be chosen with great care because its pattern and symbolic meaning would always be associated with this particular king.

Prestige wrap (Kente) Ashanti, Ghana narrow strip woven prestige cloth of silk, rayon and cotton

48 Fertility “doll” (akua’ba) Ashanti, Ghana carved and blackened wood, and trade beads

Wood carving is another important art form in Asante culture, and a common theme is fertility and children since, among the Asante, the family line is passed down from the mother to the daughters. Akua’ba fertility figures and mother-and-child figures are iconic Asante sculptural forms. There is an Asante legend that asserts a woman struggling to become pregnant went to the priest of a local shrine who told her to commission the carving of a fertility figure. She was instructed to bathe, dress, feed and carry the figure on her back like an actual infant. Initially, the young woman was subject to scorn from the villagers, however, she eventually gave birth to a healthy and beautiful baby girl. As a result, other young women who could not conceive continued the practice.

Since Ghana's independence from Britain in 1960, Kente has become a symbol of national pride and ordinary citizens wear it for special celebrations. It has also become an important symbol for African Americans to highlight their connection to the African continent . More recently Kente fabrics and patterns have been appropriated for a wide variety of international commercial uses. Wearing Kente is comparable to wearing an evening gown or tuxedo in Western cultures. Including Kente cloth on ceremonial occasions provides a sense of honor and prestige to the event.

Kente is a strip-woven cloth, originally worn only by royalty, which is made from multiple woven strips. Two sets of yarn--the warp and the weft that interlace at right angles are required for the weaving process. The lengthwise thread held in tension is the warp. A weaver works the weft through the warp by passing the yarn over and under the tautly held warp threads. Each strip is woven in a continuous band, four to eight inches wide, that is later cut into shorter lengths and sewn together into a single cloth. Fertility “doll” (akua’ba) Ashanti, Ghana carved and blackened wood, and trade beads

Asante Kente is known for its multicolored patterns of bright colors, geometric shapes and bold designs. The patterns are usually found in the lengthwise (warp) threads. Each pattern has a specific name and meaning relating to Asante proverbs, historical events, social status, and the gender of the wearer, but there is often little correlation between the appearance of the pattern and its name. According to Ashanti tradition the colors of the cloth have symbolic meaning with black representing Africa, red representing the blood of the forefathers, yellow representing gold, and green representing the forests.

The akua’ba sculptures are primarily female and illustrate Asante ideals of attractiveness and beauty. Typical features include an oversized disk-shaped head, flattened forehead (achieved by massaging the infant's soft skull), a

to Mid-20th Centuries

Utilitarian & Ceremonial Objects c. 17

49 Twin figures (ere ibeji), Yoruba, Nigeria carved wood, indigo, camwood powder, trade beads, cowries

small mouth, a neck ringed with fat creases indicating the good health of the infant, tapered arms which project from the body at a right angle, and a cylindrical torso that terminates below the navel into the base. Woodcarving is one of the most important art forms in Yoruba culture. Wooden figurative sculptures reflect the cultural, political, social and religious traditions of the Yoruba people. Ere Ibeji (ee-bay-jee) (from the Yoruba, ‘ibi’ = born and ‘eji’ = two; 'ere' means sacred image) figures are statuettes created to serve as memorials to deceased twins. The Yoruba have the highest recorded rate of twin births in the world, with an estimated 45 sets of twins in every 1,000 births, but they also have a high mortality rate; half of the twins die shortly after birth. According to Yoruba legend, in ancient times it was customary to kill twins at birth out of shame for having multiple births like an animal. This resulted in a large decrease in population so t he god of thunder, Shango, took action by telling the Yoruba to stop the practice because twins were under his protection. His warnings were ignored until he caused the birth defects in the babies which followed the destroyed twins. The Yoruba then asked what they should do, and Shango told them to celebrate the birth of twins and good fortune would smile upon them. As a result the Yoruba believe that twins are semi-divine and possess special powers. If a twin dies, the parents consult a diviner who may decide that an ere ibeji should be carved as a substitute for the deceased child, although in contemporary society dual-image photographs often replace carvings. Failure to perform this ritual can result in the soul of the deceased twin seeking vengeance and bringing terrible misfortune to the other twin or the entire family.

According to Yoruba legend, in ancient times it was customary to kill twins at birth out of shame for having multiple births like an animal. This resulted in a large decrease in population so t he god of thunder, Shango, took action by telling the Yoruba to stop the practice because twins were under his protection. His warnings were ignored until he caused the birth defects in the babies which followed the destroyed twins. The Yoruba then asked what they should do, and Shango told them to celebrate the birth of twins and good fortune would smile upon them. As a result the Yoruba believe that twins are semi-divine and possess special powers. If a twin dies, the parents consult a diviner who may decide that an ere ibeji should be carved as a substitute for the deceased child, although in contemporary society dual-image photographs often replace carvings. Failure to perform this ritual can result in the soul of the deceased twin seeking vengeance and bringing terrible misfortune to the other twin or the entire family. Woodcarving is one of the most important art forms in Yoruba culture. Wooden figurative sculptures reflect the cultural, political, social and religious traditions of the Yoruba people. Ere Ibeji (ee-bay-jee) (from the Yoruba, ‘ibi’ = born and ‘eji’ = two; 'ere' means sacred image) figures are statuettes created to serve as memorials to deceased twins. The Yoruba have the highest recorded rate of twin births in the world, with an estimated 45 sets of twins in every 1,000 births, but they also have a high mortality rate; half of the twins die shortly after birth. small mouth, a neck ringed with fat creases indicating the good health of the infant, tapered arms which project from the body at a right angle, and a cylindrical torso that terminates below the navel into the base.

Twin figures (ere ibeji), Yoruba, Nigeria carved wood, indigo, camwood powder, trade beads, cowries

The effigies are placed on a family altar or shrine. Traditionally the grieving mother cares for the carved ibeji figure as she would care for her real child. The statuette is held, bathed, offered food, anointed with oils, and spends the night on a mat in the mother’s bedroom, wrapped in a cloth to keep it warm. These actions are intended to please the soul of the deceased twin so that he or she will bring good fortune to the family. The ere ibeji are not portraits of the deceased child. They are carved as a mature adult to insure the longevity of the reborn twin’s spirit in his or her next life on earth. If both twins die then a figure is made for each one. Ere ibejis are typically ten inches high, with a disproportionately large head that has ears set to the back and is supported by a columnar neck. They are nude, posed in a standing upright position with arms hanging down at their sides, usually at a slight angle. The arms are often disproportionately long while the legs are very short. Most often they stand on a round base. It is not uncommon to see the figures with a rich patina and facial features that have been nearly rubbed away by the constant care. The family Ila marks (scarification) are frequently carved on the figures. Some ibeji figures have triangular pendants on the chest and back that represent leather amulets (tirah) that hold quotations from the Koran. Tirah are thought to protect the figure from ill fate, whether the family owning the ibeji is a follower of Islam or not. Wealthy or royal families may dress the figures in beaded vests and necklaces — girdles and earrings are frequently added to show affluence and stature. Often tiny capes of cowrie shells are made for the figure to represent the god Shango, and there may be an addition of black beads around the waist to protect the twin from Abiku, the spirit of those born to die.

Some ibeji figures have triangular pendants on the chest and back that represent leather amulets (tirah) that hold quotations from the Koran. Tirah are thought to protect the figure from ill fate, whether the family owning the ibeji is a follower of Islam or not. Wealthy or royal families may dress the figures in beaded vests and necklaces — girdles and earrings are frequently added to show affluence and stature. Often tiny capes of cowrie shells are made for the figure to represent the god Shango, and there may be an addition of black beads around the waist to protect the twin from Abiku, the spirit of those born to die. Ere ibejis are typically ten inches high, with a disproportionately large head that has ears set to the back and is supported by a columnar neck. They are nude, posed in a standing upright position with arms hanging down at their sides, usually at a slight angle. The arms are often disproportionately long while the legs are very short. Most often they stand on a round base. It is not uncommon to see the figures with a rich patina and facial features that have been nearly rubbed away by the constant care. The family Ila marks (scarification) are frequently carved on the figures. The effigies are placed on a family altar or shrine. Traditionally the grieving mother cares for the carved ibeji figure as she would care for her real child. The statuette is held, bathed, offered food, anointed with oils, and spends the night on a mat in the mother’s bedroom, wrapped in a cloth to keep it warm. These actions are intended to please the soul of the deceased twin so that he or she will bring good fortune to the family. The ere ibeji are not portraits of the deceased child. They are carved as a mature adult to insure the longevity of the reborn twin’s spirit in his or her next life on earth. If both twins die then a figure is made for each one.

Suggested Classroom Questions & Activities Questions/Concepts for Class Discussions (Lesson Plans) 2. Discuss how traditional African concepts of art and beauty differ from those found in Western art. Ask students to compare and contrast the function of African art with Western art â&#x20AC;&#x201C; especially how the art is intended to be displayed within the African community versus a Western art museum. Instruct students to write an explanation of why it is important to understand the cultural context when viewing or studying African art. Give them a maximum of one minute for the exercise. Then have students share their words with the rest of the class. The words should be recorded on the board as they are read. Once the list is complete, ask students to share what they have seen, heard, or read about Africa. Next discuss the terms, stereotype and perception with the class and ask them to come to a consensus on the definition of the two terms. Divide the students into groups and assign a section of the word list to each group. Tell the students to go through their list of words and conduct research to determine if the word is a stereotype, perception or fact. Have each group share their findings with the class. 1. Begin by asking students to write down 5-10 words that they think of in connection with Africa.

Topics for extended discussions What do you see? Describe the face that you see and the qualities that you notice. What materials do you recognize? How did the artist arrange the materials? Describe the lines, shapes, and three-dimensional forms that you notice. Which forms are recognizable and what might they represent? How does the artist achieve balance and symmetry? Are there design details in one area that are repeated in another? Explain. How might the art object have been used or worn? What do you notice that makes you say that? How do you think masks used in ceremonial art and dance? How do artists evoke animal characteristics in human masks? What animal might it represent? What might the animal be feeling? How do art objects help people navigate life and the world beyond? How do artists honor important people through the design of everyday objects? What does African art tell us about the culture? Discuss the function of the art object. What is your reaction to this image? Begin the class discussion with questions that apply to the selected art object.

Begin the class discussion with questions that apply to the selected art object. What do you see? Describe the face that you see and the qualities that you notice. What materials do you recognize? How did the artist arrange the materials? Describe the lines, shapes, and three-dimensional forms that you notice. Which forms are recognizable and what might they represent? How does the artist achieve balance and symmetry? Are there design details in one area that are repeated in another? Explain. How might the art object have been used or worn? What do you notice that makes you say that? How do you think masks used in ceremonial art and dance? How do artists evoke animal characteristics in human masks? What animal might it represent? What might the animal be feeling? How do art objects help people navigate life and the world beyond? How do artists honor important people through the design of everyday objects? What does African art tell us about the culture? Discuss the function of the art object. What is your reaction to this image?

Topics for extended discussions 1. Begin by asking students to write down 5-10 words that they think of in connection with Africa. Give them a maximum of one minute for the exercise. Then have students share their words with the rest of the class. The words should be recorded on the board as they are read. Once the list is complete, ask students to share what they have seen, heard, or read about Africa. Next discuss the terms, stereotype and perception with the class and ask them to come to a consensus on the definition of the two terms. Divide the students into groups and assign a section of the word list to each group. Tell the students to go through their list of words and conduct research to determine if the word is a stereotype, perception or fact. Have each group share their findings with the class.

2. Discuss how traditional African concepts of art and beauty differ from those found in Western art. Ask students to compare and contrast the function of African art with Western art â&#x20AC;&#x201C; especially how the art is intended to be displayed within the African community versus a Western art museum. Instruct students to write an explanation of why it is important to understand the cultural context when viewing or studying African art.

Questions/Concepts for Class Discussions (Lesson Plans)

Suggested Classroom Questions & Activities

3. Ask the class to define the terms realism and abstraction. Explain that many forms of African art incorporate visual abstraction and that realism or physical resemblance is generally not the goal of the African artist. Show the images of the Ashanti fertility “doll” (akua’ba) and the Yoruba twin figure (ere ibeji). Have the class identify how these images differ from a realistic image of the human form (scale, proportion, etc.) Ask students to explain why they think the African artists abstracted the forms and how that impacts their perception of the sculptures.

For this art project, students will explore abstraction to design a human figure or face using geometric shapes or forms. They may use markers, crayons, colored pencils, paint or colored construction paper for the project. Instruct the students to create an abstracted image of a human figure incorporating parts of the face and body to represent certain attributes like wisdom, speed, skill, imagination, dependability, or strength. They may also exaggerate forms to enhance the overall meaning and appearance.

Share with the class the African concept that inner beauty is reflected in how we care for and present our physical appearance not in the arrangement of our features. Show students the two images of the Igbo Face mask (mmwo) from Nigeria and the Mende Helmet mask (bundu) from Sierra Leone and have students discuss what the standards of beauty are among these two groups of people and then compare with the class list.

For another similar art project, ask students to draw two (self) portraits, one abstract and one life like drawing. Then ask them to write about which one they like the best and why.

5. Ask students to bring in pictures from magazines of people they think are beautiful. Begin by having students share the images and explain what makes the images represent beauty. Next make a class list of what determines the concept of beauty within our society based on the class discussion. Ask students to help create a list of traits that contribute to inner beauty. Then have students compare and contrasts the two lists.

4. Begin by introducing the concept of symbols and how they can denote status in our culture. Have a class discussion to compare these societal symbols of “power” to political symbols of power such as those found on flags, coins, seals, etc. Ask students to consider how these symbols reflect the common ideals of a society and the responsibilities of individual citizens. Next explore how the understanding and recognition of symbols may vary based on age, profession and location. Ask students to compare symbols they are familiar with to those used in ancient or traditional African cultures including such signs of wealth as glass beads or cowrie shells which were once used as currency.

Divide students into groups and ask each group to create a design that symbolizes their class or the school. Display the designs in the class and have students view each of the images. Ask them to write what they think is the meaning of each design. Next have the groups share their designs’ symbolic meanings with the class. Compare and contrast individual student’s perceptions with the groups’ intended meaning.

Share the background information on kente cloth with the class, and show the image of the Ahanti kente Prestige Wrap from Ghana. Explore some of the patterns and meanings of kente cloth at: csdt.rpi.edu/african/kente/patterns.html. Ask students to compare kente cloth as a political and cultural symbol of national pride in contrast to flags from other western nations.

For another similar art project, ask students to draw two (self) portraits, one abstract and one life like drawing. Then ask them to write about which one they like the best and why.

53 Show images of the Igbo Face mask (mmwo), the Mende Helmet mask (bundu) and the Yoruba Headdress (ere Gelede). Lead a class discussion on what purpose or function these masks have within their respective communities. Next ask students to identify the characteristics of the masks and then compare and contrast them. 8. Discuss with the students the various purposes and functions of African masks within the community including religious, ceremonial, political, social or decorative purposes. Ask them to think about how masks convey what is important to the African people. For example, if the people value music or speech the mask may have an open mouth. Or if they value modesty, a mask may be made with lowered eyes. After each presentation, have the class provide considerate and positive feedback regarding the performances. Students should make a list of questions prior to the interview and take notes during the interview. Once the interview is complete, students will write down the key components of the story focusing on the parts most important to retelling it. When presenting their stories to the class, students should to it from memory and not by reading their information. They should also incorporate methods of effective storytelling and public speaking such as appropriate volume, eye contact, pacing, phrasing, body language, variation of tone to hold class interest. They can include visual aids, props, gestures, music or costume to enhance their presentation. Have students discuss the similarities and/or differences between the importance of oral traditions and customs in African cultures with those in their culture. Tell students that their assignment is to select a family member or older acquaintance who is a particularly good storyteller and interview them to obtain a more personal “oral history”. Review effective interviewing, listening, and note-taking skills with the class, and remind students to observe the qualities this person has and the techniques he/she uses while relating their story that makes them captivating and interesting to hear.   

Do you have any ancestors or relatives that you think are important to your family? What objects do you use to remind you of your family? What significant objects does your family use only on special occasions?

7. Share the background information on the importance of oral traditions in African cultures. Conduct a class discussion on how oral traditions can preserve history, teach values, and link generations in our families and local communities just as they do in African cultures. Ask students to consider the following questions: 6. Instruct students to research the Yoruba Gelede Society. Have students share their research with the class. Next ask students to discuss gender roles in their culture including educational, social and professional opportunities/expectations. Show the Yoruba headdress (ere Gelede) from Nigeria and ask students to compare gender roles in that culture with their own based on their previous research and class discussions.

6. Instruct students to research the Yoruba Gelede Society. Have students share their research with the class. Next ask students to discuss gender roles in their culture including educational, social and professional opportunities/expectations. Show the Yoruba headdress (ere Gelede) from Nigeria and ask students to compare gender roles in that culture with their own based on their previous research and class discussions. 7. Share the background information on the importance of oral traditions in African cultures. Conduct a class discussion on how oral traditions can preserve history, teach values, and link generations in our families and local communities just as they do in African cultures. Ask students to consider the following questions:   

Have students discuss the similarities and/or differences between the importance of oral traditions and customs in African cultures with those in their culture. Tell students that their assignment is to select a family member or older acquaintance who is a particularly good storyteller and interview them to obtain a more personal “oral history”. Review effective interviewing, listening, and note-taking skills with the class, and remind students to observe the qualities this person has and the techniques he/she uses while relating their story that makes them captivating and interesting to hear. Students should make a list of questions prior to the interview and take notes during the interview. Once the interview is complete, students will write down the key components of the story focusing on the parts most important to retelling it. When presenting their stories to the class, students should to it from memory and not by reading their information. They should also incorporate methods of effective storytelling and public speaking such as appropriate volume, eye contact, pacing, phrasing, body language, variation of tone to hold class interest. They can include visual aids, props, gestures, music or costume to enhance their presentation. After each presentation, have the class provide considerate and positive feedback regarding the performances. 8. Discuss with the students the various purposes and functions of African masks within the community including religious, ceremonial, political, social or decorative purposes. Ask them to think about how masks convey what is important to the African people. For example, if the people value music or speech the mask may have an open mouth. Or if they value modesty, a mask may be made with lowered eyes. Show images of the Igbo Face mask (mmwo), the Mende Helmet mask (bundu) and the Yoruba Headdress (ere Gelede). Lead a class discussion on what purpose or function these masks have within their respective communities. Next ask students to identify the characteristics of the masks and then compare and contrast them.

54 Mazrui, A. A. ed. General History of Africa VIII: Africa since 1935. U N E S C O Publishing, reprinted 2000. Meauze, Pierre. African Art: Sculpture. Melenhoff, International, 1968. Martin, Phyllis, and Patrick O'Meara. Africa. 3rd ed. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1995. Koslow, Philip. Centuries Of Greatness. New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1995.

Books

Mokhtar, G. ed. General History of Africa II: Ancient Civilizations of Africa. U N E S C O Publishing, reprinted 2000.

Educational Resources

Nooter, Mary H. Secrecy: African Art That Conceals and Reveals. New York: The Museum for African Art, 1993.

Have students make a drawing of a mask that represents their personal ideals or characteristics. They can use markers, crayons, paint or colored pencils to finish the designs. Once the masks are completed, create a class “gallery” and have students present a “ gallery talk” about their individual masks.

Ogot, B. A. ed. General History of Africa V: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century. U N E S C O Publishing, reprinted 2000.

Ask the students to make a list of what character traits or values are important to them and then share their lists with the class. Discuss some other values with the class and write them on the board. A few examples may be honesty, kindness, sports, music, pets, family, friends, books, etc. What facial expressions express these values? How could they portray these ideals in a mask?

Garlake, Peter. Early Art and Architecture of Africa. Oxford University Press, 2002. Ajayi, J. F. A . ed. General History of Africa VI: Africa in the Nineteenth Century until the 1880s . U N E S C O Publishing, reprinted 2000.

El Fasi, M. ed. General History of Africa III: Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century U N E S C O Publishing, reprinted 2000.

Boahen, A. A. ed. General History of Africa VII: Africa under Colonial Domination, 1880-1935. U N E S C O Publishing, reprinted 2000.

Cornet, Joseph, Thompson, Barbara, Translator. Art of Africa: Treasures from the Congo Phaidon Publishers, Inc., 1971.

Clarke, Christa. The Art of AFRICA, A Resource for Educators. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2006.

Cole, Herbert M., Harris, Michael D., Poynor, Robin and Visona –Blackmun, Monica. A History of Art in Africa. Harry N. Abrams, Inc., Publishers, 2001.

Clarke, Duncan. African Art. Saturn Books, Ltd.

Cole, Herbert M., Harris, Michael D., Poynor, Robin and Visona –Blackmun, Monica. A History of Art in Africa. Harry N. Abrams, Inc., Publishers, 2001.

Clarke, Christa. The Art of AFRICA, A Resource for Educators. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2006.

Cornet, Joseph, Thompson, Barbara, Translator. Art of Africa: Treasures from the Congo Phaidon Publishers, Inc., 1971.

Boahen, A. A. ed. General History of Africa VII: Africa under Colonial Domination, 1880-1935. U N E S C O Publishing, reprinted 2000.

El Fasi, M. ed. General History of Africa III: Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century U N E S C O Publishing, reprinted 2000.

Ajayi, J. F. A . ed. General History of Africa VI: Africa in the Nineteenth Century until the 1880s . U N E S C O Publishing, reprinted 2000.

Garlake, Peter. Early Art and Architecture of Africa. Oxford University Press, 2002.

Nooter, Mary H. Secrecy: African Art That Conceals and Reveals. New York: The Museum for African Art, 1993. Ogot, B. A. ed. General History of Africa V: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century. U N E S C O Publishing, reprinted 2000.

Mokhtar, G. ed. General History of Africa II: Ancient Civilizations of Africa. U N E S C O Publishing, reprinted 2000.

Mazrui, A. A. ed. General History of Africa VIII: Africa since 1935. U N E S C O Publishing, reprinted 2000. Meauze, Pierre. African Art: Sculpture. Melenhoff, International, 1968.

Educational Resources

Martin, Phyllis, and Patrick O'Meara. Africa. 3rd ed. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1995.

Books

Koslow, Philip. Centuries Of Greatness. New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1995.

Magazines/Journals Preston Blier, Suzanne. “Art in Ancient Ife, Birthplace of the Yoruba.”African Arts vol. 45, no. 4 Winter 2012: 70 – 85. Jameson, G.O.M. “A Short History of Africa.” www.aero-comlab.stanford.edu/jameson/world_history/ Harvard University Center for African Studies www.africa.harvard.edu/resources/for-educators/bring-africa-to-the-classroom/ Bring Africa to the classroom using modules designed for K–12 classrooms. Gascoigne, Bamber. “History of African Art.” HistoryWorld. From 2001, ongoing. www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=aa39 “Comparing Slave Trades: A Study of the Transatlantic and Trans‐Saharan Slave Trades Lesson Plans.” www.webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:n4bGyyzjkEJ:civics.sites.unc.edu/files/2012/05/ComparingtheSlaveTrades9.pdf+&cd=1&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us Boston University African Studies Center Teacher Resources www.bu.edu/africa/outreach/teachingresources/ Benjamin, ody. “Islam in Africa.” www.webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:rs0WkS3o9mMJ:wioc.wisc.edu/wp content/uploads/2014/05/childlit-2014-islam-in-africa-lesson-plan.pdf+&cd=1&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us Belton, Val-Jean. “African Art and Aesthetics.” (Yale University: Yale-New Haven Teachers Institute) www.yale.edu/ynhti/ Arty Factory www.artyfactory.com/africanmasks/ Lessons, information and images of African Masks Art Institute of Chicago. Teacher Manual: Arts of Africa. 1998 www.artic.edu/aic/resources/resource/1350?search_id=1&index=0 Art Encyclopedia. “African Art - Characteristics, History of Traditional Native Arts of Africa.” www.visual-arts-cork.com/ancient-art/african.htm African Studies Center at Michigan State University. “Exploring Africa!” exploringafrica.matrix.msu.edu/teachers/curriculum/ 25 - module curriculum for middle- and high-school teachers and students. African Masks www.ritset.com/support_files/masks/facts.htm African Art Museum www.zyama.com/index.htm On-line reference to the artistic styles of Africa “Africa And The Africans In The Age Of The Atlantic Slave Trade,” 1992. www.history-world.org/African%20Diaspora.htm

Online Resources

Online Resources “Africa And The Africans In The Age Of The Atlantic Slave Trade,” 1992. www.history-world.org/African%20Diaspora.htm African Art Museum www.zyama.com/index.htm On-line reference to the artistic styles of Africa African Masks www.ritset.com/support_files/masks/facts.htm African Studies Center at Michigan State University. “Exploring Africa!” exploringafrica.matrix.msu.edu/teachers/curriculum/ 25 - module curriculum for middle- and high-school teachers and students. Art Encyclopedia. “African Art - Characteristics, History of Traditional Native Arts of Africa.” www.visual-arts-cork.com/ancient-art/african.htm Art Institute of Chicago. Teacher Manual: Arts of Africa. 1998 www.artic.edu/aic/resources/resource/1350?search_id=1&index=0 Arty Factory www.artyfactory.com/africanmasks/ Lessons, information and images of African Masks Belton, Val-Jean. “African Art and Aesthetics.” (Yale University: Yale-New Haven Teachers Institute) www.yale.edu/ynhti/ Benjamin, ody. “Islam in Africa.” www.webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:rs0WkS3o9mMJ:wioc.wisc.edu/wp content/uploads/2014/05/childlit-2014-islam-in-africa-lesson-plan.pdf+&cd=1&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us Boston University African Studies Center Teacher Resources www.bu.edu/africa/outreach/teachingresources/ “Comparing Slave Trades: A Study of the Transatlantic and Trans‐Saharan Slave Trades Lesson Plans.” www.webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:n4bGyyzjkEJ:civics.sites.unc.edu/files/2012/05/ComparingtheSlaveTrades9.pdf+&cd=1&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us Gascoigne, Bamber. “History of African Art.” HistoryWorld. From 2001, ongoing. www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=aa39 Harvard University Center for African Studies www.africa.harvard.edu/resources/for-educators/bring-africa-to-the-classroom/ Bring Africa to the classroom using modules designed for K–12 classrooms. Jameson, G.O.M. “A Short History of Africa.” www.aero-comlab.stanford.edu/jameson/world_history/

Preston Blier, Suzanne. “Art in Ancient Ife, Birthplace of the Yoruba.”African Arts vol. 45, no. 4 Winter 2012: 70 – 85.

Magazines/Journals

Khaminwa, Muhonjia. “Clothing in Africa.” www.africastyles.com/blackhistory/history_clothing.html

Lesson Plan - [Grade 7] “Comparing Slave Trades: The Transatlantic and Trans-Saharan Slave Trades.” www.civics.unc.edu/resources/docs/ComparingSlaveTrades.pdf

University of Iowa Museum of Art. Art and Life in Africa. www.africa.uima.uiowa.edu/ The Art & Life in Africa website, hosted by the University of Iowa Museum of Art (UIMA), is freely accessible educational resource that is the product of the collaborative efforts of more than fifty scholars, technicians, collectors and institutions around the world.

McDonald Beckles, Hilary. “Slave Voyages The Transatlantic Trade in Enslaved Africans.: University of West Indies. webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:npIy8RSRlbMJ:unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001286/12863 1eo.pdf+&cd=1&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us

UCLA African Studies Center www.international.ucla.edu/africa/outreach/

Murrell, Denise. "African Influences in Modern Art". In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000 – www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/aima/hd_aima.htm (April 2008)

The Smithsonian’s National Museum of African Art www.africa.si.edu/education/teacher-resources/

Museum of African Art www.museumofafricanart.org/en/jewelry.html Jewelry Museum of the African Diaspora www.moadsf.org/slavery-narratives/

The Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture. “The Creation of the African Diaspora.” www.abolition.nypl.org/essays/us_slave_trade/7/

Slavery Narratives New World Encyclopedia, “Slave Trade.” www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Slave_trade

Siegmann, William. “Masquerades Among the Dan People.” University of Iowa Museum of Art. www.africa.uima.uiowa.edu/topic-essays/show/29?start=2

Nunn, Nathan. “The Long-Term Effects of Africa’s Slave Trades.” www.webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:RIcbK_Jr_7kJ:scholar.harvard.edu/files/nunn/files/the_lon g_term_effects.pdf+&cd=48&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us

Siegman, William. “African sculpture from the collection of the Society of Afri can Missions.” SMA Fathers, Tenafly, 1980, pp 4-5. www.smafathers.org/museum/resources-ebooks/the-african-art/)

PBS Africa www.pbs.org/wnet/africa/index.html

Resources for History Teachers www.resourcesforhistoryteachers.wikispaces.com/WHI.20 Multiple resources focusing on the development and effects of the trans-African slave trade to the Middle East from the 8th century on, and the trans-Atlantic slave trade to the Western Hemisphere from the 16th century on.