افكار سبع هزت العالم by Mohammed Deaibes

Seven Ideas That Shook the Universe Nathan Spielberg and Bryon D. Anderson

Arabic Language Translation Copyright 2010 Kalimat Arabia Seven Ideas That Shook the Universe Copyright (Q 1987 b) John \Vile). Pr Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. This translation published under license.

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Gillespie, Charles C. The Edge o f Objectivity. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1960. (A standard book on the history and phlosophy of science.) Holton, Gerald and Stephen G. Brush. lntroduction to Concepts and Theories in Physicul Science, 2nd ed. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1973. (A more mathematical book than t h s one, but with extensive discussion on the nature of scientific thought and the like and with estensive bibliographies. Chapters 3, 12, 13, and 14 are pertinent to this chapter.) Jalu, Stanley L. The Relevance o f Physics. Chcago: University of Chcago Press, 1966. History and phlosophy of science, and the effect of science on other areas of thought. Kuhn, Thomas S. The Structure o f Scientific Revolutions, 2nd ed. Chcago: University of Chicago Press, 1970. ( T h s book has had a great impact on the way in whch people t h n k about "scientific revolutions.") Schneer, Cecil J. The Evolution of Physical Science. New York: Grove, 1964. (An interesting hstorical perspective of the development of physical science. Especially good discussions of the early Greek contributions.)

Abbott, E. A. Flatland, New York: Dover, 1952. A very entertaining book, originally written a century ago, about a two-dimensional world.

Berry, Arthur. A Short History ofAstronomy: From Earliest Times Through the Nineteenth Century. New York: Dover, 1961. Chapter I1 discusses the contributions of the Greeks. Bronowslu, J. The Ascent o f Man. Boston: Little, Brown, 1973. Based on a television series of the same name. Chapters 5, 6, and 7 are pertinent to thls chapter. Butterfield, Herbert. The Origins o f Modern Science, rev. ed. New York: Free Press, 1965. A brief book, written by a historian, which discusses scientific developments up to the time of Isaac Newton. Cornford, F. M. The Republic o f Plato. London: Oxford University Press, 1941. An account of Plato's Allegory of the Cave is found here. Dreyer, J. L. E. A History o f Astronomy from Thales to Kepler, 2nd ed. New York: Dover, 1953. Provides a fairly detailed account of the subject matter of this chapter. Holton, Gerald and Stephen G. Brush. Introduction to Concepts and Theories in Physical Science, 2nd ed. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1973. An introductory text with major emphasis on the hstorical background of physics. Chapters 1 through 5 and pp. 154-160 are pertinent, with many references to other sources of information. Kearney, Hugh. Science and Change, 1500-1 700. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1971. A small book that discusses the general scientific ferment in Europe during the period 1500 to 1700. Koestler, Arthur. The Watershed. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1960. A slim biographcal discussion of Kepler's life and work. Koyre, Alexander. Discovering Plato. New York: Columbia University Press, 1945. T h s book discusses Plato's views about science and phlosophy. Kuhn, Thomas S. The Copernican Revolution. New York: Random House, 1957. A detailed discussion of the subject of this chapter. Kuhn, Thomas S. The Structure o f Scientific Revolutions, 2nd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970. See comment in references for Chapter 1. Schneer, Cecil J. The Evolution o f Physical Science. New York: Grove, 1964. See comment in references for Chapter 1.

Toulrnin, Stephen and June Goodfield. The Fabric of the Heavens. New York: Harper & Row, 1961. An interesting account of the evolution of scientific viewpoints and ideas from the time of the Babylonians to the time of Isaac Newton.

Butterfield, Herbert. The Origins of Modern Science. New York: Free Press, 1957. An introduction to the hstorical background of classical physics. Does not discuss "modern" physics. Holton, Gerald and Stephen G. Brush. Introduction to Concepts and Theories in Physical Science, 2nd ed. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1973. See comment in references for Chapter 2. Chapters 6 through 11 are particularly pertinent for t h s chapter. Schneer, Cecil J. The Evolution o f Physical Science. New York: Grove, 1964. See comment in references for Chapter 1.

Brown, Sanborn C. Benjamin Thompson, Count Kumford. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1979. A personal and scientific biography of one of the first American scientists. Feynrnan, Richard P., Robert B. Leighton, and Matthew Sands. The Feynman Lectures on Physics. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1963, Vol. 1, Chap. 4. A more advanced undergraduate textbook with emphasis on understanding the physical principles involved. Uses elementary calculus. Holton, Gerald and Stephen G. Brush. Introduction to Concepts and Theories in Physical Science, 2nd ed. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1973. Chapters 15-17, 22. See comment in references for Chapter 2. Mott-Smith, Morton. The Concept of Energy Simply Explained. New York: Dover, 1964. A reprint of a very interesting book, originally published in 1934 and written in a descriptive style for the general public. Some of its assertions are not acceptable today. Schneer, Cecil J. The Evolution of Physical Science. New York: Grove, 1964. See comment in references for Chapter 2.

Adams, Henry. The Degradation o f the Democratic Dogma. New York: Macmillan, 1920. T h s book typifies the impact of "heat d e a t h on social thinlang. Amhem, Rudolph. Entropy and Art: A n Essay on Disorder and Order. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971. Contrasts what should be the artist's view of these subjects with the physicist's view. Gamow, George. Mr. Tompkins in Paperback. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1972, Chap. 9. See comment in references for Chapter 6. Georgescu-Roegen, Nicholas. The Entropy Law and the Economic Process. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971. Attempts a mathematical analysis of economic theory, employing general physics concepts from thermodynamics and quantum theory. Gillispie, Charles C. The Edge o f Objectivity. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1960, pp. 400-405. See comment in references for Chapter 1. Holton, Gerald and Stephen G. Brush. Introduction to Concepts and Theories in Physical Science, 2nd ed. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1973, Chap. 18. See comment in references for Chapter 1. Landsberg, Peter Theodore. Entropy and the Unity of Knowledge. Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1961. Applications of entropy concept to economic theor),, information theory, textual analysis. Lewiclu, Zbigniew. The Bang and the Whimper: Apocalypse and Entropy in American Literature. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1984. The latter half of t h s book discusses the entropy concept as employed by various American writers, including Herman Melville, Nathaniel West, Thomas Pynchon, William Gaddis, Susan Sontag, and John Updike. Mott-Smith, Morton. The Concept of Energy Simply Explained. New York: Dover, 1964. See comment in references for Chapter 4. Powell, J. R., F. J. Salzano, Wen-Sh Yu, and J. S. Milau. "A High Efficiency Power Cycle in Whch Hydrogen is Compressed by Absorption in Metal Hydrides." Science 193 (23 July 1976), 3 14-3 16. Describes a three-reservoir heat engine. '

R i k n , Jeremy. Entropy: A New World View. New York: Vilung, 1980. Contends that economic and energy policy must be greatly revised to take account of the second law of thermodynamics. Sandfort, John F. Heat Engines. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1962. An introductory, essentially nonrnathematical discussion of heat engines, written for the general public. Zemansky, Mark Mi. Temperatures VeryLow and Very High. Princeton, N.J.: Van Nostrand, 1964. (An introductory discussion at the college level; assumes some knowledge of physics.)

Bondi, Hermann. Relativity and Common Sense. New York: Dover, 1980. An introductory, essentially nonmathematical discussion of relativity, written for the general public. Born, Max. Einstein's Theory of Relativity. New York: Dover, 1962. A thorough discussion, using only algebra and simple geometry, of mechanics, optics, and electrodynamics as involved in relativity theory. Casper, Barr). M. and Richard J. Noer. Revolutions in Physics. New York: Norton, 1972. Chapters 12-1 5 provide a good low-level discussion of relativity using very simple mathematics. Ford, Kenneth Mr.Basic Physics. New York: Wiley, 1968. A physics textbook that uses only algebra and trigonometry, with good discussion. See Chapters 1, 4, 15, 16 and 19-22. Gamow, G. W. Mr. Tompkins in Paperback. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1971. A delightful book presenting the ideas of modern physics as distorted in the dreams of a bank clerk dozing during lectures. Chapters 1-6 deal with relativity. See footnote on p. 171 of t h s book for a qualification. Hawlung, S. W. "The Edge of Spacetime." The American Scientist, 72 (July-August 1984) 355-359. An interesting discussion of some recent ideas in general relativity, especially concerning the application of ideas of quantum theory (the subject of Chapter 7 of t h s book). Holton, Gerald and Stephen G. Brush. Introduction to Concepts and Theories in Physical Science. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1973, Chap. 3 1. See comment in references for Chapter 1.

Lindsay, Robert Bruce and Henry Margenau. Foundations o f Physics. New York: Wiley, 1936. An advanced textbook with discussions of basic metaphysical assumptions in physics. See Chapters 1, 2, 7 and 8. Resnick, Robert. "Misconceptions About Einstein." Journal o f Chemical Education 57 (December 1980) 854-862. Contains interesting biographcal information. Sciama, D. W. The Physical Foundations of General Relativity. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1969. Written for the general public but contains rather sophsticated, subtle discussions.

DeWitt, Bryce S. and R. Neil1 Graham. "Resource Letter IQM-1 on the Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics." American Journal o f Physics 39 (July 1971) 724-738. Feynman, Richard P., Robert B. Leighton, and Matthew Sands. The Feynman Lectures on Physics. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1965, Vol. iii. (See comment in references for Chapter 4.) Ford, Kenneth W. Basic Physics. New York: Wiley, 1968. Chaps. 23 and 24. See comment in references for Chapter 6. Gamow, G. W. Mr. Tompkins in Paperback. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1971. Chaps. 7, 8, 10, and 10 112. See comment in references for Chapter 6. Friedman, A. J. and Carol Donley. Einstein us Myth and Illuse. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985. Friedman, Alan J. "Contemporary American Physics Fiction." American Journal o f Physics 47 (May 1979) 392-395. Hoffman, Banesh. The Strange Story o f the Quantum. New York: Dover, 1959. An introductory, essentially nonmathematical discussion of quantum mechanics, written for the general public. Heisenberg, Werner. Physics and Philosophy: The Revolution in Ivlodern Science. New York: Harper, 1958. Presents the phlosophcal viewpoint of one of the great architects of the quantum theory. Holton, Gerald and Stephen G. Brush. Introduction to Concepts and Theories in Physical Science, 2nd ed. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1965. Chaps. 26, 28, and 29. See comment in references for Chapter 1.

Julu, Stanley L. The Relevance o f Physics. Chcago: University of Chcago Press, 1966. See comment in references for Chapter 1. hndsay, Robert Bruce and Henry Margenau. Foundations of Physics. New York: Wile);, 1936. See comment in references for Chapter 6.

Cohen, B. L. Concepts of'Nuclear Physics. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1971. An advanced undergraduate text on introductory nuclear physics. Eisberg, R. and R. Resnick. Quantum Physics. New York: Wiley, 1971. A less advanced undergraduate text with good introductions to the basic ideas of modern physics, including nuclear physics. Enge, H. A. Introduction to Nuclear Physics. Reading, Mass.: AddisonWesley, 1966. Another well-written advanced undergraduate text. Gamow, G. W. Mr. Tompkins in Paperback. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1971, Chaps. 12-15. See comment in references for Chapter 6. Particles and Fields. San Francisco: Freeman, 1980. A series of reprints from Scientific American on recent advances in the subject of elementary- particle physics, written for the interested general public. See also various articles in Scientific American written since 1980.