The Pacific Theatre

Whilethe world’sattention was fixated on events in Europe during the1920s and1930s, afierce andincreasinglybitterrivalry was growingbetween theUnitedStates andJapan as eachtried to dominatethe Pacificregion.

TheEuropeansituation was primarily political– theaftermath of theFirst World Warproviding idealconditions forthe growth of aggressive extremistviews –but thesituation in thePacifichad moreto do with economics. Conflicting US and Japanese interestscentred on theirmutually exclusivedesire to controland exploit the region’s abundant naturalresources rather than ideological differences.

When hostilitiesbetween thetwo nations dideventuallybreak out, theensuing clash wouldrankamong themostcatastrophic andbrutalinhistory.Itwas theoutcome of adecades-longdeterioration of relations; theresultingdevastation areflection of the extendedperiodduringwhich America andJapan had postured andprovoked one another.

It is almostimpossibletopinpointan exactdatewhenrelationsbetween thetwo countries begantosour. Certainlythere were clearwarning signs–suchas Japanese aggression in Chinainthe early1930s –butthe rivalryhad been established much earlierand was morerootedinwhat the twonationshad in common

They had each undergone adramatic transformation from insularand awkward to modern,industrialised, nationalistic andmilitaristic.

Before the1900s,there appeared to be little threat of a breakdownofrelations across thePacificOcean,but the respectiveactions of theUSand Japanduringthattime sowedthe seedsfor thegrand battle whichwas to come…

Thefoundationsfor future conflict

Both of them couldberegardedas‘new’ countries lookingtoestablish themselves. Neitherwas lackinginhistory –America had seenEuropeancolonists displacing the pre-existing native population andJapan had traditions stretchingbackcenturies –butneither had really existedasaunified nation strong enough to make itspresence felt on theworld stage.

Forbothcountries,thischanged in the earlytomiddlepartofthe 19th centuryas technological advances brought aboutan industrial revolution.The invention of new machines brought aboutsweeping changes –agriculture required fewerworkersand thepeoplewho were displacedwenttowork in city-basedfactories instead. As thecities grew,the process of sweeping away theold establishedorder began.

This economicand societal change was precipitatedpolitically in Americabyits declarationofindependencefromGreat Britainin1776and thesubsequent victory of American forces in therevolutionary war, twoeventsthat gave birthtoanew entity –the United States of America. Thesituation was mirrored in Japanby theMeiji Restoration; theinstigators of this movement fearfulofthe country’s vulnerabilitytoaggressiveactionsby European powers andintentonseeing Japancatch up.Itwas from thebeginning of this period in 1868 that theEmpireof Japanarose

Theleaders of thetwo reborn societies putinplace governmental systemsand social structures that differed dramatically from one another, butessentially each had thesamecorepurpose –toassume complete controlofits owndestiny and ensure that it wouldnever have to bowto European demands.

With therapidgrowthofmanufacturing industryinthe twonations came theneed forraw materialsand newmarkets in which to sell theresultingproducts. Both countries begantolay thegroundwork for theirown ‘economic empires’.Theywere initially less concernedwiththe acquisition of land,thanwithsecuringunfettered access to lucrativetrade dealsthat were up forgrabs in Asia,Australiaand throughout thePacific.

In America, thedescendants of theoriginal European settlers spreadout across the continent, eventually reaching thePacific coastlineinnumbers.The naturalbarrier of thewater wouldnot stop theexpansion, however, andbeforelongthe US wouldset itssightsonexertinginfluencebeyond its borders. To thoseinpower it seemedasif thebestway to preventany entanglement in European affairswas forAmerica to claim it’s own‘sphere of influence’which,itwas decided, included allofthe Americas.

It mighthavebeenanearcentury-long process,but theappetitefor advancement andeconomic growth was toogreat forthe US to stop thereand followinga briefmilitaryengagement with Spainin 1898 it nowfound itself in possession of territoriesinthe Caribbean– andmore significantly outtothe west in thePacific. This move brought Americaface-to-face with theEmpireofJapan,itselfintenton establishing itsown area of influence in the areasimmediately surroundingits natural borders, andalsopursuinga strategy of economic freedom andprosperity.

At theturnofthe century, US and Japanese interestswereactuallyaligned andthere were many instancesofcooperationbetween thepair. Both countries supportedthe ideaofan‘open door’policy toward Chinathat wouldallow access to itsresource-rich regionsfor tradingand potentialinvestment, andasaresult US president Theodore Rooseveltacted as peacemaker in thenegotiations which spawned TheTreatyofPortsmouth– an agreementbetween Russia andJapan that

TheTreatyofPortsmouth

Oneofthe westernnationsthatJapan challengedinits efforts to establishitselfasa worldpowerwas Russia.By1904the twohad gone through severalyears of disputes over control of Manchuria –aregionofChina with great economicpotentialand an area that wouldprove to be apivotal zone in the Pacific Theatre.

The Russianshad enteredManchuriaduring thefirstSino-JapaneseWar of 1894-1895–a conflictbetween Japan andChina’s Qing Empire primarilyconcerningcontroloverKorea –and it’d been joinedbyGermanyand France as part of a‘triple intervention’thatsoughtto limit Japan’s abilitytocapitalisefinanciallyon itsclose proximitytothe territory, forcing it to give up control of portsthere

Oneofthose wasPortArthur,a warm-water facilitywithhuge commercial andstrategic attributes.Committedtobreaking free from theyokeofEuropeancontrol,Japan attacked theRussianfleetstationedthere in 1904 in asurpriseattackand forced an early victory. Throughout thenextyearthe twocountries’ armedforces clashedrepeatedlyand while it was Japanthatmanagedtorackupmost victories, they came at an unprecedented costwithcasualtiesonboth sides in thetens of thousands and theseverelossofmilitary equipment, including prizedships

Shortitmay have been, butthe warhad twosignificant outcomes. Thefirstwas the dramatic revelation to theworld thatthe JapaneseEmpire –acountrythatjusta half- formally endedwar betweenthe twoin 1905.Japan’s apparentcommitmenttoequal opportunitywithregardtotrade in China meantAmericanpublicand politicalopinion swayed in favour of Japan.

Thebrokering of thetreatyprovedto be thefinalsignificantact of US-Japanese century before had beenrelatively obscure and unengagedwithglobal events –had become apowerful militaryoutfit with tremendous capabilities andresources.Second, as with America’swar with Spain, it showed that Japanwould gotowhatever lengths necessary to protect itseconomicinterestsoverseas; in fact,considering thelossesitsuffered,it demonstratedthatitwas willingtogofar further than theUSinthisregard.

Thoselosses, however,did eventually begin to tell on Japan –and it becameapparent that thestrain of war wasgreater than anypotential victoryitcould achieve. Thesituation was likewise in Russia, and in 1905 both countries soughta negotiatedend to theviolence.

Japan invitedPresident Roosevelttooversee proceedings,and he welcomed representatives of both nations to Portsmouth, NewHampshire laterinthe year to begin peacetalks.

Roosevelthad actually beenbuoyed by Japan’s military success– theemphatic statementthatthe time of European domination waswelland trulyatanend being something he andall Americans couldsupport. He was,however,cautiousofManchuriafalling into totalJapanesecontrol andso– with his owninterests in mind –aimed to concludea dealthatmaintained abalance of powerand equal opportunityfor trade not just for Russia and Japan, butAmerica also.

Jurisdiction over theports of Manchuria was acentral component of thetalks, as were potentialreparations andfuture ownership of co-operation before theoutbreakofwar in thePacific, however, andsubsequent yearswould seeanever-growing series of disagreements andconfrontations centred around theirrespective interestsinthe territoriesofthe Pacificand tradeaccess to SoutheastAsia

Apostcardissued shortly after the deal was agreed shows the main signatories of the Treaty of Portsmouth. ✪

Sakhalin Island –alargeterritoryoff Japan’s northern coast. Neither side budged initially, butboth knew they lacked theresources andfinancestosustain furtherhostilities so eventuallycametoacompromisethatsaw Russianinfluencecurtailed in Manchuria andKorea, but retentionofcontrol over thenorthern part of Sakhalin Island and no requirement to payanindemnity to the enemy. Theagreementwas ratifiedasthe Treaty of Portsmouth.

Rooseveltwon aNobel peaceprize for his roleinthe talksand,while they did succeed in establishing détente, Japan andRussia had reason to resent theoutcome having not managedtoachieve all of theirrespective aims.Attention in Russiawould soon turn to thegrowing escalation of tensioninEurope, butfor Japanexpansion in Manchuria, China and beyond into thePacificbecame an evermore tantalisingproposition.Itwas arisky strategy,and it put thenationona collision course with theUnited States.