THE STREET IN THE BODY OF THE CITY
Berkeley Prize for Undergraduate Architectural Design Excellence Nana Biamah-Ofosu
A healthful environment The United Nations estimates that the
world population will increase to 9.2 billion by 20501 and for the first time in
mankind’s history more of us will reside
in cities. Currently, half of the world’s
population resides in urban areas. In London, the capital’s growth is expected
to be equivalent to absorbing the population of Birmingham and Leeds.2
As we head towards a new dawn of urbanization, in which an estimated 80%
of the world will live in urban areas3, issues about how we create sustainable,
efficient and healthful cities become more pertinent and must be addressed. A healthful environment by definition
encompasses these factors: it is a sustainable, lively and safe. A healthful
environment can be greatly promoted by engaging with the urban fabric; what makes our cities? As Jan Gehl correctly
states, “we shape cities, and they shape
us.”4 By understanding and positively
shaping our urban spaces, we can greatly influence the quality of our lives.
An engagement with the urban fabric toward
a
healthful
environment
must begin with the very veins of
our cities; our public spaces, our streets.
The
street
remains
the
unconscious soul of the city. The street provides a forum in our cities.
Historically, our streets have been an important catalyst for human
interaction; for the Romans of Pompeii civic and public life took place in
the great city’s forum; the medieval
market squares of Europe where places
of
trade
and
commerce.
Today, the street still remains an integral part of the city although its importance
is
sorely
overlooked
much to the detriment of society. As well as facilitating movement, the street is a place of exchange. The essence of the street and the city is its human vitality. A well-designed street form
provides
of
a
community;
sustainable it
invites
citizenship, liveliness and humanity.
Figure 1 The street as the centre of civic life The Forum, Pompeii
Figure 2 The street as a centre of commerce, Venice
Figure 3 City spaces and City life, Copenhagen
In London, streets account for 80%
Society’s love affair with the car can
good urban design and its power
rebuilding of our cities after the
of
public
spaces.5The
value
of
to drive change in the quality of our transportation and
systems,
sustainable
economic
development
is
an area that is greatly overlooked. However, measures taken have been quantitative rather than qualitative, and
be traced back to the modernist
Second World War. In the modernist agenda,
our
future
was
to
be
dominated by the prowess of the
motorcar; pedestrian and vehicular traffic were deemed incompatible.
often neglecting the human dimension.
Here the modernist agenda, promoted
In London, the deaths of 14 cyclists
Traffic
in
traffic.
However,
in 2013, with 6 deaths in less than a fortnight, provoked public debate
that assessed how the city’s public
spaces and transportation systems cater to the needs of its population. A report published by the Road Task Force
for
Transport
for
London,
estimated that a quarter of all trips in London are made entirely on foot
and that cyclists constituted a quarter of vehicular traffic at peak times in
London.6 In considering these statistics, it becomes important to examine why
these road users are still marginalized.
by Colin Buchanan’s seminal report Towns,
promoted
the
segregation of motor and pedestrian on, for
and
with
climatic
half
growing
and
a
century
concerns
environmental
issues, society is beginning to reevaluate its relationship with the car. However, for meaningful changes to occur, we must consider how urban design can influence the way we
travel and interact with one another.
Figure 4 Segregation of motor and pedestrain traffic, Colin Buchanan
The redesign of Exhibition Road by
construct; Mediterranean hill towns
provides an example of a healthful
interpretation
Dixon Jones, completed in 2012,
environment that promotes human
and marketplaces offer an informal of
shared
space.
vitality and social interaction. The
The conscious application of shared
road that runs through London’s
be traced by to the 1960s and 1970s
transformation museum space
human Before
of
the
quarter
into
scheme scale its
800-metre
a
shared
urban
design.
reintroduces
the
redevelopment,
the
in
foreground of this prestigious cultural
centre was a sorrowful streak of grey divided into lanes for vehicular traffic and three lanes for car parking.
Pedestrians were forced onto narrow footpaths with few opportunities to
cross the cluttered road. Shared space redefines the role of the street within the city as more than a tool for
transportation but as a vital instrument
for encouraging social interaction. Shared space seeks to improve
pedestrian movement and comfort by reducing the predominance of vehicular traffic. It promotes informal
social protocols where road users are encouraged to share a space
rather than follow rules derived from
assumptions about traffic behaviour, road safety and human behaviour. Shared space is not an entirely new
space as a tool for urban design can to the pioneering experiments of
Joost Váhl and Hans Monderman. In the Netherlands, Váhl experimented with removing standard road signage and barriers, as an attempt to reduce
the negative impact of traffic. This successful experiment, the woonerf, created rich urban spaces which
were later echoed in Monderman’s
experiments in Freisland where he experimented
with
simple
design
and landscaping techniques as an alternative
measures.
to
But
conventional perhaps
traffic
what
is
interesting as noted by Ben HamiltonBaillie is that the demise of the
woonerf was its formalization in 1976
by the Dutch government7. What this offers is a view that the essence
of shared space lies in its often surprising and self regulating nature. Shared space offers a definition of the street as a social being; both its
conscious
and
unconscious
nature must be addressed in order to create a healthful environment.
Figures 5 & 6 Pioneering experiments with shared space, The Netherlands
Figure 7 Exhibition Road, Before
Figure 8 Exhibition Road, After
The scheme implemented at Exhibition
at
visitors a dignified experience of the
A-road that bisects Exhibition Road.
Road offers its annual 11 million city. Arriving at South Kensington tube station, one approaches Exhibition
Road from the south end. Here, on a
sunny January morning, I observed
the
pelican
crossing.
Further
north is Cromwell Road, the major Again,
pedestrians
are
offered
opportunities to cross although this is a hurried and controlled experience.
the village-like atmosphere of the
Crossing Cromwell Road brings one
sat at one of the several cafes, all of
It is here, in the foreground of some of
square at Thurloe Place. Visitors which offered outdoor seating facing
onto the square. The integration of the light wells associated with the underground
station
below
within
the design, provides further seating
within the square. Pedestrians here are in transit, enjoying a leisurely pace and heading further along Exhibition
Road or returning to the tube station. The junction ahead signifies another
condition. Vehicular traffic follows the road at Thurloe Place to exit the
area or turns right to head further into Exhibition Road often travelling a
slightly
decreased
speed,
an
acknowledgement of the fact that they are entering a shared space. Pedestrians
opportunities
are to
offered
cross
frequent
the
road
into the museum quarter of the street. London’s finest classical facades, that the operations of the shared space can be fully observed. The 25 metre wide road is divided into two by a parade
of lighting columns; the east side is for two way vehicular traffic, the west,
is offered as a pedestrian comfort
zone. The large footpaths combined with the greatly decreased vehicular speeds invite other road users to use the street more freely. During holidays, large groups can be observed crossing
with ease thus regulating traffic within this zone. A vestigial kerb at the edge of the two sections in the form of a
800mm wide strip of paving, offers blind and disabled users comfort in
navigating the space. The space within the two sections of the road is a mixed
zone; people walk, stay and stand
in this area. Cyclists freely traverse
lighting
place to sit, stay a while and enjoy
and
this zone. The benches offer a good
the beautiful architecture or perhaps the street performer who entertains
with his varied displays of magic. The territory in front of Imperial
College further north of the street offers a peculiar experience along
the street. Perhaps it is the fact that it signifies a departure from the public
institutions into a more private world or the monstrous scale of the main
college building, but this part of the street
seems
unusually
deserted.
The lack of an intimate human scale in the facade of the building
means the welcoming character of the street is somewhat lost here.
Finally, heading north towards Hyde Park, there is a sense of a more
conventional road use. Both sides of
the street are once again offered to
vehicular traffic although pedestrians
and cyclists are still welcomed. At night, with a decreased pedestrian presence, traffic travels at increased speeds.
However,
a
successful
strategy
illuminates
the
street, providing a sense of security safety
thereby
maintaining
the inviting nature of the street. Studies
conducted
after
the
completion of the street8, corroborate these
shared
observations space
as
and
a
establish
positive
contribution to the urban fabric. The overall experience of Exhibition Road
is one of unison, understanding and community. The ground comprising 1 million granite sets form a unifying
geometric pattern that successfully unifies a number of distinct territories
along the street. Its physical design is a manifestation of the street’s ability to facilitate human interaction and promote
a
healthful
environment.
Figures 9 - 15 The different territories of Exhibition Road
It is this sense of unity and civility that
a coordinated and coherent design
transportation system, especially if one
the city. For cyclists, there could
should be applied to London’s wider is to promote a healthful environment. The current provision for cyclists is
profile that can be applied across be a complete cycling route that
connects the differing part of the city.
confused and half-hearted at best
The cycle superhighways are the
The
their current state they are ineffective
and dire and deadly at its worst. cycle
superhighways,
1.5
metre blue painted strip reserved
for cyclists, creates a “false sense
of security,”9vtt as exemplified by the recent deaths of 3 cyclists. At
Bow
roundabout,
a
large
roundabout system in East London, the failings of the cycle superhighways
come to a head. Cyclists are left to fend for themselves alongside
heavy traffic in what is a charged and
confrontational
atmosphere.
London is a city of complexities; it is a diverse and ever-growing metropolis comprising 32 boroughs, each of which regulates its own streets and roads.
The geographical structure of London,
as a series of smaller locales each with its own characteristics is an interesting
and positive attribute of the city. However, in the provision of an
effective transport system, this proves
to have its drawbacks with a lack of
beginnings of such thoughts but in
in promoting good cycling culture.
Their narrow widths, a mere 1.5-metre strip, compared to Copenhagen’s
recommended minimum of 2.5-metres, do not promote cycling as communal
activity. The narrowed demographic London’s
cyclists:
young,
male
professionals clad in Tour de France ensembles, is a reflection of this crisis. In
comparison,
56%
of
women
Copenhagen’s
represent
cyclists.10
Young children are taken to school in cycle buggies while older children cycle alongside a parent on their own
bicycles. Copenhagen’s 350km of cycle lanes offer adequate protection and
safety
for
cyclists
therefore
inviting more people to cycle; 19% consider cycling their main mode of
transportation compared to the United Kingdom’s 2.2%. The United Kingdom
falls well below the European Union’s average of 7.4%.11 Such figures are
disappointing for an economically thriving,
matured
democracy.
As Enrique Peñalosa, Bogota’s former
mayor credited with transforming the
city’s transportation system remarks, “if all citizens are equal before the law, then of course a bus with 80
passengers should have the right to 80 times more road space than a car
with one.”12This is a reflection on the notion that our cities, transportation
systems and public spaces express what we value as a society; these attributes
extension
are of
a
by
definition
true
the
democracy.
To achieve a healthful environment at an urban scale, one must engage with transportation. In London, the 1100 people, gathered at Hackney
Empire for the recent screening of Andreas Dalsgaard’s, The Human Scale,
exemplifies
the
growing
interest in this topic. A presentation by Gehl that followed laments the slow progress in making London a liveable
city. Ten years after the publication
of Towards a Fine City for People: Public Spaces and Public Life –
London, many of its targets have not been achieved. One must ask why?
Figure 16 Cycle Superhighway 2, Bow
Figure 17 Islington High Street, A London street scene
In Curitiba, a change that began
about London’s cycling culture. This
1970s,
exclusive view of cycling; an activity
with Jamie Lerner as mayor in the has
transformed
the
city
into one of the world’s most liveable
urban spaces. The establishment of a comprehensive bus transit system and several kilometres of protected
cycle routes have transformed the
lives of city’s 3.2 million inhabitants. The this
common
themes
transformation
are
throughout
simplicity,
expediency and practicality; themes that are not captured in recent
proposals to aid London’s cycling crisis by Lord Foster. Foster’s Skycycle
proposes a network of cycle paths elevated above London’s railway lines. Accessed via 200 entrance points, it
could accommodate 12,000 cyclists an hour with 6 million people falling
within a Skycycle route. However, at £220 million, nearly £34 million
per kilometre, the estimated cost of
Skycycle would be almost a quarter of the budget for the mayor’s Cycling
Vision, a plan to improve cycling
conditions over the next 10 years. More concerning than the economic
challenges that the scheme presents, are the alarming issues it raises
scheme promotes an unhealthy and for the young, 40 kilometres-an-hour
cyclist who demands the right of way, believing that children and older
cyclists are as bad as cars. Skycycle is the reduction of cycling to being purely
about a mode of transport. In actual fact what cycling offers, is the freedom
to explore the city’s complex beauty at an intimate, human scale. Curitiba
exemplifies what can be achieved with a minimal budget, a sense of urgency and masses of creativity - an approach
that London could learn from. A significant issue for London is the highly bureaucratic planning system which
stifles creativity and stalls change. Schemes
such
as
the
mayor’s
Mini Holland project provide some hope. The project will fund the transformation of four outer London boroughs in cycle-friendly places and
improve connectivity to the centre of London. Kingston-upon-Thames, an
area I know intimately as a cyclist in my years as a student is one of
eight shortlisted for the scheme. Proposals
such
as
establishing
strategic connections that will provide a network of cycling infrastructure and creating a car free plaza at Kingston station will invite more people to cycle
and walk. However, schemes such as these should not be viewed as a lone
solution; they must be implemented
along with other measures toward a healthful city. Cycling should not be considered a lone activity; it must be
better integrated into other modes of transport. For instance, the ability
to take your bicycle on a train or
tube should be further promoted. This will encourage more people,
especially those travelling into the city from the suburbs, to cycle more often. Furthermore, improving safety measures for cyclists by implementing
traffic control measures such as allowing cyclists to move earlier than cars at traffic lights, could
make it considerably safer to cycle around the city. Moreover, building
on successful cycling initiatives such as the Cycle-to-Work scheme would
encourage more people to cycle.
Figure 18 Rua XV de Novembro, 1972 Curitiba
Figure 19 Proposed Mini Holland scheme Kingston upon Thames
Figure 20 The Death and Life of Great American Cities, Jane Jacobs
As illustrated in Jane Jacobs’ The Death and Life of Great American Cities, there are many lessons to learn
from observing our cities. From the observations that I have made in my city,
London, it is clear that there is a case
for the reappraisal of our urban fabric, namely our streets and transportation
systems, both of which are crucial in the design of a healthful environment.
The human dimension must remain an integral aspect in planning the urban fabric. We must reinstate our street as the soul within the body of the city. The
street must be reconquered, reinstated as a place for exchange and human
vitality. Furthermore, the provision of an
adequate transportation system that is
fair for all road users is essential to the redefinition of our cities. In both solutions
towards a healthful environment, equality, community and understanding remain
integral. As a community - designers, politicians and the public, we must set out
a clear vision and purpose for our cities and implement actions that will achieve
these aims. But above all, we must
remember the definition of a healthful environment; it is humanist in purpose
and environmentalist by consequence.
Citations
1
6
The 2012 Revision, Highlights’ (2012)
for London’s street and roads’ (2012),
United Nations, ‘World Population Prospects: <http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/Documentation/ pdf/WPP2012_Volume-I_ComprehensiveTables.pdf>
[accessed 27th January 2014] 2
Roads Task Force,’ The Vision and directions for London’s street and roads’ (2012),
<http://www.tfl.gov.uk/assets/downloads/
corporate/rtf-report-executive-summary.pdf >
Roads Task Force,’ The Vision and directions <http://www.tfl.gov.uk/assets/downloads/
corporate/rtf-report-executive-summary.pdf > [accessed 27th January 2014] 7
Hamilton-Baillie, Ben,
‘Shared Space: Reconciling People, Places
and Traffic’
in Built Environment, 34 (2), (2008), p.167
[accessed 27th January 2014]
8
3
screen in London’,
Hill, Dave, ‘Jan Gehl film Human Scale to screen in London’,
<http://www.theguardian.com/politics/
davehillblog/2013/nov/16/jan-gehl-filmhackney-empire-london>
[accessed 28th January 2014] 4 Gehl, Jan, ‘Cities for people’ (London: Island Press, 2010) p. IX 5 Roads Task Force,’ The Vision and directions for London’s street and roads’ (2012), <http://www.tfl.gov.uk/assets/downloads/ corporate/rtf-report-executive-summary.pdf > [accessed 27th January 2014]
Hill, Dave, ‘Jan Gehl film Human Scale to <http://www.theguardian.com/politics/
davehillblog/2013/nov/16/jan-gehl-filmhackney-empire-london>
[accessed 28th January 2014] 9 MVA Consultancy, ‘Exhibition Road Monitoring’, (August 2012), <http://www.rbkc.gov.uk/PDF/Exhibition%20 Road%20monitoring.pdf> [accessed 27th January 2014] 10 Hill, Dave, ‘Interview: Jan Gehl on London, streets, cycling and creating cities for people,’ (January 2014), <http://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/davehillblog/2014/jan/25/jan-gehl-london-talk-andinterview> [accessed 27th January 2014]
11
Why is cycling so popular in the Netherlands?’ (August 2013) , <http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/ magazine-23587916 >
[accessed 27th January 2014] 12
Pagh, Jesper,
‘The main cause of the problems in cities is
inequality: interview with Enrique Peñalosa’ in Arkitektur DK, (2013), p.55
Image Credits
Figure 1
Figure 16 Author’s own image
Figure 2
Figure 17 Author’s own image
Author’s own Image
Gehl, Jan, Gemzoe, Lars, New City Spaces, (Copenhagen : Danish Architectural Press, 2000), p. 12 Figure 3
Gehl, Jan, ‘Cities for people’ (London: Island Press, 2010), p. 12
Figure 4 Hamilton-Baillie, Ben, ‘Shared Space: Reconciling People, Places and Traffic’ in Built Environment, 34 (2), (2008), p.165 Figure 5 Hamilton-Baillie, Ben, ‘Shared Space: Reconciling People, Places and Traffic’ in Built Environment, 34 (2), (2008), p.167 Figure 6 Hamilton-Baillie, Ben, ‘Shared Space: Reconciling People, Places and Traffic’ in Built Environment, 34 (2), (2008), p.168 Figure 7 Courtesy of Dixon Jones Figure 8
Author’s own Image Figure 9 - 15 Author’s own images
Figure 18 Weizman, Ines, ‘Cities, Agency and Change’ in Perspecta, (2008), p. 43 Figure 19 http://www.kingston.gov.uk/news/article/140/ cycling_upon_thames_kingston_wins_up_ to_£30m_for_‘mini_holland’_plans Figure 20 http://architectureandurbanism.blogspot. co.uk/2012/03/jane-jacobs-death-and-life-ofgreat.html