AUXILIARIES PRIMARY AND SECONDARY AUXILIARIES
AUX • English Auxiliaries • primary (BE, HAVE, DO) and secondary (modals). • Semantic and formal (morpho-syntactic) differences • Primary and secondary paradigm of the English VP • Possible combinations of aux and lexical verbs
AUX • Primary Paradigm (3rd person sg, positive, declarative) • 1. takes • 2. took • 3. is taking • 4. was taking • 5. has taken • 6. had taken
AUX • • • • • • • •
7. has 8. had 9. is 10. was 11. is 12. was 13. has 14. had
been taking been taking taken taken being taken being taken been taken been taken
AUX • 15. has been being taken (?) • 16. had been being taken (?) • Not included: • 1) a) He is to arrive tomorrow. • b) He has to arrive tomorrow. • fixed order, closed system
AUX • Secondary paradigm • • • • • •
1. will 2. would 3. will 4. would 5. will 6. would
take take be taking be taking have taken have taken
AUX • • • • • • • •
7. will have been taking 8. would have been taking 9. will be 10. would be 11. will be being 12. would be being 13. will have been 14. would have been
taken taken taken taken taken taken
AUX • 15. will have been being taken (?) • 16. would have been being taken (?)
AUX • LEXICAL VERBS - CLASSIFICATIONS • Syntactic criteria (linking and nonlinking - vt & vi) • Semantic classifications
LEX. VERBS • Dynamic and Stative Verbs • Criteria: • a) presence or absence of change/ development • b) internal and external velocity (=speed) • c) input of energy, agent or no agent • d) absence or presence of stages/segments
LEX. VERBS • If there are stages, these stages can include 3 basic parts: • a) initial stage, beginning • b) development/process • c) final stage/end (stopping or reaching a goal) • prediction of behaviour
LV Definitions: • a) dynamic: verb situations requiring an input of energy, implying change, sometimes motion, development and phases • b) stative: verb situations without motion, development, just existence in time; without dynamic phases or segments
LV • Quirk et al. (1985: 93ff), the fundamental distinction in English grammar, influence on their syntactic behaviour • Reasons why • Quirk et al. (1985) divide dynamic verbs into:
LV • • • •
a) activity verbs (drink, eat, learn ) b) process verbs (change, grow, widen) c) verbs of bodily sensation (ache, hurt) d) transitional event verbs (arrive, die, fall, leave) • e) momentary verbs (jump, hit, kick, nod)
LV • Stative verbs: • a) verbs of perception/sensation (see, hear) • b) verbs of cognition and emotions (believe, desire, think, dislike) • c) relational verbs (belong, consist, contain, owe, own, possess, resemble)
LV • Syntactic behaviour (general tendencies, there are exceptions) • A) Progressive aspect • She is learning/*knowing the language. • They are buying/*owning a house. • polysemy: think • I’m loving it!
LV • B) Imperative • Learn/*Know that language! • Buy/*Own that house! • N.B: • a) Know that we all have access to four • •
capacities. b) Believe me!
LV • C) Force sb to V • They forced her to learn/*know the language. • D) some adverbs of manner (e.g. speed, willingness – reluctantly, slowly etc.) • He learnt/*knew the language quickly/slowly.
LV OTHER SEMANTIC CLASSIFICATIONS (VERB TYPOLOGIES) • Z. Vendler (1967): activities, states, accomplishments, achievements • meaning and syntactic behaviour, syntactic tests like:
LV • a) for X time/in X time • He walked for an hour/*in an hour. • b) how long did it take to V? • How long did it take to paint a picture? • How long did it take to walk home/*to walk?
LV • c) if one stops Ving, one did V • • •
If one stops running, one did run. If one stops painting the picture, one did paint a picture.
LV • ACTIVITIES • dynamic verb situations • structure and successive segments; these segments are qualitatively equal and any segment can represent the whole situation • no cumulation, no growth, no goal or natural limit • duration
LV • • • • • • •
run, drink, swim etc. time axis Tests: a) *in X minutes b) *how long did it take to V (N.B. How long did they walk?) c) If one stops Ving, one did V
LV STATES verb situations without structure, no segments, no development just lasting in time without any input of energy duration no goal
LV desire, know, possess etc. time axis Tests: • a) *in X minutes
LV • b) *how long did it take to V • c) If one stops Ving, one did V • d) *carefully, deliberately, quickly etc. • ACCOMPLISHMENTS • dynamic situations • structure, segments not of equal quality
LV • cumulative development, growth, segments acquire a new quality • goal, final, terminal point, natural end duration • paint a picture, draw a circle, run a mile
LV • time axis • • • •
Tests: a) in X minutes b) how long did it take to V c) *If one stops Ving, one did V
LV • • • • • • •
ACHIEVEMENTS momentary verbs, only one brief segment goal find, kick, jump, nod, hit etc. time axis Tests: a) in X minutes b) how long did it take to V
LV • c) *If one stops Ving, one did V – not applicable • How long did it take to find the key? • How long did it take to paint the picture? She found the key in five minutes. She painted the picture in an hour.
LV • DISTINCTIVE FEATURES • Brinton (1988: 29): stative, durative, goal, voluntary • 3 features: +/- stative • +/- durative • +/- goal
LV • ACTIVITY • STATE
- st + dur - goal +st +dur - goal
• ACCOMPLISHMENTS - st +dur +goal • ACHIEVEMENTS - st - dur + goal
LV • Goal and telicity • +goal = telic • -goal = atelic • Greek: telos (=goal)
LV • CONTEXT AND VENDLER’S TYPES IN ENGLISH • • ambiguity, context • Act, St, Ach – lexemes, Acc – usually VPs • telicity: write – write a letter • hold: St or Act
LV • Context: the object (presence/absence, its structure – determiners, countable/ uncountable nouns, sg or pl) • Examples: • 1) a) He drank. • b) He drank beer. • c) He drank a/the beer.
LV • 2) a) She read. • b) She read books. • c) She read a/the book. • 3) They owned a car/cars.
LV Tendencies: • • • • •
a) Vact + D + N(s) = VP Acc b) Vact + Ns/Nunc = VP Act c) Vst + NP = Vst He wrote a/the novel He wrote novels.
LV • Verbs with prefixes, phrasal verbs, copulas • 4) a) live – outlive • b) build – rebuild • c) cook – overcook • 5) like – dislike
LV • 6) a) eat – eat up • b) find – find out • • 7) a) turn red (V + Cs) • b) grow old • c) become rich
LV • Vendler, Z. (1957/67), ‘’Verbs and Times’’ • Topics: • 1) Time schemata presupposed by various verbs (e.g. HIT vs. KNOW) • 2) PROG in English (I am running/ *I am possessing a car) • 3) Successive phases (run) or no phases (know)
LV • 4) Terminal point (run vs. draw a circle) and telicity • 5) Segment of a situation as the representative of the whole situation • 6) Act, St, Acc, Ach • 7) Habits as states? • 8) Generic and specific states
LV • Analysis, Context - English and Serbian • ‘’Suddenly, he was standing on a short turf, on a summer evening when the slanting rays of the sun gilded the ground. The landscape he was looking at recurred so often in his dreams that he was never fully certain whether or not he had seen it in the real world. It his waking hours he called it the Golden Country.’’ • (G. Orwell, 1984: 28)
LV • • • • • • •
a) STAND The statue stands in the square. He was standing attentively. b) GILD c) LOOK (AT) d) RECUR e) SEE
LV • Some animals can see in the dark. • He can hardly see without his glasses. • f) call
LV SERBIAN TEXT • ,,...probudio me vedar susret. ... naišao je dečak, kidao je cveće i bacao iznad glave, gađao ptice, izvikivao nerazumljive reči... Ugledavši me, umirio se i pošao u stranu. Nisam spadao u njegov svet.’’ • (M. Selimović, Derviš i smrt: 123)
LV • • • •
EXERCISE: 1) fall 3) make 5) sleep
2) grow up 4) buy 6) say
6) a) Chris almost walked. b) Chris almost painted a picture.
LV • • • •
BE AS AN AUXILIARY AND AS A LEXICAL VERB Auxiliary progressive aspect, passive modal-like function (IS/ARE etc. TO V): obligation, arrangement • 1) They are to arrive tomorrow. • no constructions with nonfinite forms (*be to, *being to, *been to), only present/past simple
LV • Uses • A) order, command, prohibition (present simple, impersonal way) • with the 2nd person – order; negation – often prohibition • 2) You are not to leave this town. • B) plan, arrangement for future • 3) We are to meet tomorrow.
LV • In the past, not necessarily realized • 4) a) They were to be married in June. • b) The dinner which was to precede the party was cancelled. • or past events following other past events • 5) She was to make amends later. • C) possible, reasonable, unavoidable • 6) a) He feels certain that this is not to be.
LV • b) Mistakes were to be expected. • • • • • •
Set expressions BE + TO INF 7) a) Kate is to blame. (=to be blamed) b) The house is to let. (=to be let) 8) a) *Helen is to praise. b) *The house is to sell. LEXICAL BE
LV • a linking verb, rarely a nonlinking verb • LINKING VERB • connecting the subject and subject complement (like become etc.), e.g. • 9) a)Barbara is well-educated. • b) Barbara became a teacher. • PROG aspect – temporary behaviour, e.g. • 10) He is being silly.
LV • • • • • • • •
finite and nonfinite forms, e.g. 11) She is being polite. They have been very tired. NONLINKING VERB exceptionally, ‘’to exist’’ and similar meanings 12) a) I think, therefore I am. b) Where sensitivity is, conflict is absent. no object or complement
LV • HAVE AS AN AUXILIARY AND AS A LEXICAL VERB • AUXILIARY • perfect aspect, modal-like function (have to, necessity, obligation) • perfect aspect: NICE properties only • modal-like: NICE and sometimes with do, e.g. • Does he have to go? / Has he to go?
LV • • • •
LEXICAL a) stative verb (NICE and do) b) dynamic verb c) causative HAVE and affected subject
• Stative Verb • to possess and similar meanings; • material objects, mental/physical features
LV • • • • • • • •
relations, connections 1) a) They have a new house. b) She has blue eyes. c) This room has 3 windows. HAVE GOT – more colloquial, British English Characteristics of stative HAVE: A) weak forms, e.g. I’ve plenty of time. B) can be replaced by HAVE GOT, e.g.
LV • He’s got some money. • C) NICE, but also do • 2) a) I haven’t any money. • b) Have you any money? • c) I have a pencil and so has he. • 3) a) I don’t have any money. • b) Do you have any money? • c) I have a pencil and so does he.
LV • D) not in passive • 4) *Some money is had by me. • 5) a) The shop hasn’t any icecream. • b) The shop doesn’t have icecream. • 6) The shop hasn’t any icecream, but it does have icecream.
LV • Dynamic HAVE • variety of meanings, different kinds of experience • 7) They had sandwiches. • 8) a) have a holiday • b) have a good time • c) have a child • d) have difficulties
LV • e) have breakfast • often collocations, some combinations excluded, e.g. • 9) a) *have an eat • b) have a drink • Characteristics • A) no weak forms, e.g. *She’d a baby. • B) no NICE properties, e.g.
LV • 10) a) *We hadn’t a holiday. • b) *Had you a good time? • C) passive only exceptionally • 11) a) Breakfast can be had at 7. • b) A good time was had by all. • c) *A sleep was had by him. • d) *A child was had by that woman.
LV • • • • • •
Causative HAVE and affected subject make sb do smth sb suffered something 12) a) He had all the prisoners punished. b) She had her bag stolen. 13) He had a book stolen from the library.