EV1 Lecture 5

MODALS MEANINGS AND USES

MODALS • GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY • basic categories related VP: tense, aspect, mood/modality, voice • the word CATEGORY: Greek in origin, in philosophical systems denoted ‘predication’

MODALS • physical world consists of substances which have certain properties • parts of speech – properties • in modern linguistics: a grammatical notion expressed systematically in a language • MOOD AND MODALITY

MODALS • Mood: traditional grammar, inflections, indicative, subjunctive, imperative • Speaker’s attitude/opinion (certainty, doubt, wish, order, request etc.)

• Subjunctive in subordinate clauses - verb and structure in the main clause (It’s high time/I wish....; that-clause)

MODALS • markers of subjunctive in English • Mood in English – restricted to specific contexts, not fully productive

MODALS • Modality • statement of fact vs. speaker’s assessment of possibility, ability, necessity etc. about a situation • modal vs. nonmodal structures • more regularly used than subjunctive in English

MODALS • • • • • • • •

Characteristics of English modals A) modal meanings B) + bare inf, except OUGHT TO C) no –s D) no nonfinite forms E) ‘’past’’ tense forms?

F) always first in VP, always finite G) they do not co-occur in the same VP

MODALS • H) no imperative (e.g. *May!) • I) DARE and NEED also lexical verbs

MODALS • Epistemic, Deontic and Dynamic uses of modals • • • •

every modal – its own meanings also 3 general meanings modal logic: modality and proposition proposition – situation (verb) + participants

MODALS • modality: presence of a modal and the meaning it introduces, speaker’s attitude • • •

1) Kevin may visit us.

PROPOSITION: Kevin visits us MODALITY: may (possibility)

• 3 main uses of modals; EP, DE, DY

MODALS • EPISTEMIC USE • Greek episteme = knowledge • according to the speaker’s knowledge and judgement, something is possible or necessary • it is possible that....

• may, must, will, should, can

MODALS • 2) a) That will be your sister.

• b) They should be on their way home now.

• c) You can’t be serious.

MODALS • • • • •

DEONTIC USE Greek DEONT- = smth that is obligatory permission, obligation, order, promise must, may, ought to, can, shall, should, need usually performative,e.g. He can go now.

• sb is permitted/allowed to do smth

MODALS • • • • •

DYNAMIC USE ability, willingness, habit can/could, will/would 3) a) Susan can help you to sell that computer. b) They will sit for hours watching TV.

• smth about the subject (ability, willingness etc.)

MODALS • sb is able/willing to do smth • EP or DE: • 4) a) He can’t be here. (I don’t believe it.)

• b) He should be here. (He has an obligation.)

• c) He won’t be here. (He is ill.)

MODALS • d) He must be here. (It’s an order.)

• e) He must be here. (There’s his hat.)

• f) He should be here. (He doesn’t live far.)

• g) He may be here. (That’s my guess.)

MODALS • Epistemic, Deontic and Dynamic Uses and Time Marking, Negation and Voice • tendency to behave in a similar way • prediction of syntactic behaviour • Time Marking • EPISTEMIC: proposition, not modality normally marked for past; HAVE as a marker

MODALS • 5) David may have seen them yesterday.

• ‘’it is possible that David saw them yesterday’’ • problems in: • 6) a) Tom may have been hurt.

• b) Tom might have been hurt.

• It is possible that Tom was hurt.

MODALS • MIGHT – a less direct attitude, a lower degree of possibility or unreality, possibility not realized • 7) a) She may have had an accident. (possibility still exists, we are not sure) • b) She might have had an accident (but we know now that luckily she didn’t)

MODALS • DEONTIC: usually neither modality nor the proposition marked for past • performatives • 8) Robert may come in.

MODALS possible problems in: • 9) a) He might come in.

• b) He had to come early.

• 10) a) He ought to have done it.

• b) He should have paid the bill.

• epistemic necessity vs. deontic obligation

MODALS • DYNAMIC: usually modality marked for past • 11) a) Kate could run 10 miles with ease when she was younger.

• b) Kate could have run 10 miles with ease when she was younger. (EP) • (11b: possibility in the past not realized, COULD denotes unreality, not past)

MODALS • NEGATION • EPISTEMIC: either modality or the proposition negated • 12) a) Helen can’t be in her office.

• (it is not possible that Helen is...)

• b) Andy may ‘not be in his office.

• (it is possible that Andy is not...)

MODALS • DEONTIC: either modality or the propositiion negated • 13) a) Kate may not come in now.

• (Kate is not allowed to...)

• b) Lenny may ‘not go swimming. (Lenny is allowed not to go ...)

• DYNAMIC: modality usually negated • 14) Ken can’t run 10 miles. (is not able to run)

MODALS • VOICE • EP and DE used modals are voice neutral, for example: • 14) a) Tom may meet Mary on the train.

• b) Mary may be met by Tom on the train.

• DY used modals are usually not voice neutral • 15) a) Marta can speak Japanese.

• b) ?Japanese can be spoken by Marta.

MODALS • • • • • • • •

16) a) Ron can beat Roger. b) Roger can be beaten by Ron. Discuss: 1) a) Sarah may visit them tomorrow. b) Sarah may be visiting them tomorrow.

2) a) He can’t be working. b) They will tell awful lies. c) Michael must be working.

MODALS • ENGLISH MODALS • 3 general uses, but each modal also has its specific meanings (primary and secondary) • CAN/COULD • ability to do something, permission to do something, possibility, characteristic behaviour + secondary meanings

MODALS • ABILITY/CAPABILITY (DYNAMIC) • be able to, be capable of, know how to • 2 kinds of ability: physical (He can lift that box) and mental or learnt skill, knowledge (She can type very fast, They can speak Swedish) • could as past: restricted to general ability, not specific (standard English, not colloquial) • 1) a) She could read Latin and Greek when

MODALS • she was ten.

• b) The ship sank and they *could/were able to/managed to swim to the shore.

• 2)a) He could pass the exam (*but he didn’t).

• b) He was able/managed to pass the exam.

• 3) He could have passed the exam.

• specific past ability if negated:

MODALS • 4) a) *They ran fast and could catch the bus.

• b) They ran fast, but couldn’t catch the bus.

• 5) Robert was so drunk that he couldn’t find the front door.

• 6) I could almost reach the branch.

• (implicit negation) PERMISSION (DEONTIC)

MODALS • • • • • •

more often in colloquial style (MAY is formal) be allowed to, be permitted to 7) a) You can go home now. b) You can’t smoke near a petrol station.

COULD – general permission in the past 8) When she lived at home, she could watch TV whenever she wanted to.

• particular permission if negated

MODALS • 9) a) We couldn’t bring our dog to the restaurant.

• b) *Mike could see her yesterday evening.

• more tentative requests (10b) or asking for permission (present/future) (10a): • 10) a) Could I borrow your dictionary?

• b) Can/Could you pass the salt?

POSSIBILITY (EPISTEMIC)

MODALS • both can/could for present possibility/ likelihood • usually theoretical possibility, not factual (MAY/MIGHT usually factual) • 11) a) Accidents can happen.

• b) Measles can be dangerous.

• 12) a) Will you answer the phone? It could/may/might be your sister. (FACTUAL)

MODALS • b) One of the prisoners escaped yesterday. He could be hiding anywhere now. (FACTUAL) • c) They can’t/couldn’t be working at this hour.

• d) This could be your big chance.

• past: could have Ven • 13) a) You could have helped them.

• b) He could have been delayed by the fog.

MODALS • c) The money has disapeared; who could have taken it?

• can have Ven: rare, in questions and negatives • 14) a) Where can she have gone?

• b) She can’t have gone to school.

• 15) a) We could see him at any time.

• b) We could have seen him at any time.

MODALS • • • • • •

CHARACTERISTIC BEHAVIOUR characteristic or habit, something typical 16) a) Children can sometimes be restless. b) This area can be very warm in September. (inanimate subject) ‘’be able to’’ is not used instead; COULD is used for past or for tentative present: • 17) She could be very unkind at times.

MODALS • • • • •

SECONDARY USES A) in questions – surprise, impatience 18) a) What can he mean? b) What on earth could that be?

B) with the verbs of perception (hear, feel, smell, taste, see...)

• 19) a) I can hear you.

• b) I could feel pepper in the soup.

MODALS • could is used for past • C) in reported speech CAN shifted to COULD if reporting verb is in the past • MAY/MIGHT • contracted negative: mightn’t, *mayn’t • primary meanings:

MODALS • A) PERMISSION (DEONTIC) • be allowed/permitted to V • usually speaker’s permission, not extended to general permission • CAN is less formal • 20) You may smoke in this room.

• request for permission (questions, if-clauses) • 21) a) May I open the window? (formal)

MODALS • b) I’ll have another biscuit, if I may.

• MIGHT in questions – greater degree of hesitation/uncertainty about the answer • 22) Might I borrow your laptop?

• MIGHT is past only in indirect speech (be allowed/permitted to is used instead) • 23) a) He said that you might borrow his book.

MODALS •

b) They were allowed to/*might take every afternoon off last week.

• MIGHT for asking for permission, usually not for giving permission: • 24) a) Might I have some more tea?

• b) Yes, you may/*might.

• B) POSSIBILITY/PROBABILITY

MODALS • • • • • • • •

usually factual possibility: 25) The gun may be loaded.

26) a) The road can be blocked. b) The road may be blocked.

27) a) He may fly to Barcelona next week. b) We may be moving to Thessaloniki soon. c) They might get a job in the spring.

MAY usually not in questions about possibility:

MODALS • 28) a) *May it rain?

• b) Is it likely to rain?

• MIGHT – a lower degree of possibility than MAY: • 29) a) She might arrive soon, but it is doubtul.

• b) He may/might tell his wife.

• (MIGHT – increasing doubt) • MAY HAVE Ven – past

MODALS • 30) a) They may have lived there.

• b) What was that noise? It might have been a cat.

• MIGHT HAVE Ven – past + more tentative attitude • 31) You might have told me.

• MAY/MIGHT HAVE Ven also speculations about past situations:

MODALS • 32) a) He came home alone. You shouldn’t have let him do that; he might have got lost.

• b) You shouldn’t have drunk the wine; it may/might have beed poisoned.

• 33) Perhaps we should have taken the other road. It might have been quicker.

• (the issue not put to the test) • 34) a) You may be right.

MODALS • b) You might be right. (possible, but I doubt it) • 35) a) Take your raincoat, it may rain.

• b) You’d better take your raincoat, it might rain.

• 36) a) Claire may have gone to the cinema.

• b) Claire might have gone to the cinema.

• (less certain, more tentative)

MODALS • 37) He may/might have heard it from Kate.

• MIGHT HAVE Ven: a) a lower degree of possibility, b) unreality, nonrealization MIGHT – past in indirect speech SECONDARY USES A) wishes and hopes (health, happiness,

MODALS • • • • • • • •

success) 38) a) May you both be happy! b) May the New Year bring you all you wish!

B) suggestion 39) He may come with us.

C) reproach 40) They might have phoned him.

D) concession

MODALS • 41) He may only be a shopkeeper, but he is well educated.

• E) surprise, impatience • 42) Who may you be?