INTEGRATED LANGUAGE SKILLS 1 Introduction to Textual Analysis Lesson 7
November 21, 2018
1
Context
A single word meaning explains only a fraction of how we use words in texts to create “larger” meanings.
The crucial element that should be considered in meaning construction is context. 2
The word ‘context’ refers to an infinite number of factors which could influence how an individual interprets a chunk of language;
The areas of linguistics that are concerned with the effect of context on meaning are semantics and pragmatics.
3
Semantics
Semantics investigates word meaning. This meaning can be grammatical or lexical. Semantic theory understands that the meaning of a word is fully reflected by its linguistic context. Semantic context explains how meaning is understood linguistically, but without relying on intent, assumptions. politeness, presupposition, etc. 4
Pragmatics
Pragmatics is the branch of linguistics dealing with language in use and the contexts in which it is used, including such matters as deixis, the taking of turns in conversation, text organization, presupposition, implicature, etc. Pragmatics is the study of how context affects (semantic!) meaning. So, the meaning of a word is constituted by its contextual relations. 5
Context can be: 1) Linguistic Sentential Textual 2) Extralinguistic Situational
6
Sentential Context ď Ž
ď Ž
A minimal linguistic context provided by a single sentence or proposition. In this kind of context, semantics is more important than pragmatics.
7
Textual Context ď Ž
ď Ž
Textual context contains parts of a written or spoken statement that precede or follow a specific word or passage in the text, usually influencing its meaning or effect. In this kind of context, semantics and pragmatics may be equally relevant in context contruction and interpretation. 8
Situational Context
Situational context is the situation, circumstances, or specific setting in which an event occurs. It describes the reason why something is occurring, provides the background, situational setting, etc. In this kind of context, pragmatics is of crucial importance. 9
Context clues
Context clues are hints given in a text (spoken of written) to help define a word or a situation in the text. They can be linguistic (semantic) or pragmatic. Pragmatic clues are usually below textual surface, and need to be inferred from the text. 10
The five types of context clues in a text are:
Definition Restatement Contrast Interference Punctuation
11
Definition Definition/Explanation Clues
Sometimes a word's or phrase's meaning is explained immediately after its use. Example: "Haberdashery, which is a store that sells men’s clothing, is becoming more common today.” 12
Restatement Restatement/Synonym Clues Sometimes a word or phrase is stated in a different way. Example: "Lou was sent to the haberdashery to find a new suit. He needed to wear one for his uncle’s wedding." (The sentence says that Lou would find a suit at the haberdashery, then it must be a place where clothes for men are sold.) 13
Contrast Contrast/Antonym Clues Sometimes a word or phrase is clarified by the presentation of the opposite meaning somewhere close to its use. Example: "Lou wanted to go to the haberdashery, but Ann wanted to shop at the boutique.” (The signal word but tells the reader that an opposite thought is going to be stated.) 14
Interference Inference/General Context Clues Sometimes a word or phrase is not immediately clarified within the same sentence. Relationships, which are not directly apparent, are inferred or implied. The reader must look for clues within, before, and after the sentence in which the word is used. Example: “The haberdashery was Lou’s favorite place. He loved shopping for nice suits. The people who worked there were so kind and helpful.” 15
Punctuation
Readers can also use clues of punctuation and type style to infer meaning, such as
quotation marks (showing the word has a special meaning), dashes parentheses brackets (enclosing a definition) italics (showing the word will be defined) etc. 16
Deictic Expressions ď Ž
ď Ž
A deictic expression is a word or phrase (such as this, that, these, those, now, then, here) that points to the time, place, or situation in which a speaker is speaking. Deixis is expressed in English by way of personal pronouns, demonstratives, adverbs, and tense. 17
ď Ž
For example, if you would ask a visiting exchange student "Have you been in this country long?" the words this country and you are the deictic expressions, as they refer to the country where the conversation happens and the person being addressed in the conversation. 18
A famous illustration of a deictic aspect of meaning is an anecdote about a message found inside a bottle washed up on a beach. The message reads: “Meet me here at the same time tomorrow with a stick this long.�
19
ď Ž
The words me, here, the same time, tomorrow and this long in this message do not have a “useful� meaning because they are not accompanied by other relevant information.
20
ď Ž
These words do have a meaning (for example me means the person speaking/writing; tomorrow means the day after today, etc.), but they need contextual information to make their meaning complete.
21
Deixis ď Ž
Deixis is a textual or grammatical relation where the target of the referring expression (the referent) is in the (oral, written, recorded) textual situation.
22
Types of deictic reference 1. 2. 3.
Exophoric reference Anaphoric reference Cataphoric reference
23
ď Ž
If, instead of finding the message washed up on the shore, it had been handed to you by a the writer of the message, the meanings of me, here, the same time and tomorrow would all be clear(er):
24
Me would refer to the person who gave you the message, the same time would refer to the time of giving you the message tomorrow would refer to the day after the one you received the message, here would refer to the place where you were standing at the time, etc. (though the writer of the message would still have to indicate to you how long a stick they wanted you to bring!). 25
Exophoric reference ď Ž
ď Ž
In this case, the deictics would be clarified by exophoric reference, i.e. by information you had obtained from outside the text. This kind of reference is non-textual, and therefore situational, or pragmatic.
26
This information could also have been provided by the text. For example, the messagemight have read: “My name is John, and I need a stick the same height as the railings. I am standing at the end of Brighton pier and it is 3pm on August 16th 2016. Meet me here at the same time tomorrow with a stick this long.” 27
ď Ž
ď Ž
The second part of the message now makes more sense, because of the information given in the first half The words me, here, the same time, tomorrow and this long are all explained by the earlier information.
28
Anaphoric reference ď Ž
This second version of the message is an example of anaphoric reference, i.e. the information we need to understand the meaning of the deictic words like me, has been provided earlier in the text (in this case, it refers to someone called John). 29
The message could also have been written in a different order: “Meet me here at the same time tomorrow with a stick. I am standing at the endof Brighton pier on August 16th 1996 at 3pm. My name is John, and I need a stick the height of the railings.”
30
Cataphoric reference
In this case the referencing process works in the other direction—we can supply the meanings of me and tomorrow from information that comes later in the text. This is known as cataphoric referencing.
31