A LITERATURE REVIEW NATASHA E. MAJALAP HALING JANUARY 2020
Psychology of Space and Its Effect on Prisoners‘ Mentality. Birmingham School of Architecture and Design All rights reserved © Copyright January 2020 Natasha Elaine Majalap Haling, Birmingham City University. This literature review may be used within the Faculty of Arts, Design and Media but copyright for open publication remains the property of the author.
Introduction
T
his research project explores comprehensively on the psychology of prison design and its effects on inmates' wellbeing during their sentence period. The objectives include reviewing current conditions of the space and environment inmates live through; implement interior architecture to bridge a rehabilitation space for prisoners that improves their mentality and highlighting the importance of considering inmates' human rights. The publications used in this research will include secondary online sources such as books, journals, articles, government documents, popular magazines and media. The structure of the review will cover three factors of prisons lifestyle and the aftermath of inmates' mental state: - - -
Environment psychology impact Operational and design consideration Reasons to consider inmates' wellbeing
The principle of imprisonment continues to be a vigorous discussion over the years (United Nations Human Rights, 2005). Prison should be served only to incarcerate criminals as some critics debate. In contrast, others claim that prisons serve a purpose to dissuade individuals after their release from committing more crimes as well as to dissuade those who might be prompted to commit misconduct; by all means be reconstituted or rehabilitated as mentioned by the author. However, advocating prisoners' health is not particularly prisons' interest, neither does this draw civic metropolis or public affirmation (Woodall, 2016). Morris and Worrall (2014) argued that prison architecture can play a vital role within the deprivation model and may have candidly manipulate inmate behaviour. The skeleton structure of the review can be shown on the next page that has been broken down into varies section and focus areas of this specific topic.
Psychology of Space and Its Effects on Prisoners’ Mentality
Introduction
Objective 1:
Objective 2:
Objective 3:
Reviewing current condition of he space and environment that impacts inmates
Implement interior architecture to bridge a rehabilitation space that improves mentality
Why consider inmates’ wellbeing since they are criminals in the first place
HEADING:
HEADING:
HEADING:
Harsh
Healing
Hope
SUBHEADING 1: Depression, Anxiety & Schizophrenia
SUBHEADING 1: Spatial Attributes
SUBHEADING 1: Basic Human Rights
SUBHEADING 2: Specialised Housing
SUBHEADING 2: Impact Outside Imprisonment
SUBHEADING 2: Gaining Public Attention SUBHEADING 3: General / Early Design
SUBHEADING 3: Biophilic Approach
Discussion / Debate
Conclusion
SUBHEADING 3: Reforming Society
Harsh
Figure 1: Graph of prison population aged 50+ relative to 2002
Significantly, inmates' health and wellbeing are negatively affected due to the prison surroundings being inherently stressful and permanently pressuring (Karthaus, Block and Hu, 2019). According to Slater (2018), in 2017, self-harm of inmates has increased at an alarming rate of 11% giving it a total of 44,651 recorded cases compared to the previous year (Fig. 1). Correspondingly, the number of self-harming individuals has risen up to 6%, amounting up to a number of 11,630 individuals. From 2010/11 and 2016/17, a member of Parliament was informed that nearly 1,400 inmates died, including 401 suicides during a post-release custody the public. There are three instrumental factors that Slater (2018) noted which includes: overcrowding of cells, staff shortage and increasing use of spice, new psychoactive substances, ruining the UK system. “Research suggests that solitary confinement has the potential to lead to devastating, lasting psychological consequences,” Obama stated in The
Washington Post in a Jan. 25 op-ed (McGill, 2016). “It has been linked to depression, alienation, withdrawal, a reduced ability to interact with others and the potential for violent behaviour. Some studies indicate that it can worsen existing mental illnesses and even trigger new ones. Prisoners in solitary are more likely to commit suicide, especially juveniles and people with mental illnesses.” A BBC documentary was published by Dolce (2016) titled Life in Wandsworth Prison. Ed Thomas, the reporter, was able to interview few inmates and staffs describing their experiences in prison environment. An inmate, who remained anonymous, said that ‘it took the staffs three days to get a wounded man with a broken arm to the hospital’ as violence were happening every day. He quoted: “If I don’t fight, I won’t be a man. If you can’t defend yourself, then you become a victim being trapped in a circle of violence.”
In other words, Beer (2018) stated that prisoners have the tendency to develop negative, violent behaviours because they have limited accessibility to time, social activities and educational training programmes. UK in particular, prisoners are held in unstable conditions to maim its incumbents and fortify criminal identities and behaviours within an apparent system (Moran and Jewkes, 2015). Ed Thomas asked a member of staff how dangerous is the job in prison, he answered: “It’s getting more dangerous, physically and mentally,”; as another staff member added: “We release prisoners, and they keep coming back.” (Dolce, 2016). For instance, Morris and Worrall (2014) gave an example of telephone pole design prison units (Fig. 2). The design may lead to more stress amongst the inmates because of their dull formation, close boundaries and deficiency of open space. Even so, greater chances to
participate in some forms of offence may occur whilst applying additional privacy in telephone designs. Furthermore, Bentham’s Panopticon was an early influential model (Bentham, 2008), a prison designed where cells are arranged in the centre a rotunda, boosting surveillance from a dominant inspection point (Fig. 3). The Panopticon implicates psychological manipulation, emphasising the connection between control and philosophy, and how these enforce social restraint through societal establishments, noted Foucault (1982). Karthaus, Block and Hu (2019) explained this being important in both the hypothetically more positive sense of architecture’s capability to manipulate psychology through its structure; and a damaging sense via psychological elimination of sovereignty from the inmates.
Figure 2: Two different types of prison layout (Wener, 2012)
Figure 3: Bentham’s Panopticon, part-plan/elevation/ section by Willey Revely, 1791 (Karthaus, Block and Hu, 2019)
Although these initial design decisions are envisioned to improve behaviour, Fisher (2016) argued that instead, they generate conditions that may provoke psychological problems and lead to negative inmate performance. In that respect, an officer told BBC (Dolce 2016) that “If you can’t look after vulnerable people in a safe environment, people will get hurt and people will die.” As they deal with suicidal inmates, officer said he could not forget the victims that has taken their lives, and describes it as ‘The Lives Lost Behind Bars’. As a result, staffs of Wandsworth Prison wish to make a difference within prison environment.
Healing
Figure 4 & 5: Possible design response: Views to natural element, typical housing standards; dynamic and diffused natural light
There is only so much that could be accomplished when designing a prison suitable for inmates’ physical and mental health. Take prisons in UK for example, it has been constructed by inferences of expenditure, competence and surveillance for over two decades, in which most of the time prison exteriors inhabits a tedious, plain and systematic design with immense extensions of brick, insufficient cramped windows and no redundant decoration (Moran and Jewkes 2015). England and Wales, takes in alarming rates of 30% inmates since 2001, which persist the interrogations of prison design and lived exposure of carceral space notably relevant. In addition, López and Maiello-Reidy (2017) mentioned that dark and narrow corridors, synthetic acoustics, insufficient natural lighting, climate inconsistency and absence of confidentiality are contrasting to the remedial conditions needed for mental health and rehabilitation at the aspect of physical environment. Any recovery effort is a challenge due to the uneasy conditions, placing many mentally unstable inmates progressively worse. However, Karthaus, Block and Hu (2019) stated it is arguable that design can encourage
positive alteration and so does affect behaviour from the constructed environment. Design is able to have unforeseen results or contradictory consequences, as argued by Moran and Jewkes (2015). To begin with, environmental psychologists have focused on the design carceral spaces to reduce inmates’ destructive behaviour while maximising control on the part of the prison authorities (ibid). According to López and Maiello-Reidy (2017), a correctional facility that applies environmental design principles includes safe, supportive, nurturing, calming, comfortable, stimulating, normalised and normative environment; to acknowledge the exclusive needs of the mentally ill will be less vindictive and way more treatmentintended. Henceforth, environmental psychologists have emphasised on design carceral space to diminish inmates’ misconduct while magnifying control on prison authorities (Moran and Jewkes 2015). Nonetheless, prison architecture must be analysed in relation to local circumstances even though it may manifest fundamental penal conception.
Figure 6: New Health Services Building Concept – Housing Continuum (López and Maiello-Reidy, 2017)
In view of Fairweather and McConville (eds. 2013), categories like gender, adults and adolescent, incarcerated and detained prisoners, the mentally and physically unwell (Fig. 6), others with short and long sentences, the defenceless, severe and less severe offenders, diplomat and criminal, and those necessitating high security – there must be numerous sub-divisions to shelter different groups that cannot accordingly be included simultaneously. Correspondingly, Lenton (2017) states that it is principally vital within the criminal justice policy that a sense of integrity and acceptance is appreciated by unified societies, where diversity is respected and all groups have connection to comparable life opportunities, positive relationships and the likelihood to impact political verdicts.
One prison system example that’s caught the media’s attention is Halden Prison located in Norway (Vox 2019). The prison has no barbed wire, lots of greenery and outstanding contemporary art. Design is part of a plan to make prisons more humanitarian. Gudrun Molden, the architect of Halden Prison, designed it to be an “anti-authoritarian”; the architecture is never made to intimidate inmates. Material plays a role in influencing humane design, ¬¬Halden uses glass to access natural lighting, cork and wood to muffle noise. However, humane prison isn’t just about architecture and materials. It’s also about what happens inside the walls, as displayed on Fig. 9. Halden’s design affects the way correctional officers and inmates interact (Gorman 2019).
Figure 7: Halden Prison top view; Layout of Halden Prison campus design
Indeed, places like Halden are establishing a new example for what futuristic prison possibly look like. It may feel absurd to produce refreshing, well-designed spaces like this for people who have committed misconduct. But following design philosophy like this, being incarcerated is the punishment – the architecture doesn’t have to be (Gorman 2019).
that green rehabilitation projects offer which diminish anxiety (encourage positive self-identity). Moreover, green rehabilitation projects cultivate a humanitarian culture and implement small-scale biophilic mediation on-site, which could also ease the burdens of so many correctional officers today by lessening the work-related stress.
On the other hand, architectural design has the capability to alter individuals’ physiological and psychological states in a development of the biophilic tie to nature. Södurland and Newman (2015) debates that human connection with nature is understood to be historically mirrored in organic building designs and elements, spaces and in patterning that resemble nature, and in classical living with close, but respectful proximity, to the natural environment. Additionally, Fisher (2016) explained that inmates are able to promote their health and wellbeing by being exposed to nature
However, Karthaus, Block and Hu (2019) argued that the perception of rehabilitation is sophisticated and the role that prison plays is limited. Prison signifies only one part of a justice service that comprises sentencing, probation and other forms of non-custodial punishment whilst setting aside broader societal issues like inequality. It is debatable that decreasing recidivism impose the individual to take responsibility for their actions and the occurring consequences and establish positive decisions.
Hope
United Nation Human Rights (2005) highlighted that it is undeniably inappropriate to disagree that because a person is in prison, he or she is permitted to a lower standard of health care than implemented in the public. From McGill (2016), quoting Colorado Department of Corrections Executive Director, Rick Raemisch, said: “You can’t take people who have been in segregation for any period of time and put them back in general population and have a good day,”. In order to make steady and constructive transitions from imprisonment to community, individuals in custody need to be catered with a standard of decency, cohesion and aid (Karthaus, Block and Hu, 2019). Fairweather and McConville (eds. 2013) suggested to modest the convention grinding of politics, administration and public investment priorities, and to obey the rules of public health and safety – all of which our part on responsive of petty maliciousness is not necessary. By an unbiased system, verdicts are taken carefully and we shall never have to face the outrageous question of whether prisons’ goal for a standard of altering beauty or manipulate to be places of unpleasantness and deservedly contentious distress. In spite of this, long-term and more generic enforcements may evade us rather challenging the short-term enforcements of simple, easily segregated catalyst. It becomes unbearable when we are struggling with an experience as diluted as beauty and ugliness in an architecture or environment when added to the depiction all the sophisticated differences in people’s memoirs and aptitude, the partition of cause and effect is extremely tough (Fairweather, L. and McConville S., eds. 2013).
Figure 8: U.S. Prisoner photograph by IPGGutenbergUKLtd
Figure 9: Table on impacts of parental incarceration on children within different age groups (Roguski and Chauvel, 2009)
Anyways, Roguski and Chauvel (2009) conducted interviews in multiple correction facilities which resulted inmates being incarcerated can particularly impact on their families as well. Most commonly cited by the participants were financial tension, the additional pressure on their partner due to a loss of parental and childcare support and breakdown of relationships as impacts of their imprisonment on their families. The author also evidently demonstrated statistic of children being affected endure anxiety, a sense of loss and accountability for their parents’ custody (as shown in Fig. 11) in different age range. These responses were assumed to be associated through the visiting procedure, which negatively barred them from displaying tenderness towards their parents. As a consequence of that, primarily key pressure upsetting prisoners’ partners and other family members were pinpointed as selecting a caregiver role, financial stress, prison visiting, and shame. Impacts of such burdens included anxiety, worry, withdrawal and surrendering one’s own wellbeing for the sake of other family members; as a sense of vital adaptation (Roguski and Chauvel, 2009). Marc Morjé Howard, PhD, JD, MA, director of Georgetown University’s Prisons and Justice Initiative
told The Nation’s Health: “The research is very clear on solitary confinement,”. He continued: “The public health community has to bring home how damaging it is for people to be held in these conditions when they are all by themselves, when they have mental health problems to begin with that are untreated. When they return to general population directly from solitary, the consequences can be sad and scary.” (McGill, 2016). A member of staff in Wandsworth Prison commented: “If we treat the most undeserving with care and respect, that says a lot about our society.” (Dolce, 2016). Lastly, Section IV: Health Rights of Prisoners (United Nation Human Rights, 2005) emphasise that respectable health care is primary right which is for everyone to utilised and that the circumstances of health care in prison alter public health. As soon as they enter a prison or place of confinement, all prisoners should be granted a medical check-up as it is basic requirement. Most inmates exit prison at certain point as well as staff in prisons entering and leaving, and visitors to the prison; wellbeing issues in prisons can potentially be civic health problems (United Nation Human Rights, 2005). Thus, sustaining health in prisons involves everyone’s concerns. When prison staff are well, they are able to perform better; when inmates are healthy, they are more capable to work and cope with imprisonment easier.
Conclusion
Despite all the aspects explored throughout this literature review, prison architecture’s role on impacting inmates’ mental health is still an ongoing discussion within political and societal perspective. The review highlights present conditions of the space and environment inmates endure daily, possible use of interior architecture to bridge a rehabilitation space for prisoners that improves their mentality and highlighting the importance of considering inmates’ human rights. It also reminds the public that inmates are as humane as everyone else, the lives behind bars do not degrade their values as they also need basic human needs; they deserve a second chance to correct their misconduct choices. As architecture evolves rapidly by time, it has the potential to reduce and recreate a space that gives hope to the hopeless, and peace to the unsettled. Breaking the norm of dull and constraint spaces, by implementing a gentler and nature encouraged approach can change the outlook of prison’s impression. As a result, it is crucial to interrogate the outlook of society and politics on inmates’ wellbeing and recognise how impactful it could be towards the public.
Project Proposal
Personal View
I
t has come to my awareness that the design of space plays a big factor in manipulating psychology in which affects the mentality of people within the interior spaces. Through the conduction of the literature review, I was able to understand in depth of how lighting, materiality, space circulations, colours and acoustics triggers certain emotions on inmates in which they react in inappropriate behaviour according to the condition they live with (Fig. 1 shows a poster I’ve illustrated as my visual understanding of the subject). Besides that, prisoners faced punitive punishments during their trial in prison, along with their consumption of low-quality food (Dolce, 2016), adapting to the interior space that they are not familiar with and endure constant surveillance in which affects their behaviour towards other occupants and staff members (Moran and Jewkes, 2015). Inmates are just as humane as we are, unfortunately their voices aren’t heard enough to be taken seriously in political and societal perspective. Most prison proposal would not think twice to invest funding into design, rather the quickest solution to implement same dull-repetitive configuration in low budget proposals.
Design Objective
Figure 12: Different types of prison design (Source: https://www.slideshare.net/rsgrfn/chapter6-51073946)
The objective of the project to implement a prison cell in which is more humane and to be more considerate to the inmates’ mental health and wellbeing. Numerous of countries have established prisons to be a rehabilitation centre that gives sentenced prisoners a place that provides safety, comfort, security and most importantly a sense of hope for them to change their criminalistic ways. As a result, prisoners going back to prison decreases overtime and shows how impactful a well-designed space can affect their health and mentality (Stark, 2017). The reason why I want to emphasise on this topic is due to the undeniable connection within prison and the outside world, and how we, as designers, can change and form a better society starting from the last place people would consider looking. This research topic has provided an opportunity for me to explore in depth on biophilic architecture designs. Biophilia is humankind’s innate biological connection with nature. Biophilic design can reduce stress, improve cognitive function and creativity, improve our well-being and expedite healing; as the world population continues to urbanise these qualities are ever more important (Terrapin Bright Green LLC, 2014). Our cognitive functions can rest a moment during certain time of habitual
exposure with nature which allows openings for mental restoration by relaxing. This results in our capability to accomplish intensive tasks better than someone with jaded cognitive resources. Besides, nature is able to influence restoration and stress management related to psychological responses as it revolve around our versatility, awareness, attention, absorption, feelings and mood. Moreover, connections with nature activates the physiological responses such as relaxation of muscles, as well as decreasing of diastolic blood pressure and stress hormone (Terrapin Bright Green LLC, 2014). Take Halden Prison, one of the inspirations for my research proposal, for example. It is a prison located in Norway that has inspired and raised the bar in designing humanitarian prison (Gorman, 2019). Their approach is maintaining the purpose and concept of imprisonment, but excluding the architecture. Inmates freedom are taken away but instead of constant endurance of harsh punishments, they live their lives like ordinary citizens (with views of greenery from their dorms). It challenges the norm of prison design which usually are radical, telephone-pole, courtyard and campus style. These days, prison design prefer to go for campus style as their basic layout as it is the most effective way to be as humane as possible.
Challenging 21St Century Values
One of the worst forms of injustice is violation of basic human rights (The Occupied Times of London, 2019). Based on their social standing, or unequal imprisonment of opposition, there will be a time human being faces very unfortunate events in life. As we moved into a modern society that practices and demands equal rights to not only within feminism aspect, but also involving the disabled, people of colour and children; it is only fair that inmates are applicable to hold the same rights as any normal citizen have. In my humble opinion, to neglect their health and existence only reflects great hypocrisy in empty statements and promises. It is a matter of questioning ourselves, as the saying goes, should we not “practice what we preach”?
Figure 13 Protest of Human Rights (Source: http://theoccupiedtimes.co.uk/human-rights-sexual-injustices/)
Summary
The topic explored contributes to the fundamental of understanding prison architecture and the psychology of its’ space that affects inmates’ mental health. The subject has opened a wider perspective of the forgotten world in prison and raised awareness to inmates’ health condition behind bars. Not to mention how evidential it is to see that architecture has the power to contribute both positive and negative behaviour; also affecting anyone who visits prison and transmits within the society. Many of those exposed to incarceration culture wishes to make a difference for lives of these inmates and searches hope from inattentive governors. I believe that we, as interior architects, are capable to provide an alternative solution that could potentially provide a sense of hope by creating a healthier and safer designated environment. Let alone biophilic architecture may be the solution to decrease brutal behaviour, it gives inmates the opportunity to connect themselves with nature – since most prison design takes away regular interaction with nature and confine them with never-ending solitude.
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