the art of perceiving by nathania frandinata
the art of perceiving
2015 Academy of Art University All rights reserved. No part of this book may be printed in any form without written permission of the copyright owners. All images in this book have been reproduced with prior consent of the artists cocerned, and no responsibility is accepted by producer, printer, or publisher for any infringement of copyright or otherwise, arising from the contents of this publication. Every effort has been made to ensure that credits accurately comply with information provided. We apologize for any mistake that may have occurred and will resolve inaccurate or missing information in a subsequent reprinting of the book. Academy of Art University 79 New Montgomery California, San Francisco www.academyartedu.com The Art of Perceiving / Nathania Frandinata. Includes bibliographical references and index. Digital edition published in 2015
the art of perceiving by nathania frandinata
contents
1 2
The Eyes 10 Diagram 12
How They Work
14
Eye Color
16
Eye Types
Problems 20 Eye Problems 26
Blindness
28 Color Blindness
3
Extras 32 Optical Illusion 36 Eye Terminology
38 Bibliography 40 Colophon
the eyes
01
THE EYES
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the art of perceiving
Eyes are the organs of vision. They detect light and convert it into electrochemical impulses in neurons. In higher organisms the eye is a complex optical system which collects light from the surrounding environment, regulates its intensity through a diaphragm, focuses it through an adjustable assembly of lenses to form an image, converts this image into a set of electrical signals, and transmits these signals to the brain through complex neural pathways that connect the eye via the optic nerve to the visual cortex and other areas of the brain. Eyes with resolving power have come in ten fundamentally different forms, and 96% of animal species possess a complex optical system.
EYE DIAGRAM
Retina Membrane at the back of the eye that changes light into nerve signals.
Optic Nerve A bundle of nerve fibers that carries messages from the eyes to the brain.
10 — 11
Iris A ring of muscles in the colored part of the eye that controls the size of the pupil.
Pupil An opening in the center of the iris that changes size to control how much light is entering the eye.
Cornea Transparent tissue covering the front of the eye that lets light travel through.
Lens Located directly behind the pupil, it focuses light rays onto the retina.
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the art of perceiving
HOW DOES THE HUMAN EYE WORK? Light rays enter the eye through the cornea, the clear front “window” of the eye. The cornea’s refractive power bends the light rays in such a way that they pass freely through the pupil the opening in the center of the iris through which light enters the eye. The iris works like a shutter in a camera. It has the ability to enlarge and shrink, depending on how much light is entering the eye. After passing through the iris, the light rays pass through the eye’s natural crystalline lens. This clear, flexible structure works like the lens inside a camera, shortening and lengthening its width in order to focus light rays properly. Light rays pass through a dense, transparent gel-like substance called the vitreous that fills the globe of the eyeball and helps the eye hold its spherical shape. In a normal eye, the light rays come to a sharp focusing point on the retina. The retina functions much like the film in a camera. It is responsible for capturing all of the light rays, processing them into light impulses through millions of tiny nerve endings, then sending these impulses of light through over a million nerve fibers to the optic nerve.
WORLDWIDE EYE COLOR CHART
Population
Most Common
55%
Many parts of the world Mostly, Asia and Africa
Brown
5%
Asia and South America
Amber
8% Blue
>1%
Northern Europe and near the Baltic Sea
Eastern European countries
Silver
2% Green
5-8% Hazel
Europe, or in people of European descent
United States and European countries
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the art of perceiving
EYE COLOR The color of the iris is determined by the amount of melanin, the ratio of eumelanin (which is dark brown) to pheomelanin (reddish), and the way the melanin is distributed in the eye. Irises with little melanin appear blue due to scattering of light by collagen fibers in the iris. Blue, gray, green and hazel eyes are only common in people of European ancestry; other people’s eyes are various shades of brown. Many studies divide eye colors into 3 categories: blue (or blue and gray); green and hazel; and brown. This has been criticized as an oversimplification (Brues 1975), and eye colors have been divided into nine categories (Mackey et al. 2011) or the hue and saturation values quantified (Liu et al. 2010). Eye color can change dramatically in the first few years of life, as many babies are born with blue eyes but then develop green or brown eyes (Matheny and Dolan 1975), and changes can also occur later in life (Bito et al. 1997, Liu et al. 2010). Some people have a blue or green iris with a brown ring around the pupil (Sturm and Larsson 2009), which makes the classification of eye color even more complicated.
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the art of perceiving
EYE TYPES A compound eye may consist of thousands
Compound eyes are common in arthropods,
of individual photoreceptor units or om-
and are also present in annelids and some
matidia (ommatidium, singular). The image
bivalved molluscs.
perceived is a combination of inputs from the numerous ommatidia (individual “eye units�), which are located on a convex surface, thus pointing in slightly different directions. Compound eyes fall into two groups: apposition eyes, which form multiple inverted images, and superposition eyes, which form a single erect image.
Non-Compound eyes are rather ubiquitous, and lens-bearing eyes have evolved at least 7 times in vertebrates, cephalopods, annelids, crustaceans and cubozoa.
problems
02
EYE PROBLEMS
The most common problems with vision are nearsightedness (myopia), farsightedness, (hyperopia), a defect in the eye caused by nonspherical curvature (astigmatism) and agerelated farsightedness (presbyopia), according to the National Eye Institute.
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the art of perceiving
-3
-2
– Nearsightedness Myopia, also known as nearsightedness, is a common type of refractive error where close object appears clearly, but distant object appears blurry. Some of the symptoms of myopia include: Eyestrain, headaches, squinting, and difficulty seeing distant objects, such as highway signs. Diagnose: An eye care professional can identify myopia and other refractive errors through a comprehensive dilated eye examination. People with this condition often visit their eye care professional with complaints of visual discomfort or blurred vision. Treatment options: Eyeglasses, contact lenses, and refractive surgery.
-1
0
22 — 23
1
2
3 the art of perceiving
+ Farsightedness Hyperopia, also known as farsightedness,
Common signs and symptoms of hyperopia
is a common type of refrac-
include: Eyestrain, blurry
tive errorwhere distant
vision headaches, squinting,
objects maybe seen more clearly than objects that
especially for close objects. Diagnose: An eye care professional can
are near. However, people
identify hyperopia and other
experience hyperopia
refractive errors during
differently. Some people may
a comprehensive dilated eye
not notice any problems
examination. People with this
with their vision, especially
condition often visit their
when they are young.
eye care professional with
For people with significant
complaints of visual discom-
hyperopia, vision can be blurry for objects at any distance, near or far. Hyperopia can affect both children and adults. It affects about five to ten percent of Americans. People whose parents have hyperopia may also be more likely to get the condition.
fort or blurred vision. Treatment options: Eyeglasses, contact lenses, and refractive surgery.
Our eyes are placed in front because it’s more important to look ahead than to look back.
BLINDNESS Blindness is a lack of vision. It may also refer to a loss of vision that cannot be corrected with glasses or contact lenses. • Partial blindness means you have very limited vision. • Complete blindness means you cannot see anything and do not see light. (Most people who use the term “blindness” mean complete blindness.) • People with vision that is worse than 20/200 with glasses or contact lenses are considered legally blind in most states in the United States. Vision loss refers to the partial or complete loss of vision. This may happen suddenly or over a period of time. Some types of vision loss never lead to complete blindness.
Kindness is the language which the deaf can hear and the blind can see. —Mark Twain
Printed at Library of the Blind and Printed Disabled (2nd Floor) 100 Larkin St. San Francisco, CA 94102 415–557–4253
COLOR BLINDNESS Color-blindness is the inability to tell the differences between certain colors. This condition results from an absence of color-sensitive pigment in the cone cells of the retina, the nerve layer at the back of the eye.
28 — 29
DIFFERENT TYPES OF COLOR BLINDNESS
Deuteranopia Color-blindness resulting from insensitivity to green light, causing confusion of greens, reds, and yellows.
Protanopia Color-blindness resulting from insensitivity to red light, causing confusion of greens, redsand yellows. It is hereditary and is the most common form of color-blindness.
Tritanopia A rare form of color-blindness resulting from insensitivity to blue light, causing confusion of greens and blues.
extras
03
!
Slide the transparency paper and watch the cheetah move.
32 — 33
the art of perceiving An optical illusion (also called a visual illusion) is characterized by visually perceived images that differ from objective reality. The information gathered by the eye is processed in the brain to give a perception that does not tally with a physical measurement of the stimulus source.
!
Stare at the black "+" in the center and concentrate on it. Don't blink. After a short period of time, all the pink dots will slowly disappear.
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the art of perceiving
EYE TERMINOLOGY
A
B
Anterior Chamber : Fluid-filled space inside the eye between the iris and the innermost corneal surface (endothelium). Amaurosis Fugax : Sudden and usually temporary vision loss caused
Binocular vision : Blending of the separate images seen by each eye into one composite image. Band Keratopathy : Opacity of the corneal stroma and Bowman’s membrane. Symptoms in-
by an “eye stroke.” When
clude vision loss and foreign
a clot or blockage disrupts
body sensation.
blood flow to the eye, symptoms can include
Blepharochalasis : Excessive, drooping eyelid skin caused by recurring
curtain-like darkness, usually
swelling. It’s typically occurs
in just one eye.
in young people.
Anti-Reflective Coating : Thin layer(s) appli-
Blepharoconjunctivitis : Inflammation of the
ed to a lens to reduce
eyelid and conjunctiva.
the amount of reflected light
Infections and allergic reac-
and glare that reaches
tions are among the causes.
the eye. Read more about an-
Symptoms include a red
ti-reflective lenses and other
or pink eye, a red or pink
eyeglass lens coatings.
eyelid, pain or discomfort of the eye or around the eye, tearing, burning, eye dryness and eye stickiness.
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the art of perceiving
C
D
Cavernous Sinus Problem : cavernous sinus
Diabetic Retinopathy : Spectrum of retinal
is located at the base
changes that co-exist with
of the cranium and contains
abiding diabetes mellitus.
the carotid artery and
The beginning stage
cranial nerves. Problems
is background retinopathy.
in the cavernous sinus
May advance to proliferative
include tumors, aneurysms
retinopathy, which includes
and clots. Typical symptoms
the growth of abnormal
include ophthalmoplegia,
new blood vessels (neovascu-
chemosis and a bulging eye. You may also experience a red eye and vision loss. Centra Retinal Artery : First branch of the ophthalmic artery;
larization) and fibrous tissue. Drooping Eyelids: Also called Ptosis Condition in which the upper eyelid(s) only sag. It can be present at birth or caused
supplies nutrition to
by a later problem with
the inner 2/3 of the retina.
the muscles lifting the eyelid,
Cycloplegic refraction : Assessment of an eye's refractive error after lens accommodation has been paralyzed with cycloplegia eyedrops (to eliminate variability in optical power caused by a contracting lens).
called levators.
Bibliography "Facts About Myopia and Hyperopia Hyperopia." National Eye Institute. The National Institutes of Health, n.d. Web. 30 Apr. 2015. Goes, Frank Joseph. "The Evolution of the Eye." Eye in History. New Delhi: Jaypee Brothers, 2013. 61. Print. "How the Human Eye Works." National Keratoconus Foundation. National Keratoconus Foundation, n.d. Web. 30 Apr. 2015. "How The Human Eye Works To Let Us See." How the Human Eye Works. Transitions Optical, Inc., n.d. Web. 30 Apr. 2015. Kudělka, Miloš, Jaroslav Pokorný, Vaclav Snasel, and Ajith Abraham. "Automatic Localization and Boundary Detection of Retina in Images Using Basic Images Processing Filters." Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Intelligent Human Computer Interaction Prague (IHCI), Czech Republic, August 2011. Berlin: Springer, 2013. 170. Print. Lipsky, Martin S. "Blindness." American Medical Association Concise Medical Encyclopedia. New York: Random House Reference, 2006. 103. Print. McDonald, John H. "Myths of Human Genetics." Myths of Human Genetics. University of Delaware, n.d. Web. 30 Apr. 2015. Than, By Ker. "How the Human Eye Works." LiveScience. TechMedia Network, 10 Feb. 2010. Web. 30 Apr. 2015. "What Is Color-Blindness." Color Matters. J.L.Morton, n.d. Web. 30 Apr. 2015.
Image Resources 6: http://researchdaily.org/2014/12/13/stem-cells-from-one-eye-could -help-treat-the-other/ 12: instagram.com/eyestructure. 16-17: gunmachine. tumblr.com/post/26561354684. 18: SMent, Jung Soojung and Choi Jinri, 21: houstoneyedoctorvital.com. 24-25: lonelypierot.deviantart.com. 30: YGent, Lee Hayi—Rose. 32: socialphy.com. 36: inoorh.tumblr.com/post/109412.
About the Author Nathania Frandinata is a second year Graphic Design student at Academy of Art University, located in California, San Francisco. Special Thanks to My instructor, David Hake for the feedback and more importantly, the fonts recommendation. My classmates, Axel for the constructive criticism and inputs. Cinny, Elizabeth, Melis, Holy, Daniel, Rachel, and Lucy for the critics and for going through more or less 200 spreads of hot mess. Colophon The Art of w was designed by Nathania Frandinata, in California, San Francisco. Digital type design, type composition and page layouts, were originated on Apple MacBook Pro 13.3”, utilizing Adobe InDesign CS6, Version 8.0 software. The text of the book was set in Basilia, designed by André Gürtler, and Sinova Pro, designed by Christian Mengelt.