Seed Sectors Around the Globe - Vol 11 No. 2 May- Aug 2018 by NATIONAL SEED ASSOCIATION OF INDIA

Volume 11 No. 2, May - August 2018

Seed Sectors Around the Globe Edition II

Seed Times May - August 2018

Seed Sectors Around the Globe

Seed Sectors Around- India the Globe Vegetable Seed Industry & World

Seed Times May - 2016 August 2018 Seed Times July - December

ABOUT NSAI

National Seed Association of India (NSAI) is the apex organization representing the Indian seed industry. The vision of NSAI is to create a dynamic, innovative and internationally competitive, research based industry producing high performance, high quality seeds and planting materials which benefit farmers and significantly contribute to the sustainable growth of Indian Agriculture. The mission of NSAI is to encourage investment in state of the art R&D to bring to the Indian farmer superior genetics and technologies, which are high performing and adapted to

a wide range of agro-climatic zones. It actively contributes to the seed industry policy development, with the concerned governments, to ensure that policies and regulations create an enabling environment, including public acceptance, so that the industry is globally competitive. NSAI promotes harmonization and adoption of best commercial practices in production, processing, quality control and distribution of seeds.

NSAI Governing Council Members

NSAI Office Bearers President: M. Prabhakar Rao Nuziveedu Seeds Ltd.

G.V. Bhaskar Rao Kaveri Seed Co. Ltd.

Ashwin Garg Super Seeds Pvt. Ltd.

Vice President: Sameer Mulay Ajeet Seeds Ltd.

N.P. Patel Western Agri Seeds Ltd

Kamal O. Zunzunwala Safal Seeds & Biotech Ltd.

Janak Peshrana Seeds India

K.S. Narayanaswamy Karnataka Maize Development Association

General Secretary: Pranjivan Zaveri Farm Tech Biogene Pvt. Ltd. Treasurer: Pawan Kumar Kansal Kohinoor Seed Fields India Pvt. Ltd.

K. Niranjan Kumar GARC Seeds Pvt. Ltd. Arun Kumar Agarwalla West Bengal Hybrid Seeds & Biotech Pvt. Ltd.

Manish Patel Integrated Coating and Seed Technology

NSAI SECRETARIAT R K Trivedi Director Technical

Nilendri Biswal Deputy Director - PR & Social Intervenion

Yash Pal Saini Sr. Manager - Admin & Accounts

Priyank Samuel G Asst. Manager - Brand Alliance & Communication

Sher Singh Office Assistant

Under Guidance of R K Trivedi | Compiled & edited by: Nilendri Biswal & Priyank Samuel G Advertisements Coordinated by: Yashpal Saini The views and opinions expressed by the authors are their own and NSAI by publishing them here, does not endorse them. The editorial correspondence should be sent to, National Seed Association of India, 909, Surya Kiran Building, 19, Kasturba Gandhi Marg, New Delhi-110001 (INDIA); Ph.: 011-4353 3241-43 Fax : 011-43533248; E-mail : info@nsai.co.in Designed and Printed at: YUKTI PRINTS, 338 First Floor, Old Four Story Building, Tagore Guarden Extn., New Delhi - 27 | E-mail: yuktiprints@gmail.com

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Message from Desk of President, NSAI

Message from Director-Technical, NSAI

1. Argentina

Seeking unconventional alliances and bridging innovations in spaces for transformative change: the seed sector and agricultural sustainability in Argentina Patrick van Zwanenberg, Almendra Cremaschi, Martin Obaya, Anabel Marin and Vanesa Lowenstein

2. Myanmar

Role of Seed in Transforming of Agriculture in Myanmar Tin Htut Oo and Tin Maung Shwe

3. Afghanistan, India, Turkey, Pakistan, European Union & Tanzania

Public-Private-Producers Partnership for Strengthening Seed Certification in Afghanistan

Review of Seed Regulatory System in Afghanistan and Neighbouring Countries 2016

Editors Yashpal Singh Saharawat, Hamid Salari, Mahboobullah Nang, Sayed Samiullah Hakimi, Faridullah Sherzad, Srinivas Tavva, Swain Nigamananda, Zewdie Bishaw, Abdul Aziz Niane and Michael Larinde

• Seed Certification System in Afghanistan

• Seed Certification System in India

• Seed Certification System in Turkey

• Seed Certification System in Pakistan

• Seed Certification System in European Union

• Seed Certification System in Tanzania

4. Ethiopia

Ethiopia Brief 2017 – The African Seed Access Index Edward Mabaya, Bezabih Emana, Fikre Mulugeta and Mainza Mugoya

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5. Ghana

Ghana Brief 2017 -The African Seed Access Index Edward Mabaya, Samuel Yao Adzivor, John Wobil and Mainza Mugoya

6. Madagascar

Madagascar Brief 2017 - The African Seed Access Index Edward Mabaya, Mbosa Rabenasolo, Narisoa Razakasolo and Mainza Mugoya

7. Malawi

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Malawi Brief 2017 - The African Seed Access Index Edward Mabaya, Richard Kachule and Mainza Mugoya

8. Mozambique

113

Mozambique Brief 2017 - The African Seed Access Index Edward Mabaya, Maria Estrela Alberto, Alda Armindo Tomo and Mainza Mugoya

9. Tanzania

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Tanzania Brief 2017 - The African Seed Access Index Edward Mabaya, Filbert Mzee, Alphonce Temu and Mainza Mugoya

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Message from Desk of

President Seed industry in India today has traversed its foundation stages and is currently at an inflection point to scale up into growth phase. While the learning curve has been steep at times, today we are the part of a vibrant seed industry with strong foundation to take-off into the growth phase. Today Indian Seed producers are looking to expand their expertise all across the globe. There remains a huge potential to reach out to the Asian & African countries for expanding the market and reaching out to farming communities. The need of the hour is greater convergence of efforts. India should look towards creating partnerships with countries with similar agro-climates, socio-economic conditions and natural diversity. A lot of scope remains for engagements in inter and intra-regional cooperation in seed sector which can be improved by easing trade barriers and enabling quality and standard based compliance system in the trade areas by harmonization of the legislative and regulatory frameworks. Other supporting measures by skilling human resources, augmenting R & D capabilities and institutional collaboration. This would enable India to meet global demand for high value crops while providing improved crops for resource poor farmers. India needs to showcase to the world its unique strengths in the R&D, production, processing and testing. It is a fact that India can meet the demands for seeds even for other countries in the regions of South Asia, South East Asia, Africa and East Europe. In near future, we can expect a significant contribution to the global seed trade by the Indian seed companies even though at present the Indian seed export is miniscule. India has a potential to become the seed provider to the world generating employment in rural areas and bring prosperity to Indian farmers. The current issue of Seed Times is, continuation of the series â&#x20AC;&#x153;Seed Sectors Around the Globeâ&#x20AC;?. This edition of Seed Times with provides lot of useful information to the readers. I hope it would help the readers to further their understanding about the vibrant seed sector in the region. The analysis and insights provide an opportunity for us to rethink our strategies for creating a quality and standards-based seed industry built on strong foundations of innovation to make agriculture a profitable enterprise and to develop global export capabilities. M Prabhakar Rao

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Message from Desk of

Director - Technical Indian Agriculture has grown impressively and Seed Sector has played key role in this growth. Quality Seed is the pivotal input for sustained growth of agricultural sector and other inputs are contingent upon quality of seed being optimally effective. With strong research back up, the Indian Seed Industry is ready to dive with full force for adopting best innovative practices. The progress achieved since the new policy on seed development 1988 and national seed policy 2002 in terms of developing capacities by Indian Seed Industry in terms of R&D, product development, supply chain management and quality assurance has been phenomenal which has positioned India as the fifth largest seed industry globally. Both public and private sector has played a vital role in laying a strong foundation to Indian seed industry, which is poised to become an important global player in the future. Indian seed industry has also been highly agile in adopting new varieties and hybrids which have delivered value. NSAI has emerged as the apex body representing the seed industry in the country. Our interaction with Government has earned us regular representations in various forums and meetings. This has helped us leverage our efforts in seeking a positive environment for industryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s growth. NSAI has now started coordination and collaboration with various Associations and Industry houses for greater convergence. Due to the enhanced credibility of NSAI, today NSAI is representing the seed industry in many decision-making bodies of the government and are significantly contributing for creation of a positive environment. Today India is looking at partnerships at both regional and global level. Hence it is very essential to understand the seed sectors of countries around the globe.In this edition, we have covered the Seed Sectors of Argentina, Myanmar, Afghanistan, India, Turkey, Pakistan, European Union, Ethiopia, Ghana, Madagascar, Malawi, Mozambique and Tanzania. I hope the readers would greatly benefit from the magazine. Happy Reading! R K Trivedi

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Seeking unconventional alliances and bridging innovations in spaces for transformative change: the seed sector and agricultural sustainability in Argentina Copyright © 2018 by the author(s). Published here under license by the Resilience Alliance. Van Zwanenberg, P., A. Cremaschi, M. Obaya, A. Marin, and V. Lowenstein. 2018. Seeking unconventional alliances and bridging innovations in spaces for transformative change: the seed sector and agricultural sustainability in Argentina. Ecology and Society 23 (3):11. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-10033-230311 Research, part of a Special Feature on Designing Transformative spaces for sustainability in social-ecological systems

Patrick van Zwanenberg1,2,3,4, Almendra Cremaschi2,3,4, Martin Obaya1,2,3,4, Anabel Marin1,2,3,4, Vanesa Lowenstein2,3,4,5 pvz@fund-cenit.org.ar, acremaschi@fund-cenit.org.ar, martinobaya@fund-cenit.org.ar a.i.marin@fund-cenit.org.ar, vanesa.lowenstein@gmail.com

ABSTRACT Experimental spaces for learning about and nurturing processes of social-ecological transformation are of increasing interest; a reflection, in part, of a more interventionist approach to sustainability research and funding. We reflect on our experience in Argentina facilitating a multistakeholder transformative space to identify and discuss agricultural sustainability challenges associated with seed market concentration, and to explore social innovations in the seed sector that can help foster more sustainable pathways of change in agricultural systems. We argue that in facilitating such a process, it is important to understand the diversity of perspectives on the meanings and functions of seed systems, the agricultural sustainability challenges those systems give rise to and of potential solutions, and to work with and from those divergent perspectives to identify areas of actionable consensus or National Research Council for Scientific and Technical Research (CONICET), 2Centro de Investigaciones para la Transformación (CENIT), STEPS América Latina, Buenos Aires, Argentina, 4Economic and Business School-Universidad Nacional de San Martín (UNSAM), 5University of Buenos Aires (CEIDIE)

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potential affinities between actors who otherwise understand or prioritize agricultural sustainability in different ways. We suggest that ideas for intervention that are able to exploit common ground are more likely to be politically and practically viable. We illustrate this claim with a proposal for an open source seed licensing system, which potentially addresses distinctive concerns about strict intellectual property rules on the part of domestic seed breeders, farmers, rural social movements, and parts of government, who otherwise adopt different perspectives on desired agricultural futures. We suggest that this kind of bridging innovation may help to reconfigure social relations around seed systems in ways that can open up space for more sustainable pathways of agricultural change.

Key Words Argentina; seeds; sustainability; t-labs; transformative spaces

INTRODUCTION Over the last three decades, an unprecedented process of concentration in world and regional seed markets has been underway, a phenomenon closely associated with the emergence of new genomics-based technologies and the world-wide diffusion of strict intellectual property rights over biological material, pushed in large part though global, regional, and bilateral trade agreements (Newell and Mackenzie 2004, Schenkelaars et al. 2011). In the process, global seed research and development (R&D), once widely distributed over hundreds of medium and large seed firms and public sector institutions, is becoming increasingly concentrated in just five or six multinational agrochemical firms (Howard 2015). The long-term consequences of this ongoing restructuring of the seed sector are still unclear, but are likely to involve the loss of different forms of diversity in agricultural systems via restrictions on the free circulation of germplasm, the decline or even outright loss of domestic seed breeding capabilities in some jurisdictions, concentration of R&D resources on fewer plant species and crop production constraints, declining agricultural biodiversity, and a less diverse range of agricultural production practices that the seed sector is able to support (Piesse and Thirtle 2010; Tang, Matson, and Wynn, unpublished manuscript). This set of issues was the focus for a transformation laboratory (T-Lab) that we organized in Argentina, a major agricultural producer and exporter. Through a T-Lab based process, we are seeking to facilitate a transformative space in which actors involved in governing, producing, and using seeds can identify and explore emerging sustainability challenges associated with market concentration in the seed sector (i.e., linked challenges of economic development, social justice, and ecological integrity), and design and test social innovations that can help foster more sustainable pathways of change in seed and agricultural systems. T-Labs, and other similar ideas, such as social innovation labs and change labs are experimental spaces in which people with diverse backgrounds, perspectives, interests, and areas of expertise work together to understand complex systems and the problems they generate and to identify, codesign, and prototype novel ways of addressing the underlying causes of those problems (Westley et al. 2014, Gryszkiewicz et al. 2016, Olsson et al. 2017). We are part of a large international research network that is experimenting with knowledge/intervention coproduction processes for sustainability, treating T-Labs as sets of ideas to help us think about how transdisciplinary research can help understand and support transformative change processes. We discuss the process through which we have sought to facilitate such an experimental transformative space in relation to seed systems in Argentina. In doing so, we emphasize two issues: (1) the importance of engaging explicitly with the knowledge politics of sustainability, i.e., the contested perspectives on what constitutes the principal sustainability challenges in the agricultural sector and on what more sustainable seed and agricultural system configurations ought to look like; and (2) the powerful processes of â&#x20AC;&#x153;lock inâ&#x20AC;? to unsustainable agricultural systems and, accordingly, the politically marginalized position of actors who are experimenting with and seek to support radically alternative seed and agricultural practices. We argue that those challenges require attention to: (1) methods appropriate to understanding competing perceptions and understandings of sustainability; and (2) strategies to identify areas of actionable consensus and potential affinities between actors who otherwise understand and prioritize sustainability challenges in different ways. The fostering of alliances and ideas for intervention that seek to exploit that common ground also requires attention. 12

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SPACES FOR TRANSFORMATIVE CHANGE Sustainability research and policy have placed increasing emphasis on the need to support and catalyze deliberate socialecological transformation as a response to the severe threats posed by global environmental change (Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Brien 2012, ISSC/UNESCO 2013, Future Earth 2014). At a general level, in this context, transformation refers to fundamental or nonlinear change in social-technical-ecological systems (Pelling et al. 2015), but there are many ways in which transformative change processes can be understood, and different perspectives on how, if at all, such processes can be supported, fostered, and/or purposefully directed in ways that deliver more ecologically sustainable and just social practices and outcomes (Scoones et al. 2015, Patterson et al. 2017). Our own understanding is located, analytically, in the context of a quasi-evolutionary approach to understanding social-technical change (Rip and Kemp 1998, Stirling 2009). This involves appreciating that established agricultural production systems, like any large complex system, are the (intentional and emergent) outcome, i.e., a configuration, of diverse material, socioeconomic, institutional, and political elements. Mutual interdependencies between such elements, which range from specific artifacts and practices, through to bodies of knowledge and skills, to established markets and patterns of political and economic power, mean that system change tends to be incremental and highly path dependent. Radically alternative ideas, say for more sustainable agricultural practices, are at a disadvantage; they typically do not fit well with the existing system configuration of agronomic knowledge, business models, input and output markets, patterns of land ownership, economic and state interests, and so on, which reproduce (and benefit from) established agricultural practices. Alternative ideas are seen as requiring protective space from the adverse selection pressures created by existing systems, both for actors to improve the performance of more sustainable practices, but also to try to develop new path-breaking system configurations (or to reconfigure existing systems), through which those practices can become part of broader, i.e., transformative, pathways of social-technical-ecological change (Rip and Kemp 1998, Smith 2007). Given this analytical lens, deliberate efforts to catalyze and support processes of transformative change need to focus not only on interventions, which, in themselves, help to constitute, or directly support, in this case, more ecologically benign, economically resilient, and socially just forms of agricultural practice, but that also draw attention to the need for, promote learning about, and encourage broader system (re)configuration processes. The latter potentially involves a very wide range of activities, from challenging incumbent structures and practices to seeking political realignments between actors, from lobbying for supportive policy measures to creating new markets, and from fostering shifts in consumer and cultural norms to producing new kinds of knowledge (Smith et al. 2005, Stirling 2014). This is a highly challenging task. Within the resilience tradition, a social-ecological transformationsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; approach (Patterson et al. 2017) draws, in part, on ideas from this evolutionary perspective to support deliberate efforts to catalyze and navigate socialecological transformations (Olsson et al. 2017). Although initially focused on transformations in ecosystem stewardship, through innovation in governance and management systems, this approach has developed a more ambitious agenda in recent years, focusing on transformations in less geographically bounded, broader socialtechnical-ecological systems (Olsson et al. 2014). The claim is that disruptive social innovations with potential to foster system change can be nurtured by, and connected to, broader institutional resources and responses, and that institutional entrepreneurs can both help to leverage and scale up those initiatives and destabilize dominant systems (Westley et al. 2011, Moore et al. 2014). Some resilience scholars have emphasized a role for social innovation labs, change labs, or T labs as sites for developing and experimenting with disruptive social innovations (Westley et al. 2012, 2014, Olsson et al. 2017). The nomenclature varies, but the core features of such labs are that they bring diverse participants together, focus on complex systems and the problems they generate, and foster an experimental, prototyping-based approach

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to addressing the root causes of those problems (Westley et al. 2012, 2014, Hassan 2014). Emphasis is placed on techniques to encourage transdisciplinary learning about, and a common understanding of, the nature of complex systems, the problems they generate, and what alternative, better systems might look like; to explore the transformative potential of different ideas for achieving system change, developing an appreciation of where human agency lies within such systems, of where there are leverage points, and an exploration of how candidate ideas can be put into practice (Westley et al. 2012, 2014). T-Labs have been proposed as a variant of these kinds of experimental spaces; the key difference being that the focus is oncoupled social-ecological problems, rather than social problemsper se. Specifically, the idea is that T-lab processes explicitly consider the dynamic nature of the interactions between social systems and ecosystems, and recognize that change needs to be systemic and rapid, given the gravity of global environmental threats (Olsson et al. 2017). Thus far, however, there has been little practical experimentation with the idea of T-labs, and there is no specific literature that we are aware of. In drawing on ideas about these experimental spaces, and in particular the core themes of collective deliberation about systemic problems, and the identification and testing of potentially transformative interventions, we highlight two issues that tend to be underemphasized, or at least underexplored, in the resilience literature on lab-based experimental spaces. The first of those concerns the sheer challenge of achieving a common understanding of the functions and meanings of particular socialtechnical systems, the sustainability problems those systems generate, and of desired social-technical-ecological futures (cf. O’Brien 2012, Scoones et al. 2015). The second concerns the powerful processes of “lock in” to large, unsustainable socialtechnical systems, emphasized strongly in the evolutionary literature, and in particular the (typically) politically marginalized position of actors experimenting with radically alternative ideas and practices, and who are seeking to foster structural change in well-established, incumbent systems (Smith and Stirling 2010, Pereira et al. 2015). For us, these two issues underline the importance, when thinking about a facilitated transformative space, of recognizing and coping with multiple perspectives, in this case, about agricultural system sustainability, and their contestation, and of thinking carefully about how learning from that plurality of perspectives can help identify areas of actionable consensus among, and/or potential affinities between, actors and constituencies who otherwise adopt different perspectives on or priorities about agricultural sustainability. One reason for identifying areas of consensus is to try and foster potential alliances between actors who may have different views on what counts as a more sustainable configuration, but might nevertheless agree on some strategies or desired end points. Alliances or coalitions of actors are important because the actors and institutions that help to constitute and reproduce dominant agricultural systems are so powerful and command such a wide array of resources, that coalitions of actors and institutions in support of alternative pathways of change are likely to be required if alternatives are to be politically and practically viable (Schmitz and Scoones 2015, Newell 2015). A reason for identifying potential affinities between actors is to explore candidate social innovations that can bridge divergent perspectives on sustainability and form unusual alliances. An example might be an intervention, say a policy initiative, that promises to help both reduce carbon emissions and boost regional industrial development, and thus might find support, for instance, across environmentalists, local government, and trade unions who might not otherwise share similar priorities about sustainability. An alternative way in which some innovations might have this kind of bridging effect is if the intervention prompts actors to appreciate or reinterpret their own interests and perspectives in slightly different ways. An example, from the energy sector, is the “feed in tariff” policy innovation that allows households, farms, and small businesses to sell excess renewable energy produced on their premises to the national grid, thus prompting those actors to reinterpret their interests in ways that create a broader coalition for renewable energy (Lockwood 2014). Again, the objective is to secure a broad political alliance of actors in favor of a more sustainable practice.

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CASE STUDY: THE SEED SECTOR AND ARGENTINEAN AGRICULTURE Argentina became integrated into the world economy during the 19th century by producing and exporting agricultural products, and the agricultural sector remains hugely important. It is a major source of rents, tax revenue, and foreign currency earnings, with raw and processed agriculture products accounting for over 60% of total exports (Simoes et al. 2017). For much of the postwar period, the sector experienced a very slow rate of growth with sluggish adoption of the technologies associated with the Green Revolution, but from the mid-1990s onward agricultural production boomed, and average farm size increased markedly following a liberalization of the economy, and the massive diffusion of machinery, chemical inputs, and other agricultural technologies (Marin et al. 2105). The sector remains diverse but it has become increasingly dominated by a system of high external input commodity crop production for export. Grain and oil seed production, particularly of soya, has increased five-fold over the last three decades, partly because it has displaced other crops and expanded into what was uncultivated forest and pasture and partly because of intensification: continuous soya production is replacing crop/pasture rotation, whereas methods of production based on new forms of mechanization, the use of transgenic seed varieties, higher levels of agrochemical use, and a system of contract farming, organized by financial pools of capital have diffused widely (PhĂŠlinas and Choumert 2017). The Argentinean seed sector consists of a mixture of domestic and foreign firms and public sector breeders. Prior to the early 1990s, seed intellectual property rules permitted seeds to be saved and replanted by farmers and allowed seed breeders to freely use existing commercial seeds as a basis for developing improved varieties. Under that regime, a few foreign seed firms focused on the hybrid seed market (mostly maize), which offers a biological form of intellectual property protection because hybrid seed suffers a dramatic reduction in performance beyond the first generation, and so farmers have to buy hybrid seed each year. National firms and public institutions focused on nonhybrid plant varieties, such as soya, wheat, and cotton, which can readily be saved and replanted (Marin et al. 2015). National seed firms either depended on the public sector to breed new varieties and made money by multiplying, marketing, and distributing seed, or they developed new varieties themselves, relying on the ability to regularly create new improved varieties that farmers wished to purchase to make a return on their research and development costs. Multinational (MNC) seed firms gained a more prominent role in the seed market in the 1990s in the wake of the economic liberalization of the agricultural sector and the creation of an enabling regulatory regime for transgenic seeds, including changes to intellectual property rules that enabled transgenic gene sequences (and in effect the seed varieties in which those transgenes were inserted) to be patented. Domestic firms, however, have maintained a market position and strong capabilities in breeding technologies at least for some crops. Local firms typically buy genetically engineered events from, and sell domestic varieties to, MNCs and compete with them in the final market with leading positions for some crops such as soya. We chose to focus our exploration of a T-lab based transformative space on the issue of structural change in agricultural seed markets for two reasons. First, the issue is topical. For several years now there has been a highly contested attempt in Argentina to reform and strengthen seed intellectual property rules and their enforcement, largely instigated by global agro-chemical/seed firms, but which so far has been stalled by an alliance of domestic farming interests and the Ministry of Agriculture (Marin 2015). This has provided us with a window of opportunity, both to discuss a longer-term set of implications arising from those kinds of changes, but also, importantly, to persuade busy individuals from government, business, civil society, and the public sector to give up some of their time and engage with our multistakeholder process. Second, market concentration has not yet advanced as fast in Argentina as it has in some other countries. There is still a sizeable and successful domestic seed industry and an important public sector breeding presence alongside the entry in that sector of the global agro-chemical/seed firms. This means that we can explore the implications of structural change in the seed sector in a context where there are still, in principle, choices to be made.

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METHODS AND APPROACH Our approach to creating a T-lab-based transformative space has thus far been based around a two-phase process: (1) a scoping workshop designed to explore the views of a range of different actors involved in producing, using, and governing seeds, about future agricultural visions and the kinds of seed systems that could best support those visions; and (2) a codesign workshop, again with a varied group of stakeholders, intended to identify and prioritize agricultural sustainability problems associated with contemporary seed systems and identify innovations with which to collectively experiment with to address those problems. The purpose of the initial scoping workshop was to elicit a range of views about desired social-technical-ecological futures in seed and agricultural systems. Our entry point was the contemporary debate about reforming and strengthening seed intellectual property law, and so we organized a structured World CafĂŠ discussion (Brown and Isaacs 2005) around four possible scenarios related to changes to the seed law; a framing of the day which we hoped would encourage people to attend. The scenarios involved different combinations of restrictions, or the absence of restrictions, on the scope for farmers to save seeds from their own harvest and replant them without payment or permission, and the scope for seed breeders to use existing commercial seed varieties as a basis for further improvement without payment or permission. The scenarios were derived from what the researchers considered to be plausible but distinctive policy choices. The participants, who represented a wide range of institutions involved in governing, producing, and using seeds, discussed what might happen in 2030 under each of those scenarios with regard to four different meanings of, or functions played by, seeds: (1) food and supporting rural social and economic diversity; (2) technological services for industrial farmers; (3) resources for biological research and seed innovation; and (4) a source of biodiversity. The intention was to encourage people to articulate their views about the ways in which seed systems affect different dimensions of agricultural sustainability (i.e., in ecological, economic/ developmental, and social terms) beyond the issues that were central to the public debate about reform of Argentinean seed intellectual property legislation, which were concerned with control over a black-market in seeds and seed costs. In so doing, we hoped that participants would make explicit their views about desired (i.e., sustainable) agricultural futures and the kinds of seed systems that could best support agricultural sustainability. Prior to the second phase codesign workshop, we conducted a pilot Q method analysis of stakeholdersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; views about the agricultural sustainability problems associated with the current industrial structure and governance of seed systems and of possible solutions. Q method is an approach to systematically study subjective viewpoints on a topic (Eden et al. 2005). It involves asking a small, nonrepresentative but diverse group of people to rank a series of statements about a topic. The statements are drawn from interviews and/or wider policy, media, and academic debate, and in principal are selected by the researcher so as to encompass everything that has been said or written about the topic in question. The ranking is performed by each participant who sorts the set of statements from those that they most agree with to those they least agree with (and in doing so the participant explains the rationale for their ranking to the researcher). The method then looks for patterns among rankings and reduces individual rankings to a few clusters, which represent broadly shared ways of thinking about the topic. Among other things, the technique can help identify particular perspectives (or discourses) on a topic that might not otherwise be well represented in, say, public or policy debate. It can also be used to identify specific themes or issues that are critical to differentiating between different discourses, as well as those about which there is consensus across different perspectives (Barry and Proops 1999). Our pilot Q study, involving 13 interviewees (plant breeders, public officials, representatives of nongovernment organizations, and academics), was aimed at identifying the nature of competing discourses on our chosen topic and at mapping any areas of consensus among different perspectives. We planned to use this information to inform the remit and running of our codesign workshop. The purpose of the codesign workshop was to discuss and prioritize agricultural sustainability problems associated with existing seed systems and to explore possible solutions. Our plans for the remit of the codesign workshop were made in light of the scoping phase and then subsequently modified in light of the pilot Q method exercise.

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We organized the codesign workshop as openly as possible, adopting elements of open space technology, in which participants define their own agendas on a broad theme, in this case sustainability challenges/solutions to seed market concentration (Owen 2008). We did, however, encourage participants to focus on long-term, emerging problems beyond those raised in public discussion about reform of seed intellectual property legislation, for example, by producing a short film to illustrate examples from the Latin American region of the sustainability implications of seed market concentration and strict intellectual property rules.

A SCOPING WORKSHOP ON THE SEED SECTOR AND THE FUTURE OF AGRICULTURE The scoping workshop, held over half a day in November 2015, was intended to explore stakeholdersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; views about desired (sustainable) agricultural futures and the role of different kinds of seed systems in supporting or undermining those visions. The participants included: officials from the Ministry of Agriculture, the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, and the National Institute of Agricultural Technology; plant breeders from both Argentinean seed firms and universities; entrepreneurs in alternative agricultural businesses; trade associations of the agricultural input industries; civil society organizations in the agricultural and rural economy sectors concerned with small farmer livelihoods and the environmental and health consequences of agricultural production; representatives of commercial farming and small family farming organizations; and members of agricultural cooperatives. The intention was to capture the diversity of opinion on agricultural sustainability from actors and institutions involved in shaping and using seed systems. The main omission was representatives of multinational seed firms who did not attend. Notes of the discussions from the scoping workshop revealed two utterly different perspectives. The first, which we characterized as a macro, nationalistic, market view, was concerned primarily with sustaining the existing role of the agricultural sector, through continued innovation, as a provider of strategic resources for the national economy. This perspective values agricultural production as a means of (1) generating revenue and, in particular, foreign currency to support the rest of the economy, and (2) as an opportunity to develop domestic technological capabilities and to generate linked economic activities (cf. Bisang et al. 2008). Aspects of sustainability concerning, for example the survival of smaller-scale farming and the environmental effects of intensive production were recognized by actors adopting this perspective, but it was assumed that those issues could be adequately remedied through state regulation in ways that were istent with the continued dominance of intensive large-scale production. A prominent sustainability challenge, from this perspective, was that of concentration of knowledge, i.e., of inputs produced by very few international firms. A key issue was therefore the need to develop local production and technological capabilities to support the agricultural sector and to use those capabilities to encourage the development of other related sectors (e.g.,machinery, information technology, services). This would have the effect both of diminishing the agricultural systemâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s dependence on MNC technologies and of contributing to industrial diversification. In terms of the seed sector, the core challenge was to provide adequate support and incentives for seed innovation in the domestic private sector as opposed to reliance on international seed firms. The second perspective, which we characterized as a local, alternative, state-centered view, was concerned primarily with enhancing the social and economic diversity of farming as a means of promoting food sovereignty and security. Intensive commodity crop production was seen as undermining and incompatible with an ecologically resilient, diverse rural social economy. In particular, current agricultural trajectories were viewed as giving rise to high levels of rural unemployment and out-migration, the forced removal of indigenous people from land, threats to the health of rural inhabitants, and severe damage to a range of ecosystem services (cf. Grau et al. 2005, Pengue 2005). Decentralized, diverse measures taken by small and medium-sized independent farmers producing food for local populations based on agro-ecological techniques and carrying out associated improvements in seeds were emphasized as key to a sustainable farming system, as was an active state providing the public goods necessary for supporting agricultural activity.

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These are entirely different views about desired agricultural systems, the principal meanings or functions of seeds, and over what, in effect, the main agricultural sustainability problem(s) consist of; a divide largely mirrored in general debates about contemporary agricultural trends in Argentina (Reboratti 2010, Seghezzo et al. 2011). The workshop prompted us to reflect on a number of issues that had implications for the next phase of the project. First, it was clear from the nature of discussion during that workshop that across the two groups (as we have characterized them) there was very little patience for each otherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s perspectives, which were variously considered to be either naĂŻve or uninformed/unconcerned about the social and environmental challenges of commodity crop production. Our interpretation of this phenomenon, in part, is that the structural importance of the agricultural sector is such that many of the actors who prioritize a macro, developmental set of sustainability concerns cannot envisage forms of agricultural production that differ substantially from the status quo that might point to viable pathways of change. Because activists campaigning for more diverse, smaller scale and less intensive practices generally do not address, or do not have a viewpoint about, broader macrolevel development issues, i.e., for instance about how such alternatives could become a means of economic growth, development, and diversification or how exports could be sustained through alternative practices, they tend to be ignored or dismissed as naĂŻve even though a closer look and a more careful listen might identify some ideas and analyses about these issues (cf. IPES 2016). Diminishing this gulf in perspectives and the failure of experimentation and policy intervention that it provokes will require, among other things, a challenge to the assertion that more sustainable agricultural practices cannot address macrodevelopment issues, such as the need to diversify productive activity or to build new export markets. It is, for example, telling that mainstream policy institutions currently view support for practices such as agroecological production primarily as a matter of social welfare policy, i.e., to support communities who find themselves marginalized from mainstream economic activity, rather than one of agricultural innovation per se. We think a more nuanced understanding and differentiation of the positions of different stakeholders, as we planned to explore with the Q study, as well as constructive dialogue between groups who rarely debate with or encounter each other, might help to challenge and work beyond the generalized, binary positions we observed in the scoping workshop. A second issue, prompted in part by our experience with the preparatory workshop, was that there appeared to be few areas of actionable consensus between different kinds of stakeholders, and thus little scope for building alliances of actors to support the construction of alternative practices and pathways of change. However, despite what were in general terms competing views about the future desired role of agriculture, some issues did overlap between the two broad groups. For example, both perspectives stressed the need to support domestic capabilities in seed development as a precondition for support for any kind of desired agricultural futures; both shared the view that strict intellectual property rules, particularly patents on engineered gene sequences, were problematic in terms of preserving domestic technological capabilities; and both stressed the importance (and current absence) of public policy to establish a long-term strategy for the seed sector. Focusing discussion about potential interventions in subsequent phases of the project that at least partly address these kinds of shared concerns might therefore be more likely to capture the interest and commitment of a more plural group of actors. One example that the research team explored in the wake of the preparatory workshop, and which addresses the shared perceived problem that patents and other strict intellectual property rules are problematic, is an open source license for seed innovation (Luby et al. 2015). The terms of such a license can require that no exclusive proprietary restrictions be imposed on seed germplasm, including any and all derivative seed varieties, in a way that is analogous to the arrangements governing open source software. Thus, open source licenses can create a protected commons for germplasm resources, open to all who agree not to exclusively appropriate particular varieties. Our hypothesis was that an open source license-type arrangement might address a feature of seed-system governance that was seen as problematic across three stakeholder groups, which in other respects understand agricultural sustainability challenges in somewhat different ways. These were national seed firms, who have an interest in unhindered access to germplasm and whose business model works to an open source logic already, in the sense that those firms rely on capturing market share by innovating rapidly and regularly (i.e., by exploiting first mover

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advantages), rather than by preventing farmers from saving and replanting seed or restricting competitors from using germplasm as a basis for developing new varieties; parts of government concerned about the risks of overseas firms patenting and restricting access to domestic germplasm; and those of small farmers and social movements who have tended to be hostile to any form of intellectual property protection for seeds, but who otherwise wish to maintain the ability to share seeds. A germplasm commons would, of course, be inconsistent with the business models of MNC seed firms that specialize in producing genetically engineered traits, which depend on patent protection. And yet, an open-source model can function within and alongside an intellectual property regime that includes the ability to patent gene sequences (in just the same way as in the software sector, where open source production of software coexists with a proprietary industry). The idea is not therefore necessarily hugely disruptive of existing seed system configurations, and as such is not politically untenable, but it does open up space, at least in principle, for more sustainable agricultural practices. This is because the free circulation of germplasm supports the ability of farmers and seed breeders to adapt seed varieties to diverse agroecological conditions, for different agricultural production practices, to increase the within-species genetic diversity available for the development of new plant varieties, and to improve the resilience of agricultural systems. In addition, an open-source seed system potentially provides a more symbolic resource for actors seeking to experiment with more sustainable agricultural practices (beyond seed breeding per se) that have affinities with open, collaborative forms of seed production.

A CODESIGN WORKSHOP Building on the idea of a bridging innovation designed to create a protected commons in seed germplasm, we recruited an intellectual property lawyer to work part time on our research team and we planned, initially at least, to organize a codesign workshop on that topic, i.e., focusing on exploring views about such an innovation and an exploration of the breath of likely support and strategies for creating a protected commons. The pilot Q method study, conducted prior to the planned workshop to characterize both stakeholdersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; views about the agricultural sustainability problems associated with the current industrial structure and governance of seed systems, and possible solutions, was intended to support the design and operation of the workshop. Findings from the pilot Q study prompted us to alter our plans. It was clear that many of the participants we interviewed believed that seed intellectual property rights were, at most, a secondary cause of problems such as loss of agricultural biodiversity or threats to domestic technological sovereignty. Other factors were either seen as more immediately relevant, or participants refused to distinguish intellectual property rights from other aspects of the incumbent agricultural production system. Consequently, we decided there would be little purpose focusing on solutions for an issue that had not been singled out as fundamentally problematic, and therefore we broadened the remit of our planned workshop to focus more generally on identifying agricultural sustainability problems with existing seed systems and exploring an unrestricted range of possible solutions. We held one-day workshop in April 2017, and we invited a diverse range of stakeholders, chosen, in part, because they represented key stakeholder organizations, and/or because we already had a trusted relationship with them from previous work (many had also participated in the earlier scoping workshop). Nineteen participants turned up: various public sector seed breeders, academics, an intellectual property specialist from the Ministry of Agriculture, a representative of the main seed industry trade association, a member of Congressâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s agriculture committee and his advisor, agro-ecological producers, members of Via Campesina, and a representative of an organization representing small and medium-sized farmers. This was a significantly narrower range of stakeholders compared with those that attended the scoping workshop, and in general it was skewed toward what we earlier termed the local, alternative, statecentered view of the future of agriculture. The organization of the event was aimed at identifying emerging problems from seed market concentration, exploring the extent to which they were at least partly shared by stakeholders, and then thinking, collectively, about interventions that might diminish those problems. We structured the workshop into two main parts: a morning session devoted to the identification of sustainability problems by participants and the afternoon session focused on proposals to address those problems. We began the morning with a presentation of our pilot Q study findings and a brief video produced by the research team, which

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illustrated a range of effects associated with market concentration and property rights regimes in the seed sector (specifically, problems of declining agricultural biodiversity and of limits on national sovereignty in relation to domestic seed innovation). The aim was to illustrate the range of sustainability challenges associated with current trajectories in the seed sector, beyond those that were prominent in domestic public debate about reform of seed legislation. In so doing, we were directing participants’ attention toward issues that we, as researchers, considered to be important, rather than allowing the group to identify and prioritize problems and solutions without our input. Likewise, in the afternoon, we were also keen that the group explored solutions that we felt might offer possible bridging qualities, such as the possibilities afforded by an open-source seed licensing idea. Clearly there is a tension here between influencing group discussions and ceding autonomy entirely to participants, although the notion of codesign suggests some balance between the input of researchers and participants. The participants were then split into small groups representing different institutions, genders, and the kinds of discourses they most closely adopted, as revealed by the pilot Q study. Each group was then asked to try and arrive at a consensus about the most important sustainability challenges associated with the structure and governance of the seed system. The groups collectively identified eight sustainability problems, not all of which were necessarily directly related to the seed sector. These were:

• the absence of political/policy clarity on what the public good in the seed and agricultural sector consists of;

• an absence of consensus on the type of agricultural model the country should adopt;

• a fundamental incompatibility between the current system of production and biodiversity;

• an absence of agricultural diversity in both biological and socioeconomic senses;

• a lack of recognition and support for the agents of informal seed improvement;

• asymmetries of power among the diversity of interests that prevail within the agricultural sector;

• the need to protect and support domestic seed technological development; and

• the need to improve access to seeds.

It is worth noting that most of these issues lie beyond the agency of a transformative space/innovation lab process in terms of what social innovations might practically achieve, but rather point to wider and deeper political programs for sustainability transformation (cf. Smith et al. 2016). In practice, the organizers chose three of those problems for group discussion in the afternoon, on the grounds that it might be possible to begin to address those problems through social innovations. These were:

• the absence of agricultural diversity;

• the lack of recognition and support for informal seed improvement; and

• the weak protection and support for domestic seed technological development.

Participants proposed concrete solutions for the first two of those problems, but the group focusing on protection for domestic seed development failed to articulate ideas for intervention.

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At a subsequent plenary session, discussion focused on the idea of creating a network of actors working on or interested in participative breeding. This proposal was supported by university-based plant breeders, scientists from the public sector research service, and rural NGOs and social movements present at the workshop. Participative breeding refers to seed breeding programs that involve close collaboration between breeders and farmers, with the latter influencing breeding priorities, and providing and selecting germplasm, for example. Typically the ambition is to support the needs of a broader range of farmers and other seed users and more diverse growing production environments than is typical in breeder-directed programs, which tend to produce varieties aimed at homogenous forms of agricultural production. The suggestion was that such a network could be used to experiment with a range of initiatives linked to improving support for participative breeding: (1) mapping of national and regional initiatives in participative breeding; (2) supporting capacity building in participative breeding; (3) obtaining certification for the outputs of participative breeding; (4) creating a market for the products of such seeds, when used in practices such as agro-ecological and fair trade production; and (5) creating an open-source license or pledge for germplasm produced through participative breeding. In retrospect, the remit was ambitious for a one-day event. One option might have been to stretch the event over a longer time frame, but that would not have been possible for most of the participants, especially those in relatively senior, national-level roles. Nor would a longer event have necessarily overcome the chasm between different perspectives, which has a long history and is rooted in deeply embedded institutional commitments. However, compressing so much into one day had a number of drawbacks. We found it difficult to document what was being said in simultaneous group discussions, and to find sufficient time to explore, for example, why people thought that particular problems or solutions were or were not desirable, what their opinions on the underlying drivers of problems were, or to return to points ingreater depth as discussions veered over a wide range of issues. Another difficulty was that identifying shared views and common positions across the heterogeneous group of stakeholders was challenging, even though we had a narrower range of stakeholders than were present at our earlier scoping workshop. Dialogue and debates were cordial, but the underlying tensions were obvious when trying to identify shared problems. It was useful to have performed the pilot Q study. This allowed us to map the issue terrain prior to the T-Lab and to identify points of connection and contestation between different actors. For example, it helped us recognize that agricultural biodiversity loss was almost universally seen as problematic across different stakeholders and that actorsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; viewpoints were not necessarily correlated with their institutional home. Conflicts diminished in the afternoon, in part because a few people (who were more closely associated with the macrodevelopmental view of agricultural sustainability) left after lunch, but also because we allowed people to self-organize into groups for the afternoon session. Despite these occasional tensions, bringing together different kinds of stakeholders was productive insofar as we managed to link people with scientific expertise, those with the authority resources of government, agro-ecological producers, and representatives of rural social movements, all of who were interested in creating practical measures to support participative seed breeding. During the day, several participants also emphasized that there was no other space, whether within formal policy processes or elsewhere, for discussing agricultural sustainability issues in relation to the seed sector. The challenge, at this point in the project, is to put into working practice one or more of the proposals identified at the codesign workshop and to persuade the different actors who expressed interest in the initiative to continue to devote time and energy into supporting one or more of the measures we try to pilot. Taking forward the project is challenging, in part because, as researchers, we have to be flexible and capable enough to take it in directions that we could not anticipate at the beginning of the project, but which rather are identified with stakeholders as the project progresses. This is what codesign entails but we are likely to be faced with several practical problems, such as the need to recruit people with particular skill sets as the project progresses and changes.

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Moving beyond the first codesign event is likely to also imply or involve what appears to be taking sides. The ambition to support participative plant breeding and the alliance of actors that we have identified interested in that objective is only a partial representation of the diversity of actors and their perspectives. Further collaborative work on that issue will involve excluding some stakeholders. Given that the idea is transformation for sustainability and involves some clear principles about justice and environment, this is quite reasonable, but it will be important to try and keep dialogue open with nonparticipants/nontransformers, even if we recognize that there are limits to consensusbased approaches.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS Reflecting on our experience highlights two issues that we think are relevant to the creation and support of facilitated transformative spaces. The first issue is that in the agricultural domain in Argentina, as in many other arenas where sustainability problems arise, stakeholdersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; views about what needs to be sustained, for whom, why, and how are ambiguous and highly contested. Guidance on running social transformation/change labs suggests that obtaining a shared understanding of problems and of visions for more desirable futures (typically an early stage in the lab process) is feasible, if not necessarily straightforward. The claim is that this requires ensuring that the diverse perspectives of actors are incorporated into a common conversation, and that techniques are used to encourage actors to unfreeze their assumptions and see systems and problems from each otherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s perspectives (REOS 2013, Westley et al. 2014). We are less convinced that obtaining a shared understanding of sustainability problems and solutions is feasible; at least for the kinds of issues we are focusing on, in which a classic divide exists between national economic development aspects of sustainability and the ecological and local social justice dimensions. Although a partial reframing of issues might be possible (e.g., our earlier example of persuading mainstream policy institutions to treat agro-ecological production as an issue of agricultural innovation rather that only a matter of social welfare policy), our experience is of the absence of, and sheer difficulty in obtaining, a shared understanding of which meanings or functions of seed systems are most important, of the agricultural sustainability problems associated with existing seed systems, and of desired agricultural futures. Indeed, that absence lies at the heart of the broader transformation challenge. The second issue, and again relevant to many other arenas beyond our problem space, is that actors who support and/or are trying to promote alternative pathways of change, at least in relation to the kinds of normative sustainabilities that we as researchers were sympathetic with, are politically highly marginalized by comparison with the actors and constituencies that constitute existing, well-established agricultural production systems. The innovation lab literature, by dint of the fact that it assumes that substantial consensus is possible among a representative group of stakeholders concerning problem definitions and desired future systems, glosses over this issue, even if it recognizes that incumbent institutions and practices are difficult to shift. We have tried to grapple explicitly with both of those issues. The extent to which and the ways in which framings of sustainability are contested may not be obvious when convening a transformative space, especially if some perspectives, which are absent in wider public or policy debate, are not included in the process. Our scoping workshop, involving a wide range of stakeholders and no predefinition of what we or others meant by sustainability, helped to capture some of the diversity of perspectives on our topic, as did the pilot Q analysis, which represented a more formal way of trying to document the breadth of meaning of sustainability in relation to agricultural and seed systems. Responding to deeply contested perspectives on agricultural and seed-system sustainability might take several forms. One option is to decide which framings(s) of sustainability ought to be prioritized and pursued, exclude some actors, and work with a more aligned group of stakeholders who already broadly share those perspectives. Another is to foster a process of negotiation and learning to try and shift perspectives or reframe the ways in which problems are understood among the different actors and constituencies. A third option is to identify those aspects of a problem in which there is greater consensus as a basis for thinking about novel solutions, or to explore interventions that are attractive to actors who understand and prioritize sustainability challenges in different ways. 22

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The first option, that of working with a more aligned group of stakeholders, is certainly viable, yet, the risk is that researcherfacilitated transformative spaces end up working only with actors that are politically marginal in relation to the wider systems they seek to transform. Proposed ideas and solutions may, as a consequence, either be difficult to put into working practice, or may remain a niche endeavor with little potential to reconfigure wider seed and agricultural systems, or they may simply reproduce what organized civil society groups are doing anyway. Our second workshop ended with a more homogenous group of actors than we had intended because of self-exclusion and for this reason, it will be important to maintain communication with other seedsystem stakeholders and explore whether we can enroll actors with complementary resources to support whatever ideas we try to put into practice. The second option, of trying to reframe the ways in which problems are understood among different actors and constituencies, holds significant potential. Indeed, in our view, intensive commodity crop production in Argentina is so deeply entrenched, i.e., institutionally, economically, politically, and discursively, that actors trying to promote more sustainable agricultural practices are only likely to be supported more widely if parts of the domestic private sector and the state can be persuaded that current agricultural trajectories pose threats to their own interests, for example, on the grounds that the agricultural sector as a whole is becoming less economically resilient and/ or that it may end up destroying domestic technological capabilities. However, efforts to reframe problems and/ or actorsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; perceptions of their interests in relation to those problems would probably require a different format for running a transformative space than we were able to adopt, involving more time together and more intense facilitation. t also involve activities that lie well beyond the agency of a series of workshops and events, such as more general campaigning, academic, media, and policy intervention. These kinds of broader activities can nevertheless be recognized, documented, discussed, and maybe even mobilized around within relatively brief, facilitated transformative spaces, even if acting on such knowledge demands wider political action for sustainability transformations. We tried to focus on the third option, i.e., that of identifying aspects of sustainability problems that were shared across different stakeholders, as a basis for thinking about novel interventions and/or to explore innovations that are attractive to actors who otherwise understand and prioritize sustainability problems and desired solutions in different ways. A large part of the rational is that coalitions of actors are more likely to successfully challenge and foster structural change in pervasive social-technical systems. Put simply, those advocating for alternative, more ecologically benign and socially just pathways of change need more powerful allies who command resources such as those of legitimacy (i.e., state institutions), expertise, organizational capacity, and finance. The initial multistakeholder scoping workshop helped us to better appreciate areas of conflict and consensus with regard to different actorsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; perspectives on agricultural sustainability. It helped us to think about affinities between different groups and the kinds of social innovation they might variously align with, hence our proposal to explore the idea of creating a protected commons in germplasm via an open-source seed licensing system. It remains to be seen whether that idea (among several that were highlighted in the codesign workshop) can be put into working practice and how far it might gain traction among different kinds of stakeholders. Within our workshop, the idea resonated with a small number of university-based seed breeders, rural NGOs, agro-ecological producers, and scientists from the governmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s agricultural research service, but we will need wider support among such constituencies and, ideally, interest from some domestic private sector seed firms, if the proposal is to really succeed. The broader point is that smart alliances between actors, formed around ideas for novel interventions that can bridge the interests and perspectives of different constituencies, point to strategies for reconfiguring the social relations around seed systems, in ways that might limit the restructuring processes driven by global firms, and that might help open up space for more sustainable pathways of agricultural change. Responses to this article can be read online at: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/issues/responses.php/10033

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Acknowledgments: The authors thank two anonymous reviewers for their contributions to drafts of this manuscript. This work is based on research supported in part by the Transformations to Sustainability Programme, which is coordinated by the International Social Science Council and funded by the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency, and implemented in partnership with the National Research Foundation of South Africa (Grant Number SSC2015-TKN150224114426). The Transformations to Sustainability Programme represents a contribution to Future Earth.

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Reboratti, C. E. 2010. Un mar de soja: la nueva agricultura en Argentina y sus consecuencias. Revista de geografía Norte Grande 45:63-76. http://dx.doi.org/10.4067/S0718-34022010000100005 REOS. 2013. The Reos change lab addressing complex challenges with social innovation. REOSpartners. [online] URL: http://sociallabs.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/20130213_McConnell-Formatted-Final-Draft.pdf Rip, A., and R. Kemp. 1998. Technological change. Pages 327-399 in S. Rayner and E. L. Malone, editors. Human choice and climate change: resources and technology. Volume II. Battelle, Columbus, Ohio, USA. Schmitz, H., and I. Scoones. 2015. Accelerating sustainability: why political economy matters. IDS Evidence Report 152. Institute of Development Studies, Brighton, UK. Schenkelaars, P., H. de Vriend, and N. Kalaitzandonakes. 2011. Drivers of consolidation in the seed industry and its consequences for innovation. Report for COGEM (Commissie Genetische Modificatie). Schenkelaars Biotechnology Consultancy, Wageningen, The Netherlands. [online] URL: https://www.lisconsult.nl/files/docs/consolidation_ seed_industry.pdf Scoones, I., M. Leach, and P. Newell. 2015. The politics of green transformations. Routledge/Earthscan, London, UK. Seghezzo, L., J. N. Volante, J. M. Paruelo, D. J. Somma, E. C. Buliubasich, H. E. Rodríguez, S. Gagnon, and M. Hufty. 2011. Native forests and agriculture in Salta (Argentina): conflicting visions of development. Journal of Environment and Development 20(3):251-277. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1070496511416915 Simoes, A., D. Landry, C. Hidalgo, and M. Teng. 2017. Observatory of economic complexity (Argentina). Observatory of Economic Complexity. [online] URL: https://atlas.media.mit. edu/en/profile/country/arg Smith, A. 2007. Translating sustainabilities between green niches and sociotechnical regimes. Technology Analysis and Strategic Management 19(4):427-450. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09537320701403334 Smith, A., T. Hargreaves, S. Hielscher, M. Martiskainen, and G. Seyfang. 2016. Making the most of community energies: three perspectives on grassroots innovation. Environment and Planning A 48:407-432. http://dx.doi. org/10.1177/0308518X15597908 Smith, A., and A. Stirling. 2010. The politics of social-ecological resilience and sustainable socio-technical transitions. Ecology and Society 15(1):11. [online] URL: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol15/iss1/art11/ Smith, A., A. Stirling, and F. Berkhout. 2005. The governance of sustainable socio-technical transitions. Research Policy 34:1491-1510. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2005.07.005 Stirling, A. 2009. Direction, distribution, diversity! Pluralising progress in innovation, sustainability and development. STEPS Working Paper 32. STEPS Centre, Brighton, UK. [online] URL: http://steps-centre.org/wp-content/uploads/ stirling-paper-32.pdf Stirling, A. 2014. Emancipating transformations: from controlling ‘the transition’ to culturing plural radical progress. STEPS Working Paper 64. STEPS Centre, Brighton, UK. [online] URL: https://steps-centre.org/wp-content/uploads/ Transformations.pdf Westley, F., S. Goebey, and K. Robinson. 2012. Change lab/design lab for social innovation: a thought piece for the development of a new approach for building capacity for social innovation in Canada. Waterloo Institute for Social Innovation and Resilience, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada. [online] URL: https://uwaterloo.ca/waterloo-institute-forsocial-innovation-and-resilience/sites/ca.waterlooinstitute-for-social-innovation-and-resilience/files/uploads/ files/change_lab.pdf

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Westley, F., S. Laban, C. Rose, K. McGowan, K. Robinson, O. Tjornbo, and M. Tovey. 2014. Social innovation lab guide. University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada. [online] URL: https://uwaterloo.ca/waterloo-institute-forsocial-innovationand-resilience/sites/ca.waterloo-institute-for-social-innovation-andresilience/files/uploads/ files/10_silabguide_final.pdfâ&#x20AC;? target=â&#x20AC;?_blank Westley, F., P. Olsson, C. Folke, T. Homer-Dixon, H. Vredenburg, D. Loorbach, J. Thompson, M. Nilsson, E. Lambin, J. Sendzimir, B. Banarjee, V. Galaz, and S. van der Leeuw. 2011. Tipping towards sustainability: emerging pathways of transformation. Ambio 40:762-780. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13280-011-0186-9

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Myanmar

Role of Seed in Transforming of Agriculture in Myanmar Tin Htut Oo and Tin Maung Shwe t.htut.oo@gmail.com, tetlutin@gmail.com Recommended Citation: Oo, T. H., and T. M. Shwe. 2014. Role of Seed in Transforming of Agriculture in Myanmar. ReSAKSS Asia Policy Note 2. Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute.

INTRODUCTION Agriculture, including fisheries and forestry, accounted for 36.4 percent of Myanmar’s GDP in 2010-2011. Approximately 69 percent of the total population of 59.78 million (2010-2011) lives in rural areas and 61.2 percent of the total labor force is employed by the agricul-ture sector (MOAI 2012). The government has designated the agriculture sector as a main pillar of the economy and is dedicating vari-ous efforts and investments to achieve greater progress in the sector. Rice is the primary crop, followed by maize, pulses, and oil seeds. Over 90 percent of the total rice sown in Myanmar1 is done so by farmers’ reusing their seeds. Hybrid varieties of maize are grown more widely in part due to domestic hybrid production and imports. In recent years, there has also been an increase in the production of fruits and vegetables due to demand from China as well as the emergence of supermarkets in the country which has also increased the utilization of quality seeds and seedlings. Distribution of certified seed by DoA covers only less than 10 percent of seed requirement for rice. Based on that, it is estimated that 90 percent of rice sown area is covered by farmers’ own seed.

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POLICY LANDSCAPE The Seed Law stipulates the rules governing seed breeding, registration, production, and quality control and was enacted in January 2011. The Seed Law encourages the participation of private sector and non-government organizations in the development and produc-tion of seed as well as sets goals for cooperation with international organizations, such as the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI). The implementation framework of the Seed Law has been drafted, but is still under the approval process despite the two year grace period between the time of the law passing and its recent enactment. Registration and certification processes are therefore not fully functional at present. There are several other laws that impact the seed sector that have recently been drafted or enacted in Myanmar. The Plant Pest Quarantine law and regulation was enacted in 1993 to prevent the movement of pests and diseases from imported seed and seed-lings. The recently developed Farm Land Law allows farmers greater control over land use rights and decision making. Farmers can now engage in the seed market through the production of seed by contract farming, starting businesses, or renting land to other businesses. Table 1â&#x20AC;&#x201D;Legislations related to development of seed industry Title of Law

Scope of Law

Responsible Agency

Status

Plant Pest Quaran-tine Law

Prevent pests from entering the country

DOA, MOAI

Enacted in 1993

The Seed Law

To produce crop with quality seed and to carry out seed business systematically

DOA, MOAI

Enacted in 2011

Farm Land Law

Liberalization of land usage rights

SLRD, MOAI

Enacted in 2012

Law on Bio Safety

To manage safety of seeds and plant parts

MOAI

Drafted

DAR, MOAI

Drafted

Plant Varietal Pro-tection Law To protect breederâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s rights Source: Department of Agriculture (DOA)

The protection of new plant varieties as a form of intellectual property is an important stimulus to private investment in plant breeding and is requisite to convince multinational seed companies to introduce their varieties to the market. In Myanmar the Plant Varietal Protection Law has only recently been drafted in accordance with obligations under the Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs) and is under the process of national approval. In addition, Myanmar has been party to the Convention on Bio-logical Diversity since 1994 and became a member of WTO in 1995. Myanmar is still not a member of International Union for the Pro-tection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV) which provides and promotes plant variety protection with the aim of encouraging the devel-opment of new varieties of plants. However, since 2004, Myanmar has participated in the UPOV-INGER2 workshops and continues to cooperate and seek advice on the development of national seed regulations.

KEY PLAYERS The National Seed Committee (NSC) was established in 2004 and is the body responsible for seed quality assurance and the supply of seeds and planting materials to farmers throughout the country. It is chaired by the Deputy Minister of Agriculture and Irrigation (MOAI) and is comprised of representatives from relevant government departments, experts, and representatives from organizations. The Director General of the Department of Agriculture (DoA) acts as secretary. Any person who desires to establish a seed testing labor-atory must apply to the NSC to obtain a registration certificate. The roles and responsibilities for seed research, production, and distribution have undergone changes in the last decade. Until 2000, DOA was responsible for multiplication, procurement, storage, and distribution of seed. The Agricultural Extension Division of DoA multiplied certified seed through contracting farming arrangements, provided support for rouging to manage seed purity and over-saw other quality control processes. The Procurement Division of DoA purchased the certified seeds produced by contract farmers and stored the seeds prior to distribution. 2

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In 2000, the Department of Agricultural Research (DAR) under the MOAI took over responsibilities for testing new varieties in research stations in order to confirm the potential yield, quality, genetic stability, local adaptability, and pest and disease resistance. The DAR is also responsible for the production of breeder and foundation seed and the Seed Division of the DoA uses these pure seed lines to produce both foundation and registered seed. The Seed Division of DOA is also responsible for seed certification but there are still no specific procedures established under the Seed Law to govern its implementation. The Seed Division also lacks manpower and facilities to undertake field inspection and laboratory testing. DAR has a total of 450 technical people including 20 Ph.D and 60 M.Sc. and has 24 research stations. Over a 40 year period DAR has developed 211 crop varieties including 99 rice varieties. DAR has also maintained 12,000 samples of local landraces and wild rice relatives in a long-term genetic seed bank. This collection is actively used in local breeding programs and exchange programs with other bilateral and international research institutes.

SEED PRODUCTION Prior to 1977, farmers grew mostly indigenous crop varieties with seeds that were locally available through exchange while small amounts of quality seed was produced by research farms under the Applied Research Division and distributed to contract farmers through extension staff. Agriculture grew at a modest rate of 1.6 percent per annum during the 1960s and early 1970s, but was below the population growth rate of 2.2 percent which resulted in decreased rice surpluses (FAO, 1986). In an effort to boost yields the Government launched the Whole Township Paddy Production Program in 1977-1978 initiating the large-scale introduction of improved technologies including HYVs adapted from the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI-8 and IRRI-5), proper tillage, chemical fertilizers, pesticides and modern cultivation practices covering a total of 2.5 million ha. As a result, paddy area covered by HYV increased from 4 percent in 197071 to nearly 50 percent ten years later, resulting in a near doubling of production during this time. The breadth of the program increased demand for a steady supply of quality seeds, leading to intensified research. In 1992 the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation launched a second program to increase summer paddy production built on short duration, high-yielding varieties of paddy. As a result total paddy production increased by 4.98 million MT in a single year and boosted exports to 1 million MT, the largest amount in the 30 years prior. However, since this time, most increases in rice production have been a result of harvested area expansion rather than productivity growth due to increased HYV usage (Table 2). Figure 1â&#x20AC;&#x201D;Summer paddy area and total production

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Table 2â&#x20AC;&#x201D;High yielding varieties (HYV) in total paddy sown area and production trend in Myanmar Year

Sown Area (mil. hectare) Total HYV

Production (mil mt)

HYV Area (%)

1970-1971

4.98

0.18

8.2

1980-1981

5.13

2.32

13.3

1985-1986

4.90

2.39

14.3

1992-1993

5.13

2.68

14.8

1995-1996

6.14

3.20

18.6

2000-2001

6.36

3.45

21.3

2005-2006

7.39

3.40

27.6

2010-2011

8.05

3.66

32.6

Source: DoA, MOAI

There are 56 research and seed farms in Myanmar; 32 seed farms are under the supervision of Seed Division of DoA and 24 research farms are under the DAR. The DAR continues its efforts to develop hybrids of rice, sunflower, and maize but funding in addi-tion to capacity constraints remains a challenge as agricultural research activities accounted for only 1 percent of total budget of MOAI in 2012-2013. With greater liberalization in 2000, the volume of seed distributed by the public sector decreased and a system of contract farmers and public-private partnerships called Rice Specialized Companies (RSCs) was created. In this system registered seed produced by DoA research farms are transferred through extension agents to 4,900 RSCs in 530 villages for certified seed production aided by the Agriculture Extension Division (AED) (Figure 1). In 20112012 DoA produced 2400 tons of registered rice seeds from their 32 seed farms which was grown into 15,000 MT of certified seed by the RSCs. RSCs are then able to sell to local farmers or to contract farmers that produce grain. However, it has been estimated that 200,000 MT of certified seed are needed to cover 4 million ha of high potential land, which is about half of the total rice growing area. Based on this data, the current certified seed distribution system covers less than 10 percent of the estimated requirement. Although the government has recently tried to promote the development of private seed companies by providing tax exemption for the importation of agricultural inputs, including seed, there are still few other private sector rice seed companies that produce in sufficient volumes to fill this gap.

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Figure 2â&#x20AC;&#x201D;Value chain of seed industry in Myanmar

SEED MARKETING The private sector began to engage in the commercial rice seed business with the formation of Myanmar Rice Industry Association (MRIA) in 2009, which was transformed into the Myanmar Rice Federation (MRF) in 2011. The MRF consists of 47 private rice compa-nies, of which 10 private companies were producing 2000 MT of certified seeds or more in 2012 (Aung and Goletti 2013). The C.P Yangoon Seed Co. Ltd, one of the largest private sector seed companies in Myanmar, introduced hybrid corn seed pro-duction in 1996. The total demand for hybrid corn seeds is about 10,000 MT; and DoA and C.P Yangoon Seed Company produce 7,000-8,000 MT annually through contract farming arrangements, providing parental lines, inputs, technical support, and a guaranteed price. The varieties used for hybrid seed production are CP 801, CP 888, and CP 301 which are sourced from Thai varieties. C.P Seed Company provides extension services, education activities such as field demonstrations, and seminars to farmers to encourage adoption maize hybrid. The rest of the demand (20-30 percent) for hybrid corn seed is imported annually from China, Thailand, and Vietnam through border trade. Asia seed, Pacific seed, Red Dot seed, and other Chinese hybrid corn seed companies produced about 300 MT each in similar contract farming arrangements. The volume of vegetable seeds and fruit seedlings distributed by the Vegetable and Fruit Research and Development Centre (VFRDC) under DoA are minimal compared with the countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s fruit and vegetable growing areas. It is estimated that of 450,000 ha where fruit and vegetables are grown, the area under hybrids accounts for 30-40 percent of the total. While hybrid vegetable seeds are produced locally the majority are imported from China, Thailand, Korea and Japan though interest in domestic production by local and foreign companies is growing. Seed export is minimal with the exception of some hybrid vegetable seeds such as bitter gourd, tomato, chili, and melon. Seedlings of quality mango are distributed by the orchard farms of DoA and private seedling nursery farms that are mostly located in Mandalay Region.

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CHALLENGES Myanmar is undergoing a shift from a controlled economy to one which is market orientated. The seed sector has undergone some reforms, but many of these have not gone far enough to create an environment that is conducive to private sector involvement and investment. In addition, implementation of regulations stipulated in the Seed Law have been slow even after two years of its enact-ment. Many companies still remain unaware of the rules and regulation. However, as the country continues on its path of greater liber-alization there are still important roles for the public sector to improve agriculture and to support a private sector led seed system. At present, almost all seed production and distribution is handled by DAR and DoA with a limited amount of private sector involvement. However, the official seed system struggles to produce seeds in sufficient quality and quantity and many in rural areas are underserved. The extension service, responsible for seed distribution, lacks capacity and their numbers are simply not sufficient to reach all farmers. This is exacerbated by poor infrastructure making transportation costly. The public sector has been successful in gen-erating new varieties in part because of collaboration with international partners. The public sector must maintain this important role as research is the foundation for a strong seed sector. The public sector must also establish a seed certification system and valid quality control mechanisms. There currently are not sufficient processing facilities to clean seeds, thus rendering policies that mandate high quality mute. Those processing plants which were established with assistance projects in 1980s, are poorly functioning due to a lack of maintenance and operational funds. Control should be given to the private sector so that they can invest and renovate these facilities. Government investment should focus on quality control to upgrade seed testing facilities to enable them to enforce the standards set out in the Seed Law. The shortage of good quality seed is frequently identified as a major constraint to increasing crop production in Myanmar. A more harmonized public and private partnership is required that is capable of generating and delivering improved seed varieties to farmers and doing so cost-effectively. Such a system would be an important step toward ensuring a successful seed industry.

REFERENCES MOAI 2012 Myanmar Agriculture in Brief, Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation FAO 1986 Seed Development project (Credit No. 745-BA), Project Completion Report, FAO Aung, M. and Goletti, F. 2013 “Developing a Competitive Seed Industry in Myanmar”, CLMV Project Policy Brief No. 1, Asian Development Bank Institute. Tokyo, Japan

About the Authors Tin Maung Shwe and Tin Htut Oo are consultants with Agribusiness and Rural Development Consultants Co LtD. Tin Maung Shwe can be reached at tetlutin@gmail.com

Acknowledgments This brief was edited by Adam Kennedy based on the original paper prepared by the authors for the ReSAKSSAsia conference entitled “Agricul-tural Transformation in Asia: Policy Options for Food and Nutrition Security” which took place on September 25–27, 2013 in Siem Reap, Cambodia. The authors benefited considerably from the valuable suggestions of Robert Tripp throughout the development of the paper and the comments received from the conference’s participants. Financial support for the conference and the preparations of the paper/brief is from the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). Reproduced with permission from the International Food Policy Research Institute www.ifpri.org. The policy note is available online at http://ebrary.ifpri.org/cdm/ref/collection/p15738coll2/id/128897.

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Afghanistan Public-Private-Producers Partnership for Strengthening Seed Certification in Afghanistan Review of Seed Regulatory System in Afghanistan and Neighbouring Countries Yashpal Singh Saharawat, Hamid Salari, Mahboobullah Nang, Sayed Samiullah Hakimi, Faridullah Sherzad, Srinivas Tavva, Swain Nigamananda, Zewdie Bishaw, Abdul Aziz Niane and Michael Larinde I. Executive Summary Seeds are most important input for agricultural production which carries important genetic information. However, the benefits of good crop varieties cannot be realized without the availability of seed to farmers at the right place, at the right time and at affordable price. Furthermore, good varieties for farmers need to be maintained under specific conditions to produce good seeds for farmer use and thus to have sustainable quality agriculture production over the country. Formal seed sector started in Afghanistan Since 1970, but large scale organized seed production started in 1978 with establishment of Afghan Seed Company through support of Asian Development Bank. Since long back in Afghanistan main focus is mostly on wheat seed production and certification. In spite of this long history seed sector in Afghanistan has not developed as expected. This review was conducted to study different aspects of seed certification system of India, Pakistan, Turkey, Tanzania and European Union with the view of gaining in sight into

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their successes. Critical evaluation of seed certification system in these countries which represents both neighboring and developed countries is essential for the strengthening and development of applicable seed certification system in Afghanistan. The data considered in this review includes legal documents, research papers and other publications from reliable resources as well as minutes of specific meetings and workshops conducted for this purpose. The major outcomes of the study are briefly presented below: • Policy and Regulatory Framework: During 2009 the Seed Law of Islamic Republic of Afghanistan was enacted and during 2012 the National Seed Policy was prepared and passed as a legal document. Seed law and policy are same as in other countries but actual application in the field is different which makes the system less reliable to the farmers and other related stakeholders. During this period the first draft of seed regulations of the country was also prepared but due to several technical issues it is not yet passed to be enforced. It is noticed that still many of important documents including seed regulations, guidelines, standards and procedures are missing which further weakens this sector, thereby its development is required to be kept as top priority. • National Standards and Procedures: Due to lack of national seed certification standards and procedures during last 10 years the standards of neighboring countries especially India were unofficially used in seed certification process. Even though Afghanistan is still not a member of ISTA and OECD but due to lack of national procedure, ISTA and OECD procedures are unofficially followed in seed sector. These procedures are partially followed where some parts are ignored or not applied due to weak facilities. • Institutional Arrangement: In Afghanistan National Seed Board (NSB) is the highest decision making authority for seed related issues. Based on Seed Law of Islamic Republic of Afghanistan NSB consist two sub-components of which the first is Variety Release Committee (VRC) and the second one is Seed Certification Agency (SCA). SCA is assigned to be the secretariat for NSB and will manage all NSB related activities. This system mostly remained only on papers where on the ground quality control of released varieties and seed certification related activities are managed through Seed and Planting material Certification Directorate (SPCD) of MAIL which was established in 2014. SPCD related activities are controlled through Deputy Minister for Agriculture and Livestock. The same section of MAIL which controls SPCD also controls Breeder seed production, foundation seed production and up to some extent the production of certified seed as well. The procurement and marketing system of seed is also controlled through MAIL which is clear conflict of interest. • Steps of Seed Certification: Following steps for seed certification are common among all countries reviewed in this publication: a) Application for the production of seed and identification of source seed, b) Registration of sowing report, c) Field inspection, d) Seed processing, e) Sampling and testing, f) Tagging and sealing, g) Post control, h) Market control. The market control is not considered and followed by SPCD in Afghanistan yet. The major steps are briefly presented below:

– Field Inspection: Field inspection stages are nearly common among the reviewed countries which are: a) Pre-flowering stage b) Flowering stage c) Post-flowering d) pre-harvesting stage and e) Harvesting stage. It is noticed that flowering and harvesting which are two main stages of field inspection in reviewed countries are missing in Afghanistan. Field inspection is a seasonal activity and in many countries it is performed through contract based authorized field inspectors who are well trained and work only in the season of field inspection while in Afghanistan it is performed through SPCD staff which makes the process much costly.

– Sample Inspection: In Afghanistan only two samples of each seed lot are drown and submitted to Central Seed Testing Laboratory. One of these samples is subjected to immediate testing and the second one is stored for one year duration which it could be required for control plot testing. But in contrast three sample from the same variety are provided in other reviewed countries in which one of these sample is sent to related seed testing laboratory, the second one is sent to central seed testing laboratory for immediate

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testing and the third one is kept for control plot test/grow out test. Seed sampling in Afghanistan is done through SPCD staff only.

– Seed Testing: During this step of seed certification the physical purity test, moisture content and germination test are considered as main parameters while in some cases very primary seed health test is also carried out in related seed testing laboratory of Afghanistan. Though in other reviewed countries the same parameters are considered but seed health is also considered as a strict parameter. As optional tests seed viability and seed vigor tests are also conducted in seed testing laboratories of reviewed countries.

– Control Plot Test: This is a common process followed in all reviewed countries including Afghanistan but its procedure is a bit different among the reviewed countries. In some it is named post control plot test while in some others it is named grow out test.

• Role of Public and Private Sector in Seed Chain: Due to high costs it is difficult for a government organization to control the certification process of high value crops. In reviewed countries it was noticed that seed certification of high value crops takes place through Truthfully Labelling System where the agency is only responsible to confirm that produced and marketed seed meets national standards. Through Truthfully Labeling System whole chain of high value seed including production and quality assurance of both seed and its parental material is preformed through private seed companies. In Afghanistan most of seed certification and management activities are focused on strategic crops specially wheat where public sector produces foundation and private sectors produces certified classes of seed. Vegetable seed quality assurance is a forgotten sector in Afghanistan which is very much important in other reviewed countries.

II. Acronyms and Abbreviations ANSCU

Afghanistan National Seed Companies Union

ARIA

Agriculture Research Institute of Afghanistan

ASC

Afghan Seed Company

CIMMYT

International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center

DUS

Distinctness, Uniformity and Stability

EEA

European Union, European Economic Area

EFTA

European Free Trade Association

ESA

European Seed Association

ESCAA

European Seed Certification Agencies Association

European Union

FAO

Food and Agriculture Organization

FHCRAA

Future Harvest Consortium to Rebuild Agriculture in Afghanistan

Foundation Seed

FSCRD

Federal Seed Certification and Registration Department

GDP

Gross Domestic Product

ICAR

Indian Council of Agricultural Research

ICARDA

International Center for Agriculture Research in the Dry Areas

ISE

Improved Seed Enterprise

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ISTA

International Seed Testing Association

MAIL

Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock

MARA

Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs

Metric Ton

NPT-TC

National Performance Trial-Technical Committee

NSB

National Seed Board

NSC

National Seed Corporation

NSC

National Seed Council

NVRC

National Variety Release Committee

ODV

Other Distinguishable Variety

OECD

Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development

PAKSSET

Pakistan Society of Seed Technologists

PPP

Public Private Partnership

PSC

Pakistan Seed Council

PSP

Policy Support Program

QDS

Quality Declared Seed

Registered Seed

SCA

Seed Certification Agency

SCAP

Seed Companies Association of Pakistan

SFCI

State Farm Corporation of India

SPCD

Seed and Planting material Certification Directorate

TANSEED

Tanzania Seed

TASTA

Tanzania Seed Trade Association

TIGEM

General Directorate of Agricultural Administrations

TLS

Truthfully Labeled Seed

TOSCA

Tanzania Official Seed Certification Agency

TSE

Turkish Standardization Institute

TURK-TED

Turkish Seed Industry Association

UNDP

United Nations Development Program

UPOV

The International Union for the Protection of new Varieties

USAID

United States Agency for International Development

VCU

Value for Cultivation and Use

VRC

Variety Release Committee

VRSCC

Variety Registration and Seed Certification Center

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III. INTRODUCTION Seed is the most valuable of all agricultural inputs and it is amenable to use on both large and small scale. Good quality alone has been reported to increase crop yield in the range of 10-20 percent based on crop type. Value in agricultural genetic resources lies in the diversity within a crop and seed is the vehicle for carrying this genetic diversity over time and space. Amongst all inputs for crop production, whether commercial or subsistence, seed sets the limit to productivity regardless of all other inputs like water, fertilizer and pesticides. Besides seed has a unique feature, as a means for delivering technology to farmers. Also, unlike other agricultural inputs, seed is not consumed during crop production, instead it is multiplied. These attributes of seed has made it an important global commodity of commerce, topic of international politics, culture and subject of many global conventions. Seeds are most important input for agricultural production and they carry important genetic information of which the desirable types can be expressed under good technical production. However, the benefits of good crop varieties cannot be realized without the availability of seed to farmers at the right place, the right time and affordable price. Furthermore, good varieties for farmers need to be maintained under specific conditions to produce good seeds for farmersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; use and thus to have sustainable quality agricultural production all over the country. Agriculture is the mainstay of the Afghan economy accounting for about 26 % of national GDP and supports over 80% of the population (Sasda, South Asia, 2014). The contribution of agriculture in national GDP growth is much bigger than other sector which is pinpointed in the bellow figures. About 12% of the countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s total land area is arable mainly in scattered valleys, 46% is under permanent pastures, with the remaining 39% being mountainous. Given highly variable rainfall and concomitant variation in production from the rain-fed sector, the irrigated sector traditionally provided a higher proportion of all 2 Review of Seed Regulatory System in Afghanistan and Neighboring Countries crops. At least two-thirds of this arable land requires irrigation. Water is drawn from springs and rivers and is distributed through surface ditches and through underground channels/tunnels, which are known as karez (qanat). In 2015, about 2,165,000 ha of farmland were irrigated and 1,335,000 ha are rain fed. Land holding size and type vary both between and within provinces. While most of the rural population depends on agriculture, the arable land is very limited and a significant part of the population does not own farmland, yet together they provide a highly significant part of production, as sharecroppers, workers or tenants. Given the highly complicated land tenure arrangements, farm size is best measured by cultivated area; and the average farm size ranges between 1 and 2 hectares. About 80% of farming households cultivate up to 2 ha with nearly 50% less than 1 hectare per household. Wheat is the main staple cereal and accounts for about 70% cropped area of cereal production each year and 70% of total cereal consumption. Wheat cultivation was estimated to cover 2,575,000 ha (1,426,000 ha rain-fed) during 2008/09 crop season, which recorded one of the highest production levels (5.064 million tons) in recent years. With an average yield of 2.5 t ha-1, the productivity of irrigated wheat is generally considered to be between 2 to 3 times that of rainfed wheat. The average yields of 2 and 1 t ha-1 for irrigated and rain-fed areas, respectively shows the need to improve productivity and narrow the wide yield gap by demonstrating best practices to farmers and encouraging their adoption in order to achieve higher crop yields. Cereals (barley, rice, maize) and pluses (chickpea and mung bean) are also important crops, several summer and winter vegetables like potato, tomato, onion, okra, cauliflower, melon and watermelon are also produced both for domestic and export market. Cotton is also a widely cultivated crop. Fruits (Grape, apricots, pomegranates, apple, cherries, figs, mulberries and plum) and nuts (almond, pistachios and walnuts) are among the most important export crops produced. Since 1970 seed sector started action in Afghanistan, but large scale organized seed production started in 1978 with establishment of Afghan Seed Company through support of Asian development bank. More ever the seed sector has improved with establishment of improved seed enterprise (ISE) and then the support of FAO and UNDP to the

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MAIL has significant effect on seed sector developments in Afghanistan. Since long back in Afghanistan main focus is mostly on wheat production and certification. Currently source seed production (breeder seed) is carried out through Agriculture Research Institute of Afghanistan (ARIA). Also foundation seed production is the responsibility of ISE and the production of certified seed is handed over through private seed enterprises (PSEs) and the 3 Review of Seed Regulatory System in Afghanistan and Neighboring Countries seed certification is follow via Seed and Planting Materials Directorate (SPCD) which hopefully will be change to Seed Certification Agency shortly. As a main point the certified seed production, certification and marketing are carried out under MAIL authority whereas in other country seed certification agency/ authority is only responsible for seed certification and could not interfere in production and marketing of certified seeds. Thus with respect to having improved seed sector and public private producer partnership in Afghanistan each country considered to be reviewed based on its key importance which are mentioned briefly below:

• India and Pakistan are preferred for revision as they are neighboring countries whose seed sectors, specially quality seed production and certification system, bear great semblance and could be strongest references for development of seed sector in Afghanistan. And also those systems and methodology would be suitable to be applied in Afghanistan.

• Turkey and EU have developed seed production and certification system along with having membership of ISTA and OECD. The issue of public and private partnership is a significant point which boosted seed sector in Turkey & EU and would be critical guides for improving seed sector in Afghanistan.

• Tanzania much similar to Afghanistan in terms of its GDP from agriculture (26%) Tanzania has obtained the membership of ISTA and its experience is good example for development of seed sector in Afghanistan.

Key Challenges In general agriculture sector face a lot of challenges in Afghanistan. Seed sector is running in preliminary stage thus the following challenges are currently hindering seed production and certification systems.

• Seed production, certification and its marketing is carried out through same organization (MAIL) in Afghanistan, whereas in majority of other country seed certification is carried out through an autonomous body who is not legally allowed to be involved in seed production and marketing.

• Seed and Planting material Certification Directorate (SPCD) is immature, but which hopefully may newly established which may function as an autonomous body in the future. Being newly established SPCD did not develop seed certification procedure, guidelines and national seed standards yet, it is critical to develop these documents for improving seed certification and quality seed production.

• Lack of coordination between key stakeholders of seed sector such as ARIA, ISE, PSEs and SPCD caused less efficient use of available resources.

• Lack of technical support to the SPCD and other stakeholders lead to shortage of technical expertise for development and maintenance of sustainable seed production and certification systems.

• Exclusion of private sector from seed chain is significant problem which affect the development and sustainability of seed system in Afghanistan.

Seed Times May - August 2018

Seed Sectors Around the Globe

There is weak coordination among public, private sectors and seed producers which lead to severe fluctuations regarding seed quantity, quality and its marketing results with negative effect on seed sector sustainability. Therefore this revision is conducted with consideration of the following objectives:

• To analyze the current status of quality seed production and certification in Afghanistan and know the status of seed certification of other countries which may have to be considered for the development and sustainability of seed sector of the country.

• To compare the quality seed production and certification system of Afghanistan with other countries in order to assess strength and weakness present in the seed sector of Afghanistan.

• To identify the positive points for development of seed sector of the reviewed countries and to get the idea and learn how to improve the quality seed production, certification and management system in Afghanistan.

Methodology The data for this study was collected from different sources including legal documents of Afghanistan and neighboring countries, scientific publications, publications of international seed certification management organizations, data from open discussions with seed sector stakeholders in Afghanistan etc. The data was arranged and analyzed to study seed certification systems and propose a suitable and applicable seed certification system for Afghanistan. 1. Data Collection This review was conducted to study different aspects of seed certification system of India, Pakistan, Turkey, Tanzania and European Union with the view of gaining in sight into their successes. Critical evaluation of seed certification system in these countries which represents both neighboring and developed countries is essential for the strengthening and development of applicable seed certification system in Afghanistan. The data considered in this review includes legal documents, research papers and other publications from reliable resources as well as minutes of specific meetings and workshops conducted for this purpose. The data is collected mainly through two methods - 1) paper base data collection and (2) workshop and coordination meeting data collection. Paper base data collection received from different sources is mentioned as follow:

• Collection and review of legal documents such as seed law, policy and seed regulation of Islamic republic of Afghanistan.

• Search and review of national and international research and published papers and catalogues.

• Collection of legal and technical documents of seed sector of neighboring countries.

• Review of ISTA and OECD standard procedures. And the workshop based data as collected through bellow pathways:

• Conducting workshops with participants from Afghanistan, India and other countries. The data collected from the workshop was in form of minutes of meeting, reports of workshop and proceeding and recommendations.

• Senior policy makers’ workshop (focus group meeting with agriculture and seed experts from India).

2. Data Analysis The collected data from Afghanistan and neighboring countries was analyzed based on comparison of the following parameters of seed sector among the reviewed countries.

Seed Sectors Around the Globe

Seed Times May - August 2018

• Policy and regulatory framework/seed certification system

• Institutional arrangement/ seed certification agency.

• Technical arrangement/ stepwise seed certification.

• Role of private & public sectors in seed chain

The above parameters were reviewed in each of the mentioned countries to identify and consider significant factors and also procedures which may boost seed certification and quality production system of Afghanistan. 3. Reporting The overall data is organized as technical draft report after collection, assembling and analysis. This report contains abstract, introduction, methodology, result, ,major outcomes, opportunities, Key recommendation discussion, summary, conclusion and outcomes as well as references.

Results The result of the reviews of seed certification systems from six different countries including Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Turkey, European Union and Tanzania are presented based on parameters considered in the methodology chapter of this revision.

Seed Certification System in Afghanistan 1. Policy and Regulatory Framework (Certification system) 1.1. General Information In recent years, the provision of seeds to strengthen the recovery of agricultural production sector has become an important activity for Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and livestock (MAIL) and many other private agencies. ARIA, ISE and PSEs produce breeder, foundation and certified seeds respectively. ISE is recognized as part of MAIL but has an autonomous organizational structure and report directly to the Minister of MAIL through the Technical Deputy Minister and does not belong to other regular departmental structures. Seed and Planting materials Certification Directorate (SPCD) is responsible for seed certification which works as a directorate of MAIL and NSB secretariat. Late 1970s, there was no large-scale organized seed production and delivery system in Afghanistan. The Afghan Seed Company (ASC) was established in 1978 with the help of Asian Development Bank. ASC had responsibilities for seed production, processing, distribution and marketing. Later on it was changed to Improved Seed Enterprise (ISE) in 1985; ISE had its own seed production farms across the country. From 1982 to 1992, the Ministry of Agriculture, ISE, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) have implemented several joint seed projects in Afghanistan. The projects have also worked on vegetable seed production in five seed production farms. The Projects were followed by a seed improvement program, which focused on cereal crops, vegetable seedlings and fruit tree saplings for distribution to farmers. These facilities were destroyed during the Afghanistan conflict. After 1992 in-country seed multiplication of vegetables, wheat and maize were taking place with NGOs as implementing partners. The collapse of the Taliban regime and end of 23 years of conflict brought in several new players, including the Future Harvest Consortium (FHCRAA) led by ICARDA and supported by USAID, the French Cooperation and many national and/or international NGOs, to Rebuild Agriculture in Afghanistan. In the meantime FHCRAA/ICARDA renovated and equipped agricultural research stations and seed testing laboratories and initiated village-based seed enterprises. FAO has continued its role as seed industry leader in terms of variety improvement, seed production, seed enterprise

Seed Times May - August 2018

Seed Sectors Around the Globe

development and regulatory reform. The EU supported projects ‘Strengthening National Seed Production Capacity’ (2003-2006) and Variety Development and Seed Industry Regulation’ (2007-2011) have played a key role in reestablishing the seed sector in Afghanistan. 1.2. Legislative Documents 1.2.1 National Seed Policy Presently Afghanistan has the national seed policy which was officially published in 2012, with the National Seed Board serving as the focal point for coordinating all seed industry functions. The National Seed Board advises the Minister on all seed industry functions particularly matters relating to implementation of the Seed Law and National Seeds Policy. MAIL will maintain status of NSB having VRC for evaluation, release and registration of varieties and SCA as a semi-autonomous agency which is responsible for seed certification. 1.2.2. The Seed law The Afghanistan Seed Law published by the Ministry of Justice in official Gazette 1005 of 16 December 2009. This Seed Law covers true agricultural seeds as well as vegetatively propagated planting materials. The law is also expected to put important institutional arrangements in place including a National Seed Board, an independent Seed Certification Agency and a Variety Release Committee. With these developments, Afghanistan’s seed industry is surely heading in a positive direction in which it will serve as the formal guide and reference for all stakeholders and other relevant parties to follow. Currently Afghanistan has seed law, seed policy, rapidly growing private seed production sector, National Seed Organization, functional National Seed Secretariat and a quality control system working towards achieving international standards.

2. Institutional Arrangement (Seed certification agency) Seed and Planting materials Certification Directorate (SPCD) established in March, 2014 is responsible for seed certification and quality control which would be legally change to the seed certification agency based on seed law and policy of Islamic republic of Afghanistan. Presently the SPCD is legally authorized to manage seed certification and monitoring of seed quality as per consideration of seed law and policy. Seed certification is compulsory; seeds which are certified by the Seed Certification Directorate are called certified seeds. SPCD follow International standard procedures for seed certification and seed testing from OECD Schemes and ISTA respectively.

3. Technical Arrangement (Stepwise Seed Certification) In Afghanistan the formal seed sector has not developed as expected due to multiple reasons. Lack of proper organizational set up, inadequacy of trained manpower and limited private participation are some of the main drawbacks. All of the components and segments of activities are seriously affected by the overall weakness. Since then, especially after the enforcement of the Afghanistan seed law seed quality control showed some progress which is less than expected for its current status. It is intended to attempts to briefly review the system and identify points of intervention which will help to rehabilitate the seed quality aspect so as to serve the seed system in the best way possible. 3.1. Purpose of Seed Certification The purpose shall be to maintain and make available to the public, through seed certification, high quality seeds and propagating materials or varieties so grown and distributed as to maintain high quality, varietal purity and identity.

Seed Sectors Around the Globe

Seed Times May - August 2018

3.2. Steps Involved in Seed Certification

i. Application for seed production (Identifying the Seed Source and Amount of FS or RS Seed) should produce.

ii. Registration of sowing report

iii. Field inspection

iv. Seed processing

v. Seed sample and seed analysis

vi. Tagging and sealing

The below Field and Seed standards are specified and uniform throughout the country. These standards are proposed through FAO and are not yet officially introduced as national standards. Table 1: Field and seed standards for wheat seed in Afghanistan Standards

Breeder Seed

Foundation Seed

Certified Seed

Registered Seed

Field standards (field inspection) Rotation (minimum years)

Isolation (minimum meters)

Off-types and other varieties (maximum %)

1:10,000 (0.01%) 1:10,000 (0.01%) None

1:3,333 (0.03%) 1:2,000 (0.0.05%)

1: 1000 (0.1%) 1: 1000 (0.1%) 1: 2,000 (0.05%) 1: 2,000 (0.05%)

Other crops/species (maximum %) Noxious weeds (maximum %) Infected plants/seed-borne disease (maximum %) Seed standards (laboratory testing) Seed standards (laboratory testing)

Moisture content (maximum %)

None

1:3,333 (0.03%) 1:2,000 (0.0.05%) 1:4,000 (0,025)

1:3,333 (0.03%)

1:4,000 (0,025)

1:3,333 (0.03%)

Breeder Seed Foundation Seed 12% 12%

Registered Seed

Certified Seed

12%

Pure seed (minimum %)

99%

98%

Other crop seeds (maximum %)

None

0.20%

0.50%

Seeds of other varieties (maximum %) Infected seeds (maximum %) Noxious weed seeds (maximum %)

None

0.20%

0.50%

None None

0.10% 0.10%

0.20% 0.20%

0.50% 0.50%

Inert matter (Maximum %)

Germination (minimum %)

85%

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Seed Sectors Around the Globe

3.3. Seed Processing and Storage Seed processing and storage are carried out under the monitoring of SPCD with consideration of international standard procedures. The machines mostly used for wheat seed cleaning are mobile air-screen cleaners of different types imported either from India or Iran. There are a total of 77 machines in the country, of which 39 machines has capacity of 0.5 t/h, 24 machines of 1 t/h, seven machines of 1.5 t/h, three machines of 2 t/h, one machine of 2.5 t/h, two machines of 3 t/h and one machine of 4 t/h. These machines collectively give a combined total of 100 t/h capacity, which is sufficient to process about 34,000 tons of raw wheat seed in about nine weeks at a utilization rate of 40 hours per week.

4. Role of Public & Private Sectors in Seed Chain Both public and private sectors are involved in seed production, processing, storage and marketing in Afghanistan. Nucleus and breeder seed production takes place through ARIA in National Agriculture Research Farms throughout the country. Foundation and Registered classes of seed are produced through ISE in their farms and later on the foundation seed is distributed to Private Seed Enterprises (PSEs) for production of certified seed. PSEs produce certified seed and market it through their own network under the umbrella of Afghanistan National Seed Union (ANSU) as certified seed. Lack of coordination between private and public sectors results in low access of PSEs to the source seed from ISE and thus bring down the annual quantity of quality seed production in Afghanistan. Quality seed production chain in Afghanistan is focused more on strategic crops specifically wheat which is less profitable to private sector due to its high volume low value nature. In other reviewed countries private sector invested more in high value less volume seeds especially vegetable seed and hybrids. Due to less profitability the sector is not sustainable and PSEs are mostly dependent on government procurement system.

Seed Certification System in India 1. Policy and Regulatory Framework (Certification System) 1.1. General Information In India the field evaluation of the seed crop and its certification started with the establishment of National Seeds Corporation in 1963. In the year 1966 a legal status was given to seed certification with the enactment of first Indian Seed Act and formulation of Seed Rules in 1968. The required impetus for the establishment of official Seed Certification Agencies in each state was provided by the Seed Act, 1966. In many of the countries in the world, including India, seed certification is voluntary and labelling is compulsory. 1.2. Legislative Documents The Indian seed Act, 1966, Seed Rules, 1968 and Indian Minimum Seed Certification standards, 1988 are the main legislative structure for the quality seed production and seed certification in India. Indian seed production system recognizes three generations namely breeder, foundation and certified seeds and provides suitable safeguards for the maintenance of quality assurance in the seed multiplication chain, thus to save the purity of the variety. The production of Breeder seed is the mandate of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) and is being undertaken with the help of ICAR Research Institutions, National Research Centres, all India Coordinated Research Project of different crops, State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) with 14 centres established in different States, Sponsored breeders recognized by selected State Seed Corporations, Non-Governmental Organizations. It could be mentioned that, ICAR also promotes sponsored breeder. The responsibility for production of foundation seed has been entrusted to the NSC, SFCI, State Seeds Corporation, State Departments of Agriculture and private seed producers, who have the necessary infrastructure facilities. The production and distribution of quality/certified seeds is primarily the responsibility of the State Governments. Certified seed production is organized through State Seed Corporation, Departmental Agricultural Farms, and Cooperatives etc.

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Seed Times May - August 2018

2. Institutional Arrangement (Seed Certification Agency) 2.1. Seed Certification Agencies According to Seeds Act, 1966 Seed Certification Agencies were established in each State. First official Seed Certifications Agency was established in Maharashtra state during 1970 as part of the Department of Agriculture, while Karnataka was the first State to establish the Seed Certification Agency as an autonomous body during 1974. Seed Certification Agency should function on the following broad principles and have the following characteristics: •

It should be an autonomous body.

•

It should not involve itself in the production and marketing of seeds.

•

The Seed Certification Standards and procedures adapted by seed certification agency should be uniform, throughout the country.

•

It should have close linkage with the technical and other related institutions.

•

Its long-term objective should be to operate on no-profit no-loss basis.

• Adequate staff trained in seed certification should be maintained by the Certification Agency. • It should have provision for creating adequate facilities for ensuring timely and thorough inspections. • It should serve the interests of seed producers and farmers/users. 2.2. Organizational Set-up of Seed Certification Agency In India, Seed Certification Agencies are established in 22 States under the Seed Act, 1966. These agencies are managed through a proper organizational setup including Board of Directors, secretariat, technical staff and number of administrative staff required to successfully operate the programme. Seed Certification Agencies in India may have its own seed testing laboratory, in case if the agency does not have its own laboratory they can send samples to other authorized seed testing laboratories for testing.

3. Technical Arrangement (Stepwise Seed Certification) 3.1. Objectives of Seed Certification • The seed certification agency act under section 8 of the Indian seed Act. 1966. • Discharge the functions entrusted to the seed certification agency under section 9 and 10 of the seed act 1966 (Grant or revocation of certificate). • To recognize eligible varieties for seed certification and annual publication of lists which indicate the names of such varieties? • Maintain a list of sources of breeder and foundation seeds by the central seed certification board. • Outline the procedure for submission of application for growing, harvesting, processing, labelling and tagging of seeds intended for certification. • Verify upon receipt, an application for certification that the variety is eligible for certification, and the applications submitted are in accordance with the procedure prescribed for it and the seed used for planting is from the duly approved sources.

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Seed Sectors Around the Globe

• To conduct inspection of seed fields, seed processing plants and seed lots in accordance with the procedures out lined by the central seed certification board. • Regulate the processing of seeds at seed processing units. • Arrange for analysis of seed samples drawn from the seed lots that are produced under certification, based on procedure to verify their conformity to the prescribed standards. • Grant certificate, as per the prescribed procedure for seed certification. 3.2. Eligibility Requirements for Certification The eligibility of the any variety for the seed certification is to meet the following requirements: • General requirements. • Field standards. • Specific requirements. • Seed Standards. 3.2.1. General requirements • Variety should be notified under Section-5 of the Indian Seed Act, 1966. • Variety should be in the production chain and its pedigree should be traceable. 3.2.2. Field standards: Field standards are essential to be considered and include the selection of site, isolation requirements, spacing, planting ratio, border rows etc. 3.2.3. Specific Requirements: Some of requirements as presence of off-types in any seed crop, pollen-shedders in Sorghum, Bajra, Sunflower etc., Shedding tassels in maize crosses, disease affected plants, objectionable weed plants etc. need to be considered and should not be more than permissible levels to proceed seed certification. 3.3. General Procedure for Offering Area for Certification In general, regarding to the production of certified seeds the individuals/production agencies intending to produce seed under certification program, so they shall follow some general rules which are as follows: All the parental seed material to be used for seed production program shall be subjected for verification by the agency before the distribution for seed production. The seed producer/production agency shall submit to the certification agency one or more relevant evidence such as tags, labels, seals, seed container, purchase record, sales record as may be demanded by the certification agency at the time of submission of application. The seed production program offered for certification should be completed in Form-1. The registration may be withdrawn within 30 days of submission, otherwise refund of inspection/ registration charges would not be done. The seed producer should assist the agency staff in locating the seed plots & the production agency will guide their seed grower/farmer regarding package and practices of that crop and give them required technical guidance for

Seed Sectors Around the Globe

Seed Times May - August 2018

seed production such as removal of off types, ODV, weeds & maintenance of isolation etc. from the field before final inspection. Seed fields meeting all required field standards of certification shall be certified and their produce for processing shall be accepted at the recognized processing plants within the prescribed period as per the crop calendar. All necessary care should be taken to avoid admixtures during harvesting, threshing & transportation to the processing plants; the seed producer is equally responsible for accelerating process of certification at all levels of seed certification. Seed production agency shall ensure that the seed fields are within the limits of compact area. Except in unavoidable circumstances like floods, drought or on discretion of the Chairman/Director. 3.4 Steps of Seed Certification Seed Certification is carried out in six broad phases listed as under: • Verification of seed source, class and other requirements of the seed used for raising the seed crop. • Receipt and scrutiny of application. • Inspection of the seed crop in the field to verify its conformity to the prescribed field standards. • Supervision of all post-harvest stages including processing and packing. • Drawing of samples and arranging for analysis to verify conformity to the seed standards. • Grant of certificate, issue of certification tags, labelling, sealing etc. 3.5. Control measures for Seed certification 3.5.1. An Administrative check on the origin of the propagating material In the seed certification program, the first step is verification of source seeds. It should be from approved source and of designated class, otherwise certification agency will not accept the seed field for certification, thereby ensuring of high quality true to type seed is based for sowing of seed crops. 3.5.2. Field Inspection Some key points should be considered while evaluating growing crop in the field for varietal purity. In this respect isolation of seed crop is to prevent out-crossing, and also physical admixture as well as disease dissemination are critical issue to be inspected. Also to ensure the hygienic condition of crops as regards the spread of designated diseases and the presence of objectionable weed plants. The number of field inspections to be done in different stages of crop growth and vary from crop to crop. The following stages need to be considered which depends upon duration and nature of pollination of the seed crop. • Pre flowering stage. • Flowering stage. • Post flowering. • Pre-harvesting stage. • Harvest stage.

Seed Times May - August 2018

Seed Sectors Around the Globe

3.5.3. Sample inspection This is necessary so that the planting value of the seeds could be assessed by laboratory tests. Certification agency draws representative samples randomly from the seeds produced under certification programme and subjects them to purity and germination tests required for confirming g the varietal and physiological quality of the seed lot. Procedure of sampling • Ensure that the entire quantity of seed to be sampled belongs to one lot. • Draw approximately equal amount of primary samples, while drawing samples as per sampling intensity. • While taking sample from containers such as coarsely woven jute bags or burlap and cloth bags, triers can be used. For plastic or polyethylene bags samples by trier, probe or by hand may be taken. And for cloth bag few stitches at one of the top corners may be opened and be closed after sampling. • In case of sampling by hand in heaps as of cotton seeds insert hand into the seed in tight close position, open it after reaching any location inside the seed mass, collect seed and take out hand in tightly closed position. • If sample is taken with triers, the trier should be inserted into the bag in an inverted position i.e. cavity or slot of trier facing down, reverse the trier after it has gone sufficiently into the seed mass and draw out steadily with decreasing speed. 3.5.4. Bulk Inspection Bulk inspection need to be done under certification programme. Hence, the evaluation of the lot for the purpose of checking homogeneity of the bulk seed produced as compared with the standard sample is carried out. This could give an idea regarding the genuineness of seed lot. 3.5.5. Tags and labeling The certification tag shall contain the following information: • Name and address of certification agency as well as kind and variety of the seed. • Statement that seed of the variety is genetically pure. • Lot number/other identifying marks of the seed. • Name and address of the certified seed producer. • Date of issuance of the certificate; its validity period; the period which the seed shall be sown or planted; and the statement indicating that expired seed should not be allowed as certified. • An appropriate sign to designate certified seed. • And appropriate word denoting the certified seed class designation. • A statement that no one should purchase the seed if the seal or the certification tag has been tamped with.

Seed Sectors Around the Globe

Seed Times May - August 2018

3.5.6. Control plot testing or seed borne infection. Here the samples drawn from the lots are grown in the

Under seed certification system, this verification could be carried out with the provision of samples from the source field along with the standard checks. The cultivated plant could be observed for and final seed produced which will be grown side by side along with the standard samples of the variety in question. the varietal Grow-out testthe helps in purity the elimination theproduced sub-standard After comparison it can bepurity. determined whether varietal and health of of the seed are equal to the lots. achieved on field inspection. results whichseed had been

4. Role 3.5.7. Grow-out test of Public and Private Sectors in Seed Chain sector to has started to playor a seed significant role Evaluation ofRegarding the seeds seed could production, be done for the theirprivate genuineness species/varieties borne infection. Here the samples drawn fromseed the lots are grown thelast fieldfew along withInthethree standard Thethe cultivated in the industry over in the years. seedchecks. industry, private plant could be observed forseed the varietal purity. Grow-out helps inonthe elimination of the seed lots. companies has focusedtest primarily the high value, low sub-standard volume seeds while the market for low value high seeds of cereals, pulses and oilseeds is still 4. Role of Public and Private Sectors in volume Seed Chain

dominated by the public sector seed corporations. Private sector companies have a

Regarding seed production, the private started toof play a significant role in the seedPrivate industry over the last significant role mainly in thesector case has of production maize, sunflower and cotton. few years. Insector three is seed the private companies has focused on thematerials high value, low volume theindustry, dominant player in seed the case of vegetable seedsprimarily and planting seeds while of thehorticultural market for low value high volume seeds of cereals, pulses and oilseeds is still dominated by the crops. The public sector seed corporations will continue to remain public sector seed corporations. Private sector companies have a significant role mainly in the case of production dominant in cereals, pulses and oilseeds for many more years to come, because the of maize, sunflower and cotton. Private sector is the dominant player in the case of vegetable seeds and planting sectorcrops. presently has nosector interest produce high low materials ofprivate horticultural The public seedtocorporations willvolume continue to margin remain crops dominant in cereals, of wheat, otheryears cereals, oilseeds and the pulses. It could mentioned 15 pulses and oilseeds forpaddy, many more to come, because private sectorbepresently hasthat, no interest to produce Seedscrops Corporation 2 National level seeds Corporations Seeds high volumeState low margin of wheat,and paddy, other cereals, oilseeds and pulses.(National It could be mentioned that, 15 of India & State Corporation(National of India)Seeds are Corporation functioning of in India the & State Farms State Seeds Corporation and 2 National level Farms seeds Corporations Corporationcountry. of India)The are contribution functioning of in the country. contribution ofinprivate sectorproduction seed companies in total private sectorThe seed companies total seed seed production of the country is explained in the following figure: of the country is explained in the following figure:

Figure 1: Contribution of private sector seed companies in total seed production of India

Review of Seed Regulatory System in Afghanistan and Neighboring Countries

Seed Times May - August 2018

Seed Sectors Around the Globe

Seed Certification System in Turkey 1. Policy and Regulatory Framework (Seed Certification System) 1.1. General Information In line with the seed law No.308 and seed law No. 3976, seed certification is implemented by the Variety Registration and Seed Certification Center (VRSCC) on behalf of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs. The VRSCC was established on 01/01/1987, following the amalgamation of seed control and certification institute (1959) and variety testing and registration institute (1960). Production of certified seed is limited to registered varieties only. In general certification is compulsory for agricultural and horticultural crops registered either permanently or provisionally. Each year about 65000 ha of seed production fields are supervised; approximately 5000 laboratory tests conducted; and 300 OECD and 800 ISTA certificates issued. Also it should be mentioned that about 2500 seed certificates are granted locally and 1000 samples are analyzed for market control each year. VRSCC is a member of the International Seed Testing Association (ISTA) and Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). All the procedures, respectively for variety certification and seed testing are based on OECD and ISTA standards. Since 1968, Turkey is participating in OECD Seed Schemes and Equivalencies with EU certification since 1989 (which allows turkey to export seed to EU countries). The Seed testing laboratory has been accredited in 2001. 1.2. Legislative Documents 1.2.1. National seed policy The frame work of seed law No.308 and seed law No. 3976 is base of seed certification. Turkey made major structural reform and adapted a free market economic policy in early 1980 and this reform extremely affected the seed sector. In the seed sector several policy measures had been implemented by government. For instance the establishment of infrastructure for seed production and marketing, liberalized seed import and export, provision of low interest credit for investment and creation of incentives for foreign companies to enter the seed market. The Seed Department of General Directorate of Agricultural Production and Development is responsible for implementing national seed policy on behalf of the Ministry. National seed policy and regulations are suitable for private enterprise development. At present there are approximately 93 private seed companies in Turkey, of which 46 are registered with the Turkish Seed Industry Association.

2. Institutional Arrangement (Seed Certification Agency) Seed certification system governs by VRSCC and also some of the seed certification phases are the responsibility of provincial agricultural directorates. VRSCC is responsible for field inspection of seed for export. The plant protection and control units of the provincial directorate of agriculture are responsible for field inspection in the regions. Some private seed companies have internal seed quality control systems. The main duties of VRSCC regarding certification are as follows: • Conducting variety release and registration trail. • Preparing reports for variety release and registration board. • Keeping records and sample of registered varieties. • Providing seed quality control and certification services.

Seed Sectors Around the Globe

Seed Times May - August 2018

• Preparing certificates according to OECD and ISTA. • Providing technical services on variety protection. • Conducting training and publishing workshops proceedings. 2.1. Organizational Set up of Seed Certification Agency VRSCC has three departments working on variety registration, seed certification and variety protection. Also it has one variety testing station and five regional seed testing laboratories. However, field inspection and market control is the responsibility of provincial agricultural directorates. The VRSCC has 26 staff comprising agricultural engineers (2PhDs), 10 technicians, 10 administrative personnel and workers (2001). A number of institutions are collaborating with VRSCC including public/private research institutions, universities, TSE (Turkish Standardization Institute), TIGEM (General Directorate of Agricultural Administrations) and provincial agricultural directorates (Plant Protection and Control Units).

3. Technical Arrangement (Stepwise Seed Certification) 3.1. Characteristics of Variety Registration • Implementing Regulation 1997/25640 on ‘’Registration of plant varieties’’. • All plant species covered. • For agricultural plant species, the registration process is done according to the results of DUS and VCU tests. • Vegetable, fruits, vine and ornamental plant varieties are registered and listed solely upon the results of DUS tests. • Following the successful completion of required lab analyses and field tests, the varieties are registered and denominated according to decision of the National Registration Committee (12 stakeholder representatives). • Within a particular species, same and similar names were not allowed for new varieties. • Registered varieties are published in the Official Gazette and placed in National Variety List. 3.2. Phases of Seed Certification In general, seed certification is carried out the in the following step-wise phases/ control measures. • Field inspection. • Seed sampling. • Seed testing. • Labelling. • Post Control. • Marketing Control. Some of the critical rules need to be considered while doing seed certification system and they are varied and related to each step of seed certification which is explained as follows:

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Seed Sectors Around the Globe

3.2.1. Field inspection • Implementing Regulation 2004/25376 on “Field Inspectors’’ • The field inspection on variety identification, variety purity, isolation requirements and diseases are carried out by authorized inspectors from the VRSCC (Variety Registration and Seed Certification Centre) and Regional Seed Certification Directorates or Provincial Directorates of MARA. • All marketed species are inspected according to methods and standards defined by MARA. • After inspection, a field inspection report is prepared for each and every seed production plot. 3.2.2. Seed Sampling • Sampling is carried out by an authorized inspector in accordance with the ISTA Rules. • Sampling method, size of seed lot, minimum sample weight of marketed species is determined by MARA. • Samples in sealed packages are sent to the nearest regional certification laboratory for seed quality testing. 3.2.3. Seed Testing • Seed testing is carried out by VRSCC and 5 regional seed certification laboratories. • Laboratory analyses are carried out using the ISTA rules of seed testing. • Seed standards of the listed and marketed species are determined by the MARA. • Physical analyses (inert matter, other seed, wild seed etc.) and germination tests are compulsory for seed certification. • Upon the results of laboratory analysis, seed samples which conform to the appropriate seed category standards are certified. 3.2.4. Labeling • Circular No.1998/410 on ‘’Labels of certified seeds’’ • Certified seed for varieties published in National Variety List is labeled by VRSCC and TURK-TED (Turkish Seed Industry Association). • Label information and size depend on the category of seed. • A different serial number is given to each label for the purpose of tracing. Table 2: Label colors are in line with EU standards No.

Type of seed

Pre-basic seed

Label colour White label with diagonal purple stripe

Basic Seed

White

Registered Seed

White label with diagonal blue stripe

4 5 6

Cert. Seed 1 Generation Cert. Seed 2nd Generation Not finally certified seed

Blue

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Red Grey

Seed Times May - August 2018

3.2.5. Post Control • Tests are carried out by VRSCC. • 100% of the basic seeds and 10% of certified seeds lots are subject to Post Control tests. • Results of the tests are evaluated and relevant institutions are notified by VRSCC. 3.2.6. Market Control • Implementing Regulation No.1988/19861 on “basic principles which the seed retailers must comply with’’ • Market control is carried out by Provincial Directorates of MARA. • Penalties related to “market control’’ violations are determined by various laws. • Random samples during market controls are sent to the VRSCC and Regional Seed Certification Labs for testing. 3.2.7. Vegetable seed • Instruction 1991/122367 on ‘’Marketing of standard vegetable seed’’ • Production is carried out by authorized producers. • Producers are responsible for the maintenance of varietal purity, verification of name and compliance with seed quality standards. • Market control is carried out by authorized inspectors. • Standard vegetable seed produced in accordance with this legislation is subject to post control tests. • All propagation processes are carried out according to implementing Regulation 2004/25553 on ‘’Supply, Production and Marketing with respect to Vegetable Seedling’’. • Seedlings belonging to the vegetable varieties in the Catalogue are marketed only by controlling for diseases and quality standards.

4. Role of Public & Private Sectors in Seed Chain Initially, the national seed industry was dominated by the public sector. But based on changed government policy, the private sector was provided incentives to participate and invest in plant breeding, infrastructure development and technology transfer. Seed production system has been handled by both public and private sectors. The seeds of wheat, barley, rice and cotton are produce by the public sector whereas the private sector produces almost all seed of all hybrids (maize, sunflower, and vegetable), soybean, potato and some forage crops and exclusively involved in international trade. According to the existing certification system, four classes of seed are recognized: a) Breeder b) foundation c) registered and d) certified seed. The production of breeder (elite) seed, pre basic (original) and basic seeds is the responsibility of Agriculture research institutes, universities and nucleus farms. Public and private sectors take over the responsibilities of certified (control) seeds. Public sector produce seed on state farms whereas private sector carried out seed production on its own land or on contract with farmers. That is also mentionable that some of the private companies import parental lines (basic seeds) as well as produce certified seeds in local form. From the total seed required, certified seed covers 100% (sugar beet),75% (sunflower), 35% (soybean), 30% (maize), 25% (wheat), 10% (barley), 20% (potato) and 25% (non-hybrid vegetables). The role of public and private sectors in seed production of Turkey during 1999 – 2000 is presented in following figure.

Seed Times May - August 2018

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state farms whereas private sector carried out seed production on its own land or on contract with farmers. That is also mentionable that some of the private companies import parental lines (basic seeds) as well as produce certified seeds in local form. From the total seed required, certified seed covers 100% (sugar beet),75% (sunflower), 35% (soybean), 30% (maize), 25% (wheat), 10% (barley), 20% (potato) and 25% (non-hybrid vegetables). The role of public and private sectors in seed production of Turkey during 1999 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2000 is presented in following figure. Figure 2: Role of public and private sectors in seed production of Turkey.

Source: MARA, bbozkurt@tarim.gov.tr, 2001.

Figure 2: Role of public and private sectors in seed production of Turkey.

Source: MARA, System bbozkurt@tarim.gov.tr, Seed Certification in Pakistan2001.

1. Policy and Regulatory Framework (Seed Certification System)

Seed Certification System in Pakistan

1.1. General Information

Policy and Regulatory Framework System) The seed1. business in Pakistan consisted of the formal and informal(Seed sectors, Certification the formal seed system largely followed the rules and regulations in place to manage variety release, quarantine, intellectual property rights on plant varieties1.1. and General genes, seed Information certification, product labeling, marketing and pricing. This segment generally tended to be influenced, if not driven, by government This note focuses on salient aspects ofsectors, the seed the industry in The seed business in Pakistanpolicies. consisted of the formal and informal Pakistan, and on the role of the major players involved in the seed business. It will consider the role of the public formal seed system largely followed the rules and regulations in place to manage sector in the regulation, production, processing and distribution of seeds. It will also discuss the growing role of the formal private sector, as well as the continuing entrenchment of the informal sector. The broader perspective of international experiences and reforms will also be discussed, as well as the emerging debate on genetically Review of Seed Regulatory System in Afghanistan and Neighboring Countries modified24 organisms (GMOs). There were six seed trade associations operating in the country. The Seed Companies Association of Pakistan (SCAP) was formed for multinational seed companies, like Monsanto, Pioneer, ICI and Syngenta. The chairmanship of SCAP was on a rotation basis shared annually by its members. It was involved in advocating its perspective on the Plant Breeders Rights to the Government of Pakistan, and was primarily interested in increasing the multinationalsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; share in the seed sector. The All Pakistan Seed Merchants and Seed Dealers Association operated on the national level and looked after the interest of vegetable seed dealers. The Pakistan Society of Seed Technologists (PAKSSET) provided a forum for professionals and scientists in the seed sector. PAKSSET worked for the development of seed technology and advancement of the profession in the country. All Sindh Private Seed Companies Organization represented interests of seed companies situated in Sindh, whereas the Association of Seed Companies of Pakistan was established by private seed companies in Sahiwal, Okara and Pakpattan districts of the Punjab. Growth Potential in Seed Industry The availability of quality seed played an important role in enhancing the productivity of agriculture. However, the seed production and supply system was inadequate to meet the national requirements. The average annual certified

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seed distribution, from 1997-98 to 2000-01, by the public and private sector, was 108,879 MT for wheat; 2,936 MT for rice; 2,441 MT for maize, and 29,057 MT for cotton. The public sector provided the bulk of self-pollinated crops such as wheat and rice. The private sector provided nearly 80 per cent of the commercial crops such as cotton and maize, where seed demand was more predictable because of hybrid seed. In 2001, an estimated 209,026 MT of various seeds were distributed, covering 16 per cent of the estimated national seed requirement. The formal sector seed industry in Pakistan provided less than 20 per cent of the seed requirements through both local production and import. While the informal sector filled the gap, the quality of seeds and their supply was not stable. There remained immense potential for growth given the persisting seed shortage in Pakistan. The market size and supply problem existed especially for high yielding varieties, of crops such as rice and wheat, which were self-pollinated. With self-pollinated seeds, even when new genetic materials were introduced, farmers could save seeds for several crop generations.

1.2. Legislative Documents Seed regulation The Departments of Agriculture of each of Pakistan’s four provinces had nominally been responsible for making arrangements for the production, quality control and distribution of major crop seeds. Most importantly, to provide a legal regulation and control of the quality of seed, the Seed Act of 1976 was promulgated. The Act provided a regulatory framework for variety registration and seed quality control, by setting up an institutional infrastructure that included the National Seed Registration Department and the Federal Seed Certification Department, as executive arms of the National Seed Council. In 1997, these two Departments were amalgamated into FSCRD. The National Seed Council, chaired by the Federal Minister for Food, Agriculture and Livestock, became the supreme body for formulating national policies and regulating the seed sector. It became responsible for providing approvals and sanctions for seed standards, and for regulating inter-provincial movements of seed. It also approved variety registration and release at the national level. In addition, provincial seed councils were established, to approve crop varieties for seed production, and to make arrangements for seed multiplication, processing and marketing in their respective provinces. These councils had a wider representation of major institutions and stakeholders concerned with the seed industry, such as institutes, registration/certification agencies, seed producers and farmers. The government also encouraged the participation of the private sector and enacted the Truth-in-Labeling (Seeds) Rules 1991. These rules allowed the marketing of seed by declaring and correct labeling of quality attributes and related information. This policy encouraged the development of the private sector. Several companies were granted permission to produce and market seed in the country. The free market economic policy adopted by the government further promoted private sector seed operations. NSC works under the Federal Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock, Government of Pakistan, below is the Composition of NSC. The functions of the National Seed Council interlaid shall be: • To advise on policy for the development, operation and regulation of the Provincial Seed Industries. • To maintain a watch on the operation of the provisions of this Act. • To guide in administering the seed quality control service. • To direct initiation of Provincial Seed Projects. • To ensure and protect investment in the seed industry. • To approve and sanction seed standards. • To regulate inter-provincial seed movement.

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• To advise on import of seeds. • To assist in developing approved seed production farms.

2. Institutional Arrangement (Seed Certification Agency) Seed certification system is a legal and regulatory mechanism. It is performed by the Federal Seed Certification and Registration Department, an attached department of the Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock. Under the Seed Act of 1976, FSCRD provided quality control through registration of crop varieties, crop inspection and seed testing. FSCRD thus acted as the quality control agency for all seed categories. Seed quality control was mainly based on crop inspection and laboratory testing, to ensure that the seed met minimum standards laid down in the regulations. It performed its regulatory functions through 17 laboratories, located in various parts of the country. All seed quality control activities were enforced under the legal framework of the Seed Act of 1976. The Truth-inLabeling (Seed) Rules 1991 were also introduced under the same Seed Act, to encourage the emerging private sector. Seed certification became compulsory for the domestic production of the notified crop varieties, registered and approved either by the National Seed Council or Provincial Seed Councils. The FSCRD was authorized to regulate the quality of the seed imported and exported. Under the Truth-in-Labeling (Seeds) Rules of 1991, import and export of seeds were allowed subject to the following requirements: i. All imported seed had to bear a label with information concerning crop/species; variety; quantity, lot number, per cent purity, per cent germination, per cent other seeds, month/year of production, and date of expiry; ii. Seed import was allowed only of those varieties that were approved in the National Register for seed and crop production in Pakistan; iii. Seed lots up to 10 kg were imported for experimental use upon approval of the Ministry; iv. The importer needed to inform the FSCRD of the probable date of arrival of the shipment, and notify FSCRD for drawing samples for testing. For safeguarding the interest of the seed industry and farmers, the FSCRD monitored the quality of seed by enforcing the Seed Act of 1976 and Truth-in-Labeling (Seeds) Rules of 1991 for seed imported from other countries. This provided a check against the entry of virulent pathogens. However, the problem of indiscriminate seed imports by unauthorized traders continued to elude these checks.

3. Technical Arrangement (Stepwise Seed Certification) To maintain and make availability of genetically pure seeds of improved varieties, the whole process is done at two main stages. i. The crop raised for the production of seed is inspected by FSC&RD for genetically purity. ii. The seed samples are drawn after harvest of the crop and analyzed in the laboratory for evaluation on the basis of prescribed seed standard (analytical purity). In addition to this, pre and post control plots are laid out to ascertain the genetic purity of the seed and seed-borne diseases. 3.1. Field Inspection The purpose of crop inspection is to determine whether or not the crop is suitable for the production of seed of the standard required. The genetic purity of seed crop is assessed through field crop inspection. Inspection is carried out only for notified varieties based on physio-morphology characteristics develop through DUS studies. Before carrying out crop inspection, the following preliminaries are verified: • Verification of the source from the labels, seals, bags or receipt of seed purchased.

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• Acreage and location of the seed field. • Cropping history of the field where the seed crop is grown. • Isolation distance of seed crops from other crops. • Condition and health of the crop to carry out crop inspection properly. Crop must not be very much weedy or damaged. • Application from grower or seed agency, requesting for crop inspection. If all the above conditions are found satisfactory then a detailed assessment of the crop is carried out to determine the following factors: • Admixture with other cultivars • Admixture with other species • Presence of weeds particularly obnoxious weed plants • Presence of seed-borne diseases After the crop inspection, the grower or seed company is informed about the decision/recommendations or other measures, necessary to bring the crop up to the prescribed standards. At final inspection, a certificate is issued by the department on the prescribed form. 3.2. Seed Sampling and Quality Testing Seed testing is carried out to assess the analytical purity of seed lot. The following steps are taken to ensure quality of seed lot. Seed samples are drawn from the produce whose fields have been certified subject to the prescribed written request by the grower. Three samples are drawn from each seed lot by the officer of the FSC&RD according to the method as prescribed in ISTA procedures (1990). One sample is given to the respective seed testing laboratory and 2nd is handedover to the grower or seed agency. The 3rd sample is submitted to the central seed testing laboratory for post control check. It should be ensured before seed sampling that seed lot must be homogeneous. Credibility of results depends on the representative samples. Numbers of seed samples are drawn according to the size of seed lot. Working samples are made from the submitted samples in the laboratory. Each seed of the working seed samples is physically examined using magnifying lens. Doubtful seeds are further examined under stereo-microscope. Every crop seed is examined for purity on the basis of morphological characters of particular crop variety. Seed sample is analyzed for the assessment of the following factors. • Purity (pure seed). • Mixture of the crop seed (other distinguishable varieties • Presence of weeds. • Inert matter. • Seed-borne diseases. • Moisture test.

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• Thousand seed weight. • Germination. • Seed lots are rejected or accepted on the basis of seed standards prescribed by the National Seed Council for individual crops. 3.3. Issuing of Seed Analysis Certificate and Temporary Labels After the seed analysis in the laboratory for the above mentioned factors, certificate of fitness is issued by the department and temporarily labels are also issued. These labels carry the following information printed on it: • Federal Seed Certification and Registration Department. • Reference number. • Species. • Cultivar. • No. of bags/containers. • Approximate weight of seed lots. All the seed lots are processed at processing plants/units by the seed agency. During processing, seed samples are drawn and analyzed in the laboratory. After this, a certificate is issued on the prescribed form and final labels and seals are also issued on the spot. 3.4. Re-testing of Seed Lots To assess any deterioration during storage, a re-test sample is drawn from each lot at two months prior to its actual distribution/sale. Seed samples are analyzed for all the factors as mentioned above. Finally, the seed agencies are allowed to offer seed lots cleared by the FSC&RD. 3.5. Checking Seed Lot During Marketing and Import or Export To check the sale of deteriorated, inferior and low quality seed, the Federal Seed Certification Department monitors the quality of seed during distribution and marketing. The department has established a system of seed testing under the Seed (Truth-in- Labeling) Rules, 1991 and also in accordance to the guidance of import policy 1999. Seed samples are drawn from all the seed consignments and tested for their analytical purity and germination. The label placed on the containers is verified. If the seed lot does not match with the information given on the label, the consignment is not allowed to sale as seed in Pakistan. 3.6. Seed Marketing and Pricing Seed marketing was a vital component of the seed industry across the world. Its effective management had protected the interests of not only the plant variety originating institutes and companies, but also of seed producers, distributors and farmers. Effective seed marketing required advertising, public relations work, sales aids, awareness and information related seminars, and investment in demonstration plots. The marketing of quality seeds also required an effective transportation and delivery system, quality storage and packing, and effective technical support. Neither public nor even private sector organizations paid sufficient attention to seed promotion activities, such as publicity of quality seeds, establishment of seed demonstration plots, or dissemination of relevant literature on seeds. Very nominal publicity was carried out through the electronic media by seed companies. The PSC was perhaps the most active, but it too used advertising only at the onset of the wheat and cotton sowing seasons.

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Seed Times May - August 2018

4. Role of Public & Private Sectors in Seed Chain In Pakistan, seed production was carried out by both public and private sector organizations. The public sector was involved not only in producing, processing and distributing seeds, it also provided the regulatory framework and policy base on which the seed industry operated. The incentives to private sector investment in seed research and development across the world remained contingent upon improvements in the institutional deficiencies relating to efficiency and information in seed and input markets. These improvements included strengthening testing and certification systems, consumer protection, farmer education, dissolution of state owned monopolies, and other related strategies. They could only be accomplished with participation by both public and private actors. With a more constructive set of signals to private enterprise, agrarian producers could better recognize and adopt new technologies on seed Certification system , thereby increasing agricultural productivity and output.

Seed Certification System in European Union 1. Policy and Regulatory Framework (Seed certification system) 1.1. General Information The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) of the EU aims at responding to the public demand for a sustainable agricultural sector in Europe by enhancing the competitiveness of the agricultural sector, ensuring sufficient and secure food supply, preserving the environment and the countryside while providing for a fair standard of living for the agricultural community. The European Seed Association is a trade association for the seed industry in the European Union and the European Economic Area, which established in November, 2000. In order to be marketed in the EU, a plant variety must be listed (or registered) in a national catalogue. Two EU Common Catalogues, covering agricultural plant species (such as beet, potatoes, wheat, barley or grasses) and vegetable species, collate information on the plant varieties registered at the MS level. The registration process involves the carrying out of obligatory ‘DUS’ tests, in order to confirm that the variety is: • Distinct (clearly distinguishable on one or more important characteristics from any other registered variety) • Uniform (composed of identical plants) • Stable (can conserve its essential characteristics over successive generations). A general distinction is drawn between varieties of agricultural plant species and vegetable species. Both are subject to DUS tests but agricultural varieties are additionally subject to VCU (Value for Cultivation and Use) trials, which test agronomic performance such as, for example, yield capacity. 1.2. Legislative Documents European Seed Association (ESA) is potential impact for seeds, may lead to testing requirements for absence of contamination of seeds in seed lots (weed analysis/ purity testing); important to define practical sample sizes etc. Mostly European countries have obtained membership of International Seed Testing Association (ISTA), Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and The International Union for the Protection of new Varieties (UPOV) such as: Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Greece, Holland, and Hungary. The EU is a net exporter of seeds, with the value of the EU commercial seed market estimated at €6.8 billion. In Europe, according to the European Seed Association (ESA), over 7000 companies, many of them small or medium-sized, are active in the sector, which accounts for some 50000 jobs.

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2. Institutional Arrangement (Seed Certification Agency) European Association of national agencies in charge of seed and plant material certification is created in Nov, 2000. The association is named ESCAA (European Seed Certification Agencies Association). It brings together every seed certification bodies from European Union, European Economic Area (EEA) and European Free Trade Association (EFTA).

3. Technical Arrangement (Stepwise Seed Certification) Unified system of certification to give the user of seed guarantees in respect of varietal identity and purity, germination capacity and specific purity as well as guaranteeing the seed bought from a plant health point of view: • Field inspection • Seed sampling • Seed testing • Labeling/sealing • Post control

3.1. Conditions for Certification of Seed Crops 3.1. 1. Contracts • Seed crops must be grown under a written contract, which is drawn up between the Seed Processor and the Grower. • All labels attached to bags must be retained by the grower at sowing time and be presented to the Department Officer on his first visit. 3.1. 2. Listing of varieties: Listing of varieties in EU countries take placed as follow: • Distinctness, Uniformity and Stability (DUS). • Satisfactory value for cultivation and use (VCU) for agricultural crops. • Rules on Denomination. • On basis of information from Member States. 3.1.3. Isolation • The minimum isolation requirements are a physical barrier (e.g. a continuous hedge, ditch, fence or road), two meters of a non-cereal crop or two meters of clean fallow ground between the crop and another cereal crop. • Where only part of a crop is to be taken for seed, the whole crop must be inspected and the results fully recorded, unless the part is isolated from the remainder. Crop Condition • The cultural condition of the field and the stage of development of the crop must be such as to permit a sufficient check of identity, varietal purity, and state of health.

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• The crops must not be so stunted, weedy, diseased or damaged that adequate inspections are impossible. Crops more than one-third lodged at the time of inspection will be rejected.

3.2. Crop Inspections The Seed Certification Directorate of Agriculture will arrange official inspections of all crops entered for certification by the seed processor, crop inspections will be carried out in accordance with the official procedures for combinable crops issued by Department of Agriculture to all crop inspectors. • Each crop is inspected at various stages during the growing season. • To pass field inspection a crop must conform to the prescribed field standards. • If the inspection results show that any one of the standards or reject values has been exceeded, the crop must be rejected or downgraded where this is appropriate. • Hand rouging of occasional plant is permitted. • If a crop fails to meet the prescribed standards both the grower and Seed processor is so informed by the local Department of Agriculture crop inspector. • The presence of one seed of any of these species in 500gr shall not be considered an impurity if a second sample of 500gr is found to be free of seeds of such species. • Seeds shall not be regarded as an impurity if a second sample of 500gr is completely free of any seeds of other cereal species. • Where the numbers of these seeds exceed the tolerance level for the relevant sample size, the recommendation is that the seed be re-cleaned.

3.3. Purpose of Field Inspection The purpose of field inspections is as follows: • Confirm the crop entry details, including the correct location of the field. • Authenticate the seed sown. • Positively identify the variety. • Detect and record admixture with other varieties. • Detect and record admixture with other cereals. • Assess wild oat contamination in the crop. • Check the isolation requirements. • Assess the general condition of the crop in respect of spray damage, weeds and disease. • Assess the amount of lodging. To provide consumers with certified seed of acceptable physical quality, seed certification schemes usually also apply minimum seed physical standards.

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3.4. Physical Quality Standards May Include • Physical purity (amount of pure seed compared to broken or cracked seed, chaff, straw, dirt, sticks or stones) • Other crop seeds • Weed seeds Plants are grown from seed of high genetic purity can be expected to look and perform in the manner as originally bred and described by the breeder. This in turn provides users of certified seed with the confidence that the expected advantages of a cultivar can be delivered. Examples of important genetic characteristics include: • Seedling vigor • Insect resistance • Disease resistance • Cold season productivity • High seed yield • Non seed shattering • Specific grain or seed qualities

3.5. Label Information Each label will show the following information: • Name of licensing authority • Country of origin of seed • Category of seed • Name of species in English and botanical name • Name of variety • Weight of seed in container • Lot Number • Date of closing of the container

3.6. Control Plot Tests • Control plot tests are used to monitor the identity and purity of variety (being hybrid or non- hybrid), at various stages in the seed multiplication program, thereby assuring the Designated Authority that the quality of seed produced in the OECD Schemes is of a satisfactory level. • The control plot tests are designed to answer two questions:

– Does the sample generally conform to the description of the variety, thereby confirming its identity?

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Seed Times May - August 2018

– Does the sample conform to the published standards for varietal purity?

• The first question can be answered by making a visual comparison between the control plot, sown with a sample of seed representative of the seed lot, and a plot grown from a reference sample, hereafter referred to as the “Standard Sample”. • The second question requires the identification of off-type plants within the control plot so that their numbers can be related to the standards published in the OECD Seed Schemes. This test measures the uniformity of the seed lot and determines whether or not the characteristics of the variety have remained unchanged during seed multiplication; it will also indicate the effectiveness of limiting the number of crop generations.

3.7. Processing & Marketing of Seed After harvesting, collection of raw seed is continuing for processing, the seed is marketed in a range of pack sizes such as 50 kg sacks, 500 kg and 1 ton “big bags”. Modern plants have automatic systems that fill the bags with the appropriate quantity of seed. The Department of Agriculture does not certify the quantity of seed in each package. All packages of certified seed must be officially “closed” or sealed. In the case of 50 kg sacks, the stitching on of the official label as the sack is top-stitched is the official sealing mechanism. 500 kg and 1 ton must be sealed using an official seal, tie seal or, the label can be stitched on the bulk bags similar to the 50kg bags.

4. Role of Public & Private Sectors in Seed Chain Public-private partnerships have seemed to have a renaissance in market economies in the last three decades. Before PPPs started spreading, it was possible to observe the process of privatization, whereby public assets were coming under private control to speed up economic growth. However, in Western Europe and North America, privatization also resulted in a loss of public benefits in 100 percent privately owned businesses. Since it is impossible to completely divide development activities based on whether they serve private or public interests, and admitting that in order to serve both, synthesizing control is needed, PPP models appeared. These models supposedly combined the strengths of public and private control. The efforts of the Accession Countries to reform and upgrade infrastructure and services could potentially benefit from the PPP approach. This is particularly true, given the enormous financing requirements to bring these infrastructures up to the standards. The Commission has identified four principal roles for the private sector in PPP schemes: •

To provide additional capital;

• To provide alternative management and implementation skills; • To provide value added to the consumer and the public at large; • To provide better identification of needs and optimal use of resources; PPPs are a means of bringing the best features of the public and private sector together. The private sector can leverage its advantages in creative financing, greater operational efficiency, lower costs of distribution, more complex delivery systems, faster decision-making, management flexibility and innovation. If the performance incentives for PSP are structured correctly, the private sector may well be more responsive. Where an infrastructure project is likely to generate sufficient user fees to support the raising of capital by the private sector, this enables the conventional public financing model of infrastructure to change dramatically. Instead of the public sector making a large up-front capital funding commitment, followed by funding of operating expenditure over time, the private sector provides the capital and makes investments within the framework of a concession or longterm lease arrangement. User fees support the recovery of these capital costs.

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Seed Certification System in Tanzania 1. Policy and Regulatory Framework (Seed Certification System) 1.1. General Information Agriculture is an important sector in Tanzania employing 80 percent of the Tanzanian population. It contributes 95 percent of the food requirements and accounted for about 26.7 percent of the GDP. Prior to the 1970s Tanzania didn’t have seed sector hence the formal seed sub-sector was established in the 1970’s as a seed project under the assistance of the USAID. Certified seed is normally available for maize, sorghum, beans, and rice, as well as vegetables and some oil crops. Around 55 seed companies are registered and members of Tanzania Seed Testing Association formed in 2002. 1.2. Legislative Documents Research in developing new varieties, Seed farms, and formation of the National Seed Company (TANSEED) are established in 1973. TANSEED faced several problems resulting in its collapse; Poor reputation due to delivery of poor quality seeds, inadequate marketing promotion and inadequate managerial skills. Tanzania has 54 registered and active seed companies, which are also members of the Tanzania Seed Trade Association (TASTA), as well as some 1500 registered agro dealers. Several NGOs support farmers through training on seed production and marketing. Only 28.6 thousand tons were made available to farmers through formal seed system in 2011/2012 and out of this, 14,000 tons of seeds were produced locally and the rest of the demand met through imports or use of farm saved seeds. Status on production and research programs are discussed on maize, rice, sorghum and beans.

2. Institutional Arrangement (Seed Certification Agency) The Seed Act No. 29 of 1973 was enacted and Tanzania Official Seed Certification Agency (TOSCA) was launched, with three laboratories to regulate quality of seeds. Agriculture occupies a very important place in the lives of Tanzanians as well as the national economy. Tanzania has membership of International Seed Testing Association (ISTA) and still doesn’t obtain the membership of Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and The International Union for the Protection of new Varieties (UPOV).

3. Technical Arrangement (Stepwise Seed Certification) Mostly Seed Certification Institute of Tanzanian pursuant the following procedures: • No seed shall be certified unless; it has been produced, inspected, sampled, tested, and complied with the standards. • Varieties released in Tanzania pursuant to regulation 4 shall be eligible for certification. • Seed shall be classified in four classes (Breeder Seed, Foundation Seed, Registered Seed and Certified Seed). • Minister may make rules and procedures for certification and control of Quality Declared Seed (QDS) and tree seed. 3.1. Variety Release and Registration i. No variety shall be released in Tanzania unless it has passed DUS test, evaluated through the National Performance Trial and recommended for release by the National Seed Committee.

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ii. There are hereby established sub-Committees of the National Seed Committee to be known as the National Variety Release Committee (NVRC) and the National Performance Trial-Technical Committee (NPT-TC). iii. The National Variety Release Committee shall be responsible for reviewing recommendations from the National Performance Trial Technical Committee and recommend for variety release to the National Seed Committee. 3.2. Seed Classes and Standards • Seed of every plant species shall:

– Not contain any objectionable weed seed.

– If classified with the name of Tanzania seed class, not be mixed with any other seed class.

– For each seed lot sold as “Pre- basic seed”, “Basic seed” ”Certified 1” or “Certified

• Any seeds offered for sale shall be subjected to a test or tests after seven months from the date on which the last test was performed to determine the percentage of germination required to be shown on the label thereof. • Without prejudice to the provision of sub-regulation (3), the Chief Seed Certification Officer may, prescribe longer or shorter periods for re-testing. • It shall be the responsibility of seed dealer to call an Inspector for resampling for the purposes of re-testing and re-sealing of seed lots whose validity of germination test results have expired. • Any seed dealer who contravenes the provisions of this regulation commits an offence. 3.3. Seed Crops Inspection • Every seed grower or his agent shall apply for field inspection by completing of Form. within thirty days after a seed crop is planted, • An application of field inspection may be refused by the Tanzania Official Seed Certification Institute if it is made thirty days after planting. • A field inspection for the purpose of certification shall be conducted by the field inspector or authorized Inspector and shall be confined to the field of a registered seed producer. • In inspecting the field, the Inspector or the authorized inspector shall ensure all field standards. • The Field Inspector or authorized inspector shall have powers to enter into any field registered for inspection and shall not approve any field or part thereof if satisfied that it does not meet the prescribed field standards. • The Field Inspector or the Authorized Inspector shall visit each unit of certification and conduct at least a minimum number of inspections required for each seed crop. • The Field Inspector or Authorized Inspector shall make proper counts of plants or heads of plants as deemed necessary fit and the minimum counting shall be:

– Up to two hectares, five counts shall be used; and

– For each addition of two hectares up to fifty hectares, one more count shall be needed, beyond fifty hectares; one additional count shall be needed for every four hectares.

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• Inspection may include pre-planting, nursery, pre-harvest, post-harvest and storage facilities. • It shall be the responsibility of the seed grower to observe the recommended cultural practices at every stage of seed production for each unit of certification. • Upon completion of every field inspection, the Inspector or Authorized Inspector may advise the seed grower on any non- compliance of the inspection and in case there is a need to undertake re- inspection, the seed grower shall bear the cost of such re- inspection. 3.4. Seed Sampling and Testing 3.4.1. Seed Sampling: • Any seed sample for testing shall be taken by a Seed Inspector or Authorized Inspector in accordance with the requirements prescribed under these Regulations. • The sample referred to under sub- regulation shall be provided to the Seed Inspector or Authorized Inspector free of charge for purposes of laboratory seed testing and post control planting and examination. • Where an Inspector requires a larger amount of seed sample as he considers it necessary for satisfactory testing, re-testing or analysis, the size of each sample shall comply with the particulars set out in the Third Schedule to these Regulations. • Each seed sample shall bear a unique sample number for reference. • Seed lots shall be created at the time of sampling and shall not exceed the maximum weights prescribed in these Regulations. • Where automatic samplers have not been installed, a seed dealer shall arrange the packages in such a way to enable the seed Inspector or Authorized Inspector to reach all packages and draw samples. • Sampling of seed lots shall be conducted in accordance with the current Rules of ISTA. • The seed dealer shall provide reliable scales for ascertaining the weight of a seed lot. • The seed dealer shall pay appropriate fees for seed sampling. 3.4.2. Seed Testing: • Seed testing for the purpose of certification shall be conducted by an official seed testing laboratory or any authorized laboratory. • Any sample drawn or by the Seed Inspector or Authorized Inspector or taken by any private individual shall be submitted to the seed testing laboratory. • Seed testing laboratory shall:

– Test seed in accordance with the ISTA Rules;

– In case for samples submitted by the Seed Inspector or Authorized Inspector;

– In case of samples submitted by the private individual, record results of seed testing report; and store the sample under optimal storage conditions for at least twelve months from the date the test results certificate was issued.

3.5. Official Tag 66

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The tag for standard seed, shall contain the: (a) name of the seed; (b) name of the variety of the seed; (c) name of the class of the seed; (d) serial number of the tag; and (e) lot number.

4. Role of Public & Private Seed Sectors in Seed Chain Availability of seeds from Private sector increased in the recent past to fill the gap which the formal seed system cannot supply, and the rest comes from family or community production system (informal seed system). PPPs implemented in Tanzania are concession agreements for running existing enterprises with limited provisions for rehabilitation and new investments. Following adoption of trade liberalization policy, there has been an increased involvement of the private sector in investment and provision of services which previously were being provided by the Government. The number of private companies doing seed business in Tanzania has been growing every year. In 2005 there were less than 16 companies and today there are more than 55 companies and enterprises doing seed business. The majority of the companies doing seed business are members of the Tanzania Seed Trade Association (TASTA), formed in 2002.

IV. Discussion The results of this review entitled â&#x20AC;&#x153;Review of seed regulatory system in Afghanistan and neighboring countriesâ&#x20AC;? are discussed in this chapter.

Policy and Regulatory Framework (Seed Certification System) Seed certification system has long history in Afghanistan but due to three decades of war this sector was severely affected. During past 10 years national and international organizations realized the importance of seed and worked hard to develop the destroyed basics of this sector. During this period the government focused its activities on the establishment and rehabilitation of infrastructure as well as development of legal documents. During 2009 the Seed Law of Islamic Republic of Afghanistan was enacted and during 2012 the National Seed Policy was prepared and passed as a legal document. During this period the first draft of seed regulations of the country was also prepared but due to several technical issues it has not yet been passed for enforcement. Due to lack of national seed certification standards and procedures during the last 10 years the standards of neighboring countries especially India were unofficially used in seed certification process. Even though Afghanistan is still not member of ISTA and OECD but due to lack of national procedure, ISTA and OECD procedures are unofficially followed in seed sector. In seed law and policy the responsible organization for seed certification is named SCA which is described as an autonomous body but due to weak capacity the system is followed through a Directorate of MAIL named Seed and Plating Material Certification Directorate. This Directorate was established in 2014 to work under Deputy Minister for Agriculture and Livestock of MAIL. The system is very recent and all required legal documents are not yet developed. Being a Directorate of MAIL SPCD creates conflict of interest as the same organization is involved in seed production, certification and marketing which is against the enacted rules of the country. Due to this issue MAIL recently started attempts for establishment of Seed Certification Agency (SCA) which will work as an autonomous body in the system. To facilitate this process ICARDA under its seed certification funded by EU reviewed legal documents of several countries. The results of review have shown that, seed certification in many countries is done through an autonomous organization project mainly named Seed Certification Agency. Though in some countries such as Turkey the organization is named differently but the working principle is the same as SCA or in other words these organizations are autonomous bodies and are not involved in other aspects of seed production or marketing. OECD Seed Scheme and International Seed Association play critical roles in international seed trade and movements,

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particularly in providing a platform for seed trade amongst the countries of the world. p. All five reviewed countries have membership of ISTA while some of them also obtained membership of OECD but Afghanistan is still lacking this opportunity. With its temperate climate Afghanistan is a very suitable region for seed production especially seed of vegetables and other high value crops. Membership of ISTA and OECD can facilitate international trade of seed from Afghanistan and could lead to further development of the seed sector. Due to high costs and high technical expertise required, it is difficult for a government organization to handle the certification process of high value crops. In the countries under review, it was noticed that seed certification of high value crops takes place through Truthfully Labelling System where the agency is only responsible to confirm that produced and marketed seed meets national standards. In TLS the whole production, testing and certification process for both seed and its parental material is done through Private Seed Company and seed certification agency is responsible to control the transparency and make sure that all parties in seed business are not affected. Considering the reviewed data, it is important to establish a national seed certification agency which should control both seed certification and truthfully labeled processes. It is also noticed that still many of important documents including seed regulations, guidelines, standards and procedures are missing â&#x20AC;&#x201C; a situation which further weakens this sector. Therefore, the development of these protocols and documents should be made a priority.

Institutional Arrangement (Seed Certification Agency) Due to severe conflict period seed certification and overall quality control systems has not improved as expected in Afghanistan. However, quality control of released varieties and seed certification related activities are managed through Seed and Planting material Certification Directorate (SPCD) of MAIL. Institutional arrangement for seed related activities in Afghanistan is a bit complicated as compare to other countries. National Seed Board (NSB) is the highest decision making authority for seed related issues. Based on Seed Law of Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, NSB consist two sub-components of which the first is Variety Release Committee (VRC) and the second one is Seed Certification Agency (SCA). In the law, SCA is assigned the role of secretariat for NSB and will manage all NSB related activities; SCA is also made an autonomous body and prevented from dealing in other aspects of seed chain. The same role is assigned the SCA in the national seed policy of the country. However, this system mostly remained only on papers and in actuality, seed certification is performed through SPCD which is a Directorate of MAIL and its activities are controlled through Deputy Minister for Agriculture and Livestock. The same section of MAIL which controls SPCD also controls Breeder seed production, foundation seed production and up to some extent the production of certified seed as well. The procurement and marketing system of seed is also control through MAIL which is clear conflict of interest. Current implementation system of seed certification in the country leads to reduced confidence and less reliability of farmers on certified seed. In other reviewed countries, seed certification is performed through SCA the same as mentioned in Seed Law and Policy of Afghanistan. The results of review has shown that legal documents in Afghanistan are perfect and are same as in other countries but actual action on the field is different which makes the system less reliable to farmers and other related stakeholders. Considering the reviewed data it is recommended to follow the rules and regulations for the creation of strong certified seed chain in Afghanistan. With establishment of Seed Certification Agency (SCA) it is assumed that current conflicts of interest and other issues which lead to reduced confidence would be overcome. A detailed procedure for SCA is required to be developed which should cover all seed certification related aspects.

Technical Arrangement (Stepwise Seed Certification) Steps for Seed Certification Seed certification is carried out through SPCD, Seed Certification Agency, VRSCC, FSC & RD, ESCAA and TOSCA in Afghanistan, India, Turkey, Pakistan, European Union and Tanzania respectively. Apart from national standards

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and guidelines in each of the reviewed five countries, international standard procedures of ISTA and OECD are also considered in stepwise seed certification. But in Afghanistan SPCD only consider ISTA standard procedures which are introduced unofficially through FAO for a small number of crops mainly wheat. In Afghanistan officially approved national standards and guidelines are not available even for single crop. All data provided for Afghanistan in this section is based on unofficial standards and procedures followed by SPCD. Following steps for seed certification are common among all countries reviewed in this publication: a) Application for the production of seed and identification of source seed, b) Registration of sowing report, c) Field inspection, e) Seed processing, f) Sampling and analysis, g) Tagging and sealing, i) Post control, j) Market control. The market control is not considered and followed by SPCD in Afghanistan yet. And also with consideration of international seed production and certification procedures SPCD could struggle to develop seed certification procedure, guidelines and national seed standards under seed law and policy of Islamic republic of Afghanistan. With the above mentioned development SPCD should be able to carry out all steps involved in seed certification accordingly and thus may have a sustainable and homogenized seed chain over the country.

Field Inspection Field inspection stages are nearly common among the reviewed countries which are: a) Pre-flowering stage b) Flowering stage c) Post-flowering d) pre-harvesting stage e) Harvesting stage. In Afghanistan field inspection is performed in three stages of growth which are: a) pre-flowering, b) post-flowering and c) at maturity or preharvesting stage. It is noticed that flowering and harvesting which are two main stages of field inspection in reviewed countries are missing in Afghanistan. To harmonize seed certification activities it is required to consider five stages of field inspection rather than above mentioned three stages in national procedure of field inspection of Afghanistan. Field inspection is a seasonal and high cost process in seed certification which requires more staff for a short period of time. Field inspection in Afghanistan is performed through SPCD staff while in other review countries it was seen that field inspection is performed through contract based authorized field inspectors who are well trained and work only in the season of field inspection. Seasonal authorized field inspectors can provide an opportunity to provide best services with lower costs. Eventually this system of field inspection can reduce certified seed production costs and will allow even poor farmers to use such seeds for cultivation and replace their local seed or in other words this process can lead higher seed replacement rate. It is recommended that SPCD be capacitate to authorize field inspectors and contract them for seasonal services with slightly higher wages. This would be an opportunity for both parties to make effective use of available resources. This system of field inspection should be performed through proper procedure; therefore it is required that Afghanistan develop a national field inspection procedure which will cover all related activities.

Sample Inspection Seed sampling is done through authorized staff of SPCD/MAIL in Afghanistan. As two final samples are provided to the Central Seed Testing Laboratory - one of them is subjected to immediate testing and the second one is stored for one year duration as it could be required for control plot testing. But in contrast three sample from the same variety are provided in other reviewed countries which one of these sample is sent to related seed testing laboratory, the second one is sent to central seed testing laboratory for immediate testing and the third one is kept for control plot test/grow out test. A huge difference between Afghanistan and other reviewed countries is seen in this respect. To standardize this process and harmonize its sampling procedure with others it is required for Afghanistan to follow the standard procedures followed by other countries. ISTA and OECD seed scheme standard procedures are good sources of valuable information for this country to follow. Specific guidelines for seed sampling of cereals as well as vegetables have to be developed and published for keeping successful seed certification related procedure.

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Seed Testing Seed testing is carried out with basic concept in Afghanistan. During this step of seed certification the physical purity test and germination test are considered as main parameters while in some cases very primary seed health test is also carried out in related seed testing laboratory of Afghanistan. Though in other reviewed countries in addition to physical purity and germination test the major parameter for seed certification considered is a complete package of seed heath test. As optional tests seed viability and seed vigor tests are also conducted in seed testing laboratories of reviewed countries. All five countries have their own national standards and procedures for testing different parameters while Afghanistan is still lacking national standards and procedures in this respect. Development of national procedures and standards for different crops is very essential in Afghanistan; ISTA and OECD standard procedures and national standards of neighboring countries are recognized as major sources of quality information to be used for development of such documents in Afghanistan. Control Plot Test This is a common process followed in all reviewed countries including Afghanistan but its procedure is a bit different among the reviewed countries. In some it is named post control plot test while in some others it is named grow out test. Though this test is performed for seed certification in Afghanistan but still this country require a perfect national procedure for control plot testing.

Role of Public & Private Sector in Seed Chain Seed chain is large group of activities which is not possible to be successfully performed through a single party. There are hundreds of different crops each with many varieties which are cultivated throughout the world or specifically in each country. Each seed has its own specification and chain which makes it even more difficult for a single sector to control. In reviewed countries including Afghanistan it was found that seed certification for notified or registered varieties of strategic crops which are high in volume and low in value is performed through public sector. Private sector is mostly interested in higher income that is why most of the private seed companies in reviewed countries are involved in seed production and quality assurance of low volume high value seeds which mostly includes vegetables and hybrid seed industry. In reviewed countries it was noticed that whole chain of high value seed including production and quality assurance of both seed and its parental material is preformed through private seed companies. The government is responsible to make sure that involved parties are not affected and the minimal standards for seed certification and labeling are followed. Such system of seed chain management is a good example of Public-Private Partnership (PPP) which currently became a common management system in many countries. In Afghanistan most of seed certification and management activities are focused on strategic crops specially wheat where public sector produces foundation and private sectors produces certified classes of seed. Vegetable seed quality assurance is a forgotten sector in Afghanistan which is very important in other reviewed countries. Considering the study results it is recommended to implement Truthfully Labeling System for quality assurance of high value low volume seeds. This system can reduce the extra work load on public sector and will allow them to transfer some responsibilities to private sector. The system is already implemented in reviewed countries and has successful results.

V. Conclusion Seed production, multiplication, quality control and overall seed certification is important businesses in Afghanistan to improve agriculture productivity and enhance the income of seed producers for a prosperous life of Afghan nation. Afghanistan seed sector is governed by the Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock under National Seed Policy 2012 and Law on Seed Cultivation 2009. Public organizations including National Seed

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Board (NSB), Agriculture Research Institute of Afghanistan (ARIA), Improved Seed Enterprise (ISE), Seed and Planting material Certification Directorate (SPCD) and Seed Testing Laboratories (STLs) are involved in seed chain covering its production, multiplication and certification processes. Private Seed Enterprise (PSE) managed under its umbrella organization named Afghanistan National Seed Union (ANSU) are private organizations involved in certified seed production. Afghanistan is still lacking national seed standards and procedures but unofficially this country follow international Seed Testing Association (ISTA) and OECD procedures; in case of standards the country follow standards of neighboring countries mainly India which are drafted as a collection through FAO. Seed certification system is quite similar in many parts of the world but its process is different. In Afghanistan this system is implemented only by government while in Turkey, EU and many other parts of the world, seed certification is performed by a third party organization named SCA. This organization is an autonomous body having members both from public and privates sector thereby it follow the basics of public and private partnership. Creation of partnership leads to better and efficient use of resources available both with public and private sector and it could lead to improvement in this process. Partnerships for seed certification among public and private sector are already established and examined in many countries and have successful results. Creation of partnership between public, private and production sector for seed certification in Afghanistan can lead to efficient use of available resources and will make sure the availability of good quality seed in remote areas.

VI. Major Outcomes and Lessons Learnt The key outcomes of the study are highlighted below: 1. Seed Certification system is very young in Afghanistan and need strong support to provided valuable services. 2. Seed Law and Seed Policy are only two available documents in the country and there is still need for development of important documents including regulations, procedures, guidelines and standards. 3. Wheat is the major crop for which quality control is considered while other important crops such as vegetables, oil crops, spices etc. are not given importance. 4. The seed law and policy are not followed correctly; due to this issue SPCD is established instead of SCA. Being a Directorate SPCD could not act as an autonomous body a situation leads to conflict of interest and erode the confidence of final beneficiaries. 5. Seed certification process is followed on partial basses in Afghanistan where several steps for assurance of high quality seed production are ignored. Market control is a major step missing in seed certification system of Afghanistan 6. Private sector is involved in production of certified seed especially of wheat; they are not considered in seed certification process.

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3. Private Seed Enterprises (PSEs) already exists in the country and are busy with production of certified seed for wheat and other high volume low value seeds. These enterprises are interested to support public sector in seed related aspects and establish public-private partnership. 4. Seed law and Seed Policy are two major legal documents which have already been passed and enacted. These documents are important basses for development of other documents including regulations, procedures, guidelines and standards. 5. Sufficient numbers of seed experts are available with update knowledge and experience from many countries especially India, United States and European countries. 6. Seed testing laboratories already exist in 5 zones of the country and are actively used for seed testing and certification purposes. 7. Active agriculture research farms are available with suitable land, facilities and staff.

VII. Opportunities The major opportunities available for further development of seed sector in Afghanistan are listed below: 1. There are number of funding agencies who are interested in the development of seed sector in Afghanistan. These agencies include European Union (EU), USAID and many others. 2. Several international research organization including ICARDA, CIMMYT, FAO and other are actively working side by side with Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock (MAIL) for the development of seed sector. 3. Private Seed Enterprises (PSEs) already exists in the country and are busy with production of certified seed for wheat and other high volume low value seeds. These enterprises are interested to support public sector in seed related aspects and establish public-private partnership. 4. Seed law and Seed Policy are two major legal documents which have already been passed and enacted. These documents are important basses for development of other documents including regulations, procedures, guidelines and standards. 5. Sufficient numbers of seed experts are available with update knowledge and experience from many countries especially India, United States and European countries. 6. Seed testing laboratories already exist in 5 zones of the country and are actively used for seed testing and certification purposes. 7. Active agriculture research farms are available with suitable land, facilities and staff.

VIII. Key Recommendation The following recommendations are being made to bring greater positive changes in seed production chain and certification system: 1. As per seed law and policy of Islamic republic of Afghanistan sited in this revision, the SPCD need to be changed to seed certification agency (SCA) to carry out all its related functions as an autonomous body. 2. Development of seed certification procedure and guidelines for seed certification steps of major cereals and high value crops are essential to be considered.

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3. The standards for seed certification are not same for all reviewed countries; each country fixed standards based on their own climatic condition, seed law and other requirements. It might be difficult for Afghanistan to produce seed with international standards at this stage; thereby it is very important that the country develop its own national standards which would be applicable and homogenized in all provinces of the country. 4. Since partnerships among public and private sectors and its importance are already tested for seed chain in many parts of the world, creation of such partnership for seed certification in Afghanistan could help in further improvement of seed sector. 5. Many countries reviewed in this publication have membership of ISTA and OECD; these two are international organization working in seed certification sector. Membership of these organizations will help in improvement of seed quality and marketing. 6. In many countries seasonal and budget consuming activities such as field inspection, seed sampling etc.â&#x20AC;Ś are handed over to private sector. If these activities are handed over to third party in Afghanistan it could reduce the load of work on public seed sector and will lead to efficient use of budget and resources. 7. Seed Certification is not an individual process; it has direct correlation with research, seed production, distribution, marketing etc. thereby strong coordination among involved parties can increase the success of seed certification system in the country. 8. Truthfully Labelled Seed is an easy system for quality control of high value crops. Implementation of this system through a proper procedure that can reduce work load on public sector and will allow them to have proper quality control measurement.

IX. Resources 1. Acikgoz, N., 2013, Turkish seed industry is in need of new strategies. General directorate of agricultural enterprises. 2. Anonymous, 1976, Manual-V. Seed certification authority. Panjab state seed certification rules. Pp, 21-26. 3. Anonymous, 1993, the seed control order. Ministry of agriculture of India, Department of agriculture & cooperation. 4. Anonymous, 2001, Control plot tests and field inspection of seed crops, OECD. Pp 4-43. 5. Anonymous, 2003, seed registration and certification system in Pakistan. Available at https://www.seedquest. com/statistics/pdf/Pakistan2003b.pdf 6. Anonymous, 2004, a notice on the seed business in Pakistan. LUMS 13 (98): PP 4-25. 7. Anonymous, 2006, Food safety. Veterinary and phytosanitary policies. Quality of seed and propagating materials. Republic of Turkey. Pp, 9-24. 8. Anonymous, 2007, turkeyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s new seed law. GRAIN, Turkey. 9. Anonymous, 2009, Law on seed cultivation. Islamic republic of Afghanistan, Official gazette 1005. 10. Anonymous, 2010, European Seed Association (ESA). Recommendation from evaluation of the Community Plant health regime, pp 1-5.

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11. Anonymous, 2010, European Seed Certification Agencies Association (ESCAA), Approved in Warsa, Association Statutes, pp 1-2. 12. Anonymous, 2010, promoting the growth and development of small holder seed enterprises for food security crops, FAO plant production and protection paper. 13. Anonymous, 2011, the seed bill. Government of India. CUTS International. 14. Anonymous, 2012, Government policy & rules makers. Tanzania Seed sector status, pp 1-5. 15. Anonymous, 2012, National seed policy. Ministry of agriculture, Islamic republic of Afghanistan. 16. Anonymous, 2013, draft guide for national seed policy formulation, commission on genetic resources for food and agriculture. 17. Anonymous, 2013, ESAFF. Seed & Agriculture Research Processes in Tanzania, EU/INSARD project, pp 8-34. 18. Anonymous, 2013, seed certification manual, seed services Australia, PIRSA. 19. Anonymous, 2013, seed draft regulation, Ministry of agriculture, Islamic republic of Afghanistan. 20. Anonymous, 2013, The International Seed Testing Association (ISTA). Seed test, pp 1-28. 21. Anonymous, 2014, agriculture sector review (ASR), Islamic state of Afghanistan. SASDA, SOUTH ASIA. 22. Anonymous, 2015, an act to amend the seed act, 1976. Islamabad state secretariat, the gazette of Pakistan. 23. Anonymous, 2015, seed sector in Pakistan. Sector studies, an abacus publication. 24. Anonymous, 2016, Public Private Partnerships, IFAD Publications. 25. Anonymous, 2016, Union for the Protection of new Varieties of plants (UPOV). Members of UPOV, UPOV convention, pp 1-2. 26. Bishaw. Z, 2001, focus on seed programs the seed industry in turkey. MARA, ICARDA, Ankara. 27. Bishaw. Z., 2002, focus on seed program the Pakistan seed industry. ICARDA. 28. Bishaw. Z., 2011, focus on seed program the seed industry in Afghanistan, ICARDA. PP, 1-9. 29. Burney. S.M.H., George. A.R., Malhotra. A.T. and Gupta. R.C., 1981, (the seed act, 1966), Ministry of agriculture, India. 30. Domonkos. O., 2014, options for PPP in agri-food sector development in the BSEC region, FAO BSEC Business Council High Level Forum, pp 1-22. 31. Eivers. J. and Lohan. G., 2008, Guide to seed certification combinable crops, the department of Agriculture, Fisheries and food. Pp 1-12. 32. Favre. R., 2004, review of the wheat seed sector in Afghanistan. AIZON, Ethiopia. 33. Hussain. A., 2011, status of seed industry in Pakistan. Round table discussion agriculture and water in Pakistan. 34. ISTA, 2014, ISTA laboratory accreditation standards. 35. Jalal. A. and Hagen. R., 2012, the seed industry in Afghanistan. Global agriculture information network, USDA.

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36. Kimenye. L., 2014, Tanzania seed sector assessment, ASARECA/KIT. Pp 1-12. 37. H. Kizilaslan and H.E. Onurlubas, 2010. Analysis and Development Course of the Seed Sector in Turkey in Various Aspects. International Journal of Agricultural Research, 5: 832-842 38. Kline. N, 2013, Seed CLIR Tanzania pilot report, Enabling Agriculture Trade/ USAID. Pp 8-30. 39. Lemonius. M. and Kugbei. S., 2005, Seed industry privatization. Strengthening national seed capacity production in Afghanistan, FAO. 40. Mizengo. P. P., 2009, National PPP policy, PMâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s office, pp 1-15. 41. Morrenhof. J., 2013, commercial seed production in Afghanistan. IAIDS. 42. Ngwediagi. P, 2010, Establishment of Plant Breedersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Rights System in Tanzania: Achievements and Challenges, CAS-IP/CGIAR, Pp 3-10. 43. Anonymous, 2012, a synthesis of international regulatory aspect that affects seed trade. OECD seed scheme. 44. Anonymous, 2012, guideline for control plot test and field inspection of seed crops. OECD seed schemes. 45. Anonymous, 2015, varietal certification or the control of seed moving in international trade. OECD seed schemes 46. Parimala. K., Subramanian. K., Kannan. S. M. and Vijayalakshmi. K., 2013, a manual on seed production and certification. Center for Indian knowledge system, Chennai, CIKS. Pp, 18-24. 47. Santhy. V., Kumari. P.R.V., Vishwanathan. A. and Deshmukh. R.K., 2009, legislation for seed quality regulation in India. Central institute for cotton research Nagpur, Pp, 4-15. 48. Sheil. S., 2013, Seed and other plant reproductive materials toward new EU rules. Library of the European Parliament. 49. Sing. S. P., and Jain. N., 2012, harmonization of seed certification process in Bangladesh and India. CUTS International, Pp, 2-10. 50. The seed rules, 1968, under seed act, 1966. Ministry of agriculture India. 51. Trivedi. R. K. and Gunasekaran. M., 2013, Indian minimum seed certification standards. Ministry of agriculture, India.

The article has been published with permission of authors

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The African Seed Access Index (TASAI) Timely availability of improved seeds at affordable prices is critical to increased productivity by smallholder farmers in Africa. Improved seeds can deliver state of the art technology to farmers including higher yields, disease and pest resistance, climate change adaptation, and improved nutrition. Over the last two decades, formal seed systems in Africa have been gradually liberalized resulting in increased participation of private seed enterprises (multinationals, regional and domestic companies). The African Seed Access Index (TASAI) is a tool that appraises the structure and economic performance of formal seed sectors. For the top four grain and legume crops in each country, TASAI tracks 20 indicators in five categories: Research and Development, Industry Competitiveness, Seed Policy and Regulations, Institutional Support, and Service to Smallholder Farmers. In 2016 and 2017, TASAI research was conducted in 13 countries - Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mozambique, Senegal, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. Policy briefs summarizing each country research study can be accessed from the TASAI website (http://tasai.org/reports/). In addition, the TASAI Data Appendix present data on all the 20 indicators across the 13 countries. TASAI is a collaborative initiative of the Emerging Markets Program at Cornell University and Market Matters Incorporated. For more information on TASAI, please contact Dr. Ed Mabaya (em37@cornell.edu) or Mainza Mugoya (mmugoya@marketmattersinc.org). www.tasai.org

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Ethiopia Brief 2017 - The African Seed Access Index Edward Mabaya, Bezabih Emana, Fikre Mulugeta, Mainza Mugoya Introduction A competitive seed sector is key to ensuring timely availability of high quality seeds of improved, appropriate varieties at affordable prices for smallholder farmers in Ethiopia. This country brief summarizes the key findings of The African Seed Access Index (TASAI) study conducted in 2016/17 to appraise the structure and economic performance of Ethiopia’s seed sector. With a focus on four grain crops important to food security in Ethiopia — maize, wheat, teff, and sorghum — the study evaluates the enabling environment for a vibrant formal seed sector. Cultivation of these four crops covers about 66% of the country’s arable land (FAOSTAT, 2017). The study covers 20 indicators divided into the following categories: Research and Development, Industry Competitiveness, Seed Policy and Regulations, Institutional Support, and Service to Smallholder Farmers. Appendix 1 summarizes all 20 indicators and compares Ethiopia to 12 other African countries where similar studies were conducted. TASAI seeks to encourage public policymakers and development agencies to create and maintain enabling environments that will accelerate the development of competitive formal seed systems serving smallholder farmers.

Overview The seed industry in Ethiopia is divided into the informal, the formal, and the intermediate sectors. This policy brief focuses almost exclusively on the formal seed sector.

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The informal sector broadly refers to the system where farmers produce, obtain, maintain, and distribute seed resources from one growing season to the next (FAO, 1998). Due to factors such as limited knowledge, lack of a wide variety of seeds, limited resources to purchase seed, and poor access to agro-dealers, most smallholder farmers in Ethiopia still rely at least in part on informal seed systems. In cases where a farmer is unable to retain part of the harvest, or when they decide to plant a different variety, seed is generally acquired from the local community. This is particularly true for crops other than maize. Standards in the informal seed sector are not monitored or controlled by government policies and regulations; rather, they are guided by indigenous knowledge and standards and by social structures. The formal sector focuses on breeding and evaluating improved varieties and producing and selling seed of these varieties that are certified by the Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources (MoANR). As Table 1 shows, Ethiopia’s formal seed sector comprises numerous institutions, including government (e.g., EARS, RARIs, EIAR), universities, parastatals (e.g. Ethiopian Seed Enterprise (ESE), and regional seed enterprises), private sector (one multinational corporation and local seed companies), and development agents. The Ethiopian Seed Association (ESA) plays an important role in information sharing and advancing members’ interests. The intermediate sector is formally recognized in the Ethiopia Seed System Development Strategy developed by MoANR (ATA, 2013). The strategy document describes this sector as community-based seed production systems in which groups engage in collective seed-related activities. The main actors in this sector are community-based seed producers who grow and distribute seed that may not be certified nor fully regulated under existing laws, but is generally considered to be of higher quality seed than that produced by the informal sector. Table 1: Role of key players in Ethiopia’s formal seed sector ROLE

Research and breeding Variety release and regulation

KEY PLAYERS EIAR; RARIs; universities; ESE (and regional seed enterprises); CGIARs (CIMMYT & ICRISAT) MoANR

Production, processing, and packaging

ESE (and regional seed enterprises); local seed companies; MNCs; cooperatives ESE (and regional seed enterprises); local seed companies; MNCs; Processing and packaging cooperatives Education, training, and extension ESA, seed companies, cooperatives, extension agents ESA, seed companies, cooperatives, agro‐dealers Distribution and sales Key acronyms: AFSTA – African Seed Trade Association; ATA – Agricultural Transformation Agency; COMESA – Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa; DSM – Direct Seed Marketing; EARS – Ethiopian Agricultural Research System; EIAR – Ethiopian Institute for Agricultural Research; ESA – Ethiopian Seed Association; ESE – Ethiopian Seed Enterprise; MoANR – Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources; NVRC - National Variety Release Committee; RARI – Regional Agricultural Research Institutes; SNNP - Southern Nations & Nationalities Peoples Region

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Seed Sectors Around the Globe

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT Number of active breeders For the four focus crops in Ethiopia – maize, wheat, teff, and sorghum – there are 74 breeders serving 15.6 million farming households. Of the 74 breeders, 23 specialize in maize, 20 in wheat, 15 in teff, and 16 in sorghum. Nearly all (72 of 74) of the breeders work in the public sector. Plant breeding and variety release is the mandate of the Ethiopian Agricultural Research System (EARS), which is comprised of the Ethiopian Institute for Agricultural Research (EIAR), the Regional Agricultural Research Institutes (RARIs), and Haramaya, Hawasa, Jimma, Bahir Dar, and Mekele Universities. Most private seed enterprises source their foundation seed from these public‐ sector institutions. The maize and wheat breeding programs are supported by the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT). Two private seed companies reported having a breeder (for maize), although these breeders were not involved in any breeding program at the time of the study. One of the seed companies has breeders based outside Ethiopia. The main reason for the low number of breeders in the private sector is the lack of financial capacity to sustain a breeding program. On average, seed companies rate the adequacy of breeders as good (70%).1 However, a notably higher level of satisfaction is registered by seed companies that have their own breeders (83%) compared to those that rely on public breeders (62%). Varieties released in the last three years

Between 2013 and 2015, EIAR released a total of 37 varietiesCompared to other East and Southern African countries for the four crops: 12 for maize, 15 for wheat, 3 for RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT with much smaller national populations, the country’s re‐ teff, and 7 for sorghum. Since 2012, the three-year moving average of varieties released for maize and wheat was Number of active breeders search output, as measured by number of varieties for re‐ slightly higher than the average for teff and sorghum. The total annual number of varieties commercialized leased, is low. According to several key informants, the wheat has remained higher than for the other three crops. This is due to the importance of the crop for national For the four focus crops in Ethiopia – maize, wheat, teff, low rate variety that release can the be dis-adoption attributed to of inade‐ food security and also the repeated occurrence of foliar and stem rust of diseases led to old and sorghum – there are 74 breeders serving 15.6 million varieties. quate breeding facilities and the lack of a strong and au‐ farming households. Of the 74 breeders, 23 specialize in maize, 20 in wheat, 15 in teff, and 16 in sorghum. Nearly Compared to other East and Southern African countries with tonomous variety release and protection system that mo‐ Figure 1: Number of varieties released in all (72 of 74) of the breeders work in the sector. much smaller national populations, the public country’s research tivates local breeders. Ethiopia (three-year moving average) output, as measured by number of varieties released, is low. Plant breeding and variety release is the mandate of the 7 According several key informants, low which rate ofis variety Ethiopian to Agricultural Research System the (EARS), 6 release can be attributed to inadequate breeding facilities 5 comprised of the Ethiopian Institute for Agricultural Re‐ and the (EIAR), lack of the a strong and Agricultural autonomousResearch variety Insti‐ release and 4 search Regional protection system that motivates local breeders. 3 tutes (RARIs), and Haramaya, Hawasa, Jimma, Bahir Dar, and Mekele of Universities. Most Availability foundation seedprivate seed enterprises source their foundation seed from these public‐sector in‐

On average,The seed companies scored their satisfaction with the stitutions. maize and wheat breeding programs are availability of foundation seed as fair (57%) across supported by the International Maize and Wheat Im‐all four focus crops. By crop, seed companies’ satisfaction with the provement Center (CIMMYT). availability of foundation seed is fair for teff (58%), maize Two private seed companies breeder (58%) and wheat (54%), andreported having a good (60%) for sorghum. (for maize), although these breeders were not involved in

2 1 0

2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Maize

Wheat

Teff

Sorghum

Figure 1: Number of varieties released in Ethiopia (three‐year mov‐ ing average)

Availability of foundation seed The main sources of foundation seed are the government parastatals, i.e., EARS, ESE, and five regional seed any breeding program at the time of the study. One of the enterprises). These parastatals account for 100% of all foundation seed wheat and teff, and their at least 85% of On average, for seed companies scored satisfaction

seed companies has breeders based outside Ethiopia. The with the availability of foundation seed as fair (57%) main reason for the low number of breeders in the private across all four focus crops. By crop, seed companies’ sat‐ sector is the lack of financial capacity to sustain a breed‐ 1 isfaction with the availability of foundation seed is fair for All scores reported in this brief are based on industry self reporting of satisfaction ranging from 0% (completely dissatisfied) to 100% ing program. On average, seed companies rate the ade‐ (completely satisfied). 1 teff (58%), maize (58%) and wheat (54%), and good (60%) quacy of breeders as good (70%). However, a notably for sorghum. higher level of satisfaction is registered by seed compa‐ nies that have their own breeders (83%) compared to 80those that rely on public breeders (62%). Seed Sectors Around the Globe

Varieties released in the last three years

The main sources of foundation seed are the government Seed Times May - August 2018 parastatals, i.e., EARS, ESE, and five regional seed enter‐ prises). These parastatals account for 100% of all founda‐

foundation seed for maize and sorghum. Only one private seed company sourced foundation seed from outside Ethiopia. There is no notable difference between the level of satisfaction with the availability of foundation seed between private seed companies (58%) and public seed enterprises (55%). Nevertheless, the seed companies highlighted the limited access to foundation seed as a major concern. This is consistent with the findings from the study on early generation seed (Atlaw, A., Alemu, D., Bishaw, Z., & Kalsa, 2017) that mentions low production of, and limited access to early generation seed among key challenges in the seed industry. The report attributes this to limited production capacity of public institutions and private companies due to limited access to land, facilities (such as machinery and laboratories), and skilled labour. Average age of varieties sold On average, the varieties sold in Ethiopia in 2016 were relatively young compared to other countries covered by TASAI – between 4.8 years (for wheat) and 6.7 years (for teff). The average of maize and sorghum varieties was 5.4 years and 6 years, respectively. Note that these are simple averages since information on volume of sales for each variety is unavailable. Based on the number of companies carrying each variety, the most popular varieties are as follows: maize variety BH661, released in 2011, is sold by 10 companies, wheat varieties Danda`a and Kakaba, both released in 2010, are sold by 10 companies each, teff variety Dz-Cr-387/Quncho, released in 2006, is sold by 10 companies, and sorghum variety Gubiye, released in 2000, is sold by 3 companies. For each of the focus crops, the youngest varieties on the market in 2016 were only a year old, while the oldest varieties sold in 2016 were 10 years old for wheat, teff, and sorghum and 11 years old for maize. Varieties with climate-smart features To be classified as climate-smart, a variety must meet at least one of two criteria – early maturity and/or tolerance to extreme weather conditions such as drought, flooding, or frost. Most of the maize varieties (9 of 12) released between 2014 and 2016 are climate-smart, compared to less than half of the varieties for the other three crops – wheat (4 of 15), teff (1 of 4), and sorghum (2 of 7). The most prominent climate-smart characteristic – featured in all four crops – is drought-tolerance, followed by early maturity (in maize, teff, and sorghum). Most of the new wheat varieties are bred for rust resistance.

INDUSTRY COMPETITIVENESS Number of active seed companies In 2015, there were 60 registered seed companies in Ethiopia producing and/or marketing at least one of the focus crops. These entities included private seed companies, cooperative unions, and public seed enterprises (ESE, Amhara Seed Enterprise (SE), Southern Region SE, and Oromia SE). However, about two-thirds were either seed merchants or were inactive in 2016. Seed merchants do not produce/market their own seed. Instead, they produce seed on behalf of other seed companies or enterprises, on a contractual basis. Only 21 seed companies met the criteria of producing and marketing seed of the four focus crops in 2016. Of the 21 seed companies, 18 produce maize, 8 produce wheat, 9 produce teff, and 3 produce sorghum. Market share of top seed companies The market shares of the top four companies, shown in Figure 2, reveals dominance by a few players in the seed market. For maize, the top four companies produce 81% of the seed, while the remaining 14 companies account for 19% of market share. For wheat, the top four companies produce 97% of the seed, while the remaining four companies account for only 3%. For teff, the top four companies produce 95% of the seed, while the remaining five

Seed Times May - August 2018

Seed Sectors Around the Globe

sim‐ for om‐ ties 1, is Ka‐ nies 6, is re‐ the 016 d in and

t at nce ing, be‐ d to ps – The ured arly new

Ethi‐ ocus nies, Am‐ Oro‐ eed s do

Figure 2, reveals dominance by a few players in the seed market. For maize, the top four companies produce 81% of the seed, while the remaining 14 companies account for 19% of market share. For wheat, the top four compa‐ nies produce 97% of the seed, while the remaining four companies account for only 3%. For teff, the top four companies produce 95% of the seed, while the remaining five companies account for only 5%. There are only three companies for only 5%. Thereaccounting are only three companies in account the sorghum seed market, for companies in the sorghum seed market, accounting for 100% of market share. Across the four crops, there are seven seed enterprises that make it to the top four. 100% of market share. Across the four crops, there are The Herfindahl-Hirschman Index (a way to quantify industry Figure 2: Total market share (%) of top four seven seed enterprises that make it to the top four.

companies 100% 80%

19%

60% 40%

81%

competitiveness) is shown in Appendix 1. The index ranges from near zero (perfect competition) to 10,000 (pure monopoly). HHI is calculated for separately for each crop. HHI scores are good for maize (1,940) but poor for wheat (3,009), teff (3,898), and sorghum (3,337). The HHI scores are consistent with the market share calculations. The conclusion from both measures is that there are high levels of market concentration for three of the four crops – wheat, teff, and sorghum.

97%

95%

100%

Wheat

Teff

Sorghum

20% 0%

Maize

Top four companies

Other companies

Figure 2: Total market share (%) of top four companies Market share of government parastatal

The Herfindahl‐Hirschman Index (a way to quantify indus‐ In Ethiopia, a large share of the seed market is controlled by government enterprises - ESE at the federal level and try competitiveness) shown in Appendix The index four regional seedis enterprises. In total,1. these five institutions account for 70% of the total seed output for the ranges from near (perfect competition) to 10,000 four crops. Basedzero on self-reported seed sales data for 2016, the combined market share of government parastatals (pure monopoly). HHI is calculated for separately for each by crop is 59% for maize, 77% for wheat, 62% for teff, and 83% for sorghum. Of the countries covered by TASAI, Ethiopia has the highest presence of government parastatals involved in seed production and distribution. The crop. HHI scores are good for maize (1,940) but poor for Seed Sector Development Strategy states that “the mission of the public entities should be to fill gaps that private wheat (3,009), teff (3,898), and sorghum (3,337). The HHI companies will be less likely to fill, namely self-pollinating varieties such as wheat and teff, and geographies that scores are consistent with the market share calculations. the private sector cannot reach” (Ministry of Agriculture, 2013). Indeed, the government parastatals are less active The conclusion from both measures is that there are high in the (mostly hybrid) maize market compared to the other (self-pollinating) crops; however, despite some merit levels of market concentration for three of the four crops to the above argument, the parastatals can crowd out the market and thus stifle competition and private sector – wheat, teff, and sorghum.

investment.

Market share of government parastatal

Length of import/export process for seed

In Ethiopia, a large share of the seed market is controlled The time it takes to import seed is calculated as the number of days from the time an import permit is requested by government enterprises ‐ ESE at the federal level and

to the time the seed is cleared at the border. In Ethiopia, seed importation is regulated by MoANR. Only one seed company imported seed into Ethiopia in 2016. This company reported that it took more than three months to import seed, and rated the process as poor (40%).

There were no exports of certified seed from Ethiopia. Ethiopia is in the process of harmonizing its national seed Page 3 regulations with the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) seed regulations.

SEED POLICY AND REGULATIONS Length of variety release process The length of the variety release process is the duration of time from when the application for a variety release is submitted to when the variety is released by the National Variety Release Committee (NVRC). In the past 10 years, although some private firms have emerged, government organizations remain the main player in plant breeding and variety development. The main government entity in charge of variety development, registration, and release is MoANR. Seed enterprises reported that, on average, it takes 46 months to release a variety in Ethiopia. This long process is attributed to constraints faced by both breeders and regulators. Key informants indicated that the MoANR hasa

Seed Sectors Around the Globe

Seed Times May - August 2018

limited budget and staff, which leads to delays in conducting field evaluations and convening NVRC meetings. Nevertheless, on average, the seed companies interviewed rate their satisfaction with the variety release process as good (71%). Status of seed policy framework The Ethiopia Seed Proclamation No. 782 of 2013, is the main seed policy instrument in the country. This law is an amendment to the Seed Proclamation No. 206 which was passed in 2000. The amended law introduced systematic generation and control of seed and it prescribes field and seed standards for different seed classes. The Ethiopia Seed Regulation was gazetted in February 2016 and is now fully operational. In addition to the policy and legal statutes described above, Ethiopia has a seed system development strategy that was drafted by the MoANR and the Agricultural Transformation Agency (ATA) in 2013. The government is currently working on harmonizing Ethiopia’s laws with COMESA seed regulations, although the process is being delayed by two issues. The first is the proposed establishment of the Ethiopia Seed and Other Agricultural Inputs Authority, a semi-autonomous agency responsible for handling seed issues in Ethiopia, that is yet to be approved by the Minister of Agriculture. The second issue is that the Ethiopian government plans to conduct at least one season of testing for varieties that have already been tested in at least two other COMESA member states. The additional testing is a departure from the agreed upon procedures in the COMESA Seed Regulations. Quality of seed regulations and enforcement Seed quality control and certification in Ethiopia is the mandate of the seed laboratories at the Bureaus of Agriculture and Natural Resources and the Quarantine and Regulatory Authority. Seed companies rate their satisfaction with the quality of seed regulations and enforcement as good – 65% and 57%, respectively, noting that the enforcement agencies have limited capabilities in terms of laboratory facilities, vehicles, and adequately-trained personnel. In addition, they are not strategically located to cover all seed producing areas, leading to long travel times and complicated logistics for inspection. In an effort to improve the enforcement of seed quality control, the government has established five new laboratories, with support from the Swedish International Development Agency (SIDA). The new laboratories complement the already existing eight testing facilities (two each in the Amhara, Tigray, Oromia, and SNNPR regions), established with support from the World Bank. Adequacy of seed inspectors There are 32 public seed inspectors in Ethiopia. In addition, several private seed companies have their own seed inspectors, though they are not licensed by the government. The role of the in-house inspectors is to monitor their company’s seed quality and obtain quality assurance from the public inspectors of the Bureaus and Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources. Given the large size of Ethiopia and the wide distribution of seed producing regions, the number of inspectors is low compared to other countries covered by TASAI. Seed companies rate their satisfaction with the availability of seed inspection services as good (68%). Efforts to stamp out fake seed Seed companies received 11 reported cases of fake seed in 2016. However, this may be an under-estimate as many cases go unreported. Despite the low number, seed companies are not satisfied with the government’s efforts to address fake seed, rating their satisfaction as fair (57%). Based on survey responses, the main sources of fake seeds are the seed stockists and agro-dealers, some of whom have been reported to pack and sell fake seed in areas affected by a shortage of certified seed. Notably the government has made modest efforts to combat fake seeds, including revoking trade licences for culpable parties. The MoANR regulatory directorate, with assistance from ATA,

Seed Times May - August 2018

Seed Sectors Around the Globe

control, the government has established five new labora‐ tories, with support from the Swedish International De‐ velopment Agency (SIDA). The new laboratories comple‐ ment the already existing eight testing facilities (two each in the Amhara, Tigray, Oromia, and SNNPR regions), es‐ tablished with support from the World Bank.

female. The current extension strategy assigns three de‐ velopment agents (or extension officers) trained in crop, livestock and natural resources per Farmer Training Cen‐ ters (FTCs) or at the level of kebele2. Seed companies are largely dependent on the government extension system, under the MoANR. Seed companies rate their satisfaction with the extension services as fair (55%), pointing out that Adequacy of seed inspectors most level extension officers are not adequately informed has been improving the enforcement system at the agro-dealer through raising awareness and conducting There are 32 public seed inspectors in Ethiopia. In addi‐ about seed varieties and are therefore unable to provide training sessions for agro-dealers. tion, several private seed companies have their own seed the necessary information to farmers. INSTITUTIONAL SUPPORT inspectors, though they are not licensed by the govern‐ Quality of national seed trade association ment. The role the in‐house inspectors is to monitor Availability of of extension services their company’s seed quality and obtain quality assurance The Ethiopian Seed Association (ESA) was established in According to the MoANR extension general directorate, there are approximately 18,015in agricultural extension from the public inspectors of the Bureaus and Ministry of 2006 and became operational 2008. The association workers in Ethiopia, of whom less than 1% (70) are from thehas 27 active members, comprising 22 private seed com‐ private sector. This equates to about one extension Agriculture and Natural Resources. Given the large size of worker for every 592 farming households in Ethiopia. Ethiopia and the wide distribution of seed producing re‐ panies (20 of which are local), four public seed enter‐ gions, the number of inspectors is low compared to other prises, and one cooperative union. On average, seed com‐ Less than one quarter (23%) of the extension workers are female. The current extension strategy assigns three countries covered by TASAI. Seed companies rate their panies rated their overall satisfaction the Training ESA as development agents (or extension officers) trained in crop, livestock and natural resources per with Farmer satisfaction with the availability of seed inspection ser‐ good (66%). The satisfaction rating of the association in Centers (FTCs) or at the level of kebele2. Seed companies are largely dependent on the government extension system, vices as good (68%). other is given in Figure a relatively young under the MoANR. Seed companies rate their satisfaction with theareas extension services as 3. fair For (55%), pointing out seed traders’ association, rating is good but leaves that most extension officers are not adequately informed about seed varieties and arethe therefore unable to provide Efforts to stamp out fake seed much room for improvement. the necessary information to farmers. Seed companies received 11 reported cases of fake seed In recent years, ESA has raised awareness among its Quality of national seed trade association in 2016. However, this may be an under‐estimate as many members on seed‐related issues in Ethiopia, and has pro‐ cases go unreported. Despite the low number, seed com‐ The Ethiopian Seed Association (ESA) was established in 2006duced and disseminated several important documents in‐ and became operational in 2008. The association has panies are not satisfied with the government’s efforts to 27 active members, comprising 22 private seed companies (20cluding of which local), four public seedESA enterprises, and the are seed production manual. works closely address fake seed, rating their satisfaction as fair (57%). one cooperative union. On average, seed companies rated with the MoANR and ATA. In addition, ESA is a member of their satisfaction with ESA as good (66%). Figure Based overall on survey responses, the the main sources of fake 3: Members’ satisfaction with ESA. the African Seed Trade Association (AFSTA). The satisfaction rating of the association in other areas seeds are the seed stockists and agro‐dealers, some of is given in Figure 3. For a relatively young seed traders’ whom have been reported to pack and sell fake seed in Overall level of satisfaction 66% association, the rating is good but leaves much room for areas affected by a shortage of certified seed. Notably the Ability to mobilize resources 65% improvement. government has made modest efforts to combat fake Democracy in elections and decision‐ 69% making seeds, including revoking trade licences for culpable par‐ In recent years, ESA has raised awareness among its Providing value to member 71% ties. The MoANR regulatory directorate, with assistance members on seed-related issues in Ethiopia, and has Managerial ability 63% from ATA, has been improving the enforcement system at produced and disseminated several important documents Effectiveness in advocacy 53% the agro‐dealer level through raising awareness and con‐ including the seed production manual. ESA works closely Activity on important seed sector issues 66% ducting training sessions for agro‐dealers. with the MoANR and ATA. In addition, ESA is a member of

the African Seed Trade Association (AFSTA). INSTITUTIONAL SUPPORT

SERVICE TO SMALLHOLDER FARMERS Availability of extension services

20%

40%

60%

80%

Figure 3: Members' satisfaction with ESA.

Concentration of rural agro-dealer network

SERVICE TO SMALLHOLDER FARMERS According to the MoANR extension general directorate, Prior 2011, seed distribution in Ethiopiaextension was centralizedConcentration of rural agro‐dealer network through the federal government, with cooperatives there to are approximately 18,015 agricultural serving as the major outlet for agricultural inputs. In 2011, with support from the MoANR, ATA and the Integrated workers in Ethiopia, of whom less than 1% (70) are from Prior to 2011, model. seed distribution in Seed Sector Development (ISSD) piloted the Direct Seed Marketing (DSM) Under DSM, Ethiopia certifiedwas seedcentral‐ is sold the private sector. This equates to about one extension ized through the federal government, with cooperatives directly by seed companies (private and public) to farmers through private agents or cooperatives. The government worker for every 592 farming households in Ethiopia.

plays a minimal role in this system.

The DSM model has achieved significant growth in coverage from two woredas (districts) in 2011 to 100 districts 2 Kebele is the lowest administrative unit in Ethiopia, equivalent to a village.

with 650 agro-dealers in 2016 (this translates to one agrodealer for 24,294 households). However, the fast-paced growth has been accompanied by several challenges, including the need to equip agro-dealers with comprehensive Copyright © The African Seed Access Index Page 5 information and training on seed varieties. In addition, many agro-dealers lack adequate storage facilities, and the transport infrastructure also needs improvement in many districts to better serve both agro-dealers and farmers. As a result of these shortcomings, seed companies rated their satisfaction with the agro-dealer network as fair (47%).

Seed Sectors Around the Globe

Seed Times May - August 2018

Availability of seed in small packages Figure 4 shows the percentage of seed sold in different package sizes. Across the four focus crops, less than 1% of the certified seed sold in Ethiopia is sold in package sizes of 2 kg or less. The corresponding figures are 0.3% for maize and 0.6% for teff, while no wheat or sorghum seed is sold in package sizes of 2 kg or less. In fact, most seeds are sold in packages sizes of 10 kg of greater: most maize seed (89%) and almost all teff seed (95%) is sold in packages over 10 kg. All wheat seed is sold is packages of more than 10 kg. Half of the sorghum seed (50%) is sold in packages of greater than 10kg. The most common package sizes for the crops is 12.5 kg (maize), 50 kg (wheat), 15 kg (teff), and 10 kg or 15 kg (sorghum). The reason for large package sizes for serving as the major outlet for agricultural inputs. In 2011, wheat is probably the MoANR, high seeding rate. converse with support from the ATA and the The Integrated isSeed Sector Development (ISSD) piloted the Direct Seed true for teff, which has a low seeding rate. Given that most farmers in Ethiopia smallholders, there is need Marketing (DSM) model. are Under DSM, certified seed is for smaller package sizes, which are more affordable sold directly by seed companies (private and public) to for resourceconstrained farmers. Nevertheless, seed farmers through private agents or cooperatives. The gov‐ companies rate their satisfaction with the availability of ernment plays a minimal role in this system. seed in small packages as good (60%).

Figure 4. Percentage of seed sold in different package sizes 100%

13%

80% 60%

33% 89%

88%

40%

82% 50%

20% 0%

17%

11%

13%

Maize

Wheat

Teff

Sorghum

The DSM model has achieved significant growth in cover‐ Seed-to-grain price ratio 2kg or less >2kg ‐ 10kg >10kg ‐ 25kg >25kg age from two woredas (districts) in 2011 to 100 districts Assuming stable prices at planting time, seed-to-grain with 650 agro‐dealers in 2016 (this translates to one agro‐ Figure 4. Percentage of seed sold in different package sizes price ratios can reflect the attractiveness of a variety or dealer for 24,294 households). However, the fast‐paced Seed‐to‐grain price ratio affordability of improved seed relative to farmer-recycled grain. The seed-to-grain price ratio is 7.1:1 for maize growth has been accompanied by several challenges, in‐ hybrids and 3.6:1 for maize OPVs. For the other three focus crops, the ratios areprices 1.4:1at (teff), 1.9 (wheat), and 2.2:1 Assuming stable planting time, seed‐to‐grain cluding the need to equip agro‐dealers with comprehen‐ (sorghum). The ratios show that the price of seed in Ethiopia is more expensive than in countries like Kenya (ratio of price ratios can reflect the attractiveness of a variety or sive information and training on seed varieties. In addi‐ 4.5:1 for maize hybrid) and Tanzania (ratio of 5.2:1 for maize hybrid. However, it is cheaper than in other countries affordability of improved seed relative to farmer‐recycled tion, many agro‐dealers lack adequate storage facilities, like Zambia (ratio of 13.4:1 for maize hybrid) and Zimbabwe (ratio of 9.3:1 for maize hybrid). grain. The seed‐to‐grain price ratio is 7.1:1 for maize hy‐ and the transport infrastructure also needs improvement brids and 3.6:1 for maize OPVs. For the other three focus in many districts to better serve both agro‐dealers and CONCLUSION crops, the ratios are 1.4:1 (teff), 1.9 (wheat), and 2.2:1 farmers. As a result of these shortcomings, seed compa‐ (sorghum). The ratios show that the price of seed in Ethi‐ nies rated their satisfaction with the agro‐dealer network The vision and mission of the Ethiopian government’s Seed System Development Strategy emphasizes the importance opia is more expensive than in countries like Kenya (ratio as fair (47%). of a well-functioning, market-led seed sector. The seed industry has registered notable improvements over the last of 4.5:1 for maize hybrid) and Tanzania (ratio of 5.2:1 for decade as it slowly evolves from full government control towards liberalization. There is notable increase in the Availability of seed in small packages number of active private local seed companies in the country; the relevant Seed Proclamations and Regulations maize hybrid. However, it is cheaper than in other coun‐ have either been recently amended or are in the process of revision; the (ratio government is for closely collaborating tries like and Zambia of 13.4:1 maize hybrid) and Figure 4 shows the percentage of seed sold in different with other important industry actors such as ATA, ESA, and nonstate actors to address specific issues constraining Zimbabwe (ratio of 9.3:1 for maize hybrid). package sizes. Across the four focus crops, less than 1% of

the sector. All these developments bode well for the seed industry. the certified seed sold in Ethiopia is sold in package sizes

of 2 kg or significant less. The corresponding figures 0.3% for formal seed CONCLUSION However, challenges remain inare Ethiopia’s sector. Chief among these (and reported by more maize and 0.6% for teff, while no wheat or sorghum seed than half (53%) of seed producers) is the limited availability and poor quality of early-generation seed. Unlike The vision and mission of the Ethiopian government’s Seed is sold in package sizes of 2 kg or less. In fact, most seeds most other countries covered by TASAI, the Ethiopian government continues to be heavily involved in all stages of System Development Strategy emphasizes the importance are sold in packages sizes of 10 kg of greater: most maize the seed value chain. This not only stifles competition, but also gives rise to the perception by almost half (40%) of a well‐functioning, market‐led seed sector. The seed in‐ seed (89%) and almost all teff seed (95%) is sold in pack‐ seed producers that public seed entities get higher priority bydustry has registered notable improvements over the last government agencies than private seed companies. Regardless of whether this favouritism is real or imagined, it discourages private sector investment in the seed ages over 10 kg. All wheat seed is sold is packages of more decade as it slowly evolves from full government control sector. While direct seed marketing is a positive step towards relinquishing government control of seed distribution, than 10 kg. Half of the sorghum seed (50%) is sold in pack‐ towards liberalization. There is notable increase in the there is a need to fast-track its roll-out across the country. The roll-out should be complemented by strengthening ages of greater than 10kg. number of active private local seed companies in the coun‐ agrodealer networks and co-operatives through providing uptodate information on varieties and training on seed try; the relevant Seed Proclamations and Regulations have The most common package sizes for the crops is 12.5 kg marketing. (maize), 50 kg (wheat), 15 kg (teff), and 10 kg or 15 kg (sorghum). The reason for large package sizes for wheat is probably the high seeding rate. The converse is true for Seed Times May - August 2018 teff, which has a low seeding rate. Given that most farm‐ ers in Ethiopia are smallholders, there is need for smaller package sizes, which are more affordable for resource‐

either been recently amended or are in the process of revi‐ sion; and the government is closely collaborating with other important industry actors such as ATA, ESA, and non‐ 85 Seed Sectors Around the Globe state actors to address specific issues constraining the sec‐ tor. All these developments bode well for the seed indus‐ try.

REFERENCES Atlaw, A., Alemu, D., Bishaw, Z., & Kalsa, K. (2017) Early Generation Seed Production and Supply in Ethiopia: Status, Challenges and Opportunities. Seattle. FAO (1998) Developing Seed Security Strategies and Programmes for Food Security in Developing Countries. Ministry of Agriculture, T. F. D. R. of E. (2013) Seed System Development Strategy. Available at: http://tasai.org/ wpcontent/ themes/tasai2016/info_portal/Ethiopia/Ethiopia Seed System Development Strategy (2013).pdf (Accessed: 24 August 2017). APPENDIX 1. For a omparison of TASAI Indicators across 13 countries, please visit: http://tasai.org/wp-content/uploads/ TASAIAppendix-CURRENT.pdf

The article has been published with permission of authors

Seed Sectors Around the Globe

Seed Times May - August 2018

Ghana Brief 2017 - The African Seed Access Edward Mabaya, Samuel Yao Adzivor, John Wobil, Mainza Mugoya

INTRODUCTION A competitive seed sector is key to ensuring timely availability of high quality seeds of improved, appropriate varieties at affordable prices for smallholder farmers in Ghana. This country brief summarizes the key findings of The African Seed Access Index (TASAI) study conducted in 2016/17 to appraise the structure and economic performance of Ghana’s seed sector. With a focus on four grain and legume crops important to food security — maize, rice, soya bean, and cowpea — the study evaluates the enabling environment for a vibrant formal seed sector. Maize, rice, and cowpea are three of the five priority food crops for attaining food security in Ghana, as recognized in the Food and Agriculture Sector Development Policy (FASDEP II) (Ministry of Food and Agriculture, 2007). Soya bean is also mentioned as a cash crop with industrial properties. Furthermore, the cultivation of these four crops covers about 32% of the country’s arable land (FAOSTAT, 2017). The study covers 20 indicators divided into the following categories: Research and Development, Industry Competitiveness, Seed Policy and Regulations, Institutional Support, and Service to Smallholder Farmers. Appendix 1 summarizes all 20 indicators and compares Ghana to 12 other countries where the TASAI research has been conducted. TASAI seeks to encourage public policymakers and development agencies to create and maintain enabling environments that will accelerate the development of competitive formal seed systems serving smallholder farmers.

Seed Times May - August 2018

Seed Sectors Around the Globe

Overview Like most other African countries, the seed industry in Ghana consists of two systems: the informal sector and the formal sector. This policy brief focuses almost exclusively on the formal seed sector. The informal sector broadly refers to the system where farmers produce, obtain, maintain, and distribute seed resources from one growing season to the next (FAO, 1998). Due to limited exposure, low availability of most varieties, inability to purchase seeds, limited access to agro-dealers, or other reasons, most smallholder farmers in Ghana still rely significantly on the informal system. Standards in the informal seed sector are not monitored or controlled by government policies and regulations; rather, they are guided by indigenous knowledge and standards, and by social structures. The colloquial nature of transactions means that there is scant performance data on the informal sector. The formal sector focuses on breeding and evaluating improved varieties, and producing and selling seed of these varieties that are certified by the Plant Protection and Regulatory Services Directorate (PPRSD), the government department under the Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MOFA) responsible for regulating seed in Ghana. According to the Ghana National Seed Plan (Ministry of Food and Agriculture, 2015), certified seed contributes only about 11% and 14% of the national seed requirement for maize and rice, respectively. As shown in Table 1, Ghana’s formal seed sector comprises numerous institutions, including government (e.g. GSID, GLDB, CRI, SARI, and district extension agents), private sector (mostly local seed companies and agro-dealers), and development agencies. Established in November 2015, the National Seed Trade Association of Ghana (NASTAG) is a new association that brings together all the seed companies and other key players in the industry. Table 1: Role of key players in Ghana’s formal seed sector Research and breeding

KEY PLAYERS CRI, SARI, West Africa Centre for Crop Improvement, universities, IITA

Variety release and regulation

National Variety Release and Registration Committee

Seed production and processing

Seed companies, GLDB, LCIC (foundation seed only)

ROLE

Education, training, and extension Distribution and sales

Seed companies, NASTAG, GSID, PPRSD, CRI, SARI, Department of Agricultural Extension Services Seed companies, agro-dealers

Key acronyms: APSP – Agriculture Policy Support Project; CRI – Crop Research Institute; ECOWAS-Economic Community of West African States; GLDB-Grains and Legumes Development Board; GSID-Ghana Seed Inspection Division; IITA-International Institute of Tropical Agriculture; MOFA – Ministry of Food and Agriculture; NASTAG – National Seed Trade Association of Ghana; OPV – Open Pollinated Variety; PPRSD-Plant Protection and Regulatory Services Directorate; SARI - Savanna Agricultural Research Institute.

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT Number of active breeders For the four priority crops in Ghana – maize, rice, soya bean, and cowpea – there are 26 active breeders. Of these, 15 breeders are from the two public research institutions – the Savanna Agricultural Research Institute (SARI) and the Crop Research Institute (CRI). SARI has the mandate for the four crops in northern Ghana, while CRI has the mandate for the same crops in southern Ghana. Nine of the breeders represent two private companies. One of the private companies produces only foundation seed, while the other private company releases its own varieties in collaboration with CRI. The remaining two breeders are from the West Africa Centre for Crop Improvement, a partnership between the University of Ghana and Cornell University (USA). The number of breeders for each crop are as follows: ten for maize, six for rice, five for soya bean, and five for cowpea.

Seed Sectors Around the Globe

Seed Times May - August 2018

On average, seed companiesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; satisfaction with the number of active breeders is good (73%).1 The highest level of satisfaction is for maize (83%) and cowpea (80%), while the lowest levels satisfaction were reported for rice (70%) and soya bean (60%). The number of breeders is fairly even across the four crops. However, the relatively low levels of satisfaction with the adequacy of soya bean breeders signals the need to increase the number of breeders.

Varieties released in the last three years Between 2013 and 2015, eight new varieties were released for the four crops. Of these, six were for maize and two for rice. While there were no releases of cowpea and soya bean varieties during this period, three soya bean and three cowpea varieties were released in 2012. Figure 1 shows the three-year moving average of variety releases since 2003. Given the number of active breeders, the number of varieties released for the crops is relatively low. According to multiple sources, the main reason for the small number of varieties released is a lack of financial resources. Public breeding programs are under-funded by the government, and largely dependent on external (donor) funding.

Availability of foundation seed On average, seed companies rate their satisfaction with the availability of foundation seed as good (67%). The highest satisfaction is for maize (70%), while the lowest satisfaction is for rice (62%). The satisfaction ratings for the availability of foundation seed for cowpea and soya bean are the same (68%).

Figure 1: Number of varieties released in Ghana (three-year moving average)

The main sources of foundation seed for the four crops are the government parastatal, the Grains and Legumes Development Board (GLDB), and the agricultural research institutions â&#x20AC;&#x201C; CRI and SARI. GLDB provides maize foundation seed to about one-third (32%) of seed companies in Ghana. SARI is the source of rice foundation seed for 40% of the seed companies. One private research company, the Legacy Crop Improvement Centre (LCIC), produces foundation seed for maize, cowpea and rice. These findings are consistent with a recent study on early-generation seed in Ghana (AGRA, 2016), which found a significant shortage in the supply of foundation seed and other early-generation seed. This is caused by a lack of financial resources at government research institutions (mainly CRI and SARI) and a lack of private sector breeding programs.

Average age of varieties sold The average ages of the varieties currently on the market are as follows: 12.5 years (maize), 5 years (rice), 8.5 years (soya bean), and 14 years (cowpea). Maize OPV variety Obatanpa (released in 1992) is the oldest variety on the market. As of 2014, it accounted for 77% of certified maize seed production (AGRA, 2016), because farmers like its attributes and because new maize varieties released in 2015 are not being promoted as much as Obatanpa. In contrast, the rice varieties on the market are relatively young. This may be due to the current demand for rice varieties with aromatic cooking qualities, which has encouraged breeders to release new varieties to replace the old ones. The main reason for the relatively young age of soya bean varieties (average 8.5 years) is that commercial cultivation of the crop in Ghana began less than 20 years ago. All scores reported in this brief are based on industry self reporting of satisfaction ranging from 0% (completely dissatisfied) to 100% (completely satisfied).

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Seed Sectors Around the Globe

Varieties with climate-smart features To be classified as climate-smart, a crop variety must meet at least one of two criteria â&#x20AC;&#x201C; early maturity and/or tolerance to extreme weather conditions such as drought, flooding, or frost. Six varieties of maize were released in 2015, of which four have climate-smart characteristics. Warikamana, Kunjor-wari, Suhudoo, and Kpari-faako maize varieties, developed by the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), are early-maturing and tolerant to drought. For rice, soya bean, and cowpea, no varieties with climate-smart features were released in the past three years.

INDUSTRY COMPETITIVENESS Number of active seed companies In 2016, there were 17 seed companies engaged in the production and/or marketing of at least one of the four focus crops. All the companies produced maize seed. Of the 17 companies, seven produced rice, five produced soya bean, and nine produced cowpea. The seed industry was privatized in 1989, though most seed companies are less than 10 years old. It is worth noting that several young companies have been started with support from donor funded projects. The estimated aggregate sales of the four crops in 20162 was 1,832 metric tons. Maize seed accounted for about 78% (1,432 tons) of 2016 sales of the four crops. This is slightly lower than the 2015 maize seed sales of 2,186 metric tons. The TASAI findings on the volume of maize seed sales are consistent with the findings from the study on earlygeneration seed, which reported maize seed sales of 2,105 tons in 2015 (AGRA, 2016).

Market share of top seed companies Market share is calculated using seed sales reported by seed companies. By crop, the market shares for the top four companies are: 72% (maize), 77% (rice), 98% (soya bean), and 87% (cowpea). This data shows that a few companies dominate the market for rice, soya bean, and cowpea (fig. 2). The maize seed market is more competitive. The Herfindahl-Hirschman Index (HHI) was also used to quantify industry competitiveness. The index, a sum of squared market shares, ranges from near zero for perfect competition, to 10,000 for a pure monopoly. HHI was calculated for all the seed companies, for each crop. The market concentration is good for maize (1,620), fair for rice (2,287) and cowpea (2,798), but poor for soya bean (3,072). The market shares of the top four companies and the HHI results both indicate that the seed market for three crops â&#x20AC;&#x201C; rice, soya bean, and cowpea â&#x20AC;&#x201C; is dominated by a few players, with fair or poor levels of competition.

Figure 2: Total market share (%) of top four companies

Market share of government parastatal Since September 1989, no government parastatal has been involved in the production and/or marketing of certified seed for any of the four crops. The data was collected in December 2016, and some companies had not yet consolidated their annual sales figures. In such cases, the researchers assumed the 2016 sales to be the same as 2015 sales, which were reported.

Seed Sectors Around the Globe

Seed Times May - August 2018

Length of import/export process for seed The time it takes to import seed is calculated as the number of days from the time an import permit is applied for to the time the seed is cleared at the border. For the focus crops, there is only one company in Ghana involved in seed importation. The company indicated that the importation process takes about 90 days. Imports are mainly from South Africa (for maize and soya bean) and India (rice). The seed company signaled a low level of satisfaction (20%) with the import process, primarily due to unclear legal and regulatory requirements for importation (that is, what can or cannot be imported), the quantities allowed for import, and the time for processing import permits. In 2016, there were no exports of certified seed from Ghana for any of the four crops.

SEED POLICY AND REGULATIONS Length of variety release process The length of the variety release process is the duration of time from when the application for a variety release is submitted to when the variety is released by the relevant authority. In Ghana, crop variety release is the mandate of the National Variety Release and Registration Committee. Only two seed companies reported releasing varieties in Ghana between 2013 and 2015. The average release time across crops was 42 months. By crop, release time varied from 36 months for rice, soya bean, and cowpea, to 60 months for maize. The main causes for the long release time were delays during on‐site trials, delayed committee meetings, and delays in setting a date for presenting the findings to the committee. According to the seed regulations, the stipulated time for release should be between 12 and 24 months. On average, the two seed companies rate their satisfaction with the release time as fair (43%). By crop, the satisfaction is rated as fair for maize and rice (55%), and poor for soya bean and cowpea (30%). It is important to note that the two seed companies expressed different opinions in their satisfaction of the release time for maize. One of the seed companies, whose release time was 84 months, was very dissatisfied with the process (30%). The other seed company, whose release time for maize was only 36 months, was satisfied with the process (80%). This wide disparity shows inconsistencies in the variety release process.

Status of seed policy framework The current Ghana National Seed Policy took effect on 1st August, 2013. In 1991, a MOFA Task Force reviewed the Seeds (Certification and Standards) Regulations Decree of 1972 and made recommendations on the rules and regulations pertaining to the operations of the seed industry in view of its new, privatized structure. The Plants and Fertilizer Act, 2010 (ACT 803) was passed by parliament and assented to by the President on 6th September 2010. The Act, which is in three technical parts, provides for Plant Protection (Part One), Seeds (Part Two), and Fertilizer Control (Part Three). Ghana’s seed (certification and standards) regulation has been aligned with the seed regulations of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). However, the ECOWAS seed regulations have a broader scope and cover quality control, certification, and marketing, whereas Ghana’s regulations cover certification and standards exclusively. It therefore became necessary to re-draft the national seed regulations to incorporate the provisions of the ECOWAS seed regulations. The final document, aligned to the ECOWAS seed regulations, was forwarded to Parliament in December 2015 for ratification. At the time of writing this report, it was yet to be considered by Parliament for enactment.

Quality of seed regulations and enforcement ‘’Part Two (Seeds)” of the Plants and Fertilizer Act, 2010 (Act 803) is the seed law of Ghana. Seed companies are satisfied with the quality of the seed laws and regulations, rating them as good (78%). However, they are less satisfied with the enforcement of the regulations (56%). One of the weak areas of enforcement highlighted by seed

Seed Times May - August 2018

Seed Sectors Around the Globe

companies is the supply of foundation seed. Regulations have been aligned with ECOWAS protocol, but their passage by Parliament was delayed in 2016. MOFA intends to re-submit the regulations to Parliament for approval in 2017.

Adequacy of seed inspectors The Ghana Seed Inspection Division (GSID) has a total of 32 seed inspectors distributed in nine of the 10 regions of Ghana where seed production is undertaken. On average, seed companies rate their satisfaction with seed services as fair (49%). The main shortcoming of inspection services is that inspectors have inadequate resources to perform their tasks. To alleviate this challenge, GSID has received support from the United States Agency for International Development under the Agriculture Policy Support Project (APSP) to train 20 GSID seed inspectors on inspection procedures. In addition, APSP has assisted GSID with a review of its certification and accreditation manual, which is awaiting approval by the National Seed Council. The in tention is to develop a certification and accreditation system that will allow private seed companies to conduct their own seed inspection services.

Efforts to stamp out fake seed In total, seed companies reported seven cases of the sale of fake seed in 2016. This figure is likely to be an underestimate as most cases of fake seed are not officially reported. On average, seed companies are not satisfied with the government’s efforts to stamp out fake seed, rating them as poor (32%). According to the seed companies, the main sources of fake seed are agro-dealers and other seed companies. Some seed companies highlighted that inadequate knowledge of the Plants and Fertilizer Act, 2010 (ACT 803), and its regulation by some law enforcement agencies, such as the police and customs officials, hampers successful prosecution of offenders.

INSTITUTIONAL SUPPORT Availability of extension services There are an estimated 2,511 agricultural extension workers in Ghana, 15% of whom are female. Most of the extension workers (2,484) are employed by the government under the Directorate of Agricultural Extension Services. Only 27 extension workers are in the private sector, employed mainly by seed companies. According to Ghana’s national seed plan (MOFA, 2015), the ratio of extension worker to farmer is 1:1500. This is considerably lower than other African countries, for example, Ethiopia (1:592) and Kenya (1:910). There is a clear need to invest more in the quantity and quality of the extension services in Ghana, as this would promote adoption of improved seed and good farming methods. It would also result in more favorable ratings by seed companies, who currently rate their satisfaction with the extension services as fair (52%).

Quality of national seed trade association The National Seed Trade Association of Ghana (NASTAG) is the umbrella association for all seed trade stakeholders in Ghana. It was formed in November 2015 and is currently run by interim executive officers. NASTAG is made up of the Seed Producers Association of Ghana, Seed Traders Association of Ghana, Ghana Agro input Dealers Association, CRI, and Croplife, Ghana. Seed companies rate their satisfaction with the overall quality of NASTAG as fair (46%). The low score is mainly because NASTAG is still a young organization without a fully-functioning secretariat and a board of directors.

Seed Sectors Around the Globe

Figure 3: Members’ satisfaction with NASTAG

(Source: TASAI Survey)

Seed Times May - August 2018

Figure 3 illustrates the seed companies’ level of satisfaction with NASTAG’s performance in six service areas. NASTAG’s highest rating is in democracy and governance (64%), while the lowest rating is in its ability to mobilize resources (36%). NASTAG’s members rate the association as poor (38%) in providing value to members. All the other service areas, such as managerial ability, effectiveness in advocacy and activity, and activity on important seed sector issues are rated as fair (between 43% and 46%).

SERVICE TO SMALLHOLDER FARMERS Concentration of rural agro-dealer network According to the updated Directory of Ghana Agri-Input Dealers (AGRA, 2012), there are 3,153 agro-input dealers across Ghana. This translates to a ratio of one agro-dealer for approximately every 794 agricultural households in Ghana. Of the total number of agro-dealers, 83% (2,388) have been trained. Most of the trained agro-dealers (83%) are male. These agro-dealers stock seeds and other agricultural inputs like fertilizers and chemicals. There are notable efforts to improve the capacity of agro-dealers in Ghana. One of these efforts, supported under APSP, builds the capacity of agro-dealers to address the issue of counterfeitshown in Figure 4. The amount of seed sold in small pack‐ seeds. Seed companies rated their satisfaction with ages ranges from the 74% for maize to 14% for soya bean, the agro-dealer network as good (64%). There is no recent census of agro-dealers in Ghana to update the above with cowpea (42%) and rice (29%) in the middle. Most statistics.

soya bean seed (79%) is sold in package sizes of at least 25 kg. The large package size could be an impediment for variety adoption by smallholder farmers, who are more For the four crops collectively, 66% of the seed was sold in packages of 2 kg or less. This is a high proportion, but with new varieties only packages if they can there is significant variation across the four crops, as shown in likely Figureto 4.experiment The amount of seed sold in small purchase them in small volumes. ranges from the 74% for maize to 14% for soya bean, with cowpea (42%) and rice (29%) in the middle. Most soya

Availability of seed in small packages

bean seed (79%) is sold in package sizes of at least 25 kg. The large package size could be an impediment for variety The seed companies’ satisfaction with availability of seed adoption by smallholder farmers, who are more likely to experiment with new varieties only if they can purchase in small packages is positively correlated with the vol‐ them in small volumes.

umes sold in small packages. On average, seed companies The seed companies’ satisfaction with availability of seed in small packages is positively correlated withof the volumes rate their satisfaction with the volumes seed sold in sold in small packages. On average, seed companies rate theirsmall packages as good (72%). The companies are more satisfaction with the volumes of seed sold in small packages as good (72%). The companies are more satisfied with volumes soldseed in small for maize satisfied with seed volumes sold packages in small packages for (81%) and rice (74%), than for soya bean (65%) and cowpeamaize (81%) and rice (74%), than for soya bean (65%) and (50%). The certification tag provided by PPRSD is usually one tag per 50 kg bag. Thus, much of the seed sold in small packages is seed that has been re-bagged and cowpea (50%). The certification tag provided by PPRSD is does not have the certification tag. usually one tag per 50 kg bag. Thus, much of the seed sold in Figure small packages is seed of that has sold been 4. Percentage seed inre‐bagged differentand Seed-to-grain price ratio does not have the certification tag. package sizes

Assuming stable prices at planting time, seed-to-grain price ratios can reflect the attractiveness of a variety or affordability of improved seed relative to grain recycled by the farmer. The seed-to-grain price ratios for the four crops do not vary significantly. The highest ratios are for hybrid maize (6.06:1). The seed-to-grain price ratios for maize OPV is 4:28:1, for soya bean 4.4:1, for rice 1.66:1, and for cowpea 2.03:1. These ratios are comparable with other African countries, such as Ethiopia and Zimbabwe, where the ratios for maize hybrids are 7.1:1 and 9.3:1, respectively.

100% 80%

19%

38% 74%

20% 0%

34%

60% 40%

17%

Maize 2 kg or less

79%

8% 16%

16% 29%

7% 14%

Rice

Soya bean

>2kg ‐ 10 kg

>10 kg ‐ 25kg

42%

Figure 4. Percentage of seed sold in different package sizes

Seed‐to‐grain price ratio Seed Times May - August 2018

Desp reas the less soon new play seed cuss

Thes tor f (for year publ bein rang four Gha the than legis face tion disco

CON

Cowpea >25kg

OPP

Assuming stable prices at planting time, seed‐to‐grain 93 Seed Sectors Around the Globe price ratios can reflect the attractiveness of a variety or affordability of improved seed relative to grain recycled by the farmer. The seed‐to‐grain price ratios for the four

The ther priva and/ very the crea pani espe

OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES Despite its relatively young age, Ghana’s seed industry has reason for optimism. The key policy instruments, namely the National Seed Policy and Plants and Fertilizer Act, are less than eight years old, and the amended regulations are soon to be passed by the Parliament. In addition, the newly-formed NASTAG has the buy-in of most industry players, and is therefore a good platform to ensure that seed companies are well-represented in relevant policy discussions. These positives notwithstanding, Ghana’s formal seed sector faces some formidable challenges. Only eight varieties (for all four crops) were released during the past three years. This shows a low level of investment by both the public and private sectors in varietal development. Despite being part of the ECOWAS regional seed harmonization arrangements, the level of seed trade in Ghana is low. For the four crops, only one seed company imports seed into Ghana. The low level of regional trade partly contributes to the low volumes of certified seed sold in the country (less than 2,000 metric tons in 2016). Despite the amended seed legislation and regulations, seed companies continue to face operational challenges. Most notable is the long duration of variety release time (60 months for maize), which discourages investments in breeding.

CONCLUSION The seed industry in Ghana is in the early-growth stage and there is significant room for greater participation by the private sector. While there are many companies producing and/or marketing maize and rice seed, the volumes are still very low. There are opportunities for regional trade under the ECOWAS seed harmonization arrangements. To increase adoption rates among farmers in Ghana, seed companies should promote some of the new seed varieties – especially for maize and rice, which are higher-yielding and have more climate-smart characteristics. In addition, companies may have to reduce package sizes for soya bean and cowpea to make the seed more attractive and economically viable for small farmers. To address the challenges in the seed sector, strategic interventions are needed at various critical stages including: investment in research and breeding; improving seed companies’ access to foundation seed; improving the performance of the National Variety Release and Registration Committee to reduce the length of time it takes to register a variety; and addressing the problem of fake seed, among other issues.

REFERENCES AGRA (2016) Ghana Early Generation Seed Study. FAOSTAT (2017) FAOSTAT. Available at: http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#home (Accessed: 1 July 2017). Ministry of Food and Agriculture (2015) NATIONAL SEED PLAN. Available at: http://tasai.org/wpcontent/ themes/ tasai2016/info_portal/Ghana/Ghana National Seed Plan (2015).pdf (Accessed: 7 August 2017). Ministry of Food and Agriculture, G. (2007) Food and Agriculture Sector Development Policy (FASDEP II). Available at: ftp://ftp.fao.org/TC/TCA/WEB/FTP/TC/TCA/CAADP TT/CAADP Implementation/CAADP Pre-compact/National documents/Ghana/Agriculture and Food Security Strategy.pdf (Accessed: 7 August 2017).

APPENDIX 1. For a comparison of TASAI Indicators across 13 countries, please visit: http://tasai.org/wp-content/uploads/ TASAI-Appendix-CURRENT.pdf

The article has been published with permission of authors

Seed Sectors Around the Globe

Seed Times May - August 2018

Madagascar Brief 2017 The African Seed Access Index Edward Mabaya, Mbosa Rabenasolo, Narisoa Razakasolo, Mainza Mugoya INTRODUCTION A competitive seed sector is key to ensuring timely availability of high quality seeds of improved, appropriate varieties at affordable prices for smallholder farmers in Madagascar. This country brief summarizes the key findings of The African Seed Access Index (TASAI) study conducted in 2016/17 to appraise the structure and economic performance of Madagascar’s seed sector. With a focus on four grain crops important to food security in Madagascar — rice, maize, beans, and groundnut — the study evaluates the enabling environment for a vibrant formal seed sector. Cultivation of these four crops covers about 37% of the country’s arable land, and these crops contribute to 60% of the population’s daily calorie intake (FAOSTAT, 2017). The study covers 20 indicators divided into the following categories: Research and Development, Industry Competitiveness, Seed Policy and Regulations, Institutional Support, and Service to Smallholder Farmers. Appendix 1 summarizes all 20 indicators and compares Madagascar with 12 other countries where similar studies were conducted. TASAI seeks to encourage public policymakers and development agencies to create and maintain enabling environments that will accelerate the development of competitive formal seed systems serving smallholder farmers.

Seed Times May - August 2018

Seed Sectors Around the Globe

Overview Like most other African countries, the seed industry in Madagascar consists of two systems: the informal sector and the formal sector. This policy brief focuses almost exclusively on the formal seed sector. The informal sector broadly refers to the system where farmers produce, obtain, maintain, and distribute seed resources from one growing season to the next (FAO, 1998). Due to limited exposure, low availability of most varieties, inability to purchase seeds, limited access to agro-dealers, or other reasons, most smallholder farmers in Madagascar still rely on the informal seed sector. Standards in the informal seed sector are not monitored or controlled by government policies and regulations; rather, they are guided by indigenous knowledge and standards, and by social structures. The colloquial nature of transactions means that there is scant performance data on the informal sector. The formal sector focuses on breeding and evaluating improved varieties, and producing and selling certified seed. The seed is certified by the Official National Agency for Seed Control (ANCOS). Seed production is conducted by several categories of seed producers including seed companies, parastatals, seed producer groups, seed cooperatives, and individual seed producers. The utilization rate for certified seed in Madagascar is low. As shown in Table 1, Madagascar’s formal seed sector comprises numerous institutions including government and private sector (mostly local seed producers and agro-dealers). The seed association, AMPROSEM is not very active in seed sector issues, and most of the seed producers are not members. Table 1: Role of key players in Madagascar’s formal seed sector

Research and breeding

KEY PLAYERS FOFIFA, FIFAMANOR, CIRAD, Africa Rice, ECABREN, JICA

Variety release and regulation

CONASEM, ANCOS

Seed production and processing

Seed producers, seed companies, seed cooperatives, CMS, GPS

ROLE

Education, training, and extension Ministry of Agriculture, NGOs Distribution and sales Seed producers, Agro-dealers Key acronyms: AMPROSEM – Malagasy Association for Seed and Plant Professionals; ANCOS – Official National Agency for the Control of Seeds and Seedlings; CIRAD – French Agricultural Research Centre for International Development; CMS – Center for Seed Multiplication; CNEV – National Catalog of Species and Varieties; COMESA – Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa; CONASEM – National Council on Seeds; ECABREN – East and Central African Bean Research Network; FIFAMANOR - Fiompiana sy Fambolena Malagasy Norveziana; FOFIFAFoibem-Pirenena momba ny Fikarohana ampiharina amin’ny Fampandrosoana ny eny Ambanivohitra; JICA – Japan International Cooperation Agency; REVSM – Register of Species and Varieties cultivated in the South of Madagascar; SADC – Southern African Development Community; SNSR – National Strategy for Rice Seed development.

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT Number of active breeders Madagascar currently has 29 active breeders for the four priority crops of rice, maize, beans, and groundnut. Most of the breeders (24 of 29) are based at public agricultural research institutions – Fiompiana sy Fambolena Malagasy Norveziana (FIFAMANOR) and Foibe Fikarohana Ampiharina ho Fampandrosoana ny any Ambanivohitra (FOFIFA). The remaining five breeders work in the private sector. Most of the breeders (21 of 29) focus on rice; two breeders work on maize, while beans and groundnut have three breeders each.

Seed Sectors Around the Globe

Seed Times May - August 2018

Many of the current breeders are close to retirement, and efforts to train new breeders are heavily focused on rice. Africa Rice is currently training 20 breeders, most of whom are attached to FOFIFA and concentrated in urban areas. Some rice breeders will be sent to China for training on breeding hybrid rice. Rice breeding efforts are also supported by the French Agricultural Research Centre for International Development (CIRAD), and the Japanese and Chinese governments. On average, seed producers’1 satisfaction with the number of active breeders is good (70%). Despite the low number of maize, beans, and groundnut breeders, seed producers rate their satisfaction as good for each crop: 69% (rice), 66% (maize), 74% (beans), and 73% (groundnut).2 Varieties released in the last three years

The National Catalog of Species and Varieties (CNEV) was last updated in 2008. Information from breeders and varieties cultivated in the South of Madagascar (REVSM), RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT the National Council on Seeds (CONASEM) reveals that there but not on CNEV. Between 2014 and 2016, 61 varieties of were 13 variety releases for the four crops between 2014 and 2016, all of which were for rice. No new varieties ofrice maize, and groundnuts were released at the Number of active breeders were beans, produced and certified, but not registered on national level during this period. Figure 1 shows the threeyear moving average of variety releases by CNEV since CNEV. In addition, five rice varieties were released in Madagascar currently has 29 active breeders for the four 2002. However, this does not present the complete picture of access to certified seed for farmers in Madagascar, for REVSM, but not on CNEV. For maize, three varieties were priority crops of rice, maize, beans, and groundnut. Most two reasons. Firstly, many varieties were produced and certified by CONASEM but not registered on CNEV. Secondly, produced and certified, but not released on CEV. For of the breeders (24 of 29) are based at public agricultural many varieties are released and registered in the regional catalogue, called the Register of species and 1This brief beans, eight varieties were produced and certified, and research institutions – Fiompiana sy Fambolena Mala‐ uses the terms “seed producers” to refer to all categories of enterprises that produce certified seed. varieties three varieties were released in REVSM, but not CNEV. gasy Norveziana (FIFAMANOR) and Foibe Fikarohana cultivated in the South of Madagascar (REVSM), but not on CNEV. Between 2014 and 2016, 61 varieties of rice were There are no groundnut varieties in CNEV. Ampiharina Fampandrosoana ny any Ambanivohitra produced andho certified, but not registered on CNEV. In addition, five rice varieties were released in REVSM, but not (FOFIFA). The remaining five breeders work in the private on CNEV. For maize, three varieties were produced and certified, but not released on CEV. For beans, eight varieties These disparities show a significant disconnect at two lev‐ sector. Most of the breeders (21 of 29) focus on rice; two were produced and certified, and three varieties were released in REVSM, but not CNEV. There are no groundnut els: i) between variety release and registration at the re‐ breeders work on maize, while beans and groundnut have varieties in CNEV. gional and national levels, and ii) between production and three breeders each. certification and of the recommendation Figure of 1: seed, Number varieties released of in certi‐ These disparities show a significant disconnect at two Madagascar (three-year moving average) fied seed for registration in CNEV. levels:i) between variety release and registration at the Many of the current breeders are close to retirement, and regional and national levels, and ii) between production efforts to train new breeders are heavily focused on rice. 5 and certification of seed, and the recommendation of Africa Rice is currently training 20 breeders, most of 4 certified seed for registration in CNEV.

rating(51%). Satisfaction ratings for the availability On average, seed producers’1 satisfaction with the num‐ of foundation seed for rice and groundnut are 62% and ber of active breeders is good (70%). Despite the low 54%, respectively.

3 2 1

Rice

Bean

Maize

2016

2015

2014

2013

2012

2011

2010

2009

2008

2007

2006

2005

2004

‐1

2003

0 2002

whom are attached to FOFIFA and concentrated in urban Availability of foundation seed areas. Some rice breeders will be sent to China for train‐ ing on breeding hybrid rice. Rice breeding efforts are also On average, seed producers rate their satisfaction with supported by the French Agricultural Research Centre for the availability of foundation seed for all four crops as International Development (CIRAD), and the Japanese good (60%). The highest satisfaction rate was reported and Chinese governments. for beans (63%), while maize received the lowest

Ground nut

Figure 1: Number of varieties released in Madagascar (three‐year moving average)

number of maize, beans, and groundnut breeders, seed Availability of foundation seed The three government parastatalas institutions – FOFIFA, and the Centre for Seed Multiplication (CMS) producers rate their satisfaction good for each crop: FIFAMANOR, Sakay are the main sources of foundation seed. FOFIFA supplies foundation to about ofwith the 69% (rice), 66% (maize), 74% (beans), and 73% (ground‐ On average, seed seed producers rate three-quarters their satisfaction 2 rice seed producers. In addition, variety research and development is supported by Africa Rice (rice), CIRAD (rice, nut). the availability of foundation seed for all four crops as

maize, groundnut), the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA; rice), and the East and Central African Bean good (60%). The highest satisfaction rate was reported for Varieties released in the last three years Research Network (ECABREN; beans).

beans (63%), while maize received the lowest rating The National Catalog of Species and Varieties (CNEV) was (51%). Satisfaction ratings for the availability of founda‐ 1 This brief uses the terms “seed producers” to refer to all categories of enterprises that for produce seed. last updated in 2008. Information from breeders and the tion seed rice certified and groundnut are 62% and 54%, re‐ 2 All scores reported in this brief are based on industry self-reporting of satisfaction ranging from 0% for completely dissatisfied to 100% for National Council on Seeds (CONASEM) reveals that there spectively. completely satisfied. were 13 variety releases for the four crops between 2014 The three government parastatal institutions – FOFIFA, and 2016, all of which were for rice. No new varieties of FIFAMANOR, and the Centre for Seed Multiplication maize, beans, and groundnuts were released at the na‐ Seed Times May August 2018 (CMS) Sakay are the main sources seed. 97 Seed Sectors Around of thefoundation Globe tional level during this period. Figure 1 shows the three‐ FOFIFA supplies foundation seed to about three‐quarters year moving average of variety releases by CNEV since of the rice seed producers. In addition, variety research 2002. However, this does not present the complete pic‐

Average age of varieties sold The average age of varieties on the market for all four crops is high. They range from 51 years for groundnut to 18 years for beans. The average age of the rice and maize varieties is 19 years and 24 years, respectively. There is also considerable variation in the ages of varieties. In the case of rice, for example, the oldest variety is 84 years old, while the youngest varieties are less than one year old. All the maize varieties sold to farmers (and registered on the CNEV) were released in the 1990s, while three of the four groundnut varieties were released in the 1950s.

Varieties with climate-smart features To be classified as climate-smart, a crop variety must meet at least one of two criteria – early maturity and/or tolerance to extreme weather conditions, such as drought, flooding, or frost. Of the 7 rice varieties released between 2013 and 2015, two had climate-smart characteristics. These two varieties, maintained by FOFIFA, are early maturing. There were no releases on CNEV for maize, beans, or groundnut during this period. ANCOS register. Of these, 4 are parastatals, 13 are seed Average age of varieties sold To provide a more comprehensive picture of climatesmart varieties, it is also important to consider whether varieties companies, are seed producer groups and 16 that have been andon certified or recommended for 15 release at the national level (GPS), have climateThe average age produced of varieties the market for all four by CONASEM smart features. In that respect, 8 of 27 new rice varieties areare either associations, co‐operative unions or individual climate-smart, with the most common feature being crops is high. They range from 51 years for groundnut to seed producers. drought tolerance. Most of the maize varieties (4 of 5), and all the four beans and four groundnut varieties on CNEV 18 years for beans. The average age of the rice and maize are climate-smart. The most common climate-smart feature for these three crops is early maturity. varieties is 19 years and 24 years, respectively. There is Of the 48 producers, 41 produce rice, 11 produce maize, 20 produce beans, and 11 produce groundnut. Aggregate case of rice, for example, the oldest variety is 84 years old, sales for the four crops in 2016 were 1,233 tons (rice), 172 Number of active seed companies while the youngest varieties are less than one year old. All tons (maize), 193 tons (beans), and 22 tons (groundnut). the maize varieties sold to farmers (and registered on the The volume of seed sales and number of seed producers At the end of 2016, Madagascar had 157 seed producers. However, the ANCOS register lists only 39 seed enterprises CNEV) were released in the 1990s, while three of the four producing 13 crops. Most of the un-registered seed producersclearly show that rice is the most important food crop in are individual seed growers and seed producer groups groundnut varieties were released in the 1950s. who have neither a fiscal identification number (FIN), nor a statistical identification number (INSTAT). Madagascar. also considerable variation in the ages of varieties. In the INDUSTRY COMPETITIVENESS

Varieties with climate‐smart features Forty-eight seed producers are currently engaged in the production and/or marketing of seed for at least one of the Market share of top seed companies four focus crops under the control/inspection of ANCOS. Though controlled by ANCOS, they are not all on the ANCOS To be classified as climate‐smart, a crop variety must Market share is calculated using seed sales, as reported register. Of these, 4 are parastatals, 13 are seed companies, 15 are seed producer groups (GPS), and 16 are either meet at least one of two criteria – early maturity and/or by seed producers. By crop, the market shares for the top associations, unionsconditions, or individual seedas producers. tolerance to co-operative extreme weather such four producers are: 44% for rice, 94% for maize, 65% for

drought, flooding, or frost. Of the 7 rice varieties released Of the 48 producers, 41 produce rice, 11 produce maize, 20 produce beans, and 11 produce groundnut. Aggregate beans, and 95% for groundnut (fig. 2). The market shares between 2013 and 2015, two had climate‐smart charac‐ sales for the four crops in 2016 were 1,233 tons (rice), 172 tonssuggest (maize), 193 tons (beans), and 22 tons (groundnut). healthy competition, especially for rice and teristics. These two varieties, maintained by FOFIFA, are The volume of seed sales and number of seed producers clearly show that rice is the most important food crop in beans, which have the highest number of seed producers. early maturing. There were no releases on CNEV for Madagascar. While this may appear to be a positive attribute with re‐ maize, beans, or groundnut during this period.

Market share of top seed companies

To provide a more comprehensive picture of climate‐

Market share is calculated using seed sales, as reported by smart varieties, it is also important to consider whether seed producers. By crop, the market shares for the top four varieties that have been produced and certified or recom‐ producers are: 44% for rice, 94% for maize, 65% for beans, mended by CONASEM for release at the national level and 95% for groundnut (fig. 2). The market shares suggest have climate‐smart features. In that respect, 8 of 27 new healthy competition, especially for rice and beans, which rice varieties are climate‐smart, with the most common have the highest number of seed producers. While this may feature being drought tolerance. Most of the maize vari‐ appear to be a positive attribute with regards to market eties (4 of 5), and all the four beans and four groundnut competitiveness, it is important to note that the volume of varieties on CNEV are climate‐smart. The most common sales by each producer is quite low. climate‐smart feature for these three crops is early ma‐ turity.

INDUSTRY COMPETITIVENESS Seed Sectors Around the Globe Number of active seed companies

At the end of 2016, Madagascar had 157 seed producers.

gards to market competitiveness, it is important to note Figure 2: Total market share (%) of that the volume of sales by each producer is quite low. top four companies 100%

80% 60% 40%

56% 94% 44%

20% 0%

Maize

Rice

Top 4 companies

35%

95%

65%

Beans

Groundnut

Other companies

Figure 2: Total market share (%) of top four companies

The Herfindahl‐Hirschman Index (HHI) was also used to quantify industry competitiveness. The index, a sum of Seed Times May - August 2018 squared market shares, ranges from near zero for perfect competition, to 10,000 for a pure monopoly. HHI was cal‐

The Herfindahl-Hirschman Index (HHI) was also used to quantify industry competitiveness. The index, a sum of squared market shares, ranges from near zero for perfect competition, to 10,000 for a pure monopoly. HHI was calculated for all the seed producers, for each crop. The market concentration for rice is excellent (783), while the market concentration is fair for maize (2,272), beans (2,583), and groundnut (2,816). The market shares of the top four producers and the HHI results both indicate a very competitive seed market for rice, and fairly competitive seed markets for maize, beans, and groundnut.

Market share of government parastatal Across the four focus crops, four parastatals are involved in the production of certified seed in Madagascar. Importantly, the parastatals only produce rice and beans: their combined market share for these two crops is 5.6% and 10.4%, respectively. It is important to note that three former CMSs were privatized and produce rice. CMS Sakay, the only remaining CMS yet to be privatized, produces maize and rice seed, though it did not record any production in 2016. None of the parastatals produce groundnut seed.

Length of import/export process for seed Only one company imports seed for any of the four crops, and this company imports hybrid maize seed. In addition, the Malagasy government occasionally imports hybrid rice from China. The length of the import process is calculated as the number of days from the time an import permit is applied for, to the time the seed is cleared at the border. The single company that imported seed in 2016 reported that it takes, on average, 24 days to import seed into Madagascar, and rated the process as good (73%).

SEED POLICY AND REGULATIONS Length of variety release process The length of the variety release process refers to the time from the application for release of a variety to the time the variety is released by the relevant authority. In Madagascar, crop variety release is the mandate of CONASEM. Between 2014 and 2016, CONASEM only released rice varieties; no maize, beans, or groundnut varieties were released during this period. Seed producers reported that the average length of the variety release process for rice was 43 months. On average, seed producers rate their satisfaction with the length of the release process for rice as fair (54%).

Status of seed policy framework The seed industry in Madagascar is guided by several policy instruments. The Seed Law (No. 94-038) was passed in 1995. The instrument to enforce this law, called the Enforcement Decree on Institutions, was passed in 2006. The National Seed Strategy Document was passed in 2008. Regulations on seed production, control, certification and marketing were drafted in 2010, the same year that the decree regulating the inclusion of varieties in the National Catalog of Species and Varieties was passed. ANCOS was established in 2013. More recently, in 2016, the National Strategy for the Development of the Rice Seed Sector (SNSR) in Madagascar was passed. Madagascar is a signatory to the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) and Southern AfricanDevelopment Community (SADC) seed harmonization protocols and its seed regulations are currently being revised to conform with both regional protocols. The revisions will address issues such as seed certification, inspection, variety release, and seed movement in the region.

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Quality of seed regulations and enforcement Seed producers are generally satisfied with the quality of the seed policy and law, rating them as good (65%). However, most of the seed producers expressed dissatisfaction with the level of enforcement of the laws by government, rating their efforts as fair (47%). There are two main areas of dissatisfaction. The first is at the stage of registration of seed enterprises, where the criteria and process for registering seed producers are rarely followed. As a result, many active seed producers are not formally registered by ANCOS and do not have adequate capacity to produce certified seed, resulting in low quality seed on the market. The second area is in seed marketing. Unqualified seed producers and other seed agents often secure government contracts to supply certified seed. These supply contracts often flout the formal procurement process leading to low quality seed on the market. These two issues are compounded by the shortage of financial and human resources at ANCOS. As a result, competent and experienced seed producers face market losses, which reduces their confidence in the nation’s seed sector environment.

Adequacy of seed inspectors ANCOS has a total of 60 seed inspectors distributed across the 22 regions of Madagascar. Seed inspectors are recruited from both the ANCOS headquarters and the Regional Directorates of Agriculture and Livestock. In March 2017, the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock (MPAE) – with support from JICA – trained 20 new seed inspectors and controllers. The inspectors are in charge of verifying crop declarations, field inspections, and seed sampling at harvest time, among other functions. On average, seed producers rate their satisfaction with the adequacy of seed inspection services as good (63%). Despite the high rating, seed producers reported several impediments to quality inspection services, including the small number of seed inspectors, which results in delayed inspections and disruptions to cropping programs. Field inspections results are also regularly delayed, especially during the peak season of July-September, when many rice seed samples are sent to the seed laboratory at the same time. Tests are subsequently delayed due to a shortage of laboratory equipment and personnel.

Efforts to stamp out fake seed Seed producers indicated that a total of 34 cases of fake seed sales were reported to them in 2016. This figure is likely to be an underestimate, as most cases of fake seed are not officially reported. On average, seed companies are not satisfied with the government’s efforts to stamp out fake seed, rating them as poor (37%). According to the seed companies, the main sources of fake seed are seed producers and traders who sell seed that has not been inspected by ANCOS. The challenge is exacerbated by the weak enforcement of seed law and regulations. Although the laws stipulate the penalties for the production and marketing of fake seed, ANCOS does not have the capacity to effectively police seed sales.

Use of smart subsidies In 2016, the Malagasy government purchased and distributed 1,962 tons of emergency relief seed to farmers. Most of the seed distributed was rice. After purchase, the Ministry deposits the seed at the different Regional Directorates and then distributes the seed to vulnerable farmers at no cost. The subsidy program has been in existence for seven years. However, it is not considered smart, due to the significant involvement of the government in seed distribution and weak controls during the seed procurement process.

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Seed producers indicated that a total of 34 cases of fake Quality of national seed trade association seed sales were reported to them in 2016. This figure is AMPROSEM, which, along with MPAE, is the current chair likely to be an underestimate, as most cases of fake seed of the National Seed Committee (CONASEM) , was formed are not officially reported. On average, seed companies in 1999. It has about 20 active members, and most of the are not satisfied with the government’s efforts to stamp seed producers surveyed by TASAI were not members of out fake seed, rating them as poor (37%). According to the the organization; in fact, they had never heard of seed companies, the main sources of fake seed are seed AMPROSEM. Member seed producers surveyed rated producers and traders who sell seed that has not been in‐ their satisfaction with the overall quality of AMPROSEM spected by ANCOS. The challenge is exacerbated by the INSTITUTIONAL SUPPORT as fair (45%). Figure 3 illustrates members’ level of satis‐ weak enforcement of seed law and regulations. Although Availability of extension services faction with AMPROSEM’s performance in six service ar‐ the laws stipulate the penalties for the production and eas. Producers rated AMPROSEM as fair in three catego‐ marketing of fake seed, ANCOS does not have the capac‐ Madagascar has approximately 92 agricultural extension workers. Of these, seven are employed by the government ries – democracy in elections and decision‐making (40%), (under FIFAMANOR), while the remainder work for seed companies and NGOs. No extension workers are employed ity to effectively police seed sales. managerial ability (44%), ofand effectiveness in advocacy directly under MPAE, following a restructuring of MPAE that eliminated its department agricultural extension. As a (41%). Seed producers rated AMPROSEM as poor in all the Use of smart subsidies result, the ratio of extension officers to agricultural households is approximately 1:26,000. This ratio is significantly other service areas – ability to mobilize resources (39%), lower than other African counties, such as Ethiopia (1:592) or Kenya (1:910). Seed producers rate their satisfaction In 2016, the Malagasy government purchased and distrib‐ providing value to members (39%), and activity on im‐ with the extension services as fair (40%). uted 1,962 tons of emergency relief seed to farmers. portant seed sector issues (38%). According to the seed Most of the seed distributed was rice. After purchase, the Despite the perceived inaction by government, MPAE is working with development partners and NGOs to train and companies, AMPROSEM needs to increase its visibility in Ministry deposits the seed at the different Regional Direc‐ deploy agricultural advisors to serve as extension officers. However, this effort is constrained by a lack of financial the country’s seed industry to be seen as a useful plat‐ torates and then distributes the seed to vulnerable farm‐ resources to facilitate the transportation of these advisors across the country. form to address seed producers’ concerns. ers at no cost. The subsidy program has been in existence

Quality of national seed trade association for seven years. However, it is not considered smart, due

Figure 3: Members’ satisfaction with AMPROSEM

to the significant involvement of the government in seed Overall quality of AMPROSEM 45% AMPROSEM, which, along with MPAE, is the current chair distribution and weak controls during the seed procure‐ Ability to mobilize resources of the National Seed Committee (CONASEM) , was formed 39% inment process. 1999. It has about 20 active members, and most of Democracy in elections and… 40% the seed producers surveyed by TASAI were not members Providing value to members 39% ofINSTITUTIONAL SUPPORT the organization; in fact, they had never heard of Managerial ability 44% AMPROSEM. Member seed producers surveyed rated their Availability of extension services Effectiveness in advocacy 41% satisfaction with the overall quality of AMPROSEM as fair Actvity on important seed sector… 38% Madagascar has approximately 92 agricultural extension (45%). Figure 3 illustrates members’ level of satisfaction with AMPROSEM’s performance in sixby service areas. workers. Of these, seven are employed the govern‐ 0% 20% 40% Producers rated AMPROSEM as fair in three categories– ment (under FIFAMANOR), while the remainder work for (Source: TASAI Survey) Figure 3: Members' satisfaction with AMPROSEM (Source: TASAI Sur‐ democracy in elections and decision-making (40%), seed companies and NGOs. No extension workers are em‐ vey) managerial ability (44%), and effectiveness in advocacy (41%). Seed producers rated AMPROSEM as poor in all ployed directly under MPAE, following a restructuring of the other service areas –its ability to mobilize resources (39%), providing value to members (39%), and activity on MPAE that eliminated department of agricultural important seed sector issues (38%). According to the seed companies, AMPROSEM needs to increase its visibility in the country’s seed industry to be seen as a useful platform to address seed producers’ concerns.

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Concentration of rural agro-dealer network

There are about 140 agro-dealers in Madagascar, of which 21 are wholesalers and 119 are retailers or stockists. These numbers may be an underestimate due to the lack of national data. Of the 140 agro-dealers, only 37 are registered with ANCOS. The number of agro-dealers translates to a ratio of one agro-dealer for every 17,300 agricultural households. Most agro-dealer outlets are located near tarmac roads or trading centers, with few agro-dealers in rural areas. Some farmers must walk long distances to access their preferred seed varieties. Seed producers rated their satisfaction with the agro-dealer network as good (64%).

Availability of seed in small packages Approximately 32% of the seed for all four crops is sold in packages of 2 kg or less. The amount of seed sold in small packages varies from 27% for maize, to 35% for rice. The amount for beans and groundnuts is 28%. There is no notable difference between the package sizes for the four crops, which is confirmed by industry opinion. On average,seed producers rate their satisfaction with the volumes of seed sold in small packages as fair (between 47% and 53%) for all four crops.

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Seed-to-grain price ratio Assuming stable prices at planting time, seed to grain price ratios can reflect the attractiveness of a variety or affordability of improved seed relative to farmer recycled grain. Seed to grain price ratios for the four crops do not vary significantly: maize OPV (2.4:1), rice (2.3:1), beans (2.2:1) and groundnut (1.5:1). These ratios are noticeably lower to those in other countries like Tanzania (5.1:1 for maize OPV), Malawi (4.1:1 for maize OPV) and Ethiopia (3.6:1 for maize OPV). This signifies that maize seed is relatively cheaper in Madagascar than other countries in the region.

Approximately 32% of the seed for all four crops is sold in packages of 2 kg or less. The amount of seed sold in small packages varies from 27% for maize, to 35% for rice. The amount for beans and groundnuts is 28%. There is no no‐ table difference between the package sizes for the four crops, which is confirmed by industry opinion. On aver‐ age, seed producers rate their satisfaction with the vol‐ umes of seed sold in small packages as fair (between 47% Figure 4. Percentage of seed sold in and 53%) for all four crops.

different package sizes

100% 35%

80% 60%

24% 5%

20%

36% Rice >25kg

CONCLUSION

40%

28%

28% 28%

9% 24%

23%

Maize

>10kg ‐ 25kg

38%

44%

Beans

Groundnuts

>2kg ‐ 10 kg

2kg or less

Figure 4. Percentage of seed sold in different package sizes

Seed‐to‐grain price ratio The seed industry in Madagascar is in the growth stage. The low adoption rates of certified seed for key food crops suggests that there is space for growth. The seed industry is dominated by rice,prices the country’s staple crop, in terms Assuming stable at planting time, seed‐to‐grain of volume of rice seed sold, number of active seed companies producing seed, number of breeders working on rice, price ratios can reflect the attractiveness of a variety or and the number or varieties released. This presents an opportunity for seed companies in the region to produce and affordability of improved seed relative to farmer recycled market other seeds, like maize, whose hybrids are popular across the East and Southern Africa. Through the COMESA grain. Seed‐to‐grain price ratios for the four crops do not and SADC seed regulations, companies can also import certified seed into Madagascar. vary significantly: maize OPV (2.4:1), rice (2.3:1), beans

Despite the potential opportunity for increasing sales in the (2.2:1) and groundnut (1.5:1). These ratios are noticeably country, the industry also faces challenges. Variety development is dominated by rice as evidenced by the number lower to those in other countries like Tanzania (5.1:1 for of public breeders and variety releases. This research work is supported by institutions including Africa Rice and CIRAD, whose support is likely to continue. However, increasing private investment in breeding other crops is also important. The privatization of CMS Sakay is a step in the right direction in this regard. Copyright © The African Seed Access Index

Madagascar’s seed policy instruments are mostly up-todate. The rice seed strategy supports these instruments by providing direction and outlining actions to improve the most important agriculture sub-sector in the country. In addition, the content of these instruments is appreciated by seed producers. However, the main challenge is in the enforcement of the seed laws and regulations. One of the main policy-related challenges relates to variety release. First, the process takes very long, up to 10 years for some rice varieties. This is a major complaint by the seed producers, and disincentive to breeders. Second, the inconsistency between the national (CNEV) and regional (REVSM) variety catalogues. Most of the varieties on REVSM are not reflected in the national catalogue . To compound this, most of the varieties that have been released by CONASEM are not registered on CNEV. This inconsistency needs to be addressed to provide assurance to breeders who invest in research and variety development. A second policy challenge pertains to the weaknesses in quality control, especially at the stage of seed production. Many seed producers in Madagascar are neither registered with, nor inspected by ANCOS. This leads to the supply of low quality seed on the market. On the positive side, the current efforts to improve the seed inspection services by hiring and training more inspectors will partly address challenges related to seed quality control, including fake seed. Most of the support services in Madagascar are weak. AMPROSEM, which is supposed to serve as a platform for seed producers, lacks the financial and technical capacity to perform its mandate. And as result, it is not well-known in the sector.

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Desp coun opme of pu is sup RAD, creas impo right

Mada date. provi most addit by se enfor

40%

27%

tified

One o relea for so seed incon (REV REVS comp lease consi breed

REFERENCES FAO (1998) Developing Seed Security Strategies and Programmes for Food Security in Developing Countries. FAOSTAT (2017) FAOSTAT. Available at: http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#home (Accessed: 1 July 2017).

APPENDIX 1. For a comparison of TASAI Indicators across 13 countries, please visit: http://tasai.org/wp-content/uploads/ TASAI-Appendix-CURRENT.pdf

The article has been published with permission of authors

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Malawi Brief 2017 The African Seed Access Index Edward Mabaya, Richard Kachule, Mainza Mugoya INTRODUCTION A competitive seed sector is key to ensuring timely availability of high quality seeds of improved, appropriate varieties at affordable prices for smallholder farmers in Malawi. This country brief summarizes the key findings of The African Seed Access Index (TASAI) study conducted in 2016/17 to appraise the structure and economic performance of Malawi’s seed sector. With a focus on four grain and legume crops important to food security in Malawi — maize, beans, groundnut, and soya bean — the study evaluates the enabling environment for a vibrant formal seed sector. Cultivation of these four crops covers about 66% of the country’s arable land (FAOSTAT, 2017). The study covers 20 indicators divided into the following categories: Research and Development, Industry Competitiveness, Seed Policy and Regulations, Institutional Support, and Service to Smallholder Farmers. Appendix 1 summarizes all 20 indicators and compares Malawi with 12 other African countries where the TASAI research has been conducted. TASAI seeks to encourage public policymakers and development agencies to create and maintain enabling environments that will accelerate the development of competitive formal seed systems serving smallholder farmers.

Overview Like most other African countries, the seed industry in Malawi consists of two systems: the informal sector and the formal sector. This policy brief focuses almost exclusively on the formal seed sector.

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The informal sector broadly refers to the system where farmers produce, obtain, maintain, and distribute seed resources from one growing season to the next (FAO, 1998). Due to limited exposure, low availability of most varieties, inability to purchase seeds, limited access to agro-dealers, or other reasons, most smallholder farmers in Malawi still rely on the informal seed sector. Standards in the informal seed sector are not monitored or controlled by government policies and regulations; rather, they are guided by indigenous knowledge and standards, and by social structures. The colloquial nature of transactions means that there is scant performance data on the informal sector. The formal sector focuses on breeding and evaluating improved varieties, and producing and selling certified seed. The seed is certified by the Seed Services Unit (SSU) under the Department of Agricultural Research Services (DARS) in the Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Water Development (MOAIWD). On average, the utilization rate for certified seed in Malawi is about 30%, ranging from approximately 49% for hybrid maize to 14% for pigeon pea (AGRA, 2015). As shown in Table 1, Malawi’s formal seed sector comprises numerous institutions, including government and the private sector (mostly local seed companies and agrodealers). Farmer organizations such as the National Smallholder Farmers’ Association of Malawi (NASFAM) play a key role in seed production, training, and extension services to farmers. Established in 2004, the Seed Trade Association of Malawi (STAM) brings together seed companies and other key players in the industry. Table 1: Role of key players in Malawi’s formal seed sectort Research and breeding

KEY PLAYERS DARS, IITA, CIAT, CIMMYT, MUSECO, LUANAR

Variety release and regulation

DARS, SSU

Seed production and processing

Seed companies, NASFAM

ROLE

Education, training, and extension Seed companies, LUANAR, DARS, STAM, SSU, DAES, NASFAM Distribution and sales Seed companies, agro-dealers, NASFAM Key acronyms: AFSTA – African Seed Trade Association; CGIAR – Consultative Group on International Agricultural Development; CIAT International Center for Tropical Agriculture CIMMYT – International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre; COMESA – Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa; DAES - Department of Agricultural Extension Services; DARS – Department of Agricultural Research Services; FISP – Farmer Input Subsidy Program; ICRISAT - International Center for Research in the Semi-Arid Tropics; IITA – International Institute of Tropical Agriculture; MOAIWD - Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Water Development; NASFAM – National Smallholders Farmers’ Association of Malawi; OPV – Open Pollinated Variety; SADC – Southern Africa Development Community; SSU – Seed Services Unit; STAM Seed Trade Association of Malawi.

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT Number of active breeders For the four priority crops in Malawi – maize, beans, groundnut, and soya bean – there are eight active breeders. Seven of the eight breeders are at the public agricultural research station under the Department of Agricultural Research Services (DARS). The remaining breeder works across the four crops for a seed company that produces foundation seed. The number of breeders for each crop are as follows: four for maize, three for beans, and two each for groundnut and soya bean. Private multinational seed companies rely on breeders based at their research stations outside Malawi. On average, seed companies’ satisfaction with the number of active breeders is fair (58%).1 The satisfaction with the number of maize breeders is rated as good (71%), while satisfaction for the other three crops – beans (46%), All scores reported in this brief are based on industry self-reporting of satisfaction ranging from 0% (completely dissatisfied) to 100% (completely satisfied).

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groundnut (56%), and soya bean (54%) – is fair. Despite having a small number of breeders, seed companies rate their satisfaction with maize breeders as good because the maize breeding program receives technical and financial support from the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT). Nevertheless, there is scope to increase the number of public breeders for all four crops.

Varieties released in the last three years Between 2014 and 2016, 17 new varieties were released. They were all maize varieties; no bean, groundnut, or soya bean varieties were released during this period. Since 2000, 91 varieties of maize have been released compared to 4 for groundnut, 15 for bean, and 3 for soya bean over the same period. The most recent release for bean varieties was in 2011, for groundnut in 2005, and for soya bean in 2010. This confirms the limited investment in research and development of new varieties for crops other than maize. Figure 1 shows the 3-year moving average of variety releases since 2002. According to multiple sources, the main reason for the small number of varieties released is a lack of financial resources. Public breeding programs are under-funded by the government, and largely dependent on external (donor) funding.

Availability of foundation seed

Figure 1: Number of varieties released in Malawi (three-year moving average)

the number of maize breeders is rated as good (71%),

2016

2015

2014

2013

2012

2011

2010

2009

2008

2007

2006

2005

2004

2003

2002

On average, seed companies rate their satisfaction with 12 RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT the availability of foundation seed for all four crops as fair (56%). The highest satisfaction is for maize (65%), while the 10 Number of active breeders 8 lowest satisfaction is for bean (49%). Satisfaction ratings For the four priority crops in Malawi – maize, beans, for the availability of foundation seed for groundnut and 6 groundnut, and soya bean – there are eight active breed‐ soya bean are 58% and 52%, respectively. These ratings are 4 ers. Seven of the eight breeders are at the public agricul‐ highly polarized, with multinational seed companies (most 2 of Agricul‐ oftural research station under the Department which maintain their own foundation seed) content with 0 tural Research Services (DARS). seed The remaining breeder the availability of foundation (72% average rating), works across the four crops for a seed company that pro‐ while smaller seed companies (most of which rely on public institutions) dissatisfied with the current situation (28% duces foundation seed. The number of breeders for each Maize Groundnut Bean Soya bean average rating). crop are as follows: four for maize, three for beans, and Figure 1: Number of varieties released in Malawi (three‐year mov‐ For local companies, the main sources of foundation seed for the four crops are DARS and CGIAR centres – primarily two each for groundnut and soya bean. Private multina‐ ing average) CIMMYT for maize and the International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA), the International Center for tional seed companies rely on breeders based at their re‐ Research in the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), and the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) for the search stations outside Malawi. Availability of foundation seed legume crops. Multinational seed companies use their own foundation seed sourced from their research facilities On average, seed companies rate their satisfaction with On average, seed companies’ satisfaction with the num‐ outside Malawi. One local private seed company is an important source of foundation seed (for all four crops) for at the availability of foundation seed for all four crops as fair ber of active breeders is fair (58%). least five other seed companies. 1 The satisfaction with

(56%). The highest satisfaction is for maize (65%), while

These findings are consistent with a recent study on Early Generation Seed in Malawi (AGRA, 2015), which revealed the lowest satisfaction is for bean (49%). Satisfaction rat‐ while satisfaction for the other three crops – beans (46%), that a notable shortage in the supply of breeder seed due to ings for the availability of foundation seed for groundnut the low financial and technical capacity of research groundnut (56%), and soya bean (54%) – is fair. Despite institutions and low level of private sector engagement in local breeding programs. The study noted that the “lack and soya bean are 58% and 52%, respectively. These rat‐ having a small number of breeders, seed companies rate of early generation seed supply is the critical issue leading farmers to informal markets” (AGRA, 2015, p. 2). This ings are highly polarized, with multinational seed compa‐ their satisfaction maize breeders because shortage is largelywith attributed to a lackas ofgood financial resources nies (most of which maintain their own foundation seed) at the public institution (DARS), and a lack of local the maize breeding program receives technical and finan‐ private sector breeding programs. content with the availability of foundation seed (72% av‐ cial support from the International Maize and Wheat Im‐

erage rating), while smaller seed companies (most of which rely on public institutions) dissatisfied with the cur‐ scope to increase the number of public breeders for all The average age of the varieties currently on the market is asrent situation (28% average rating). follows: 5.7 years for maize, 11 years for beans, 18 four crops.

Average ageCenter of varieties sold Nevertheless, there is provement (CIMMYT).

years for groundnut, and 8 years for soya bean. However, the age of the most popular varieties, i.e. the varieties sold by the most companies, is higher than the average age ofFor local companies, the main sources of foundation seed the varieties. The two most popular maize varieties Varieties released in the last three years Between 2014 and 2016, 17 new varieties were released. They were all maize varieties; no bean, groundnut, or soya bean varieties were released during this period. 106 Seed Sectors Around the Globe Since 2000, 91 varieties of maize have been released com‐ pared to 4 for groundnut, 15 for bean, and 3 for soya bean over the same period. The most recent release for bean

for the four crops are DARS and CGIAR centres – primarily CIMMYT for maize and the International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA), the International Center for Research in the Semi‐Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), and the In‐ Seed Times May - August 2018 ternational Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) for the legume crops. Multinational seed companies use their own foundation seed sourced from their research facili‐

were 6 and 8 years old, and sold by 7 companies. The ages of the most popular bean, groundnut, and soya bean varieties were 14 years, 26 years, and 13 years, respectively. This implies that farmers are generally reluctant to adopt new varieties, preferring rather to stick with well-known, older varieties.

INDUSTRY COMPETITIVENESS of early generation seed supply is the critical issue leading The estimated aggregate sales of the four crops in 20152 farmers to informal markets” (AGRA, 2015, p. 2). This was 18,590 tons. Maize seed accounted for about 77% Number of active seed companies shortage is largely attributed to a lack of financial re‐ (14,350 tons) of 2015 sales. The sales for beans, ground‐ sources at the public institution (DARS), and a lack of local By the end of 2016, there were 24 seed companies registerednut, and soya bean were 1,061 tons, 1,561 tons and 1,614 in Malawi. Of these, 22 are engaged in the production private sector breeding programs. tons, respectively. The volumes of seed sales signify that and/or marketing of seed for at least one of the four focus crops. The TASAI survey covers 18 of these companies. Of the 22 companies, 21 produce maize, 19 produce beans, 14 produce groundnut, and 18 produce soya bean. One of there is room for growth in all four crops. The Early‐Gen‐ Average age of varieties sold the local private seed companies only produces foundation seed. The level of seed company specialization by crop eration Seed study estimated the demand for maize seed is limited – most of the seed companies are involved in at least three of the four focus crops. The average age of the varieties currently on the market to be 20,500 tons, bean seed to be 1,882 tons, and soya is as follows: 5.7 years for maize, 11 years for beans, 18 bean seed to be 11,076 tons (AGRA, 2015). These esti‐ The estimated aggregate sales of the four crops in 20152 was 18,590 tons. Maize seed accounted for about 77% years for groundnut, and 8 years for soya bean. However, on the percentage land utilization and (14,350 tons) of 2015 sales. The sales for beans, groundnut,mates are based and soya bean were 1,061 tons, 1,561 tons and 1,614 the age of the most The popular varieties, i.e. the varieties seeding rate for each crop. tons, respectively. volumes of seed sales signify that there is room for growth in all four crops. The Earlysold by the most companies, is higher than the average Generation Seed study estimated the demand for maize seed to be 20,500 tons, bean seed to be 1,882 tons, and Market share of top seed companies age of the varieties. The two most popular maize varieties soya bean seed to be 11,076 tons (AGRA, 2015). These estimates are based on the percentage land utilization and were 6 and 8 years old, and sold by 7 companies. The ages Market share is calculated using seed sales reported by seeding rate for each crop. of the most popular bean, groundnut, and soya bean va‐ seed companies. By crop, the market shares for the top Market share of top seed companies rieties were 14 years, 26 years, and 13 years, respectively. four companies are: 95% for maize, 87% for beans, 80% This implies that farmers are generally reluctant to adopt for groundnut, and 93% for soya bean. Compared to the Market share is calculated using seed sales reported by seed companies. By crop, the market shares for the top four new varieties, preferring rather to stick with well‐known, number of seed companies producing seed for each crop, companies are: 95% for maize, 87% for beans, 80% for groundnut, and 93% for soya bean. Compared to the number older varieties. these that a few companies dominate of seed companies producing seed for each crop, these shares showshares that ashow few companies dominate the marketthe for market for maize, beans, and bean (Fig. 2). The maize, beans, and soya bean (Fig. 2). The groundnut seed market is more competitive, withsoya the top four companies Varieties with climate‐smart features groundnut seed market is more competitive, with the top controlling 80% of the market. Figure 2: Total market share (%) of top four To be classified as climate‐smart, a crop variety must four companies controlling 80% of the market. companies The Herfindahl-Hirschman Index (HHI) was also used to meet at least one of two criteria – early maturity and/or 5% quantify industry competitiveness. The index, a sum of 100% 7% tolerance to extreme weather conditions such as drought, 13% 20% squared market shares, ranges from near zero for perfect 80% flooding, or frost. Of the 17 maize varieties released be‐ competition, to 10,000 for a pure monopoly. HHI was 60% tween 2014 and 2016, 15 had climate‐smart characteris‐ calculated for all the seed companies, for each crop. The 95% 93% 87% 80% tics. Of these, four were and and 11 were market concentration forearly‐maturing maize (3,539) soya bean 40% drought‐tolerant. Most of the drought‐tolerant varieties (3,308) is poor, while the market concentration for bean 20% were bred collaboration with is CIMMYT under the 0% (2,574) andin groundnut (2,013) fair. The market shares of Maize Beans Groundnuts Soyabeans Drought‐Tolerant Maize for Africa program. the top four companies and the (DTMA) HHI results bothNo indicate poor levels of competition in thevarieties seed market three crops bean, groundnut, or soya bean with for climate‐ Mkt share of other companies – maize, bean, and soya bean – as these are dominated by smart features were released in the past three years. Mkt share of top 4 companies a few players. Figure 2: Total market share (%) of top four companies 2 INDUSTRY COMPETITIVENESS Using 2015 data as this was most complete. The Herfindahl‐Hirschman Index (HHI) was also used to Number of active seed companies quantify industry competitiveness. The index, a sum of By the end of 2016, there were 24 seed companies regis‐ squared market shares, ranges from near zero for perfect Seed Times May - August 2018 107 Seed Sectors Around the Globe tered in Malawi. Of these, 22 are engaged in the produc‐ competition, to 10,000 for a pure monopoly. HHI was cal‐ tion and/or marketing of seed for at least one of the four culated for all the seed companies, for each crop. The focus crops. The TASAI survey covers 18 of these compa‐

Market share of government parastatal No government parastatal plays a dominant role in the production and/or marketing of certified seed for any of the four crops. However, the Agricultural Development and Marketing Corporation (ADMARC) – a government parastatal that buys and sells agricultural produce predominantly from smallholder farmers – also sells farm inputs including fertilizers and seeds, under the Farm Inputs Subsidy Program (FISP). STAM estimates ADMARC’s share of the seed market at 3%.

Length of import/export process for seed In Malawi five companies are engaged in either exporting or importing certified seed. The length of the import process is calculated as the number of days from the time an import permit is applied for, to the time the seed is cleared at the border. Of the four crops, only maize is imported into Malawi and comes from Zimbabwe and Tanzania. Seed companies reported that it takes, on average, 14 days to import seed into Malawi, and rated the process as excellent (83%). Seed companies export maize to Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Tanzania, South Africa, and Zambia; soya bean to Botswana; and groundnut to Zambia. One seed company exports foundation seed for soya bean to Zambia. Companies report that it normally takes 20 days to export seed, and they rate the process as fair (63%). Seed companies expressed frustration with the export process, particularly pertaining to challenges clearing seed at the border.

Status of seed policy framework The Malawi National Seed Policy was passed in 1993, while the Seed Act was enacted in 1996. Significant industry developments led to revisions of the Policy and the Act in 2014 and 2013, respectively, but they are yet to be ratified by parliament. Until the seed policy and bill are ratified by Parliament, the 1993 Seed Policy, the Seed Act of 1996, and seed regulations of 1997 are still in force. Most stakeholders expressed concerns that the current legislations do not conform to the developments that have taken place in Malawi’s seed industry. Malawi is a signatory to the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) and Southern African Development Community (SADC) seed harmonization protocols and its seed regulations are currently being revised to conform with both regional protocols. The revisions will address issues such as seed certification, inspection, variety release, and seed movement in the region.

Quality of seed regulations and enforcement Seed companies are generally unsatisfied with the quality of the seed policy and law, rating them as fair (54%). This is because both policy instruments were passed more than 20 years ago and have become outdated. Seed companies expect the regulations to be amended to conform to the COMESA and SADC seed regulations. Companies are less satisfied with the enforcement of regulations, rating the enforcement efforts as fair (46%). The SSU, which

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is mandated to enforce the seed law, is constrained by low funding and limited qualified personnel to undertake the required functions. In this regard, the revised seed policy has recommended the transformation of the SSU into an autonomous institution.

Adequacy of seed inspectors The SSU has a total of 37 seed inspectors distributed in three regions. On average, seed companies rate their satisfaction with the adequacy of seed inspection services as fair (49%). The main challenges with inspection services are a lack of inspectors and limited transportation resources to enable them to fulfil their duties. In some cases, seed companies are compelled to offer transport to the inspectors for their seed fields to be inspected. To alleviate this challenge, SSU â&#x20AC;&#x201C; through the Malawi Improved Seed Systems Project â&#x20AC;&#x201C; has received support from USAID to train and accredit 142 seed para-inspectors. These para-inspectors will be responsible for most inspection activities before the final certification, which would still be conducted by SSU. The accreditation was conducted in 2016, and is expected to be rolled out in 2017. To complement this initiative, the Ministry intends to transform the SSU into the National Seed Commission, which would have more powers of enforcement and access to more resources.

Efforts to stamp out fake seed Seed companies indicated that they had received a total of 20 reported cases of fake seed sales in 2016. This figure is likely to be an underestimate as most cases of fake seed are not officially reported. On average, seed companies are not satisfied with the governmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s efforts to stamp out fake seed, rating them as poor (38%). According to the seed companies, the main sources of fake seed are agrodealers (who re-package seed in used packages) and other seed companies (who do not have sufficient controls over the handling of their seed packages). The SSU is mandated to enforce the seed regulations, which includes the problem of fake seeds on the market. Recognising the current limitations within the SSU, and in an effort to reduce cases of fake seed sales, STAM embarked on a process of registering seed outlets and informing farmers about credible seed outlets. The current penalties imposed on fake seed dealers are too lenient to be a deterrent (the maximum fine is MK 70,000, approximately US $98). The 2013 draft Seed Bill proposes harsher penalties of MK 500,000-5,000,000 (approx. US $700-7,000) in fines and/or imprisonment from six months to three years, for anyone convicted of dealing in fake seed.

Use of smart subsidies Since 2005, the Malawian government has implemented the Farm Input Subsidy Program (FISP), aimed at low-income smallholder farmers. The program is relevant to seed companies because seed sales to FISP account for a significant portion of their overall seed sales. The number of farmer beneficiaries has varied over time, with 900,000 targeted for the 2016/17 season. Each beneficiary is entitled to a subsidized pack of 50 kg basal dressing fertilizer, 50 kg top dressing fertilizer, 5 kg maize seed, and 2 kg legume seed. The process is as follows: SSU indicates the tonnage of seed required per crop per company, and STAM negotiates a supply contract with the Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Water Development on behalf of the seed companies, which ensures the delivery of high quality seed to the program. Once the contract requirements are satisfied, seed companies distribute seed through registered agro-dealer outlets. The farmers, who are identified by the MOAIWD, are given vouchers that can be redeemed for seed and fertilizer at agro-dealer outlets. SSU and STAM jointly monitor the outlets to ensure that only quality seed is being sold. In 2016, 7,135 tons of maize seed and 2,827 tons of legume seed were sold through FISP. The total value of the seed was US $13 million. On average, seed sold through FISP accounted for 66% of maize sales, 82% of bean sales, 82%

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of groundnut sales, and 65% of soya bean sales for the seed companies. This is consistent with government records stating that FISP accounts for 70% of total certified seed sales for maize and legumes. The main challenge with FISP is the lack of certainty in the types of crops covered, unpredictable pricing, and delays in payments to seed companies.

INSTITUTIONAL SUPPORT Availability of extension services There are approximately 1,902 agricultural extension workers in Malawi. This translates to a ratio of one extension officer to 1,388 agricultural households. Most of the extension workers (1,862) are employed by the government under MoAIWD through the Department of Agricultural Extension Services (DAES). In addition to government extension officers, 10 of the 18 seed companies reported that they employ a total of 40 extension workers. This ratio of extension worker to farmer is much lower than in countries such as Ethiopia (1:592) or Zambia (1:560), which have the highest ratios at present. Seed companies rate their strengthen Malawi’s seed industry by: 1) Enhancing com‐ satisfaction with the extension services as fair (47%). One ongoing concern is that public extension officers do not always have the latest information on new varieties, munication with MoAIWD;” 2) Promoting the “use of im‐ current prices, and suitability for different agro-ecologies. proved seeds to achieve high productivity for food and cash;” and 3) Ensuring “consistency and reliability in the Quality of national seed trade association supply of quality, high yielding seed to farmers” (Seed Established in 2004, STAM comprises “entities involved Trade Association of Malawi (STAM), 2017). with and dealing in seed production, processing,

transportation, distribution, and marketing” (Seed Trade Association of Malawi (STAM), 2017). STAM aims to STAM currently 28 members, including all seed strengthen Malawi’s seed industry by: 1) Enhancing communication withhas MoAIWD;” 2) Promoting thethe “use of companies interviewed for this study. companies improved seeds to achieve high productivity for food and cash;” and 3) Ensuring “consistency and Seed reliability in the supply of quality, high yielding seed to farmers” (Seed Trade rate their satisfaction with the overall quality of STAM as Association of Malawi (STAM), 2017). good (73%). Figure 3 illustrates the seed companies’ level

STAM currently has 28 members, including all the seed companies interviewed for this study. Seed companies rate of satisfaction with STAM’s performance in six service ar‐ their satisfaction with the overall quality of STAM as good (73%). Figure 3 illustrates the seed companies’ level of eas. STAM scores highest in democracy and governance, satisfaction with STAM’s performance in six service areas. STAM scores highest in democracy and governance, which which is rated as excellent (84%). It is rated good in all is rated as excellent (84%). It is rated good in all other service areas, including activity on important seed sector other service areas, including activity on important seed issues (78%), effectiveness in advocacy (70%), managerial ability (69%), providing value to members (74%), and sector issues (78%), effectiveness in advocacy (70%), ability to mobilize resources (63%).

SERVICE TO SMALLHOLDER FARMERS Concentration of rural agro-dealer network STAM facilitates the registration of agro-dealers in Malawi. According to the STAM agro-dealer database, in the 2015/16 season, Malawi had an estimated 2,000 seed outlet shops across the country. This translates to a ratio of one agrodealer for every 1,320 agricultural households. However, one registered agro-dealer may have up to twenty outlets spread across regions, districts, or within the same district. Thus, the number of registered agro-dealers is likely to be an

managerial ability (69%), providing value to members Figure 3: Members’ satisfaction with STAM (74%), and ability to mobilize resources (63%).

80%

63%

Ability to mobilize resources Democarcy in elections and decision making

84%

60%

74%

Providing value to members Managerial ability

69%

Effectiveness in advocacy

70%

40%

20%

78%

Activity on important seed sector issues

20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Figure 3: Members' satisfaction with STAM underestimate of the total number of agro-dealer outlets. Most agro-dealer outlets are located near tarmac roads or trading centers, with few agro-dealers in rural areas. While seed companies rated their satisfaction with the agrodealer network as good (64%), due to the small number of agro-dealers in rural areas, some farmers have to walk/ SERVICE TO SMALLHOLDER FARMERS travel long distances to access their preferred seed varieties.

Concentration of rural agro‐dealer network

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In tota bags o tion, th shown ages r for gro and fo sold in are a throug legum rate th small p fied w (83%) soya b

100%

73%

Overall level of satisfaction

Availa

STAM facilitates the registration of agro‐dealers in Ma‐ lawi. According to the STAM agro‐dealer database, in the 2015/16 season, Malawi had an estimated 2,000 seed Seed Times May - August 2018 outlet shops across the country. This translates to a ratio of one agro‐dealer for every 1,320 agricultural house‐ holds. However, one registered agro‐dealer may have up

Figure 4

Seed‐

Assum price r afford grain. not va higher than f (1.89:1

rate their satisfaction with the overall quality of STAM as good (73%). Figure 3 illustrates the seed companies’ level of satisfaction with STAM’s performance in six service ar‐ eas. STAM scores highest in democracy and governance, which is rated as excellent (84%). It is rated good in all other service areas, including activity on important seed sector issues (78%), effectiveness in advocacy (70%), managerial ability (69%), providing value to members Availability of seed in small packages (74%), and ability to mobilize resources (63%).

sold in packages between 2 kg and 10 kg. The percentages are a clear reflection of the package sizes distributed through FISP, where maize is sold in 5 kg packages and legumes in 2 kg packages. On average, seed companies rate their satisfaction with the volumes of seed sold in small packages as good (78%). Companies are more satis‐ fied with volumes of seed sold in small packages for maize (83%) and groundnut (84%) than for beans (78%) and Figure 4. Percentage of seed sold in different soya bean (65%).

package sizes In total, 29% of the seed sold in Malawi was packaged in tbags 2% 100% 73%proportion, of 2 kg or Overall level of satisfaction less. While this is a relatively small 13% 19% 18% 1% Ability to mobilize resources 80% there is significant variation across the four63% crops, as shown Democarcy in elections and decision in Figure 4. The amount of seed sold in small packages 84% ranges 39% 60% making 82% from a lowProviding value to members of 16% for maize to a high of 87% for 74%groundnut. 87% 40% 80% The corresponding figure for beans is 80% and for soya bean Managerial ability 69% 42% 20% it is 42%. Most (82%) of maize seed is sold in packages Effectiveness in advocacy 16% between 2 kg and 10 kg. The percentages are a70% clear reflection 0% Activity on important seed sector issues of the package sizes distributed through FISP,78% where maize Maize Bean Ground nut Soya bean is sold in 5 kg packages 0% and 20% legumes 2 kg On 40% in 60% 80%packages. 100% 2 kg or less > 2 kg ‐ 10 kg > 10 kg ‐ 25 Kg > 25 kg average, seed companies rate their satisfaction with the Figure 3: Members' satisfaction with STAM volumes of seed sold in small packages as good (78%). Companies are more satisfied with volumes of seed sold Figure 4. Percentage of seed sold in different package sizes in small packages for maize (83%) and groundnut (84%) than for beans (78%) and soya bean (65%). SERVICE TO SMALLHOLDER FARMERS

Seed‐to‐grain price ratio

Seed-to-grain price ratio

Assuming stable prices at planting time, seed‐to‐grain price ratios can reflect the attractiveness of a variety or Assuming stable prices at planting seed-to-grain can reflect the attractiveness of a variety or STAM facilitates the registration of time, agro‐dealers in Ma‐ price ratios affordability of improved seed relative to farmer‐recycled affordability of improved seed relative to farmer-recycled grain. The seed-to-grain price ratio for the four crops lawi. According to the STAM agro‐dealer database, in the grain. The seed‐to‐grain price ratio for the four crops does does not vary significantly. The seed-to-grain price ratios are higher for maize hybrids (4.17:1) and maize OPV 2015/16 season, Malawi had an estimated 2,000 seed not vary and significantly. seed‐to‐grain price are (4.05:1) than for the other crops – beans (1.5:1), groundnut (1.89:1), soya beanThe (1.82:1). The ratios forratios maize outlet shops across the country. This translates to a ratio hybrid and OPV are very similar because both seed types are soldhigher for maize hybrids (4.17:1) and maize OPV (4.05:1) at the same price under FISP (Logistics Unit in the of one agro‐dealer for every 1,320 agricultural house‐ for 500 the (US other crops (1.5:1), Ministry of Agriculture, 2016). In the case of legumes, farmers than pay MK $0.70) for– abeans FISP pack of 3groundnut kg soya holds. However, one registered agro‐dealer may have up (1.89:1), and soya bean (1.82:1). The ratios for maize hy‐ bean or 2 kg for all other legumes (beans, groundnut, pigeon pea, and cowpea). to twenty outlets spread across regions, districts, or brid and OPV are very similar because both seed types are within the same district. Thus, the number of registered CONCLUSION sold at the same price under FISP (Logistics Unit in the agro‐dealers is likely to be an underestimate of the total Ministry of Agriculture, 2016). In the case of legumes, Thenumber of agro‐dealer outlets. Most agro‐dealer outlets seed industry in Malawi is in the growth stage. The low adoption rates of certified seed for key food crops (less farmers pay MK 500 (US $0.70) for a FISP pack of 3 kg soya than suggests that there room for centers, growth. with The high number of private seed companies, most of which are are 50%) located near tarmac roads isor trading bean or 2 kg for all other legumes (beans, groundnut, pi‐ local, well forin the sector. However, seedcompanies companies should invest more in research and breeding to increase few bodes agro‐dealers rural areas. While seed geon pea, and cowpea). therated their number ofsatisfaction varieties available to farmers. This should be complemented by investments in extension services with the agro‐dealer network as and agro-dealer networks to ensure that seed is delivered to farmers efficiently. good (64%), due to the small number of agro‐dealers in rural areas, some afarmers to walk/travel dis‐ working relationship with the main actors in the seed STAM has become strong have association with anlong effective tances to access their preferred seed varieties. sector. The organization should continue to expand its influence by facilitating more dialogue between the seed

Concentration of rural agro‐dealer network

companies and the government on key issues, such as FISP implementation, engageme t in COMESA and SADC seed harmonization efforts, the problem of fake seed, and the enactment and implementation of key seed policy instruments. To sustain an enabling environment for the industry, the government must work closely with private Copyright © The African Seed Access Index Page 6 of fake seed, and pass and implement relevant seed policy instruments. companies to manage FISP, address the issue The private sector, on the other hand, needs to invest more in research and breeding efforts, extension services, and in agro-dealer distribution networks. The government, on the other hand, needs to fast-track the passing of the seed policy and enactment of the seed law, and subsequently implement these in close collaboration with seed companies and other actors. These policy instruments will formally define the seed policy environment and implementation arrangements. In addition, the government needs to ensure that the implement of FISP is more transparent and reliable in terms of types of seed covered under the program, seed pricing, seed packaging, and payments to companies. These improvements would enable seed companies to make better plans for production. Further, the SSU should explore reducing the duration of the variety release process by conducting irrigated field trials, which could reduce length of the process from three years to under two years. Seed Times May - August 2018

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REFERENCES AGRA (2015) Malawi Early-Generation Seed Study. Lilongwe. Available at: http://www.seedquest.com/News/ pdf/2017/malawi.pdf (Accessed: 8 August 2017). FAO (1998) Developing Seed Security Strategies and Programmes for Food Security in Developing Countries. FAOSTAT (2017) FAOSTAT. Available at: http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#home (Accessed: 1 July 2017). Logistics Unit in the Ministry of Agriculture, I. and W. D. (2016) Final Report on The Implementation of The Agricultural Inputs Subsidy Programme (2015-16). Seed Trade Association of Malawi (STAM) (2017) Objectives â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Seed Trade Association of Malawi. Available at: http:// www.seedtrademalawi.com/about/objectives/ (Accessed: 9 August 2017).

APPENDIX 1. For a comparison of TASAI Indicators across 13 countries, please visit: http://tasai.org/wp-content/uploads/ TASAI-Appendix-CURRENT.pdf

The article has been published with permission of authors

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Mozambique Brief 2017 The African Seed Access Index Edward Mabaya, Maria Estrela Alberto, Alda Armindo Tomo, Mainza Mugoya INTRODUCTION A competitive seed sector is key to ensuring timely availability of high quality seeds of improved, appropriate varieties at affordable prices to smallholder farmers in Mozambique. This country brief summarizes the key findings of The African Seed Access Index (TASAI) study conducted in 2016/17 to appraise the structure and economic performance of Mozambique’s seed sector. With a focus on four grain crops important to food security — maize, rice, cowpea, and soya bean — the study evaluates the enabling environment for a vibrant formal seed sector. The four crops account for about 44% of the arable land in Mozambique and at least 30% of the average daily caloric intake (FAOSTAT, 2017). The study covers 20 indicators divided into the following categories: Research and Development, Industry Competitiveness, Seed Policy and Regulations, Institutional Support, and Service to Smallholder Farmers. Appendix 1 summarizes all 20 indicators and compares Mozambique to other countries where similar studies have been conducted. TASAI seeks to encourage public policymakers and development agencies to create and maintain enabling environments that will accelerate the development of competitive formal seed systems serving smallholder farmers.

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Overview The seed industry in Mozambique consists of two systems: the informal sector and the formal sector. This policy brief focuses almost exclusively on the formal seed sector. The informal sector broadly refers to the system where farmers produce, obtain, maintain, and distribute seed resources from one growing season to the next (FAO, 1998). Standards in the informal seed sector are not monitored or controlled by government policies and regulations; rather, they are guided by indigenous knowledge and standards, and by social structures. The colloquial nature of transactions means that there is scant performance data on the informal sector. The formal sector focuses on breeding and evaluating improved varieties, and producing and selling certified seed varieties to farmers. In Mozambique, the entity responsible for seed certification is the National Seed Authority (NSA), a department under the Directorate for Agriculture and Forestry (DINAS) in the Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security (MASA). Mozambique’s formal seed sector is in the early stages of development. The adoption rates of improved seeds for maize, rice, and cowpea are below 10%. However, the adoption rates for improved soya bean varieties are 89%, mainly due to its role as a cash crop for the poultry industry (AGRA, Mozambique Early Generation Seed study, 2016). As shown in Table 1, Mozambique’s formal seed sector comprises numerous institutions, including government (e.g. Institute for Agricultural Research in Mozambique, Unit for Basic Seed, MASA, DNAS), private sector (mostly local or multi-national seed companies and agro-dealers), and development agencies. Table 1: Role of key players in Mozambique’s formal seed sector Research and breeding

KEY PLAYERS IIAM, CIMMYT, CIAT, ICRISAT, IITA, UEM

Variety release and regulation

IIAM, Seed Companies, NSA

Seed production and processing

Seed companies, Seed producers/Associations, IIAM, USEBA

ROLE

Education, training, and extension Seed Companies, Agro dealers, NGOs, FAO, DNSA, IIAM Distribution and sales Public extension services, NGOs, Seed Companies Key acronyms: AFSTA – African Seed Trade Association; APROSE- The Association for Promotion of the Seed Sector; CIAT - International Center for Tropical Agriculture; CIMMYT – International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center; COMESA – Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa; DINAS – National Directorate for Agriculture and Forestry; DNSA – National Directorate of Agrarian Services; FAO – Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; ICRISAT - International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics; IIAM – Institute for Agricultural Research in Mozambique; IITA – International Institute for Tropical Agriculture; MASA -Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security; ; NSA – National Seed Authority; PEDSA – Strategic Plan for developing the Agricultural Sector; SADC – Southern Africa Development Community; USEBA – Unit for Basic Seed

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT Number of active breeders For the four priority crops in Mozambique – maize, rice, cowpea, and soya bean - there are 20 active breeders, all of whom are employed by public research institutions – Institute for Agricultural Research in Mozambique (IIAM) and CGIARs. Broken down by crop, there are eight breeders for rice, six breeders for maize, four breeders for cowpea, and only two breeders for soya bean. While none of the local seed companies employs breeders, the multinationals active in the country rely on breeders based in other countries, such as South Africa.

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In addition to the small number of active breeders, breeding activities and the production of early generation seed from the public sector are constrained by several factors including: (i) a lack of adequate facilities, particularly irrigation facilities, to ensure off-season breeding activities; (ii) limited seed processing facilities; (iii) dispersed areas of production, making breeding activities expensive; (iv) limited availability of land, particularly for maize isolation and rice rotation, and; (v) lack of incentives for the breeders, as the law on Plant Breeders’ Rights (PBR) is not yet operational. On average, seed companies’ satisfaction with the number of breeders for maize and rice is excellent (90%), and fair for cowpea (63%) and soya bean (68%).1

Varieties released in the last three years

2016

2015

2014

2013

2012

2011

2010

2009

2008

2007

2006

2005

2004

2003

2002

Figure 1 shows the trend for variety release for the four crops, using three-year moving averages. The trend shows a sharp increase in variety releases between 2011 and 2014. The increase was due to a new ministerial directive (Diploma Ministerial No. 51/2012) permitting a simplified variety release process based on Value for Cultivation and Use (VCU), with the aim of availing more quality seed to farmers (AGRA, Mozambique Early Generation Seed study, 2016). Despite such efforts, the level of commercialization of released varieties is low: of the four crops, only 43% of the 55 varieties released since 2000 have been sold to farmers. Figure 1: Number of varieties released in Availability of foundation seed Mozambique (three-year moving average) The main sources of foundation seed in Mozambique are the 4 RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT IIAM and CGIAR centers, namely the International Maize 3 Number of active breeders and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) for maize and 2 wheat and International Institute for Tropical Agriculture For the four priority crops in Mozambique – maize, rice, (IITA) for cowpeas and soybeans. “Semente Melhorada 1 cowpea, and soya bean ‐ there are 20 active breeders, all para Agricultura Renovada” (SEMEAR), is a five-year seed of whom are employed by public research institutions – 0 promotion program funded by USAID and implemented by a Institute for Agricultural Research in Mozambique (IIAM) consortium of four research institutions namely IITA, CIAT, and CGIARs. Broken down by crop, there are eight breed‐ the International Crops Research Institute for the SemiMaize Rice Cowpea Soya bean ers for rice, six breeders for maize, four breeders for cow‐ Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) and IIAM. SEMEAR facilitates the pea, and only two breeders for soya bean. While none of Figure 1: Number of varieties released in Mozambique (three‐year availability of pre-basic and basic grain legume seed to selected seed companies, individual and farmers groups. moving average) Inthe local seed companies employs breeders, the multina‐ addition, a few local seed companies also provide foundation seed to other seed companies under two-party tionals active Finally, in the all country on breeders based in agreements. of therely regional and multinational seed companies source foundation seed from their own Availability of foundation seed other countries, such as South Africa. regional breeding centers based outside Mozambique. The main sources of foundation seed in Mozambique are IIAM and CGIAR centers, namely the International In addition to the small number of active breeders, breed‐ Seed companies expressed their concern about the shortage of the foundation seed, highlighting it as a major constraint Maize and Wheat ofImprovement Center (CIMMYT) for ining activities and the production of early generation seed the seed industry. On average, the levels of satisfaction with the availability foundation seed is fair for maize maize and wheat and International Institute for Tropical (42%), cowpea (40%), and soya bean (46%), and excellent for rice (85%). from the public sector are constrained by several factors including: (i) a lack of adequate facilities, particularly irri‐

Agriculture (IITA) for cowpeas and soybeans. “Semente

The opinions expressed by seed companies are also confirmedMelhorada in a recent report on EarlyRenovada” Generation Seed (EGS) para Agricultura (SEMEAR), is a gation facilities, to ensure off‐season breeding activities; in Mozambique (AGRA, 2016). The study acknowledges the limited supply of early generation seed, and highlights five‐year seed promotion program funded by USAID and (ii) limited seed processing facilities; (iii) dispersed areas challenges such as a weak EGS forecasting system, poor EGS distribution systems, and the degeneration of old implemented by a consortium of four research institu‐ of production, making breeding activities expensive; (iv) varieties such as the popular OPV maize variety, Matuba.

tions namely IITA, CIAT, the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi‐Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) and IIAM. SEMEAR facilitates the availability of pre‐basic and basic ers, as the law on Plant Breeders’ Rights (PBR) is not yet A total of 24 varieties of the four crops were sold in 2016 in Mozambique. Most of these were maize (11) and soya grain legume seed to selected seed companies, individual operational. bean (8). Only 3 rice and 2 cowpea varieties were commerciallyand farmers groups. In addition, a few local seed compa‐ available to farmers in 2016. 1 On average, seed companies’ satisfaction with the num‐ nies also provide foundation seed to other seed compa‐ All scores reported in this brief are based on industry self-reporting of satisfaction ranging from 0% for completely dissatisfied to 100% for ber of breeders for maize and rice is excellent (90%), and completely satisfied. nies under two‐party agreements. Finally, all of the re‐ fair for cowpea (63%) and soya bean (68%).1 gional and multinational seed companies source founda‐ tion seed from their own regional breeding centers based Varieties released in the last three years outside Mozambique. Seed Times May - August 2018 115 Seed Sectors Around the Globe Figure 1 shows the trend for variety release for the four Seed companies expressed their concern about the short‐ crops, using three‐year moving averages. The trend age of foundation seed, highlighting it as a major con‐ shows a sharp increase in variety releases between 2011 limited availability of land, particularly for maize isolation

Average age of varieties sold and rice rotation, and; (v) lack of incentives for the breed‐

The average age of the varieties sold in 2016 was 11 years for maize, 2 years for rice, 21 years for cowpea, and 5 years for soya bean. The above figures indicate that the rice and soya bean varieties on the market are relatively new (released in the last 5 years), but the maize and cowpea varieties sold are old. For example, the most popular maize variety, Matuba, was released in 1995. In addition, while three new varieties of cowpea were released in 2011, they were not (yet) sold in 2016; instead, the two varieties on theare also based in these areas. Most Mozambique’s seed market were released in 1995 and 1996. At present, Average age of varieties sold Mozambique has no regulations to retire old varieties. companies are young, having been in operation for not A total of 24 varieties of the four crops were sold in 2016 more than five years. in Mozambique. Most of these were maize (11) and soya Varieties with climate-smart features bean (8). Only 3 rice and 2 cowpea varieties were com‐ To be classified as climate-smart, a crop variety must meetBy crop, the estimated aggregate seed sales in 2016 were at least one of two criteria: early maturity, and/or mercially available to farmers in 2016. 4,375 tons of maize, 650 tons of rice, 364 tons of cowpea, tolerance to extreme weather conditions such as drought, flooding, or frost. Of the varieties released between 2014 and 689 tons of soya bean. These sales volumes are simi‐ and 2016, three of five maize varieties and two of three rice varieties were climate-smart. There were no new cowpea The average age of the varieties sold in 2016 was 11 years lar to the official DNSA sales figures for the 2013/2014 or bean varieties released during period. The5 most prominent climate-smart feature was droughttolerance: for soya maize, 2 years for rice, 21 years for the cowpea, and season reported in the no SPEED (Marrule, 2014) – 2years for soya bean. The above figures indicate that the of 3 new maize varieties and both rice varieties possessed this feature. At present, floodreport resistant varieties exist 5,092 tons of maize and 1,092 tons of rice. Both sources in Mozambique, even though parts of the country are highly susceptible to flooding. Farmers use early-maturing rice and soya bean varieties on the market are relatively show that seed production in Mozambique is dominated varieties to mitigate the risk of late-season floods. new (released in the last 5 years), but the maize and cow‐ by maize. pea varieties sold are old. For example, the most popular

INDUSTRY COMPETITIVENESS

maize variety, Matuba, was released in 1995. In addition,

Market share of top seed companies

2011, they were not (yet) sold in 2016; instead, the two

Market concentration is calculated in two ways: first, by

Number of new active seed companies while three varieties of cowpea were released in

In 2016, Mozambique had 63 registered seed companies, of which 59 were local. Of the 63 registered companies, calculating the output of the top four companies as a per‐ varieties on the market were released in 1995 and 1996. only 15 were actively engaged in the production and/ormarketing of at least one the four focus crops. Of the 15, all centage of total industry output for each commodity, and At present, Mozambique has no regulations to retire old produced maize seed, 3 produced rice seed, 11 produced cowpea seed, and six produced soya bean seed. Most of the second, by using the Herfindahl‐Hershman Index (HHI). varieties. seed companies are active in maize and cowpea because these crops are highly suitable for the growing conditions The HHI is a measure of market concentration calculated in large parts of the country’s central and northern regions. Consequently, most seed companies are also based in by squaring the market share of each firm competing in a Varieties with climate‐smart features these areas. Most Mozambique’s seed companies are young, having been in operation for not more than five years. market and then summing the resulting numbers. HHI can To be classified as climate‐smart, a crop variety must range from close to zero (perfect competition) to 10,000 By crop, the estimated aggregate seed sales in 2016 were 4,375 tons of maize, 650 tons of rice, 364 tons of cowpea, meet at least one of two criteria: early maturity, and/or and 689 tons of soya bean. These sales volumes are similar to the official DNSA sales figures for the 2013/2014 (monopoly). tolerance to extreme weather conditions such as drought, season reported in the SPEED report (Marrule, 2014) – 5,092Using the first method, the overall volume weighted mar‐ tons of maize and 1,092 tons of rice. Both sources flooding, or frost. Of the varieties released between 2014 show that seed production in Mozambique is dominated by maize. ket share for the top four companies (for all four crops) and 2016, three of five maize varieties and two of three was 85%. By crop, the market share for the top four com‐ rice varieties climate‐smart. There were no new Market sharewere of top seed companies panies was 80% for maize, 100% for rice (there were only cowpea or soya bean varieties released during the period. Figure 2: Total market share (%) of top four Market concentration is calculated in two ways: first, three companies selling rice seed), 96% for cowpea, and The most prominent climate‐smart feature was drought‐ companies by calculating the output of the top four companies as a 97% for soya bean. Figure 2 illustrates the market shares. tolerance: 2 of 3 new maize varieties and both rice varie‐ percentage of total industry output for each commodity, 100% 0% ties possessed this feature. At present, no flood resistant 3% 4% and second, by using the Herfindahl-Hershman Index (HHI). 20% varieties exist in Mozambique, even though parts of the 80% The HHI is a measure of market concentration calculated country are highly susceptible to flooding. Farmers use by squaring the market share of each firm competing in a 60% early‐maturing varieties to mitigate the risk of late‐season 100% 97% 96% market and then summing the resulting numbers. HHI can 40% 80% floods. range from close to zero (perfect competition) to 10,000

(monopoly).

INDUSTRY COMPETITIVENESS

20% 0%

Using the first method, the overall volume weighted market Maize Rice Cowpea Soya bean Number of active seed companies share for the top four companies (for all four crops) was Top four companies Other companies 85%. By crop, the market share for the top four companies In 2016, Mozambique had 63 registered seed companies, was 80% for maize, 100% for rice (there were only three Figure 2: Total market share (%) of top four companies of which 59 were local. Of the 63 registered companies, companies selling rice seed), 96% for cowpea, and 97% for only 15 were actively engaged in the production and/or HHI was also calculated for all the seed companies, for soya bean. Figure 2 illustrates the market shares. marketing of at least one the four focus crops. Of the 15, all produced maize seed, 3 produced rice seed, 11 pro‐ duced cowpea seed, and six produced soya bean seed. Most of the seed companies are active in maize and cow‐ 116 Seed Sectors Around the Globe pea because these crops are highly suitable for the grow‐ ing conditions in large parts of the country’s central and

each crop. The market concentration for maize (2,623) is good, but for cowpea (4,379) and soya bean (4,218) it is extremely poor. The market shares of the top four com‐ Seedindicate Times May - August panies and the HHI results both that the 2018 seed markets for rice, cowpea and soya bean are dominated by a few players, with little to no competition.

HHI was also calculated for all the seed companies, for each crop. The market concentration for maize (2,623) is good, but for cowpea (4,379) and soya bean (4,218) it is extremely poor. The market shares of the top four companies and the HHI results both indicate that the seed markets for rice, cowpea and soya bean are dominated by a few players, with little to no competition.

Market share of government parastatal Mozambique’s commercial seed industry was liberalized in 2000. The government is not involved in the production and/or marketing of certified seed for any of the four crops, and the former parastatal, SEMOC, is no longer engaged in seed production.

Length of import/export process for seed The time it takes to import seed is calculated as the number of days from the time an import permit is applied for to the time the seed is cleared at the border. Seven of the companies interviewed imported seed in 2016. None of the seed companies exported seed in 2016. Maize is the most common seed imported into Mozambique. The source countries for maize and cowpea imports are Zimbabwe and South Africa. The source countries for soya bean are Malawi, South Africa, and Zimbabwe. Seed companies reported that, the length of the seed import process ranges from 7-30 days, with an average of 21 days. Seed companies are content with the import process, on average rating it as “good” (74%). Crop-specific ratings range from “excellent” (81% and 80%) for maize and soya bean respectively, to “good” (60%) for cowpea.

SEED POLICY AND REGULATIONS Length of variety release process The time it takes to release a variety refers to the time from application for release of a variety to the time the variety is released by the relevant authority. In Mozambique, crop variety release is the mandate of the National Seed Committee, which is under the National Seed Authority. Prior to release, the variety is evaluated for Distinctness, Uniformity and Stability (DUS) and Value for Cultivation and Use (VCU) by the Variety Registration and Release Subcommittee over two cycles. Four of the 13 companies released a variety in 2016. On average, the process of variety release takes about 24 months, ranging from 12 to 36 months. As mentioned above, in 2011, a Ministerial directive (Diploma Ministerial 51/2012) allowed for the provisional release of varieties before the DUS and VCU tests were conducted. This contributed to an increase in the number of varieties being released around this period. Seed companies rate the variety release process as “fair” (53%). By crop, the ratings were: maize (53%), rice (55%), cowpea (50%), and soya bean (53%). Several companies noted that the process is too long and bureaucratic, while others indicated that the national seed service did not provide timely responses to service requests. Further, survey respondents suggested that the protocols related to the variety release process should be decentralized and handled at level of the seed department as opposed to the highest level of the National Directorate (DINAS).

Status of seed policy framework At present, Mozambique neither has a seed policy, nor a seed law. The main policy instruments guiding the seed sector are the Strategic Plan for Development of the Agricultural Sector (PEDSA) through the Program for Strengthening of the Seed Chain (PFCS), and the Comprehensive Seed Regulation. PFCS is aligned to PEDSA, and is implemented under the Seed Division at DINAS. The overall aim of PFCS it to strengthen the entire seed value chain. The second

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Seed Sectors Around the Globe

117

document, the Comprehensive Seed Regulation (Decree 12/2013), was updated in 2013 and harmonized with the SADC seed regulation on variety release and registration, seed quality control and certification, and seed import/ export requirements. The plant variety protection decree (Decree 26/2014) for plant breeders’ rights is not yet operational due to a lack of implementation instruments, such as the regulations, norms and procedures.

Quality of seed regulations and enforcement The seed companies surveyed have a favourable opinion of the quality and level of enforcement of the seed regulations in Mozambique, rating the regulations as “good” (69%) and the level of enforcement also as “good” (64%). Several respondents indicated that while the existing seed regulations were well developed, awareness about them and their implementation and enforcement remain poor.

Adequacy of seed inspectors There are 25 licensed seed inspectors in Mozambique, all under the NSA. Seed companies rate their satisfaction with the adequacy of seed inspectors as fair (59%). Most seed companies interviewed complained about the inadequacy of the seed inspection services. Expressing a similar sentiment, the Seed Department also suggested that the ideal number of inspectors should be at least 33. Moreover, seed inspectors are constrained by limited access to financial resources and transportation to conduct field activities. To increase the efficiency of service provision, the NSA has proposed, under Decree 12/2013, the accreditation of private-sector seed inspection and analysis services. The proposal is awaiting parliamentary approval.

Efforts to stamp out fake seed Seed companies reported receiving a total of 11 cases of fake seeds. This is likely an under-estimate, as the government does not have a system in place to effectively monitor the problem. In addition, cases of fake seeds may go unreported in the first place. Respondents surveyed agreed that fake seed is a growing problem in Mozambique. Seed companies rated the government’s effort to stamp out fake seeds as “fair” (52%), indicating the need for improvement. According to seed companies interviewed, the main sources of fake seed are seed companies (especially during the stage of seed packaging), and traders and farmers who buy grain and sell it as seed. The Association for Promotion of the Seed Sector (APROSE) plans to launch an awareness program on the radio to educate farmers on the concept of good quality/certified seed and ways to avoid buying fake seed.

Use of smart subsidies The government seed subsidy program started in 1988. Initially, the main objective of the program was to respond to emergency food situations such as war, displacement, floods, and droughts. The current version of the subsidy program focuses only on areas affected by emergency situations. It is currently in the pilot phase, covering four provinces - Manica, Sofala, Zambezia, and Nampula. The program is being implemented by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) with funding from the European Union. In 2016, the government subsidized about 720 tons of maize seed (16% of total maize seed sales), 120 tons of cowpea seed (33% of total seed sales), and three tons of rice seed (less than 1% of total rice seed sales). These percentages are consistent with seed companies’ records. On average, the companies sold 29% of maize seed and 37% of cowpea seed to the government under the subsidy program in 2016. The total value of the government subsidy program in 2016 was about USD 880,000. The subsidy programs target mostly smallholder farmers; however, other groups of farmers (emerging farmers) are also included to promote the use of improved seed and increase food production.

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Seed Times May - August 2018

The program subsidizes 70% and 50% of the retail price for smallholders and emerging farmers, respectively. Most of the subsidized seed is sold to farmers using vouchers through private institutions, including agrodealers and seed companies. The government occasionally sells some of the seed through NGOs.

INSTITUTIONAL SUPPORT Availability of extension services In total, Mozambique has 3,035 agricultural extension agents. Forty-nine percent are public agents, employed by MASA, and the remaining 51% work in the private sector (including seed companies and businesses engaged in contract farming for cash crops) and with NGOs. Private seed companies active in producing seed for the four crops employ 49 extension agents. Most of public agricultural extension agents (83%) are male. Given the 3.17 million agricultural households across the country, the ratio of extension agents-to-farming households is approximately 1:1,045. Compared to other countries covered by TASAI, this ratio is very high especially given that much of Mozambique is sparsely populated. Not surprisingly, the seed companies interviewed see a need for improvement in the agricultural extension service delivery, rating the availability of extension workers as “fair” (56%).

Quality of national seed trade association In 2014, the National Directorate of Agriculture and Forestry (DINAS) and strategic development partners established the National Platform for Seed Sector Dialogue (PNDS) with the objective of bringing together all the seed actors in a coordinated effort to foster dialogue. In 2015, PNDS was re-structured into the Association for Promotion of the Seed Sector (APROSE), a multi-sectorial initiative involving the seed value chain actors and development partners Only six of the 13 seed companies surveyed are members to facilitate the development of the seed industry in Mozambique. APROSE is a relatively young association, facing of APROSE. Figure 4 illustrates the seed companies’ satis‐ challenges such as lack of funds to facilitate activities, lack of office space, and no full-time staff members.

faction with APROSE’s performance in six service areas. Only six of the 13 seed companies surveyed are membersAPROSE’s overall rating by seed companies is “fair” (59%). of APROSE. Figure 4 illustrates the seed companies’ satisfactionwith APROSE’s performance in six service areas.The highest rating was given to democracy and govern‐ APROSE’s overall rating by seed companies is “fair” (59%). The highest rating was given to democracy and governance (77%), while the lowest rating was given to the ance (77%), while the lowest rating was given to the asso‐ association’s ability to mobilize resources (51%). APROSE’s members rate the association as “fair” in all the other ciation’s ability to mobilize resources (51%). APROSE’s areas providing value for members (54%), managerial ability (53%), effectiveness in advocacy (52%), and activity members rate the association as “fair” in all the other ar‐ on important seed sector issues (55%). eas ‐ providing value for members (54%), managerial abil‐ ity (53%), effectiveness in advocacy (52%), and activity on SERVICE TO SMALLHOLDER FARMERS important seed sector issues (55%).

Concentration of rural agro-dealer network

According to article 41 of the Comprehensive Seed Regulation (Decree 12/2013), MASA is required to register agro-dealers annually. In practice, this requirement is not yet implemented, and MASA does not maintain an up-todate registry of agro-dealers. The available data indicates that the country has only 211 agro-dealers in Mozambique. This number is very low, and translates to a ratio of one agro-dealer for every 15,000 farming households. Based on information obtained from seed companies, most of the agro-dealers are located in the central region, followed by the northern and southern regions. Very few

Figure 3: Members’ satisfaction with APROSE. 59%

Overall quality of APROSE

Democracy in the elections and decision making

100%

77%

Providing value to members

54%

Managerial ability

53%

Effectiveness in advocacy

52%

80% 60% 40% 20%

55%

Activity on important seed sector issues

20%

40%

60%

Figure 3: Members' satisfaction with APROSE.

80%

SERVICE TO SMALLHOLDER FARMERS Seed Times May - August 2018

Concentration of rural agro‐dealer network Seed Sectors Around the Globe

In total in pack 66% fo trast, o ages; m tween bean g mercia satisfac ages as and “go

51%

Ability to mobilize resources

Availab

Figure 4

Seed‐t 119

According to article 41 of the Comprehensive Seed Regu‐ lation (Decree 12/2013), MASA is required to register

Assumi price ra afforda

agro-dealers are located in the Niassa province, where only one seed company is located. Seed companies noted Only six of the 13 seed companies surveyed are members Availability of seed in small packages that they do not have a strong relationship with the agrodealers, and rated their satisfaction with the agro-dealer of APROSE. Figure 4 illustrates the seed companies’ satis‐ In total, 64% of the seed sold by the companies was sold network as “fair” (57%). NCBA CLUSA is the only notable NGO that has worked on strengthening the capacity of faction with APROSE’s performance in six service areas. in packages of 2 kg or less. The breakdown by crop was agro-dealers in the country. APROSE’s overall rating by seed companies is “fair” (59%).

66% for maize, 60% for rice, and 88% for cowpea. In con‐ trast, only 21% of soya bean seed was sold in small pack‐ ance (77%), while the lowest rating was given to the asso‐ ages; most soya bean seed was sold in package sizes be‐ In total, 64% of to themobilize seed sold by the companies was sold in packages of 2 kg or less. The breakdown by crop was 66% ciation’s ability resources (51%). APROSE’s tween 2‐10 kg. This is not surprising because most soya for maize, 60% for rice, and 88% for cowpea. In contrast, only 21% of soya bean seed was sold in small packages; members rate the association as “fair” in all the other ar‐ bean growers are well‐established smallholder or com‐ most soya bean seed was sold in package sizes between 2-10 kg. This is not surprising because most soya bean eas ‐ providing value for members (54%), managerial abil‐ mercial farmers. On average, seed companies rate their growers are well-established smallholder or commercial farmers. On average, seed companies rate their satisfaction ity (53%), effectiveness in advocacy (52%), and activity on satisfaction with the volumes of seed sold in small pack‐ with the volumes of seed sold in small packages as “excellent” for maize (83%) and cowpea (83%), and “good” for important seed sector issues (55%). ages as “excellent” for maize (83%) and cowpea (83%), rice (60%) and soya bean (66%). and “good” for rice (60%) and soya bean (66%). The highest rating was given to democracy and govern‐ Availability of seed in small packages

Seed-to-grain price ratio Overall quality of APROSE

59%

Assuming stable prices at planting time,51% seed‐to‐grain Ability to mobilize resources Democracy in the elections and decision price ratios can reflect the attractiveness of a variety or 77% making affordability of improved seed relative to farmer recycled Providing value to members 54% grain. The seed‐to‐grain price ratio for the four crops at Managerial ability the time of planting is highest for hybrid53% maize (4.79) and for OPV maize (3.83). For rice, cowpea, Effectiveness in advocacy 52% and soya bean, the seed‐to‐grain price ratio was 3.33, 1.50, and Activity on important seed sector issues 55% 1.55, respectively. These price ratios are comparable 0% 20% 80% with to corresponding statistics from 40% other 60% countries emerging and early growth seed sectors: examples for Figure 3: Members' satisfaction with APROSE. maize hybrid include Tanzania (5.2:1) and Malawi (4.2:1), and Madagascar (2.3:1) for rice. SERVICE TO SMALLHOLDER FARMERS

CONCLUSIONS Concentration of rural agro‐dealer network

Figure 4. Percentage of seed sold in different package sizes 100%

0% 5%

80%

22% 5%

35%

60% 40% 20% 0%

66%

9% 4%

11%

68%

88% 60%

21% Maize

2 kg or less

Rice > 2 kg ‐ 10 kg

Cowpea

Soya bean

> 10 kg ‐ 25 Kg

> 25 kg

Figure 4. Percentage of seed sold in different package sizes

Seed‐to‐grain price ratio

Assuming stable prices at planting seed time, seed‐to‐grain With an estimated seed utilization rate of less than 10% for most key food crops, Mozambique’s sector is in the According to article 41 of the Comprehensive Seed Regu‐ emergent to early growthMASA stage is of required industry to development. Theprice ratios can reflect the attractiveness of a variety or TASAI study has highlighted several positive aspects lation (Decree 12/2013), register affordability of improved seed relative to farmer recycled of the seed industry in Mozambique that can serve as a platform for sustained growth. Unlike most countries in agro‐dealers annually. In practice, this requirement is not grain. The seed‐to‐grain price ratio for the four crops at the region, maize is not overly dominant in Mozambique’s public breeding programs. The distribution of breeders yet implemented, and MASA does not maintain an up‐to‐ and varieties released for the four crops is well balanced. Thisthe time of planting is highest for hybrid maize (4.79) and is a good foundation for further variety development date registry of agro‐dealers. The available data indicates in the different crop sub-sectors. However, this effort needs to be strengthened by greater public and private for OPV maize (3.83). For rice, cowpea, and soya bean, the that the country has only 211 agro‐dealers in Mozam‐ investment in the supply of foundation seed for all crops. Breeding programs should be responsive to climate seed‐to‐grain price ratio was 3.33, 1.50, and 1.55, respec‐ bique. This number is very low, and translates to a ratio change, with emphasis on developing more drought- and flood-tolerant varieties to prepare for extreme weather tively. These price ratios are comparable to correspond‐ of one agro‐dealer for every 15,000 farming households. events likely in the country. Further, private companies should promote the attributes of newly-released varieties ing statistics from other countries with emerging and more aggressively to increase their uptake by farmers. Based on information obtained from seed companies, early growth seed sectors: examples for maize hybrid in‐ most of the agro‐dealers are located in the central region, clude Tanzania (5.2:1) and Malawi (4.2:1), and Madagas‐ By simply looking at the number of registered seed companies, there is evidence of growth in the seed industry. followed by the northern and southern regions. Very few car (2.3:1) for rice. However, many of these registered companies are currently inactive, signifying a need to build management capacity agro‐dealers are located Niassa province, where and provide better accessin tothe finance. only one seed company is located. Seed companies noted

CONCLUSIONS

Mozambique is currently implementing favourable trading arrangements under SADC and COMESA. This is evidenced that they do not have a strong relationship with the agro‐ With an estimated seed utilization rate of less than 10% for by seed companies’ testimonies of the time and process for seed imports. This favourable regime could be exploited dealers, and rated their satisfaction with the agro‐dealer most key food crops, Mozambique’s seed sector is in the to enable seed companies to access breeder seed (for research and variety development) and certified seed (for sale network as “fair” (57%). NCBA CLUSA is the only notable emergent to early growth stage of industry development. to farmers) from neighbouring countries that have more developed seed sectors such as South Africa, Tanzania, NGO that has worked on strengthening the capacity of Zambia and Zimbabwe. The TASAI study has highlighted several positive aspects of agro‐dealers in the country.

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the seed industry in Mozambique that can serve as a plat‐ form for sustained growth. Unlike most countries in the re‐ gion, maize is not overly dominant in Mozambique’s public Seed Times May - August 2018

APROSE, the newly-formed seed sector platform, has received the endorsement of key private and public-sector players in the seed industry in Mozambique. This endorsement is a good foundation on which the platform can build its profile and credibility. APROSE would need to demonstrate its pro-activeness in all seed sector matters, and at the same time provide valuable relevant services to its members. One of APROSE’s urgent tasks could be to encourage coherence among the various development partners and NGOs involved in seed sector development. If well-coordinated, these efforts could effectively support capacity building of seed companies and facilitate APROSE to be a link between industry advocacy and public policy. For Mozambique’s seed sector to sustain its current growth trajectory, the NSA needs to improve the current seed inspection services by fast-tracking the training and accreditation of private seed inspectors. This should reduce the length of the variety release process, improve the quality of seed certification and inspection, and reduce the incidence of fake seed. NSA’s plans to establish a legal department in DNSA would complement the enforcement efforts of the seed inspection services. The weak extension systems and ineffective agro-dealer network also contribute to the low adoption rates of improved varieties. The country needs both private and public- sector investment in extension to ensure that farmers receive adequate and up-to-date information on improved varieties and other productivity enhancing innovations. This needs to be complemented by strengthening the agrodealer networks across the country through training, annual registration by MASA, and greater coordination with other agro-input companies. To address the challenges in the seed sector, strategic interventions are needed at various critical stages, including: investment in research and breeding; improving seed companies’ access to foundation seed; improving the performance of the National Variety Release and Registration Committee to reduce the length of time it takes to register a variety; and addressing the problem of fake seed, among other issues.

REFERENCES AGRA (2016) Mozambique Early Generation Seed Study. Available at: https://agrilinks.org/sites/default/files/ resource/files/moza mbique_early_generation_seed_report.pdf (Accessed: 26 September 2017). FAO (1998) Developing Seed Security Strategies and Programmes for Food Security in Developing Countries. Marrule, H. (2014) BRIEF REVIEW OF MOZAMBIQUE SEED MARKET. Available at: http://speed-program.com/ newalliance/ wp-content/uploads/2015/03/2014-SPEED-Report041-Seed-market-Analysis-PT.docx.pdf (Accessed: 26 September 2017).

APPENDIX 1. For a comparison of TASAI Indicators across 13 countries, please visit: http://tasai.org/wp-content/uploads/ TASAI-Appendix-CURRENT.pdf

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Tanzania Brief 2017 The African Seed Access Index Edward Mabaya, Filbert Mzee, Alphonce Temu, Mainza Mugoya INTRODUCTION A competitive seed sector is key to ensuring timely availability of high quality seeds of improved, appropriate varieties at affordable prices for smallholder farmers in Tanzania. This country brief summarizes the key findings of The African Seed Access Index (TASAI) study conducted in 2016/17 to appraise the structure and economic performance of Tanzania’s seed sector. With a focus on four grain and legume crops important to food and nutritional security — maize, beans, soya bean, and pigeon pea — the study evaluates the enabling environment for a vibrant formal seed sector. The production area of these four crops covers about 41% of the country’s arable land (FAOSTAT, 2017), though this is almost all maize and beans. Further, pigeon pea is an important export crop for Tanzania, as the country is the leading African exporter of pigeon peas to India (International Trade Centre, 2016). The TASAI study covers 20 indicators divided into the following categories: Research and Development, Industry Competitiveness, Seed Policy and Regulations, Institutional Support, and Service to Smallholder Farmers. Appendix 1 summarizes all 20 indicators and compares Tanzania to 12 other countries where similar studies were conducted. TASAI seeks to encourage public policymakers and development agencies to create and maintain enabling environments that will accelerate the development of competitive formal seed systems serving smallholder farmers

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Overview Like most other African countries, the seed industry in Tanzania consists of two systems: the informal sector and the formal sector. This policy brief focuses almost exclusively on the formal seed sector. The informal sector broadly refers to the system where farmers produce, obtain, maintain, and distribute seed resources, from one growing season to the next (FAO, 1998). Due to factors such as limited knowledge, lack of a wide variety of seeds, limited resources to purchase seed, and poor access to agro-dealers, most small-holder farmers in Tanzania still rely on the informal system, especially for legumes. This is clear from a recent national panel survey, which shows that only 44% of households use improved seed (Tanzania National Bureau of Statistics, 2017). Standards in the informal seed sector are not monitored or controlled by government policies and regulations; rather, they are guided by indigenous knowledge and standards and by social structures. The colloquial nature of transactions, coupled with a lack of a clear distinction between seed and grain, means that there is scant performance data on the informal seed sector. The formal sector focuses on breeding and evaluating improved varieties, and producing and selling seed of these varieties that are certified by the Tanzania Official Seed Certification Institute (TOSCI), the government institute under the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) responsible for regulating seed in Tanzania. As shown in Table 1, Tanzania’s formal seed sector comprises other government institutions (including three agricultural research institutes and the Agricultural Seed Agency), private sector (seed companies and agro-dealers), and development agencies. Established in 2002, the Tanzania Seed Trade Association (TASTA) brings together all the seed companies in the country, and plays a key role in representing their interests at the policy level. Table 1: Role of key players in Tanzania’s formal seed sector

Research and breeding

KEY PLAYERS ARIs (Uyole, Selian and Ilonga), ASA, MNCs, local companies, universities

Variety release and regulation

TOSCI, MoA (formerly MoAFSC and MoALF)

Seed production and processing

Seed companies, ASA, MNCs

ROLE

Education, training, and extension Distribution and sales

Seed companies, universities, TASTA, TANADA, ASA, TOSCI, NGOs, MoA, LGAs Seed companies, agro-dealers

Key acronyms: ARI – Agricultural Research Institute; ASA – Agricultural Seed Agency; CIMMYT – International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre; HHI - Herfindahl-Hirschman Index; LGAs – Local Government Authorities; MoA – Ministry of Agriculture; MoAFSC - Ministry of Agriculture, Food Security and Cooperatives; MoALF – Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries; NPT-TC – National Performance Trial Technical Committee; SUA – Sokoine University of Agriculture; TANADA – Tanzania National Agro-Dealer Association; TASTA – Tanzania Seed Trade Association; TOSCI – Tanzania Official Seed Certification Institute; Tsh – Tanzania Shilling; URT – United Republic of Tanzania

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT Number of active breeders Tanzania currently has 46 active breeders for the four priority crops (maize, beans, soya bean, and pigeon pea). Of these, 40 breeders are based at the five public Agricultural Research Institutes (ARI): ARI-Chiloma, ARI-Ilonga, ARISelian, ARI-Tumbi, and ARI-Uyole, and one bean breeder is based at the public Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA). The remaining five breeders work for three local private companies. Four further private companies are multinationals with breeders based outside Tanzania. The number of breeders for each crop are as follows: 28 for maize, 7 for beans, 7 for soya bean, and 4 for pigeon pea.

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On average, seed companies’ satisfaction with the number of active breeders is fair (57%).1 The highest level of satisfaction was reported for maize (63%), while the lowest level was registered for pigeon pea (37%). Both beans and soya bean were rated as fair (54% each). The poor and fair ratings of the adequacy of breeders for beans, soya bean, and pigeon pea signals the need to increase the number of breeders for these crops to fulfil industry needs.

Varieties released in the last three years According to the national variety catalogue, during 2014- 2016, 50 new varieties were released for the four crops, distributed as follow: maize – 44, beans – 2, pigeon pea – 4. The new varieties were released by 10 private companies and three government research institutions. No soya bean varieties were released during the period (although two varieties were released in 2013). Figure 1 shows the three-year moving average of the number of varieties released since 2002. Maize is clearly the most prominent crop in Tanzania. Since 2000, 124 varieties of maize have been released, compared to 15 for beans, 4 for soya bean, and 7 for pigeon pea. The numbers of varieties released are also positively correlated with the number of breeders.

Availability of foundation seed

Figure 1: Number of varieties released in Tanzania (three-year moving average)

Seed companies obtain foundation seed from both public

and private sources. The Agricultural Seed Agency (ASA)

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT is a semi-autonomous agency mandated to produce and

market foundation and certified seed. The intention is that the ARIs supply the breeder seed to ASA which then Tanzania currently has 46 active breeders for the four pri‐ produces foundation seed, for supply to seed companies. ority crops (maize, beans, soya bean, and pigeon pea). Of However, seed companies have reported that they source these, 40 breeders are based at the five public foundation seed from both the ARIs and ASA.Agricul‐ Number of active breeders

16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

2016

2015

2014

2013

2012

2011

2010

2009

2008

2007

2006

2005

2004

2003

2002

tural Research Institutes (ARI): ARI‐Chiloma, ARI‐Ilonga, The main public sources of maize foundation seed for the ARI‐Selian, ARI‐Tumbi, and ARI‐Uyole, and one bean seed companies are ARI-Uyole, the International Maize breeder is based at the public Sokoine University of Agri‐ and Wheat Improvement Centre (CIMMYT), and ASA. Three culture (SUA). The remaining five breeders work for three Maize Beans Soya beans Pigeon peas local seed companies maintain their own foundation seed local private companies. Four further private companies for maize, while all the multinational companies source foundation seed from their breeding programs located Figure 1: Number of varieties released in Tanzania (three‐year mov‐ are multinationals with breeders based outside Tanzania. outside Tanzania. Foundation seed for beans is sourced froming average) public entities (ASA, ARI-Uyole, and SUA).Foundation The number of breeders for each crop are as follows: 28 seed for soya bean and pigeon pea are sourced from ARI-Uyole and ARI-Ilonga, respectively. Availability of foundation seed for maize, 7 for beans, 7 for soya bean, and 4 for pigeon pea. Seed companies obtain foundation seed from both public On average, seed companies rate their satisfaction with the availability of foundation seed as good (67%). However, there is significant variation in ratings by different types of companies. Parastatal and multinationals rated the and private sources. The Agricultural Seed Agency (ASA) On average, seed companies’ satisfaction with the num‐ availability as excellent (85% and 80%, respectively), which is significantly higher than the “good” rating (61%) is a semi‐autonomous agency mandated to produce and 1 The highest level of ber of active breeders is fair (57%). reported by local private companies. The difference is due tomarket the fact that multinationals and parastatals maintain foundation and certified seed. The intention is satisfaction was reported for maize (63%), while the low‐ their own foundation seed, while local private companies tend to rely on other entities for foundation seed. that the ARIs supply the breeder seed to ASA which then est level was registered for pigeon pea (37%). Both beans Breaking down therated figures by the type of seed, companiesproduces foundation seed, for supply to seed companies. are most satisfied with the availability of maize seed and soya bean were as fair (54% each). The poor However, seed companies have reported that they source (72%), while the lowest satisfaction rate isfor reported and fair ratings of the adequacy of breeders beans, for pigeon pea (45%). Satisfaction ratings for the availability foundation seed from both the ARIs and ASA. of foundation seed for beans and soya bean are 61% and 65%, respectively. soya bean, and pigeon pea signals the need to increase the number of breeders for these crops to fulfil industry The main public sources of maize foundation seed for the Despite the relatively high satisfaction rates, several seed companies expressed concern about the lack of foundation needs. seed companies ARI‐Uyole, International Maize seed. This challenge is also confirmed in a study on early-generation seedare (AGRA, 2016),the which highlighted the and Wheat Improvement Centre (CIMMYT), and ASA. 1 All scores reported in this brief are based on industry self-reporting of satisfaction ranging from 0% for completely dissatisfied to 100% for Varieties released in the last three years Three local seed companies maintain their own founda‐ completely satisfied. According to the national variety catalogue, during 2014‐ tion seed for maize, while all the multinational companies 2016, 50 new varieties were released for the four crops, source foundation seed from their breeding programs lo‐ distributed as follow: maize – 44, beans – 2, pigeon pea – cated outside Tanzania. Foundation seed for beans is 4. The new varieties were released by 10 private compa‐ sourced from public entities (ASA, ARI‐Uyole, and SUA). Seed Times May - August 2018 124 Seed Sectors Around the Globe nies and three government research institutions. No soya Foundation seed for soya bean and pigeon pea are bean varieties were released during the period (although sourced from ARI‐Uyole and ARI‐Ilonga, respectively.

low private-sector engagement in early generation seed production (including foundation seed), especially for crops like beans and OPV maize. Limited infrastructure and institutional capacity available to public breeders were identified as key bottlenecks constraining the supply of early generation seed in Tanzania.

Average age of varieties sold

The average age for the 44 maize varieties on the market in 2016 was 10 years. The youngest of these varieties were released in 2016, while the oldest variety was 48 years old. Of the 44 varieties, 18 (41%) were released between 2011 and 2016 (five years or younger), while 17 (39%) were older than 10 years. Seed companies sold eight bean varieties in 2016. The average age of these varieties was 18 years, with a range of 8-39 years. Four soya bean varieties were sold by two companies in 2016. Of these, only two are listed in the National Variety Catalogue. The average age of these two varieties is 10 years. The only pigeon pea variety being sold in 2016 was 14 years old.

Varieties with climate-smart features

Breaking down the figures by the type of seed, companies INDUSTRY COMPETITIVENESS To be classified climate-smart, a crop variety must meet at least one of two criteria – early maturity and/or are most satisfied aswith the availability of maize seed Number of active seed companies tolerance to extreme weather conditions such as for drought, flooding, or frost. Six of the 44 maize varieties released (72%), while the lowest satisfaction rate is reported between 2014 and 2016 have climate-smart characteristics (early maturing). A further 11companies of the 15 maize varieties pigeon pea (45%). Satisfaction ratings for the availability In 2016, there were 104 seed or merchants released in 2012 and 2013 are drought-tolerant. of foundation seed for beans and soya bean are 61% and registered by MoA. Of these, 63 are seed companies, 65%, respectively. though only 40 are active. Of the 40 companies, 30 were None of the bean varieties and half (two) of pigeon pea varieties released between 2014 and 2016 have climatesmart producing/marketing seed of at least one of the four fo‐ characteristics. The pigeon pea varieties are early maturing. There were no soya bean releases during the study Despite the relatively high satisfaction rates, several seed cus crops in 2016. Almost all (29) of the seed companies period. companies expressed concern about the lack of founda‐ produced maize, six produced beans, two produced soya tion seed. This challenge is also confirmed in a study on INDUSTRY COMPETITIVENESS bean, and three produced pigeon pea. This data is con‐ early‐generation seed (AGRA, 2016), which highlighted sistent with the SeedCLIR report (USAID, 2013), which Number of active seed companies the low private‐sector engagement in early generation listed 27 active seed companies in 2013. Another recent seed production (including foundation seed), especially study byby Agri Experience Maina though (Agri In 2016, there were 104 seed companies or merchants registered MoA. Of these, 63 are(Mulemia seed companies, for crops like beans and OPV maize. Limited infrastructure only 40 are active. Of the 40 companies, 30 were producing/marketing seed of at least one of the four focus crops Experience), 2016) reports 23 active seed companies for and institutional available to companies public breeders in 2016. Almostcapacity all (29) of the seed produced maize, six produced beans, two produced soya bean, and the four crops. were identified as key bottlenecks constraining the supply three produced pigeon pea. This data is consistent with the SeedCLIR report (USAID, 2013), which listed 27 active of early generation seed in Tanzania. Market share of top seed companies seed companies in 2013. Another recent study by Agri Experience (Mulemia Maina (Agri Experience), 2016) reports

23 active seed companies for the four crops.

Market share is calculated using seed sales reported by seed companies. By crop, the market shares for the top Market share of top seed companies The average age for the 44 maize varieties on the market four companies are 76% (maize), 94% (bean), 100% (soya in 2016 was The youngest of sales these reported varieties by seedbean), and 100% (pigeon pea). Fewer than four compa‐ Market share10 isyears. calculated using seed companies. By crop, the market shares for the top four were released in 76% 2016, while the oldest variety was (soya 48 bean), companies are (maize), 94% (bean), 100% and 100% (pigeon pea). Fewer than four companies nies produce soya bean and pigeon pea seed. This data years old. Of the 44 varieties, 18 (41%) were released be‐ produce soya bean and pigeon pea seed. This data shows thatshows a fewthat companies dominate the marketthe formarket beans, for soya a few companies dominate tween and 2016 or younger), while 17 is morebeans, soya bean, and pigeon pea (fig. 2). The maize seed bean,2011 and pigeon pea(five (fig.years 2). The maize seed market competitive. (39%) were older than 10 years. Seed companies sold Figure 2: Total market share (%) of top four The Herfindahl-Hirschman Index (HHI) was also used to market is more competitive. eight bean varieties in 2016. The average age of these va‐ companies quantify industry competitiveness. The index, a sum of 100% rieties was 18 years, with a range of 8‐39 years. Four soya squared market shares, ranges from near zero for perfect 6% 24% bean varieties were sold by companies in 2016. competition, to 10,000 fortwo a pure monopoly. HHIOf was 80% these, only two listed in the National Variety Cata‐ calculated for are all the seed companies, for each crop. 60% The market concentration is good for maize (1,973) and 100% 100% logue. The average age of these two varieties is 10 years. 94% 40% 76% faironly for pigeon beans pea (2,589). The market concentration The variety being sold in 2016 was 14 for 20% soya beans is extremely poor (5,102) because there are years old.

Average age of varieties sold

very few players in the market. In addition, only seven

companies make up the top four seed producers for the Varieties with climate‐smart features four indicating limited crop To be crops, classified as climate‐smart, a specialization. crop variety must meet at least one of two criteria – early maturity and/or tolerance to extreme weather conditions such as drought, Seed Times May - August 2018 flooding, or frost. Six of the 44 maize varieties released between 2014 and 2016 have climate‐smart characteris‐

Maize

Beans

Top 4 companies

Soya beans Pigeon peas Other companies

Figure 2: Total market share (%) of top four companies

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The Herfindahl‐Hirschman Index (HHI) was also used to quantify industry competitiveness. The index, a sum of

Market share of government parastatal The government seed parastatal, ASA, was created as an agency of MoA in 2006 to produce, market, and distribute seeds. Of the four focus crops, ASA produces maize, beans, and soya bean, though its market share in all three crops is low. ASA accounts for 0.5% of the maize seed market, 3.9% of the bean seed market, and about 43% of the soya bean seed market. The high soya bean market share is due to the fact that the government parastatal is one of only two companies producing the crop.

Length of import/export process for seed The time it takes to import seed is calculated as the number of days from the time an import permit is re-quested to the time the seed is cleared at the border. In 2016, five companies imported maize seed and one company imported soya bean seed into Tanzania. Imports came from Kenya, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. Importing seed companies report that, on average, it takes 12 days to import seed into the country, and that most of the delays occur at the border where the shipment is cleared. Companies rate the import process as fair (63%). Some of the delays are caused by working with physical hand-written paperwork; seed companies suggest that switching to an electronic system would increase efficiency. The need to streamline the seed import process is also highlighted in the 2015 report “A Legal Guide to Strengthen Tanzania’s Seed and Input Markets” (New Markets Lab 2015). No certified seed of the four focus crops was exported from Tanzania in 2016. However, the few companies that have exported seed in the past rate their level of satisfaction with the export process as “fair” (43%). While import permits can be issued at all ports of entry, export permits may only be issued in Dar es Salaam.

SEED POLICY AND REGULATIONS Length of variety release process The length of the variety release process is the duration of time from when the application for variety release is submitted to when the variety is released by TOSCI, the relevant authority in Tanzania. The National Performance Trial Technical Committee (NPT-TC) evaluates the test results and reports its findings to the National Variety Release Committee, which reviews the report and makes recommendations for release to the National Seed Committee. TOSCI estimates that approximately 50% of all applications are rejected by the National Variety Release Committee. According to the national variety catalogue, between 2014 and 2016, 10 seed companies and three public agricultural research institutes released varieties for the four focus crops. Seed companies report that the average releasetime was 33 months for maize, 28 months for beans, 42 months for soya bean, and 36 months for pigeon pea. According to the Tanzania Seed Regulations, 2007 (MoAFSC, 2007) the mandated release time is three seasons, which is usually equivalent to 36 months. On average, seed companies rate their satisfaction with the variety release process as good (70%).

Status of seed policy framework Tanzania does not have a stand-alone national seed policy. The National Agriculture Policy (2013) provides general policy guidance for agricultural input development in the country. Tanzania’s seed law (Seeds Act (No. 18)) was enacted in 2003. This was followed by seed regulations that year. In 2014, parliament passed an Amendment of the Seeds Act (CAP. 308), which focused on strengthening the mandate of TOSCI, expanding the coverage for Quality Declared Seed, and convening a seed sector forum. Since 2014, industry stakeholders have been in discussions with the government to update the existing regulations to fall in line with the Seeds Act 2014 (CAP. 308). The latest seed regulations were passed in January 2017. The legal framework for plant variety protection is the Plant Breeders’ Rights Act (2002). The most recent amendment to the Plant Breeders’ Rights Act was passed in 2012.

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Quality of seed regulations and enforcement The Seeds Act (No. 18) is enforced through Tanzania’s seed regulations. Seed companies are satisfied with both the quality of the seed law and the level of enforcement of the seed regulations, rating them both as good (70%). Despite this high rating, seed companies noted several challenges related to regulation and enforcement. TOSCI does not have adequate capacity to conduct seed inspections, seed testing, and labelling. This results in a long and bureaucratic regulatory process, which seed companies suggest should be streamlined. This issue is also reported in the New Markets Lab report (New Markets Lab, 2015).

Adequacy of seed inspectors TOSCI has 48 (public) seed inspectors; Tanzania has no private inspectors. On average, seed companies rate their satisfaction with seed services as fair (59%). The main challenge with inspection services is the lack of resources (e.g., vehicles) to facilitate the inspectors’ work across the country. To address this challenge, with the support of USAID-Tanzania, the MoA Seed Unit has licensed about 100 para-seed inspectors, who will undertake several tasks originally conducted by the seed inspectors. In addition, TOSCI has increased staff numbers in some regional offices (e.g. Mtwara and Mwanza). While having more inspectors has been helpful, the shortage of vehicles continues to impede inspections at both agro-dealers’ shops and field inspections. Seed companies have expressed dissatisfaction with the long wait times for seed test results, approvals, and seed labels. These delays affect all classes of seed.

Efforts to stamp out fake seed Seed companies indicated that a total of 18 cases involving sale of fake seed were reported to them in 2016. This figure is likely to be an underestimate as most cases of fake seed are not officially reported. On average, seed companies rate their satisfaction with government’s efforts to stamp out fake seed as fair (57%), citing the slow process of handling fake seed cases by the authorities. According to companies interviewed, the main sources of fake seed are agro-dealers, some of whom distribute and sell fake seed. TOSCI has tried to address the problem of fake seed by placing serialized labels on the seed packages weighing 2 kg or more. The label includes traceable information on crop type, variety, lot number, % purity, % germination, and test date. While the idea of tracing the seed on the market is good, several respondents highlighted the vulnerability that the stickers can be easily forged. In addition, the country does not have a central hotline for reporting cases of fake seed. On the other hand, a positive new development is that those convicted of selling fake seed can now receive a maximum fine of 100 million Tanzanian shillings (approximately US$ 44,700). The high penalty is expected to serve as a deterrent to faking seed. Finally, seed trade associations and other stakeholders are also becoming more involved in raising farmers’ awareness of fake seed.

Use of smart subsidies Tanzania’s smart subsidy program, the National Agricultural Input Voucher Scheme, was launched in 2005. Currently, the program focuses exclusively on maize seed. During the 2015/16 cropping season, the scheme reached 378,900 farmers, which was a reduction from the 740,000 farmers reached in 2008/09. In 2016, the scheme purchased 3,858 tons of maize OPV and hybrid seed from companies to be distributed through agro-dealers, at a cost of approximately US$ 33 million. On average, seed companies reported selling 46% of their maize seed through this subsidy program. While the subsidy program is credited with increasing adoption of improved seed by resource-poor farmers, it is not without its challenges. The farmer selection process is not transparent, and the scheme targets the poorest

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farmers, who are also the least able to take full advantage of improved seed. Furthermore, there are frequent delays in government reimbursements, sometimes lasting more than a year, which have resulted in cash-flow problems for seed companies.

INSTITUTIONAL SUPPORT Availability of extension services There are approximately 7,030 agricultural extension workers in Tanzania, 25% of whom are female. Most of the remaining 105 (1%) work for seed companies. The extension workers (99%) are employed by the government; the number of extension workers translates to a ratio of one extension officer for every 831 farming households, though quasi‐extension agents known as Village Based Agricul‐in there is wide variation by district. The “Study to establish return to investment in agricultural extension service ture Advisors. Tanzania” (2013) estimated an extension officer to farming household ratio of 1:630. Both estimates are similar to ratios in other East African countries, notably Ethiopia (1:592) and Kenya (1:910). As a result, seed companies rate Quality of national seed trade association their satisfaction with the extension services as fair (56%). TASTA is the umbrella association for all seed companies

There is a need for greater investment in the quantity and quality of Tanzania’s extension services, as this would in Tanzania. It was formed in 2002 and had 28 members promote adoption of improved seed and good farming methods. The current target by MoA is to have one extension in 2016. TASTA is a member of the National Seeds Com‐ officer in every village. Meanwhile, some NGOs have liaised with district councils to train selected farmers as quasimittee and works closely with the MoA on variety release extension agents known as Village Based Agriculture Advisors. and seed policy issues.

Quality of national seed trade association

TASTA is active in coordinating seed companies’ engage‐ ment in policy‐related discussions with the government, TASTA is the umbrella association for all seed companies in Tanzania. It was formed in 2002 and had 28 members in and seed companies rate their satisfaction with the over‐ 2016. TASTA is a member of the National Seeds Committee and works closely with the MoA on variety release and all quality of the organization as good (71%). Figure 3 il‐ seed policy issues. lustrates the ratings of the association’s performance in TASTA is active in coordinating seed companies’ engagement in policy-related discussions with the government, six service areas. TASTA is rated “good” in all six areas, re‐ and seed companies rate their satisfaction with the overallceiving the highest rating for advocacy (75%) and the low‐ quality of the organization as good (71%). Figure 3 illustrates the ratings of the association’s performance in sixest rating for ability to mobilize resources (68%). service areas. TASTA is rated “good” in all six areas,

receiving the highest rating for advocacy (75%) and the lowest rating for ability to mobilize resources (68%).

When members of TASTA were asked to suggest areas of

When members of TASTA were asked to suggest areas of improvement, most of them mentioned that the current fees improvement, most of them mentioned that the current may be too high for some seed companies. Others recommended that, given the large size of the country, TASTA fees may be too high for some seed companies. Others should open regional offices to better serve its members. A few respondents suggested that the association could recommended that, given the large size of the country, do more to raise awareness of fake seed. TASTA should open regional offices to better serve its

SERVICE TO SMALLHOLDER FARMERS

members. A few respondents suggested that the associa‐ Figure 3: Members’ satisfaction with TASTA tion could do more to raise awareness of fake seed.

Concentration of rural agro-dealer network MoA has a list of about 4,000 agro-dealers, though only about 2,000 of these are active (USAID 2013). This corresponds to the estimate of 1,500 agro-dealers cited in the Tanzania Seed Sector Report (ASARECA, 2014). Most seed companies reported working with at least 200 agro-dealers each, some of whom are hub agro-dealers or wholesalers with networks of smaller stockists. This translates to a ratio of one agro-dealer for approximately

Providing value to members

69%

40%

Managerial ability

71%

20%

75%

Effectiveness in advocacy

73%

Activity on important seed sector issues

20%

40%

60%

80%

SERVICE TO SMALLHOLDER FARMERS Seed Sectors Around the Globe

Seed c in sma packag tion w excelle lent fo nies’ s pea pr

60%

74%

Figure 3: Members' satisfaction with TASTA

128

A tota in sma ied wid bean ( third o (30%) soya b riety a likely t

80%

68%

Ability to mobilize resources Democracy in elections and decision making

Availa

100%

71%

Overall level of satisfaction

2,900 tive ag Allianc rate th good (

Concentration of rural agro‐dealer network Seed Times May - August 2018 MoA has a list of about 4,000 agro‐dealers, though only about 2,000 of these are active (USAID 2013). This corre‐

Figure 4

Seed‐t

Assum price r afford grain.

2,900 agricultural households in Tanzania. Most of the ac‐ tive agro‐dealers were trained through a grant from the Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa. Seed companies rate their satisfaction with the agro‐dealer network as good (66%).

quasi‐extension agents known as Village Based Agricul‐ ture Advisors.

Quality of national seed trade association

TASTA is the umbrella association for all seed companies in Tanzania. It was formed in 2002 and had 28 members Availability of seed in small packages in 2016. TASTA is a member of the National Seeds Com‐ mittee and works closely with the MoA on variety release A total of 93% of the seed sold by the companies was sold and seed policy issues. in small packages of 2 kg or less, though package sizes var‐ every 2,900 agricultural households in Tanzania. Most of the active agro-dealers were trained through a grant from ied widely across crops (fig. 4). Almost all maize (93%) and the Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa. Seed companies rate their satisfaction with the agro-dealer network TASTA is active in coordinating seed companies’ engage‐ bean (92%) seed is sold in small packages, while only a asment in policy‐related discussions with the government, good (66%). third of the seed for soya bean (34%) and pigeon pea and seed companies rate their satisfaction with the over‐ Availability of seed in small packages (30%) is sold in small packages. The large package sizes for all quality of the organization as good (71%). Figure 3 il‐ soya bean and pigeon pea could be an impediment for va‐ A total of 93% of the seed sold by the companies was sold in small packages of 2 kg or less, though package sizes lustrates the ratings of the association’s performance in riety adoption who are only more varied widely across crops (fig. 4). Almost all maize (93%) and bean (92%) seedby issmallholder sold in smallfarmers, packages, while six service areas. TASTA is rated “good” in all six areas, re‐ a third of the seed for soya bean (34%) and pigeon pea (30%) islikely to experiment with small volumes. sold in small packages. The large package sizes for ceiving the highest rating for advocacy (75%) and the low‐

soya bean and pigeon pea could be an impediment for variety adoption by smallholder farmers, who are more likely est rating for ability to mobilize resources (68%). Seed companies’ satisfaction with the availability of seed to experiment with small volumes. When members of TASTA were asked to suggest areas of

in small packages is reflective of the volumes sold in small

members. A few respondents suggested that the associa‐

nies’ satisfaction is poor for soya bean (35%). No pigeon Figure 4. Percentage of seed sold in different pea producers responded to this question.

Seed companies’ satisfaction with the availability of seed in small packages is reflective of the volumes sold in improvement, most of them mentioned that the current packages. On average, seed companies rate their satisfac‐ small packages. On average, seed companies rate their satisfaction with the volumes of seed sold in small packages fees may be too high for some seed companies. Others tion with the volumes of seed sold in small packages as asrecommended excellent (86%). Companies’ satisfaction by crop is excellent for maize (92%) and beans (81%). However, that, given the large size of the country, excellent (86%). Companies’ satisfaction by crop is excel‐ companies’ satisfaction is poor for soya bean (35%). No pigeon pea producers responded to this question. TASTA should open regional offices to better serve its lent for maize (92%) and beans (81%). However, compa‐

Seed-to-grain price ratio tion could do more to raise awareness of fake seed.

Assuming stable prices at planting time, seed-to-grain price Overall level of satisfaction 71% ratios can reflect the attractiveness of a variety or affordability of improved seed relative to farmer recycled grain. Ability to mobilize resources 68%The seedDemocracy in elections and decision to-grain price ratios for the four crops vary significantly. The 74% making highest ratios are for hybrid maize (8.7:1). The seed-to-grain Providing value to members 69% price ratio for maize OPV is 5.2:1, for bean is 1.4:1, for soya Managerial ability 71% bean 2.0:1, and for pigeon pea 2.0:1. The maize hybrid ratio Effectiveness in advocacy 75% is comparable with other African countries, such as Ethiopia Activity on important seed sector issues 73% (7.1:1) and Zimbabwe (9.3:1). Seed companies report highly fluctuating pigeon pea prices in Tanzania (from80% Tsh 900 in 0% 20% 40% 60%

package sizes

100%

80% 60% 40%

93%

Maize

70%

34%

30%

92%

20% 0%

66%

Beans 2kg or less

Soya beans Pigeon pea >2kg

September 2015 to Tsh 3,200 in November 2015, to Tsh 900 in September 2016), which forces them to adjust their Figure 3: Members' satisfaction with TASTA Figure 4. Percentage of seed sold in different package sizes seed prices to match the market prices. SERVICE TO SMALLHOLDER FARMERS CONCLUSION

Seed‐to‐grain price ratio

Assuming stable prices at planting time, seed‐to‐grain Concentration of rural agro‐dealer network price ratios can reflect the attractiveness of a variety or Tanzania’s seed industry is in the growth stage. The low utilization rate of improved seed suggests room for improvement. The high number of active seed companies, mostaffordability of improved seed relative to farmer recycled of which are local, signifies an active private sector, MoA has a list of about 4,000 agro‐dealers, though only grain. The seed‐to‐grain price ratios for the four crops which is well-represented under TASTA. about 2,000 of these are active (USAID 2013). This corre‐ vary significantly. The highest ratios are for hybrid maize sponds to the estimate of 1,500 agro‐dealers cited in the Tanzania’s seed industry has several promising opportunities. The stakeholders in the industry are working (8.7:1). The seed‐to‐grain price ratio for maize closely OPV is Tanzania Seed Sector Report (ASARECA, 2014). Most seed with the government to further improve the seed regulations. This will provide a sound policy environment to 5.2:1, for bean is 1.4:1, for soya bean 2.0:1, and for pigeon companies reported working with at least 200 agro‐deal‐ facilitate industry growth. Furthermore, seed companies are satisfied with both the quality and enforcement of the pea 2.0:1. The maize hybrid ratio is comparable with ers each, some of whom are hub agro‐dealers or whole‐ seed policy instruments. As an industry platform, TASTA is wellrespected and appreciated by the seed companies. other African countries, such as Ethiopia (7.1:1) and Zim‐ salers with networks of smaller stockists. This translates The private sector should fully exploit the association to advance their interests at various stages of the seed value babwe (9.3:1). Seed companies report highly fluctuating to a ratio of one agro‐dealer for approximately every chain.

At the research and development stage, there is a significant opportunity to invest in the variety development and marketing of soya bean and pigeon pea seed, as only three companies currently produce seed for these two crops. Lastly, the process to import seed into Tanzania is conducive for seed companies who are interested in testing Copyright © The African Seed Access Index Page 6 varieties which are already in use in other countries.

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However, the sector still faces several notable challenges. There is a heavy emphasis on maize, in terms of variety development, production, and marketing, resulting in an urgent need for public institutions and private companies to develop and release varieties for the other important food crops. In addition, most of the recently released varieties are not climate-smart. Breeders need to develop varieties that are drought-tolerant and early maturing, to complement other popular traits. While companies are satisfied with the time taken for variety release, TOSCI should explore reducing the variety release time to 18 months by using irrigation techniques. In addition, in relation to the subsidy program, the government should pay seed companies promptly. Delays are likely to affect business planning for the next season. Finally, seed companies are concerned about the problem of fake seed. One of the ways that this can be addressed is by fast-tracking the use of para-seed inspectors across the country.

REFERENCES AGRA (2016) Tanzania Early Generation Seed Study Tanzania EGS Final Report. Available at: https://agrilinks.org/ sites/default/files/resource/files/tanza nia_early_generation_seed_report.pdf (Accessed: 28 August 2017). ASARECA (2014) Tanzania Seed Sector Assessment. Available at: http://www.asareca.org/printpdf/344 (Accessed: 28 August 2017). FAO (1998) Developing Seed Security Strategies and Programmes for Food Security in Developing Countries. FAOSTAT (2017) FAOSTAT. Available at: http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#home (Accessed: 1 July 2017). International Trade Centre (2016) ‘UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA VALUE CHAIN ROADMAP FOR PULSES’. Available at: http://www.mit.go.tz/uploads/files/Tanzania Roadmap for Pulses.pdf (Accessed: 28 August 2017). MoAFSC (2007) The Seed Regulations. Dar-es-Salaam. Mulemia Maina (Agri Experience) (2016) Reaching More Farmers with High Quality Seed for Drought Tolerant Crops. Pretoria. Available at: http://www.vuna-africa.com (Accessed: 28 August 2017). New Markets Lab (2015) Developed by the New Markets Lab with the Southern Agricultural Growth Corridor of Tanzania Centre Ltd. for the Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa A Legal Guide to Strengthen Tanzania’s Seed and Input Markets. Dar-es-Salaam. Available at: http://www.sagcot.com/fileadmin/documents/2016/Legal_ Guide_to_ Strengthen_Tanzania_s_Seed_and_Input_Marke ts.pdf (Accessed: 28 August 2017). Tanzania National Bureau of Statistics, M. of F. and P. (2017) Tanzania; National Panel Survey Wave 4, 2014 – 2015. Da-es-Salaam. Available at: http://www.nbs.go.tz/nbs/takwimu/nps/NPS_Wave_4_201 7.pdf (Accessed: 28 August 2017). USAID (2013) SeedCLIR TANZANIA. Dar-es-Salaam. Available at: http://eatproject.org/docs/tanzania_seedCLIR.pdf (Accessed: 28 August 2017).

APPENDIX 1. For a comparison of TASAI Indicators across 13 countries, please visit: http://tasai.org/wp-content/uploads/ TASAI-Appendix-CURRENT.pdf

The article has been published with permission of authors

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The African Seed Access Index Timely availability of improved seeds at affordable prices is critical to increased productivity by smallholder farmers in Africa. Improved seeds can deliver state of the art technology to farmers including higher yields, disease and pest resistance, climate change adaptation, and improved nutrition. Over the last two decades, formal seed systems in Africa have been gradually liberalized resulting in increased participation of private seed enterprises (multinationals, regional and domestic companies). The African Seed Access Index (TASAI) is a tool that appraises the structure and economic performance of formal seed sectors. For the top four grain and legume crops in each country, TASAI tracks 20 indicators in five categories: Research and Development, Industry Competitiveness, Seed Policy and Regulations, Institutional Support, and Service to Smallholder Farmers. In 2016 and 2017, TASAI research was conducted in 13 countries - Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mozambique, Senegal, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. With support from the African Development Bank and the Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa (AGRA) in 2018, TASAI coverage is being extended to an additional eight countries â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cote dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Ivoire, Liberia, Mali, Nigeria, Rwanda and Sierra Leone. Policy briefs summarizing each country research study can be accessed from the TASAI website (http://tasai.org/ reports/). In addition, the TASAI Data Appendix present data on all the 20 indicators across the 13 countries. TASAI is a collaborative initiative of the Emerging Markets Program at Cornell University and Market Matters Incorporated. For more information on TASAI, please contact Dr. Ed Mabaya (em37@cornell.edu) or Mainza Mugoya (mmugoya@marketmattersinc.org).

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NOTES

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