The Last 2,000

THE LAST 2,000

A Brief Journey through Time Since Jesus Left

A 30-Day Study by Joseph

L. Williams with Matthew S. Byrd

THE LAST 2,000

A Brief Journey through Time Since Jesus Left

A 30-Day Study by Joseph L. Williams with Matthew S. Byrd

Copyright © 2024 by Feed the Hunger. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in mechanical or electronic form without the express permission of the copyright holder. Unless otherwise noted, Scripture taken from the Holy Bible, New International Version®. Printed in the USA.

Preface

It is audacious to take on the subject of church history, and it’s not our goal to replace your own study of the matter. Because of the abbreviated format, chosen for its simplicity, painting with broad strokes is necessary. We are not trying to offend anyone with the information found herein. We know that Christians have different convictions as well as allegiances to their denomination and church.

While this was written by three people with seminary degrees, this is neither an academic work nor is it adequately comprehensive. In short, this is a flawed piece of work. If you are well-versed in church history, much of what you read may not be new. If you are a new Christian or have never studied the topic, you may be in for a few surprises (both good and bad, perhaps!).

Our goal is to be respectful of history and all denominations, movements, and sects. For example, Protestants have differing views on the eternal status of Catholics. Methodists and Presbyterians share similarities and differences, and each believes their particular theology is right. And so on and so forth. Consider The Last 2,000 a doorway to your own further study.

While this is not a traditional devotional like we have written in the past, it will still be divided into daily readings to help

you better digest the information. You don’t have to read about these topics in any specific order, though the days are generally organized chronologically, and we’ll reference some terms that have been defined in previous days. By the end, we hope you’ll be inspired to more fervent prayer and action for God’s glory in these challenging days.

In Christ,

Joseph Williams Matthew Byrd

Laying the Groundwork

Introduction

Jesus had died, been buried, and was resurrected. He ascended to heaven forty days later. Prior to this, Christ promised that, in His place, the Holy Spirit would be sent to guide and direct His followers.

Acts 2 gives some insight into the birth of the first-century church after the great move of the Holy Spirit on the Jewish occasion of Pentecost. “Christianity” began as a grassroots movement in the courtyard of the temple in Jerusalem and in small gatherings that met in homes. These new believers “devoted themselves to the apostles’ teaching and to fellowship, to the breaking of bread and to prayer” (verse 42). They cared for one another, ate together, and helped those in need.

The good news of Jesus Christ spread as a result of persecution and through the witness (in Greek, martys, from where we get “martyr”) of believers. Groups of Christians formed fellowships across the Roman Empire in places like Antioch, Corinth, Ephesus, and Rome. Paul took missionary journeys to strengthen the church in many of these places and more. He dispatched others to do the same.

Followers of Christ were motivated by the belief that His return would occur once the whole world knew of Him. Every people group would hear the message of salvation because of the witness of Christians (Acts 1:8) and then “the end would come” (Matthew 24:14).

Fast-forward nearly 2,000 years and Jesus has yet to return. On an optimistic note, advances in technology coupled with the zeal of Christ-followers around the world make it likely that every ethnic group will have a witness in the near future, perhaps over the next decade.

On a pessimistic note, however, the global church is seemingly as divided as ever. Differences in both theology and opinion have birthed thousands of denominations, sects, and cults through the centuries.

Illiteracy, laziness, bias, selfishness, and greed are some of the many factors that have contributed to all manner of misinterpretations and missteps, even horrible atrocities committed in the name of Jesus. There is no excuse other than our fallen nature that consistently fails to meet God’s standards for a clean heart and good conduct.

So how did we get here? It is a tall task to summarize the growth and division of the church over the last 2,000 years. This is not an academic study, nor can it be exhaustive or comprehensive. There is only room to paint with broad strokes. Please hear this disclaimer clearly!

Having said this, it is a worthy endeavor to seek a general understanding of how the church has reached this point in its history. So, we’ll take a cursory look at topics such as the formation of the Bible, the first century of the church, Catholicism, major events leading up to and including the Protestant Reformation, and key denominations (and their splits), sects, and cults. And once we have concluded this whirlwind journey through time and space, we’ll try to discern what’s next for America and the world.

How the Bible Came to Be

Dr. J.L. Williams

The word Bible comes from the Greek word biblia (plural) or biblos (singular), meaning “book.” In ancient times papyrus was used in making paper from which books were made. The papyrus reed grew in Egypt and Syria, and large shipments of papyrus were sent through the Syrian port of Byblos. The Greek word biblos probably comes from the name of this port.

The same word is used in the Greek version of Daniel 9:2 to refer to the Scriptures. By about the fifth century, the Greek church fathers applied the term biblia to the whole of Christian Scripture. It later passed to the western church and then into all Christendom.

The Bible is divided into the Old and New Testaments. These terms have been used since the close of the second century to distinguish the Jewish and Christian Scriptures, respectively. “Testament” is used in the King James Version of the New Testament to render the Greek word diathēkē (Latin, testamentum), which means “a will.” But in the Greek version of the Old Testament, diathēkē was used to translate the Hebrew word berith, meaning “covenant.” Strictly speaking, “Old Testament” and “New Testament” mean “Old Covenant” and “New Covenant.”

The Old Testament was originally written on scrolls or rolls. These were made by gluing sheets of papyrus together and then winding these long strips around a stick. In order to make reading easier, the codex, or book form, was created in the second century. This method is like ours today, making it possible to use both sides of the paper. Christianity, then, and its need of scriptures was the prime reason for the creation of the codex, or book, method of binding.

The Bible is made up of 1,189 chapters and nearly 800,000 words (depending on translation). The Old Testament has 929 chapters, and the New Testament has 260 chapters. It is hard for us to think of the Bible without reference to chapter and verse. Yet the original Scriptures had no such divisions. For example, the first five books of the Old Testament (Genesis to Deuteronomy—the Pentateuch) compose one scroll and are thus referred to as the Book of Moses.

Until AD 1200 no copies of Scripture had chapter and verse divisions. The beginning of this practice is traced to Cardinal Stephen Langton, Archbishop of Canterbury (d. 1228), who made the chapter divisions we use today.

The further division of the Old Testament chapters into verses came about 300 years later by Rabbi Mordecai Nathan in order to aid the study of the Hebrew Bible. The division of the New Testament into its present verses is found for the first time in an edition of the Greek New Testament published in 1551 by the Paris printer Robert Stephens. The division of the Old Testament was adopted by Robert Stephens in his edition of the Latin Vulgate (vulgate means “common” or “popular”) in 1555 and transferred to the King James Version in 1611. Stephens also supplied the verse divisions for the New Testament, which were transferred to the first English version in Geneva in 1560.

How the Old Testament Came to Be

Dr. J.L. Williams

The Old Testament can conveniently be divided into three sections: the Law, the Prophets, and the Writings. Together, these comprise 39 books and 929 chapters in our modern Bibles. Its original Hebrew form is called the Tanakh, an acronym of these three sections: Torah, or Law; Nevi’im, or Prophets; and Ketuvim, or Writings (together, TaNaKh). However, the order of books is quite different in the Hebrew Bible compared to the Old Testament. Look it up for yourself and see!

The Septuagint (abbreviated LXX) is the first and most important of the ancient translations of the Hebrew Old Testament into Greek. It probably originated between the third and first centuries BC out of a need by Alexandrian Jews. They no longer spoke Hebrew and needed the Scriptures in their mother tongue of Greek. The Septuagint is abbreviated LXX (70 in Roman numerals) because the first five books (the Pentateuch—Genesis to Deuteronomy) supposedly were translated by 70 men (some say 72—six from each of the 12 tribes).

The Septuagint was picked up by Greek-speaking Christians as their Bible, and for that reason was largely dropped by the Jews about AD 100. The oldest copies of the LXX came from

three great Greek manuscripts of the Bible: Codex Vaticanus (AD 325–350), Codex Sinaiticus (AD 350), and Codex Alexandrinus (AD 400).

The whole Bible was written over an approximate 1,600year period—or 60 generations—by over 40 authors from every walk of life: kings, peasants, philosophers, fishermen, poets, statesmen, scholars, and more. And what would become the Old Testament involved the great majority of both the time and the authors. Moses was a political leader, while Amos was a herdsman. Joshua was a military general, Nehemiah a royal cupbearer, and Daniel a prime minister.

In addition to different authors, the Old Testament was written in different places, touching the continents of Asia and Africa. Moses wrote from the wilderness, and Jeremiah from a dungeon. Daniel wrote in a Babylonian palace, while Ezekiel wrote from among the Babylonian exiles.

Finally, the Old Testament was written under different circumstances and under different moods. David wrote during times of war, while Solomon wrote during times of peace. Isaiah’s prophecies spoke during good and bad times, while Jeremiah wrote in a time of deep sorrow.

The text itself was written primarily in Hebrew, but with some Aramaic. Hebrew was the language of the Israelites in Canaan before their Babylonian captivity. After their “return” this gave way to a related dialect spoken in the area—Aramaic. It should also be noted that the Hebrew text of the Bible consisted only of consonants, since the Hebrew alphabet has no written vowels. Vowel signs were added to the text in the sixth century by Jewish scholars known as Masoretes. The resulting text was known as the Masoretic Text and is still used as the basis for most translations of the Old Testament.

How the New Testament Came to Be

Dr. J.L. Williams

The Old Testament begins with God. The New Testament begins with Jesus Christ. From Adam to Abraham we have the story of the human race—from Abraham to Christ we have the history of the chosen race, Israel. From Christ on we have the history of the Church, the New Israel. The Old Testament is primarily the account of a nation—and the New Testament is the account of a man—Jesus!

Except for a few words and sentences, the entire New Testament was written in Koine Greek, the common language of the Hellenistic world of the day. The New Testament is composed of 27 short Greek writings (260 chapters) commonly called “books.” The first four are the Gospels, or “Good News,” that God has revealed Himself in Jesus Christ for the purpose of redeeming mankind. These are not biographies in the modern sense of the word—but ancient biographical narratives. The first three (Matthew, Mark, and Luke) are called synoptic—meaning “to see together,” as they cover many of the same events from slightly different perspectives.

The earthly life of Christ spanned a period from around 4 BC to AD 30. The Apostle Paul experienced his conversion soon after (approximately AD 32–35). The time between the

resurrection of Christ and around AD 62 is known as the Apostolic Age, and from AD 62 to around AD 90 is known as the Post-Apostolic Age. All New Testament documents were written between roughly AD 35 and 100.

How soon after the events of the New Testament took place were they recorded? Scholars don’t agree, so there are large date ranges. Earlier dates are usually held by conservative scholars, while later dates tend to be held by more liberal scholars. The Gospels were written between AD 40 and 100, Paul’s letters between AD 48 and 67, and the other books (the General Epistles, Acts, and Revelation) were written anywhere from AD 45–105.

The time between the biblical events themselves and their being written down is actually very short. The combination of the large number of living eyewitnesses with the short span in time between the actual events and their being written down is a double check for accuracy and authenticity!

The biblical record is absolutely trustworthy, from its ultimate beginning in Genesis to its ultimate ending in Revelation. It is the only book that can consistently and legitimately claim to be the very Word of God, backed up by eyewitness testimony written down remarkably soon after the events described. As Christians, then, we can rely on the authority of the New Testament witnesses.

The First Hundred Years

Immanuel

Before we can even begin the journey of how the global church got to this point, we must be sure to cover the Who. There can be no Christianity or Christians without Christ. So, it is entirely appropriate and even necessary to state the case plainly for who Jesus is and who He claims to be.

Jesus was born of a virgin, taking on a human nature while remaining fully divine. One of His names is Immanuel, “God with us” (Isaiah 7:14; Matthew 1:23). He only had three and a half years of public ministry. His claim was unique: He declared Himself to be the Son of God. His name, Yeshua, means “Yahweh saves.” He came to save people from their sins (Matthew 1:21).

He claimed to be the only path to God (John 14:6), which means that all other paths are wrong. In order to be the only path, He had to become the ultimate sacrifice to cover the penalty of sin—that is, death and eternal separation from God. He died on a cross, and then God resurrected Him so that death and sin would forever be defeated. It is important to note that Christianity is the only religion to claim resurrection. Every other religious leader the world has ever known has died and stayed dead.

All people have a choice: accept or reject salvation. Romans 10:9–10 clearly states the path to salvation: “If you declare with your mouth, ‘Jesus is Lord,’ and believe in your heart that God

raised him from the dead, you will be saved. For it is with your heart that you believe and are justified, and it is with your mouth that you profess your faith and are saved.” Only God can judge someone’s heart and whether they truly believe. If anyone believes in Jesus, it naturally flows out of their mouth. Christ Himself said, “The mouth speaks what the heart is full of” (Matthew 12:34).

Proof of salvation also flows naturally out of a person’s actions. We are not saved by doing good works but for doing good works (Ephesians 2:8–10). This message differs from other religions (and even some associated with Christianity) whose adherents spend their time trying to gain the attention and favor of God or their god by acts and devotion.

The claims of Christianity are unique in all of human history. No other religion has claimed followers from all ethnicities and geographic regions throughout the centuries. Most other religions have major ethnic and/or geographic limitations. Most religions are built around what its followers should do for their god, not what God has done for humankind.

No other religion has had more prophecies fulfilled than Christianity. For them all to be fulfilled by one person would involve odds greater than our mortal brains can fathom. Fulfilling just eight of them is one in a trillion, trillion, trillion!

The Bible has more historical copies, manuscripts, and fragments than any other ancient book by far. These copies validate up to 99.5% of its content. So, its accuracy can be trusted.

Persecution has been there from the beginning (as we’ll see) and will continue to the very end. The devil doesn’t want the truth to be known or believed. But from the very beginning, Jesus had followers who became known as Christians—and they quickly multiplied.

“Christians” and “Churches”

The logical prerequisite for believers worshipping and learning together was that there must be enough of them to gather corporately. In other words, in order for churches to form, there must be Christians.

This leads to the necessity of a definition. What is a Christian? The Greek word for Christ means “anointed one.” The ending -ian means “follower of, adherent of, or belonging to.” Our family pastor of many years preferred the label Christ-follower over Christian. Paul told the church in Corinth, “Follow my example, as I follow the example of Christ” (1 Corinthians 11:1). To be a Christian is to follow Christ’s example.

Acts 11:26 clearly states that “the disciples were called Christians first at Antioch.” Greeks and Jews alike had become believers in this city after persecution had spread the early disciples outward from Jerusalem. In Acts 24, one of Paul’s accusers referred to Christians as “the Nazarene sect,” and Paul responded by admitting to being “a follower of the Way.”

Later, King Agrippa seems to use the term Christian in a derogatory sense when he (perhaps sarcastically) asked the imprisoned Paul, “Do you think that in such a short time you can persuade me to be a Christian?” (Acts 26:28). Perhaps it began as a label placed on followers of Christ rather than one

they placed on themselves. Authors of the New Testament often referred to believers using other terms like brothers and sisters, saints, and the church.

This is our segue into our other term: church. Once again, we revisit the Greek origin of the term, which denotes an assembly of those belonging to the Lord. We can read in the New Testament that the term was used both for the entire population of Christians as well as for specific groups of believers. Churches formed all over, as mentioned in the introduction, yet they shared a common belief in Christ. Many started as home fellowships until they outgrew the available space.

Jesus was the first to use this term as He was making a declaration about Peter: “I tell you that you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church, and the gates of Hades will not overcome it” (Matthew 16:18). We’ll look at Peter soon as we discover the beginning of the Catholic Church.

Jesus refers to the church again in Matthew 18:17 in the context of bringing discipline to someone in this formal group of believers. If the offending party doesn’t listen to a private rebuke, believers are to “tell it to the church.” If they still refuse to listen, they should be removed from the church.

Let me mention one more term here: “the body of Christ.” This is another all-encompassing term for all Christians. Romans 12:5 states it simply enough: “So in Christ we, though many, form one body, and each member belongs to all the others.” It includes Jewish and Gentile believers (Ephesians 3:6). Paul further encourages that Christians are called to equip each other for service and to build up the body of Christ (Ephesians 4:12).

So now we will begin to look at how this call to become followers of Christ and come together with other believers into churches turned into centuries of ongoing division, heresy, and disaster. So, buckle up! It’s going to be a discouraging ride—but one that ends in hope.

Four Catalysts

There were moments during the first century when the message of salvation by grace through faith in Jesus Christ received a big push. Let’s look at four of them today. Three can be found in the New Testament, and the fourth is not directly mentioned but is prophesied.

First, it is important to note that Jesus trained His disciples to go out and spread what was often called the “good news,” as told in the first three books of the New Testament. In Luke 9, Jesus sends out the 12 disciples to go to multiple villages. In chapter 10, He sends out 70 believers (or 72, depending on the translation) to do the same thing. So, He was making it clear that evangelism was necessary; the spreading of the message of Christ had to take place privately and publicly. This has been our charge for two thousand years.

The disciples made disciples who made disciples and so on. Paul was also a massive catalyst. The message spread as a result. Just one example among many is Apollos. He was from North Africa, was discipled by Priscilla and Aquila in Asia (Acts 18:24–26), and then went to Achaia (verse 27) and Corinth (19:1), which are in modern-day Europe.

A second catalyst was the giving of the Holy Spirit on the special Jewish occasion of Pentecost, as recorded in Acts 2. The Holy Spirit was bestowed by God to give believers the internal guidance and strength to carry out the mission.

God also used this moment of impartation to show the global scope of the mission. On this particular day, the believers spoke multiple languages they couldn’t have known apart from the power of the Holy Spirit. As a result of this powerful moment and the Gospel message that Peter subsequently shared, 3,000 believed in Christ that day. Now there were thousands of believers ready to share hope.

The final two catalysts were far less positive events. One reality Christians have known far too well through the ages is that there is awful opposition to the Gospel message. This Satanic resistance has long been hell-bent on death and destruction to prevent the truth from being known. Persecution is the weapon of choice.

So now we come to the third catalyst. When Stephen, one of the early believers, was stoned to death for his faith, persecution broke out and the believers were scattered. As a result, “those who had been scattered preached the word wherever they went” (Acts 8:4).

The fourth catalyst was another eruption of persecution. It was the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans in AD 70. According to the historian Josephus, 1.1 million were killed, 97,000 were enslaved, and 40,000 were allowed to leave. Whether or not these numbers are fully accurate, you get the point.

We’re not going to get into a theological debate as to whether certain Bible prophecies regarding End Times were fulfilled at this moment in history or whether they refer to the future or both. Today, we are only looking at the historical fact that Jerusalem was no more and those left alive fled. The message of Christ had nowhere to go but out.

When I think about these four catalytic moments, I imagine a fireworks explosion sending light out in all directions. Can you see it?!

False Teachers

The church (body of Christ) was established and growing. But because humanity was, is, and always will be sinful, opposition was present. This wasn’t just from nonbelievers, but from those who claimed to believe the truth. False teachers and prophets had existed before, during, and after the life of Christ. Jesus Himself warned in Matthew 7:15, “Watch out for false prophets. They come to you in sheep’s clothing, but inwardly they are ferocious wolves.”

Paul similarly warned the elders of the church at Ephesus as he was leaving them: “Savage wolves will come in among you and will not spare the flock. Even from your own number men will arise and distort the truth in order to draw away disciples after them” (Acts 20:29–30). He had pled with them for three long years to be aware of this danger (verse 31).

Paul was not alone. Other Christian leaders were well aware and sounded the alarm. Peter warned about “false prophets” who would spread “destructive heresies,” meaning the exact opposite of the truth (2 Peter 2:1). John wrote to his friends: “Do not believe every spirit, but test the spirits to see whether they are from God, because many false prophets have gone out into the world” (1 John 4:1).

Paul later warned Timothy that the false teachings being imparted in Ephesus had unfortunately succeeded in luring

away some of the people. Therefore, Timothy needed to “command certain people not to teach false doctrines any longer or to devote themselves to myths” and “meaningless talk” (1 Timothy 1:3–4, 6).

Later in the same letter to Timothy, Paul described the kinds of falsehoods these so-called teachers were spreading: “They have an unhealthy interest in controversies and quarrels about words that result in envy, strife, malicious talk, evil suspicions and constant friction between people of corrupt mind, who have been robbed of the truth and who think that godliness is a means to financial gain” (6:4–5).

And lest there be a temptation to only point the finger at these bad teachers, Paul also blamed the people for accepting false teaching. He warned Timothy of this in his second letter to him. People will be willingly led astray because they’re hearing “what their itching ears want to hear” (2 Timothy 4:3). We like it when someone gives us permission to sin—but not call it sin.

Paul warned the church at Corinth to look out for anyone who “comes to you and preaches a Jesus other than the Jesus we preached” (2 Corinthians 11:4). This problem exists to the modern day. We’ll look at some of these false versions of Christianity later.

The Disciples Take the Baton

Let’s take this broad investigation further as to how the message of Christ extended outward. Realizing this was 2,000 years ago, it’s not surprising that we don’t have as much information as we’d like. And there were periods of persecution that led to the destruction of churches and copies of Scripture.

We have some information and tradition as a paper trail. For example, what happened to the original 12 disciples? They were tasked with taking the Gospel to the nations (Acts 1:8).

Eusebius (ca. AD 260–340) was the bishop of Caesarea and is considered “the father of church history.” His most well-known contribution was a history of the church from the apostles to the conversion of Emperor Constantine (the period roughly AD 30–312). It comprised ten books collectively called Ecclesiastical History. While not comprehensive or without bias (it focused mainly on the Eastern Roman Empire and less on the West), it has been an invaluable source of information.

No doubt, the Jewish historian Josephus (ca. AD 37–100) was one of Eusebius’ primary sources. His work Antiquities of the Jews chronicled the history of the Jewish people for his Gentile audience. While not a Christian, Josephus notably mentioned Jesus as being a real person.

Now back to the disciples. We know that Judas killed himself and that James, the son of Zebedee, was beheaded (Acts 12:2).

Eusebius claims some of the other disciples went to foreign lands. Thomas went to Parthia, Andrew to Scythia, and John to Asia, while Peter and Paul went several places. Eusebius shared about others beyond the disciples who also died in foreign lands for their faith.

In obedience to Christ, the original disciples made disciples who made disciples who made disciples. During this period of history, the church also became more institutionalized with efforts to canonize (identify and set apart) Scripture, choose regional and local church leaders, and defend the faith by clarifying the true Gospel.

Heresies such as Gnosticism (basically, salvation through attaining hidden knowledge) and Docetism (a denial of Jesus’ death and resurrection because He was spiritual only and just appeared to have a physical body) began to grow.

Eusebius’ work also helped clarify the history of the church. He listed the bishops who presided over the church of Jerusalem, starting with James, the half-brother of John (Acts 15; 21:18), and continuing up to AD 324. The first 15 were of Jewish descent, with all those following being Gentiles. This followed the pattern of the early Christians being Jewish converts. But by the year 100 and onward, most were Gentiles because of the outward evangelistic focus.

The successors to the original disciples or apostles are sometimes referred to as the Apostolic Fathers. Their primary task seemed to be to clarify the role and function of churches and even solidify doctrine. We’ll look at them in a couple of days.

The Apostle Paul

There are those who believe that the late Billy Graham was the greatest evangelist of the modern era. He preached in person to more people than anyone in history. However, many scholars believe the Apostle Paul was the greatest evangelist in history. This great persecutor of Christians was redirected for a divine purpose.

Therefore, Paul deserves a special mention in this journey. It’s not that there weren’t others who took the message of Christ to the Gentiles (non-Jews), but it is how widely and effectively Paul did this that merits attention. He knew that God had called him to “preach to the Gentiles” (Galatians 1:16; Ephesians 3:8). It is estimated that Paul traveled 10,000 miles over nine years and planted 14 churches, mainly in four provinces of the Roman Empire. This included the modern-day countries of Israel, Syria, Turkey, and Greece.

Three missionary journeys are recorded in Acts, and there likely was a fourth. The three took place from AD 46 to 57. The first journey included Barnabas as his travel partner, 12 years after Paul’s conversion. Paul presumably used these years to be properly discipled. This first mission trip is recorded in Acts 13 and 14, starting and ending in Antioch (Syria). It included stops in places like Cyprus, Pisidia, Iconium, Lystra, and Derbe.

The second missionary journey covered significantly more

territory and is documented in Acts 15:40—18:23. Paul chose Silas as his traveling partner and included Timothy and later Luke. Some of the highlights were his imprisonment in Philippi, a famous speech in Athens, and connecting with a strong Christian couple named Priscilla and Aquila.

The third missionary journey is recorded in Acts 19—21:17. It included traveling companions such as Gaius and Aristarchus. In particular, Paul performed miracles, spent three years in Ephesus to build up and strengthen the church, and raised a man from the dead in Troas.

After this, Paul’s travels would stop for four years. He was arrested in Jerusalem and spent two years imprisoned in Caesarea followed by two years under house arrest in Rome. The book of Acts ends at this point in Paul’s ministry. While other books do not record specific details of a fourth missionary journey, it is alluded to in Romans 15, Titus, and other letters from Paul. It is believed to have taken place after Paul was released from house arrest and may have included Spain, Crete, and other locations. Paul was then arrested again and martyred by Nero in the midto late AD 60s.

The point for today is that Paul has been the primary example for all present and future believers of a passionate and sacrificial missionary. He knew that his life didn’t matter in comparison to letting unreached peoples know about Christ. Please read on your own the summary of his sufferings in 2 Corinthians 11:16–33. And remember well his words in Acts 20:24: “I consider my life worth nothing to me; my only aim is to finish the race and complete the task the Lord Jesus has given me—the task of testifying to the good news of God’s grace.”

The Next 1,500 Years

Early Church Fathers

There is another “early church” label we need to visit, and that is what you see in the title. After the original disciples and Paul came those who were discipled by them. The Apostolic Fathers were these first- or second-generation disciples. Here are some examples. Linus (AD ??–79) is mentioned in 2 Timothy 4:21. He is believed to have succeeded Peter as the bishop of Rome. Polycarp (69–155), bishop of Smyrna, was likely one of John’s disciples. There are others we know by name, like Clement (30–100), a later bishop of Rome who may be the one mentioned in Philippians 4:3. Ignatius (35–107), bishop of Antioch, met his fate by wild animals in the Roman arena.

Another generation of church leaders followed them—men of God like Justin Martyr (100–165), who was beheaded for his faith, Papias (101–150), and Irenaeus (130–202), a bishop in France.

The Fathers were also authors. Some of them had their writings survive, some wrote anonymously, and others had writings that did not survive. They wrote in many of the literary genres you read throughout the books of the Bible. Letters that were written to churches just like those in the New Testament also survived. They instructed the church how to live and function

and spelled out the true message of the Gospel to counteract the heresies of the day like Gnosticism and Docetism.

Some of these letters and books were treated with great respect in the early church. They included the First and Second Epistles of Clement to the Corinthians, the letters of Ignatius to various churches, the Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians, the Martyrdom of Polycarp, the Didache, the Epistle of Barnabas, The Shepherd of Hermas, the Epistle to Diognetus, and fragments of writings from Papias and Irenaeus. English versions are readily available online.

The Apostolic Fathers are the earliest of a group of influential church leaders referred to as the ante-Nicene Fathers (those who lived and ministered up to the Council of Nicaea in 325). Christianity became more decentralized during this period as the message of Christ continued to extend outward. Heresies remained a major issue.

Some well-known leaders and authors during this time include Tertullian (160–220) from North Africa, who was the first to publish his works in Latin. Clement of Alexandria (150–215) is perhaps best known for one of his pupils, Origen (185–254), who became a great theologian and scholar in the Greek Church. Cyprian (200–258) was the first North African bishop who was martyred. And so on.

As a reminder, this is by no means an exhaustive look at this subject. The point is, Christianity was expanding like ripples from a rock dropped in water. There were growing pains and heresies abounding, leading these early church fathers in sermons, letters, and other modes of communication to clarify the true nature of being the church corporately and followers of Christ individually.

Constantine, the Edict, and the Council

Flavius Valerius Constantinus, or Constantine the Great as he is often remembered, was emperor of the Roman Empire from 306 to 337. Prior to his reign, the Roman Empire was divided into East and West. Constantine reunited it through war against his rivals. He was the first emperor to convert to Christianity.

One proclamation he is known for is the Edict of Milan, which allowed for religious toleration and ended the persecution of Christians. While some have speculated his sincerity as a believer, there is no doubt that the message of Christ and Christian-based culture spread and thrived under Constantine’s reign because church and state were united and would continue to be for a long time to come.

The First Council of Nicaea, in 325, was the first gathering of global church leaders and was convened by Emperor Constantine, who even participated. Eusebius was there as well, despite his ties to Arianism. In fact, the leaders at this council came against the influential false doctrine of Arianism, which taught that Jesus was created and not divine. It remained popular even after the council, and the belief can still be found in certain religious circles today.

The primary legacy of this council was the formulation of the Nicene Creed. It was overwhelmingly (but not unanimously)

approved by the church leaders present and clearly affirmed the doctrine of the Trinity and the identity of Christ. Later theologians such as Augustine of Hippo (354–430) bolstered the Nicene position through influential writings like his On the Trinity and cemented its place in western Christianity. (Augustine is well worth investigating on your own. His autobiographical Confessions and the much longer City of God are good places to start.) Here is the Nicene Creed in English, after some revisions at future councils:

I believe in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of heaven and earth, and of all things visible and invisible.

And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only-begotten Son of God, begotten of the Father before all worlds; God of God, Light of Light, very God of very God; begotten, not made, being of one substance with the Father, by whom all things were made. Who, for us men and for our salvation, came down from heaven, and was incarnate by the Holy Spirit of the virgin Mary, and was made man; and was crucified also for us under Pontius Pilate; He suffered and was buried; and the third day He rose again, according to the Scriptures; and ascended into heaven, and sits on the right hand of the Father; and He shall come again, with glory, to judge the quick and the dead; whose kingdom shall have no end.

And I believe in the Holy Ghost, the Lord and Giver of Life; who proceeds from the Father [and the Son];* who with the Father and the Son together is worshipped and glorified; who spoke by the prophets. And I believe in one holy catholic and apostolic Church. I acknowledge one baptism for the remission of sins; and I look for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the world to come. Amen.

*This phrase is known as the “filioque” and is not recognized by the Eastern Orthodox Church.

Early Church Councils

The First Council of Nicaea set the stage for future councils. These were ecumenical in nature, which means they represented (or intended to represent) the global body of Christ, or all churches. The purpose of these councils was to make decisions on primary issues like theology and church practice, while taking a stand against heresies threatening the faith. Hundreds of bishops would gather, each time somewhere in what is modern-day Turkey.

How many church councils have there been? It depends on who you ask; there is disagreement on which were truly ecumenical. For example, the Oriental Orthodox Church believes there have been three, and many Protestant churches and the Eastern Orthodox Church affirm seven. The Roman Catholic Church states that there are 21 councils so far, with the most recent being 1962–65! Do you see the divisions that have been created?

From the 800s on, there was not true global representation of the church, so subsequent councils are not viewed as ecumenical. Here is a brief summary of the seven councils generally recognized by Protestantism along with the false teachings they rejected:

• First Council of Nicaea (325): affirmed the deity of Christ and rejected Arianism (which viewed Christ as created, not divine).

• First Council of Constantinople (381): explained the nature of the Holy Spirit and added a line to the Nicene Creed; rejected Apollinarianism (that Christ has only a divine mind and not a human mind).

• Council of Ephesus (431): clarified the nature of the personhood of Jesus in response to Nestorianism (that Christ has two natures and is therefore essentially two persons in one body); rejected Pelagianism (salvation without God’s grace).

• Council of Chalcedon (451): dealt with what is known as the hypostatic union, the reality that Christ is both fully God and fully man; rejected Monophysitism (that Christ only has a divine nature) and adopted the Chalcedonian Definition (see page 73).

• Second Council of Constantinople (553): confirmed the decisions of the previous councils and further condemned the previous heresies.

• Third Council of Constantinople (680): clarified that Christ has a divine will and a human will, thus rejecting Monothelitism (that Christ only has a divine will).

• Second Council of Nicaea (787): clarified the veneration of icons and images in the church. This has been rejected by some Protestant denominations that hold to the Council of Hieria in 754, when the veneration of icons was condemned; rejected Adoptionism (that Christ was “adopted” by God and is therefore not divine).

There were other important councils, or synods, that also held importance but were not ecumenical. For example, in North Africa there were councils convened in Hippo and Carthage in the late fourth century to affirm the books of the Bible. From the above summaries, you can see why it was important for the church leaders to gather and deal with these weighty matters.

Catholicism

Originally, the church was referred to as catholic, from the Greek word katholikos, meaning “universal.” The Apostles’ Creed, which many churches still recite, dates to possibly within a few centuries of the original disciples. At one point the creed states: “I believe . . . in the holy catholic church.” It was not referring to what is known today as the Roman Catholic Church.

The Roman Catholic Church traces its roots back to one of the twelve disciples, Peter. “And I tell you that you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church, and the gates of Hades will not overcome it” (Matthew 16:18). Catholics take this literally as meaning the church would start with Peter. However, we know that he wasn’t the only one of Christ’s followers to plant churches. They believe Peter became the first bishop of Rome (the office held by the pope), though there is no mention of this having taken place when Paul wrote the church there (the book of Romans).

The emperor Constantine brought freedom of religion to the Roman Empire after claiming a conversion to Christianity in 312. Over time, power transferred from the government to the church, and more specifically, to the pope.

Also, over time, certain beliefs and practices that added to what the Bible says became ingrained in the church. The foremost of these differences was that Catholicism promoted salvation

through faith plus good works, tradition, and certain sacraments (ritual or ceremony). In other words, it is a process of man, not an act of God. These additions could be attributed to a long line of very fallible popes who had personal, sinful interests that infiltrated sound doctrine. Given the high status of the pope (who would later be deemed infallible), these decrees were rarely questioned.

This shouldn’t be too hard for you or me to imagine since we naturally have self-serving and sinful motivations as well. Given power and freedom, there’s a lot of wrong we are all capable of. Leaders throughout time, including those who call themselves Christians, have committed all manner of atrocities and abuses of God’s Word.

Through the centuries, many other differences emerged like venerating Jesus’ mother, Mary, as a co-redeemer with Christ and someone to whom we should pray. Other so-called saints of the past could also be remembered and prayed to. Catholics also believe there are additional books that qualify as Scripture, collectively called the Apocrypha. While value may be found in these pre-New Testament books, they have been deemed by the Protestant world and Jews as not inspired or historically accurate.

Although space prohibits a full day devoted to him, medieval theologian Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) is considered perhaps the greatest expositor of Catholic thought. His massive Summa Theologica (Summary of Theology) remains highly influential, covering wide-ranging topics like the existence of God, Christian ethics, church practice, and the nature of Christ.

Today, Catholics make up not only the largest Christian denomination in the world, but the biggest religious group in the world, with current estimates of 1.3–1.4 billion people. We know that whichever denomination a person does or doesn’t belong to, God knows their heart and whether they have truly accepted His gift of salvation.

The Great Schism

It is known as the Great Schism, the East-West Schism, or the Schism of 1054. It took place, not surprisingly, in 1054 (July 16, to be exact), and the triggering event was the excommunication of the Patriarch of Constantinople, Michael Cerularius. It led to the formation of the two still-largest denominations today: the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches. So, what really happened, and what did it mean for the future of the global church?

Theodosius I (347–395) was the last Roman emperor to rule over a unified empire. Prior to his reign, however, the Roman Empire (and thus the church) had effectively split over cultural and linguistic differences into eastern and western regions, with the East speaking Greek and the West speaking Latin.

Over the subsequent centuries, tensions mounted between the Roman Church to the west and the Byzantine Church to the east (the original Greek name for Constantinople, the seat of the Eastern Roman Empire, was Byzantium). There were various primary and secondary issues, from communion elements to the celibacy of priests to what the Nicene Creed said about the Holy Spirit. On top of this, culture and language barriers meant they couldn’t communicate well, and they had their own theologians.

Imagine if the US were split right down the middle with one

language spoken on one side and one on the other—while still claiming to be one country. Cultural and political differences would certainly emerge until one side claimed independence from the other. I’m oversimplifying how the Great Schism happened, but this analogy demonstrates how division seeps in over time.

The church in the west believed the pope to be the ultimate authority (see page 31, “Catholicism”), but the church in the east disagreed, instead appointing five patriarchs to oversee doctrine. One of the patriarchs was in Rome, while the other four were in the East: Antioch, Alexandria, Jerusalem, and Constantinople.

When Cerularius was excommunicated, the eastern church returned the favor and excommunicated the pope. And so the schism was formalized. This divide was brutally cemented in 1204 when the Roman Church diverted from the Fourth Holy Land Crusade to instead destroy Constantinople, killing many Orthodox Christians.

(The Crusades, a series of European-led wars against Muslims, Jews, and even other Christians, were a low point in Christian history. Taking place between 1095 and 1291, they attempted to achieve their “holy” objectives through violence instead of love, as Jesus clearly taught.)

The hostility continued between East and West for centuries to come, with a few unsuccessful attempts to bridge the chasm. The excommunications would stand for over 900 years after the Great Schism until Pope Paul VI and Patriarch Athenagoras ended the excommunications at a historic meeting in 1965.

The Great Schism is often viewed as the precursor to the Protestant Reformation. As we’ll see, one of the factors these events had in common was the belief that the church in Rome, with the pope as its head, was not the ultimate biblical authority.

The Protestant Reformation

Before we can talk about this pivotal moment in church history, we need to start by defining these two words. Have you ever asked yourself what protestant means? You can guess the meaning just by looking at it. The original Latin is protestari, where we get the word protest. This, of course, means someone coming out publicly against something they oppose. Reformare is the original Latin and where we get reform, which means to form again or change.

The Protestant Reformation finds its origins in a German friar named Martin Luther. There is not room here to even come close to detailing his impact on the history of the church. (See page 47, “Lutheranism.”) Nevertheless, we’ll begin by recalling the act that started it all over five hundred years ago.

It was October 31, 1517. What is now the date for Halloween used to be more widely known as Reformation Day. Luther posted a document informally known as “The Ninety-Five Theses” on the door of a church in Wittenberg, Germany. These 95 statements or declarations came out against (protested) papal indulgences; that is, the practice of atoning for a sin by giving money to the Catholic Church. Indulgences were a major example of the corruption Luther saw.

Luther sought to change (reform) this mindset by stating the belief that people could go directly to Christ for the forgiveness

of sin. The purpose was to set up a debate on the matter at the University of Wittenberg.

The ground had already been laid for the common man to have greater access to the Bible thanks to the invention of the printing press in the previous century. Luther’s document became a lightning rod as word circulated. Coupled with the printing and reading revolution, Luther sparked a movement that declared salvation exclusively gained by divine grace through faith, not also through works (Ephesians 2:8–9) such as indulgences. Looking back, modern Protestants often summarize Reformation theology through the five solas: sola gratia (“by grace alone”), sola fide (“by faith alone”), sola scriptura (“by scripture alone”), solus Christus (“through Christ alone”), and soli Deo gloria (“glory to God alone”).

Luther was excommunicated in January 1521 and went into hiding, but the Christian world would never be the same. It wasn’t a schism or split that took place. Protestantism was born and grew in breadth and depth through Luther and other early theologians who were against some of the Roman Catholic Church’s doctrines and practices. They pointed to the apostles and early church fathers as their inspiration, and not to the pope. And Luther was certainly not the first to speak against indulgences, but God used him, and historians view his NinetyFive Theses as the catalyst for the Protestant Reformation. Here are his final two theses:

94. Christians should be exhorted to endeavor to follow Christ their Head through Cross, Death, and Hell, 95. And thus hope with confidence to enter Heaven through many miseries, rather than in false security.

And we will close today’s topic with Ephesians 2:8–9 to remind us of the truth:

For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith—and this is not from yourselves, it is the gift of God—not by works, so that no one can boast.

Calvinism

As the Protestant Reformation swept through Europe, a French lawyer named John Calvin joined the call to reform the church. Forced to flee to Geneva in 1534, Calvin soon became a leader among the Swiss reformers, who, in general, had a greater desire to distance themselves from Roman Catholic practices than did reformers in Germany. For example, they avoided viewing the Eucharist (or Lord’s Supper) and baptism as sacraments, preferring instead to treat them more symbolically.

Calvin’s most significant contribution to what would be known as Reformed theology, his Institutes of the Christian Religion, developed into a four-part work focusing on God the Father, Jesus the Son, the Holy Spirit, and the church. He also wrote numerous Bible commentaries and delivered thousands of sermons (over 200 on Deuteronomy alone!).

You may be more familiar with Calvin’s legacy than with Calvin himself because of one of the most significant results of the Reformation: Calvinism. Like many theological concepts, Calvinism was named by its opponents (Calvin himself rejected the label). Some prefer the more generic term Reformed, which is often present in the names of denominations in that tradition.

Entire books have been written about Calvinism, but its five most distinctive points are often presented using the acronym TULIP. As we look briefly at each point, remember that they are

interpretations. You may agree with some, none, or all five— evaluate them for yourself.

• Total depravity: This sounds pretty bad, yet it’s an appropriate description of fallen humanity. As Calvin famously said, “The human heart is a perpetual idol factory.” It doesn’t mean that we are as bad as we could possibly be, but that every aspect of the human condition is ruined by sin. Consequently, we are unable to respond to God on our own.

• Unconditional election: God chose certain individuals to save based solely on His sovereign desire. Unconditional election is associated with predestination—that, prior to the creation of the world, God chose some for eternal salvation (the elect) and others for eternal damnation (the reprobate).

• Limited atonement : Jesus’ atoning death on the cross was limited to only the elect. Limited atonement is a logical result of unconditional election, since those whom God did not elect would not benefit from Jesus’ atonement.

• Irresistible grace : If the elect are unconditionally chosen, it follows that all whom God intends to save will be saved. This doesn’t mean God saves people against their will but changes their will so they believe. As Calvin put it, God’s irresistible grace “is a powerful impulse of the Holy Spirit, which makes men willing who formerly were unwilling.”

• Perseverance of the saints: Because God alone chose who would be saved and irresistibly drew them to Him, the elect will never fall away or lose their salvation. Those who do fall away are presumed not to have been truly elect.

TULIP tries to summarize an entire branch of the Protestant tree. One acronym cannot possibly capture the influence of Calvin and Reformed thought on modern Christianity, but it is a good place to start your journey.

Arminianism

In the decades following the establishment of Protestantism, a Reformed minister in the Netherlands named Jacobus Arminius began to doubt some positions taken by his predecessors, especially Calvin. He believed Scripture taught that human beings had a limited role in accepting or rejecting God’s call to salvation, with God still initiating any move toward Him. Arminius also took issue with a teaching by some Calvinists that God predestined people to salvation or condemnation prior to permitting the fall of mankind, which would seem to have God decreeing the fall to ensure some were condemned.

Even though Arminius died in 1609, those who shared his views soon began to summarize their beliefs in a document called the Five Articles of Remonstrance (a remonstrance is a formal document stating one’s positions). After this, his followers were known as the Remonstrants, with their theological system known as Arminianism (not to be confused with the country of Armenia!).

Below is a brief description of each article. Once you finish reading them, ask yourself whether they sound familiar.

• Conditional election: Through His perfect foreknowledge, God only elects those who will believe in Him. Another way of stating this is that the condition upon which salvation is given is the faith of the believer in Jesus Christ.

• Unlimited atonement : The atoning death of Christ on the cross is sufficient for and intended for all people.

Even though Jesus paid the penalty for every person’s sin, His death is effective only for those who believe.

• Deprivation: Essentially the same as total depravity. Sinful human beings are unable to respond to God’s offer of salvation unless enabled by the Holy Spirit.

• Resistible grace : God’s general grace, called prevenient grace (literally, “grace that precedes”), frees people’s will and enables them to believe. Accepting this grace inevitably leads to salvation. However, it is possible for one to resist God’s grace and reject His final call to salvation.

• Assurance and security: Much like election, one’s perseverance in faith has a condition—that they continue to believe in Christ. Originally, the Remonstrants were not convinced of this position, but came to believe that “falling away,” or apostasy, was likely permanent once someone had rejected Christ.

If you see the connection between the Five Articles of Remonstrance and the Five Points of Calvinism, there’s a reason. The Dutch Reformed Church’s response to Arminianism was to convene a synod (or church council) in the city of Dort in the Netherlands. The Synod of Dort met in 1618 and produced the Canons of Dort, a point-by-point refutation of the Remonstrants’ five articles. These later came to be referred to as the Five Points and, much later, by the acronym TULIP.

The (still ongoing) debate between Calvinism and Arminianism has been both beneficial and detrimental to the church over the centuries. It has prompted Christians to search the Scriptures in an effort to understand the marvelous mystery of salvation, even if we might disagree over some details. It has also led to denominational infighting, splits, and bitterness among those who claim Jesus as Lord. It is important to keep potentially divisive positions in perspective, for it is Jesus who said, “By this everyone will know that you are my disciples, if you love one another” (John 13:35).

Up to the Present

America’s Four Great Awakenings

Most, but certainly not all, Christian historians believe that there have been four spiritual “Great Awakenings” in America’s history (there is less agreement on the third and fourth awakenings). Let’s take a brief look at each, as it will help us understand our spiritual heritage and pray for a fifth awakening soon. We’ll date each period, name the primary leader associated with the awakening (there were certainly more), and mention some general characteristics in this thumbnail perspective.

• First Great Awakening : took place in the 1730s and 1740s before the founding of the country and centered on the northeastern colonies (modern-day New England). Perhaps the most well-known preacher of the day was Jonathan Edwards, who led what was more of a Calvinist movement. The result of this awakening was a significant percentage of the population of the region becoming Christians.

• Second Great Awakening : started in the 1790s and went well into the 1800s as the push to discover and settle the west took shape, but it took place nationally among blacks and whites. Charles Finney was a well-known figure and taught from an Arminian perspective. He was a pioneer

in holding revivals and altar calls to find out who had accepted Christ. Many thousands were saved.

• Third Great Awakening : began as a prayer meeting by Jeremiah Lanphier in the late 1850s in New York City after the stock market crash of 1857. This daily gathering grew, and meetings spread across the nation, with an estimated one million people becoming believers. This awakening involved significant social activism and could be credited for laying the groundwork for the abolition of slavery and for women’s rights.

• Fourth Great Awakening : also known as the Jesus Movement. Billy Graham evangelistic crusades took place throughout this period and beyond. It is important to note that our ministry (formerly called The New Directions) was birthed during this awakening. The New Directions singing group performed and my father preached at many of these public gatherings.

There is no doubt our country desperately needs another spiritual awakening. While we have certainly faced division and discord, our moral and spiritual decline are perhaps at unprecedented levels. Repentance and revival are greatly needed. May the pledge of God to the Israelites in 2 Chronicles 7:14 also be true for America:

If my people, who are called by my name, will humble themselves and pray and seek my face and turn from their wicked ways, then I will hear from heaven, and I will forgive their sin and will heal their land.

Denominations

Maybe you’ve noticed some churches in your town or neighborhood and wondered what their history was. There’s not room here to list and describe them all, so let’s step back and look at denominations. I’m sure many of you are aware of some of the main denominations like Baptist, Methodist, and Presbyterian. We’ll look at some of them soon. But it’s not nearly this simple.

First, let’s understand the definition of denomination. In a financial context it means different values or quantities of money. In the Christian context it is a generic term for a group of churches that differs slightly in beliefs from other groups of churches. Of course, some Christians claim that the differences between their denomination and all others are anything but slight!

Denominations began to multiply during and after the Protestant Reformation as believers began to read and study the Bible on their own and distance themselves from the Catholic Church. In the centuries since, denominations have been created from scratch or as the result of doctrinal differences from the silly to the serious.

Catholics make up the largest denomination in America. According to Pew Research, the following are the 15 largest Protestant denominations: Southern Baptist Convention, United Methodist Church, American Baptist Churches USA, Churches of Christ, Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, National Baptist Convention USA, Assemblies of God USA,

Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod, Presbyterian Church (USA), Episcopal Church, Church of God in Christ, Seventhday Adventist Church, United Church of Christ, Presbyterian Church in America, and Church of God.

If you consider nondenominational and independent churches a denomination, it would be third in size after Catholics and Southern Baptists. It is also interesting to note that there are eight million Jews and four and a half million Muslims in America, though this doesn’t necessarily represent the percentage that actively practice their religion.

What is so depressing about denominations is that they put on display the disunity among the body of Christ for our nation and the whole world to see. Look at it this way. Roughly one-third of the world’s population identifies as Christian. And yet, there are an estimated 45,000 denominations in the world according to the Center for the Study of Global Christianity, with hundreds in the US. Doesn’t sound very unified, does it?

It’s also bad news that the average American church size is well under a hundred people. And the number of non-religious people in America continues to grow (from 17% in 2007 to 28% in 2023, according to Pew), especially among the younger generation.

In light of all this religious data that paints a poor picture of the worldwide church, let me close with Jesus’ prayer of unity for all believers in John 17:20–23:

My prayer is not for them [the disciples] alone. I pray also for those who will believe in me [that’s us!] through their message, that all of them may be one, Father, just as you are in me and I am in you. May they also be in us so that the world may believe that you have sent me. I have given them the glory that you gave me, that they may be one as we are one—I in them and you in me—so that they may be brought to complete unity. Then the world will know that you sent me and have loved them even as you have loved me.

Lutheranism

We begin our look today at some specific Protestant traditions, loosely referred to as “denominations,” although each tradition has many branches (emerging primarily due to internal conflict; more on this later). Lutheranism grew out of the teachings of German Reformer Martin Luther, and it was named by opponents who wanted to classify it as a heresy within Roman Catholicism. Viewing the Bible alone as the final authority on spiritual matters, Luther and his followers disagreed with the Catholic Church’s interpretation of justification and the role of the church. In Lutheranism, justification means God imputes (or credits) Christ’s righteousness to a believer solely on the basis of faith. Catholic tradition teaches that God infuses a believer with Christ’s righteousness (making them actually righteous), and that one’s righteousness is maintained through obedience and through the sacraments of baptism, confession, and penance. Lutherans and other Protestants also deny that the pope and the priesthood are necessary intermediates between humans and God (see “The Protestant Reformation” on page 35 for a review). Instead, as Luther wrote in a 1520 letter, “Through baptism all of us are consecrated to the priesthood, as St. Peter says in 1 Peter 2:9, ‘Ye are a royal priesthood, a priestly kingdom.’” This doctrine, commonly called “the priesthood of the believer,” became a cornerstone of Protestant theology.

The tenets of Lutheranism are expressed in The Book of Concord, a collection of 10 documents set in its final form in 1580. Among these documents are the three “Ecumenical Creeds” (the Apostles’, Nicene, and Athanasian) and Luther’s Large and Small Catechisms, written to teach the basics of faith to new believers. But perhaps the most important is the Augsburg Confession, a 28-article explanation of essential beliefs relating to God, Scripture, sin, salvation, Christian life, and church governance.

Lutheranism stands in between competing theological views that are often regarded as polar opposites. Regarding Calvinism and Arminianism, Lutherans generally believe in total depravity, unconditional election, and salvation through God’s action alone. Yet salvation, purchased by Christ for all and not just the elect, may be resisted, even to the point of falling away.

Regarding Roman Catholicism and the more radical Reformers, Lutherans still celebrate the Eucharist (Mass) and view baptism, communion, and confession as sacraments, not merely symbols. However, the bread and wine used in the Eucharist are not considered to be the body and blood of Christ, even though Christ is believed to be present with the elements.

Beginning in Luther’s home country of Germany, Lutheranism quickly spread to nearby European countries like Denmark, Sweden, Finland, and Norway. Swedish and German settlers then brought Lutheranism to North America, first to modern-day Pennsylvania then to the Upper Midwest.

Missionary activity further increased its influence until Lutheranism was established in regions like Sub-Saharan Africa, India, and Indonesia (the second-largest Lutheran population is in Ethiopia, at over 10 million!). Now, with approximately 80 million adherents worldwide, Lutheranism has spread the ideas of the Reformation further than one German priest could likely have imagined!

Episcopalianism (Anglicanism)

Before we begin today’s look at another Protestant denomination, we first have to clear up a name issue. Strictly speaking, Anglicans are members of the Church of England or other affiliated church. However, Americans are probably more familiar with the term Episcopalian. Because Anglican clergy were required to swear allegiance to the British king, the American Revolution prompted the formation of a new, independent church that still maintained Anglican tradition. It was named Episcopal after the Greek word episkopos (“overseer”), which refers to its hierarchical structure.

Now that we’ve covered the name, we will take a brief tour of Episcopal history and theology. Unlike the Lutheran Church, the Anglican Church did not form over purely theological differences with Roman Catholicism. Instead, it was largely a political move by English king Henry VIII, who wanted the Catholic Church to annul his marriage. The church refused, England cut ties with the pope, and in 1534 the English Parliament declared Henry “the only supreme head on Earth of the Church of England.” Protestantism was not new to England, however. In 1526, William Tyndale published the first New Testament in English, despite Protestants being persecuted at the time. But because the king had joined with Protestants in his effort to leave the Catholic Church, the new Church of England faced an identity crisis.

Were they a breakaway Catholic sect or a full-fledged Reformed church? It turns out the answer may be both! Later Anglican scholars used the term via media (Latin for “middle way”) to refer their unique blend of Catholic and Protestant traditions.

Like the Catholic Church, Anglicans accept apostolic succession (the claim of unbroken church authority extending back to the apostles), adopt some but not all of the sacraments, and observe a traditional Mass in which the elements of the Eucharist become the body and blood of Christ. However, Anglicans reject the authority of the pope, generally do not venerate Mary and the saints, allow priests to marry, and leave open the question of how Christ’s body and blood are present in the Eucharist.

Episcopalian/Anglican doctrine and practice is largely defined by two documents: the Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion and the Book of Common Prayer. Reaching their final form in 1571, the Thirty-Nine Articles summarize the Anglican position on God, Scripture, salvation, and the functioning of the church. The 1662 version of the Book of Common Prayer is essentially a handbook of Christian life, containing prayers, Scripture readings, and services for occasions like baptisms, weddings, and funerals.

Anglican and Episcopalian churches around the world belong to the Anglican Communion, representing over 80 million people in 160-plus countries. In America, the Episcopal Church has a reputation for progressive practices like ordaining gay clergy and supporting abortion access, leading to disagreements within the church. However, there is a growing movement in the Anglican Communion (led primarily by churches in Africa and South America) to restore traditional biblical values on many social issues. Time will tell if this movement results in change or simply splits the church further.

Because of historical ties to positions of education, wealth, and influence, Episcopalians in America have more resources, on average, than other Protestant denominations. May the Lord use this abundance of talent and treasure to re-ignite true, lasting work for the Kingdom of God!

Presbyterianism

As we look at our next Protestant denomination, Presbyterianism, it may be helpful to set the scene. The year is 1543. The Church of England had split from Roman Catholicism, but Scotland remains Catholic. The French (also Catholic) support Scotland and oppose the Church of England. England invades Scotland and introduces Protestantism. In 1546, a Scottish Catholic bishop executes a Protestant preacher. Backlash is severe, Scottish Protestants take power, and the Scottish Parliament votes to leave the Catholic Church in 1560. The Church of Scotland is born, from which comes virtually all modern Presbyterian denominations.

Perhaps the most historically influential individual in Presbyterianism is Scottish minister John Knox. Originally a chaplain in the Church of England, he was exiled to Switzerland following England’s brief return to Roman Catholicism under Queen Mary I (also known as “Bloody Mary”; read John Foxe’s Book of Martyrs for more context).

While in Switzerland, Knox studied church polity (how churches are organized and governed) under John Calvin, who favored a “presbyterian” model. Catholic, Lutheran, and Episcopalian churches are governed through a topdown hierarchy led by bishops (episkopos in Greek). Calvin was skeptical of concentrated power in the church, so in a presbyterian system (from presbyteros, the Greek word for elder) each congregation appoints elders to carry out teaching and

ministry roles. Congregations are in turn governed by a higher council called a presbytery, and presbyteries meet together in synods or, at the highest level, a general assembly.

Presbyterian denominations typically follow the Westminster Confession of Faith as their standard of doctrine and practice. As John Knox and other Scottish Reformers were heavily influenced by Calvin, the Westminster Confession is thoroughly Calvinistic, viewing Scripture as the highest authority, affirming predestination and God’s sovereignty, and outlining the roles of church and state. The ordinances of baptism and the Lord’s Supper are considered symbols of spiritual realities and not sacraments. The Westminster Larger and Shorter Catechisms of 1647 are also still used as teaching tools for congregations and families, respectively.

In the mid-1600s, Scots-Irish settlers brought Presbyterianism to America, and in 1706, formed the first presbytery in Philadelphia. Concerns over the Great Awakenings threatening church order, along with the Civil War, led to a patchwork of splits and mergers between various Presbyterian groups. Then the 1920s and 30s saw one of the most significant challenges to Presbyterian unity, called the Fundamentalist–Modernist Controversy. Essentially, this was a split over a conservative understanding of Scripture and doctrine (the “fundamentals”) and a more liberal, less-literal view of the Bible.

Today, two large Presbyterian denominations (and many smaller ones) exist in the United States. The Presbyterian Church (USA) is noted for its liberal stance on ordaining gay and lesbian clergy, accepting abortion, and performing same-sex weddings. The Presbyterian Church in America is smaller and more conservative, supporting biblical inerrancy and opposing abortion, same-sex marriage, and ordination of female clergy.

Historically, Presbyterians have had a strong emphasis on missions and helping the suffering in practical ways. Pray that God will continue to use these efforts and guide the church toward unity and away from a fractured past that diminishes its witness.

Baptists

Less than a century after the Church of England was founded, some were again calling for reformation, dissatisfied with lingering “Catholic” practices, the Church’s interpretation of Scripture, and its episcopal (top-down) leadership structure. But perhaps the greatest point of contention was over religious liberty. Because the Church of England was intertwined with the government, politics and religion were often one and the same.

This meant the church had all the tools of government at its disposal, including censorship and the ability to punish opponents. Those who disagreed had two options: attempt to restore a biblical foundation to the Church of England from within or break away from its deficient behavior. Puritans tried the former, while Separatists chose the latter. Two such Separatists, John Smyth and Thomas Helwys, fled to Holland in 1607.

In exile, Smyth and Helwys encountered Anabaptism. Anabaptists were among the most radical groups in the Protestant Reformation, advocating strict adherence to early Christian beliefs like greeting with a holy kiss, footwashing, and communion meals. Their name comes from the Greek anabaptismos (or rebaptism), because they were re-baptized as adults if they had been baptized as infants, claiming only those who could consciously choose to believe could be baptized.

The community founded by Smyth and Helwys combined Protestant ideas like sola Scriptura and sola fide with the Separatists’

desire for religious liberty and the Anabaptists’ emphasis on believer’s baptism as a symbol of salvation. In 1609, the first Baptist church was organized in the Netherlands. Soon after, Helwys adopted an Arminian position on salvation and free will, while other Baptists favored a Calvinistic view. This split resulted in General Baptists, who believed in general (unlimited) atonement, and Particular, or Reformed, Baptists, who believed in particular (limited) atonement. Baptists generally do not require adherence to established creeds, but individual denominations may have confessions or statements of belief. For example, Reformed Baptist churches typically cite the 1689 Baptist Confession of Faith as their standard of doctrine. Each Baptist congregation is autonomous, meaning it is self-governing and not under a higher human authority. Unsurprisingly, Baptists are a doctrinally diverse group.

Baptists historically share a symbolic view of the Lord’s Supper, have a high view of Scripture, accept only two offices in the church (pastor and elder/deacon), and believe in individual soul liberty (each person is free to follow their conscience in religious matters). Stemming from their Separatist origins, Baptists also strongly defend separation of church and state. The belief statement of the largest Baptist denomination, the Southern Baptist Convention, states that “a free church in a free state is the Christian ideal.”

Because Baptist congregations are autonomous, estimating the total number of Baptists is difficult. Approximately 100 million Christians identify as Baptist, and the two largest groups (the Southern Baptists and National Baptists) are in the US, with several million members each.

Baptists have long been proponents of evangelistic and humanitarian missions. However, in the US, the Baptist legacy has also been influenced by divisions over slavery and the role of women in the church. (Sadly, the Southern and National Baptist Conventions were formed along racial lines in the 1800s.) Without ignoring the negative elements, we can look to the strong mission focus of Baptist churches as an inspiration to “go into all the world and proclaim the gospel to the whole creation” (Mark 16:15)!

Methodism

The Church of England (also known as the Anglican Church) replaced Roman Catholicism as the state religion in 1534. Yet, groups known collectively as the Dissenters believed the Church of England was still too closely associated with Catholicism and that it restricted religious freedoms (see page 53, “Baptists,” for additional context). By the early 1700s, some of the same criticisms of the Catholic Church could now apply to the Church of England: dead liturgy, priestly corruption, and persecution of non-Anglicans. A revival was needed.

John Wesley was a young Anglican priest who, along with his brother, Charles, began a student group at the University of Oxford with the goal of obediently living out the Christian faith. Patterning their lives after the early church, they read Scripture, prayed, fasted, and served the needy. Their methodical way of life led to their name, “Methodists,” which Wesley accepted gladly.

After a failed mission in Savannah, Georgia, as an Anglican priest, Wesley returned to England depressed. However, on his journey across the Atlantic, he grew to admire the deep faith of the Moravians with whom he traveled. In 1738, Wesley’s life was transformed when, at a Moravian meeting, his spirit was renewed. He wrote, “I felt my heart strangely warmed. I felt I did trust in Christ, Christ alone, for salvation; and an assurance was given me that He had taken away my sins, even mine, and saved me from the law of sin and death.” Amen!

From that moment on, Wesley would travel and preach relentlessly, encouraging his followers to embrace justification by faith alone and the holy lifestyle that faith produces. Methodism teaches that Christians understand God via four sources: Scripture (the highest authority), church tradition, reason, and experience. Together these are known as the Wesleyan Quadrilateral.

Before we look at more Methodist distinctives, go back and read “Arminianism” and “Calvinism,” as Wesley held to an Arminian theology of salvation that embraces free will over predestination. He modified total depravity to include prevenient grace, which God gives to enable belief. He accepted unlimited atonement in place of limited atonement, believed God’s grace could be resisted, and concluded that believers could commit apostasy, or “fall away,” through a loss of faith.

With over 100 Methodist or Wesleyan denominations in existence, it’s difficult to cover every aspect of belief. In general, Methodists believe in two “works of grace”: the first when one is born again, and the second when one experiences “entire sanctification” (also known as Christian perfection). In this stage of mature faith, the Christian is able to resist all voluntary sin and live a holy life.

Methodism also teaches that there are two sacraments, baptism and the Lord’s Supper, with each viewed as a means of grace. Baptism usually occurs at infancy, but it is accepted at any point in life and does not require a specific mode (immersion, sprinkling, etc.). The elements in the Lord’s Supper are not believed to become the body and blood of Christ, but they do bring the “real presence” of Christ to those who partake.

As we wrap up our very brief look at John Wesley and Methodism, may we be encouraged by the zeal for evangelism and holy living with which the movement began!

Splitsville

Now that we’ve looked at some major US denominations, let’s revisit how they keep forming. You’ve already gotten a taste of this over the previous few days. Humans have always had the incredibly dark ability to twist the Bible to fit our own narrative. For example, I have personally witnessed pastors in other countries use the Bible to justify polygamy. One day, our emotions may change on a particular topic, or we get caught up in a habitual sin, and so we adapt verses to justify ourselves. We change, and so we boldly change the Bible to feel better about our sin.

As a result, wherever there are sinful people (i.e., everywhere), there will be discord and division. Ever since the Protestant Reformation, denominations have been formed and denominations have divided. While one of the main reasons for the founding of this country was religious freedom, this liberty meant pluralism would flourish. And so it did in America. Over time, denominations were formed that would later split. Sometimes new alliances between denominations would be formed. Divisions were rarely over a single point of contention, but rather certain issues became the lightning rods that garnered attention.

One example was the issue of slavery in the mid-1800s. It wasn’t simply whether a church saw slavery as wrong, but rather how they should deal with people in the church who owned slaves. Are they allowed to attend, hold a position in the

church, etc.? One of the main denominational splits of this era was in the Baptist church, and it led to the formation of the Southern Baptist Convention in 1845. It took until 1995 for the convention to formally denounce slavery.

One of the current issues causing denominational splits is the church’s stance on anything beyond biblical sexuality and marriage. This includes ordaining gay clergy and condoning same-sex marriage. It has led to the formation of the Global Methodist Church, which split from the United Methodist Church because the latter condones same-sex marriage.

This recent split provides a snapshot of the larger trend that has taken place over the last 250 years in the US. Until 1939, the largest Methodist denomination was the Methodist Episcopal Church. That year, it reunited with the Methodist Protestant Church and the Methodist Episcopal Church, South (which, you guessed it, formed over the issue of slavery). Almost 30 years later, it merged with the Evangelical United Brethren Church to form the United Methodist Church. Now it has just divided again, with the Global Methodist Church as the result.

There are myriad other examples. While the two largest Presbyterian denominations, the Presbyterian Church (USA) and the Presbyterian Church in America, share a common history that dates back to John Calvin, they are noticeably different when it comes to their theology. And after the Episcopal Church elected its first gay bishop in 2003, hundreds of churches left that denomination. These are just some of the many examples throughout American church history. These were preceded by multiple splits and mergers in Europe in prior centuries.

Here’s the point: pick any mainline denomination to study and your journey will be a depressing and even confusing one as you see one split or merger after another. Do your own research and look up one of the many charts that attempt to diagram a denomination’s history. It is truly sobering.

Outside Christianity

An Overview of Major World Religions

I think we all can agree that individuals throughout the last 2,000 years have done all manner of evil while identifying as a follower of a particular religion. Larger bodies of religious adherents, be it on a local, national, or international level, have also done horrible things in the name of their god or gods. Civilizations have risen and fallen as a result of these actions. The assumption that many atheists and agnostics make (I believe rightfully so) is that all religions are flawed. Therefore, it might be helpful to step back from this painful reality and gain a fresh understanding of the main beliefs of some major religions today. There are many different branches of belief, offshoots, and sects among these religions; we are just painting with a broad brush for the sake of summary:

• Islam: Allah is God and Muhammad is his messenger; followers prove their devotion through a disciplined life involving adherence to the Quran and five religious duties (the Five Pillars) that results in paradise after death

• Hinduism: belief in hundreds of millions of gods and goddesses (polytheism); reincarnation based on how one lived in their previous life (determined by good or

bad works, or karma); the goal is to break free of this cycle altogether

• Buddhism: both a religion and a philosophy that follows the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha, or Enlightened One); seeks to break free from a life-anddeath cycle based on living a disciplined life; the goal is to reach a state without desire called Nirvana

• Judaism: belief in one God and a covenant relationship with Him through a man named Abraham; follows many laws contained in the Pentateuch (the first five books of the Old Testament); awaits the Messiah to restore them to their rightful place in the world

• Atheism: not a belief system, but a lack of belief in the existence of deity; religion is made up by man to guide ethics and values; no afterlife.

While Christians believe in the same God as Judaism, Christianity is not a religion, but a relationship with God through Jesus Christ and the indwelling Holy Spirit. Through the centuries, however, we have enticed ourselves in many ways to turn Christianity into a religion.

Christians believe they are saved by faith in Jesus, not by a lifetime of “good” works. Doing good works is a natural overflow or result of following the teachings of Jesus. This is the exact opposite of the world’s major religions. And in contrast to atheism, Christians believe God is the moral compass; man is not capable of fulfilling this role.

False Teachers Revisited

In addition to false religions, there are also many false teachers. People will always be searching for the truth and looking in all the wrong places. Jesus warned that the path to Him is narrow and “only a few find it” (Matthew 7:13–14). Both He and the disciples warned of false teachers and false messiahs. Where there is the truth, the counterfeit is sure to show up.

What is a sure sign of a fake? A teacher of the Jewish law, Gamaliel, spells out clearly the telltale sign. You can read the story for yourself in the second half of Acts 5. Simply put, if a spiritual movement (or leader) is from God, it will succeed. If it isn’t, it will ultimately fail. Luke records Gamaliel as mentioning Judas the Galilean and Theudas as previous false messiahs. If Jesus was a fake like these men, His movement would die with Him.

Throughout human history, charismatic and narcissistic leaders have led the masses, believing themselves to be gods and thus incapable of doing wrong. Of course, as Christians we believe that there is only one true God. All other leaders and religions point in the wrong direction. We know that only one person will ever match every prophecy in the Bible about the Messiah. However, Satan is a deceiver, and many deceivers will continually appear (2 John 1:7).

Perhaps the most infamous false Jewish messiah was Simon bar Kochba, who unsuccessfully led a revolt against the Romans starting in AD 132. The Jews honor him for this reason, as they desperately wanted to be liberated.

There are other notable examples like Jim Jones, who convinced 900 of his followers in the Peoples Temple to commit suicide in 1978 in Guyana. Another modern-day example is the Church of Scientology, based on the teachings of L. Ron Hubbard. You might know Scientology for its most famous spokesperson, Hollywood star Tom Cruise. You can read about other cults that have made headlines in recent decades, such as Heaven’s Gate, NXIVM, Aum Shinrikyo, Branch Davidians, and Order of the Solar Temple. We look more at how to identify cults tomorrow.

The Reverend Sun Myung Moon was perhaps the false leader with the largest global impact thus far. This “True Father” was a self-proclaimed messiah who founded the Unification Church. With assets in the billions and followers in the millions, he influenced politics in multiple countries. You may be familiar with the church’s headlines for holding mass weddings. The empire continues today through his widow, the “True Mother.”

We know that a final false messiah is coming (1 John 2:18). He will proclaim himself to be God (2 Thessalonians 2:4). His fate is the lake of fire (Revelation 19:20). Until he meets his fate, we must continue to be wary and call out false teachers.

Marks of the Cults

Dr. J.L. Williams

As we just read, there will always be false teachers. One of the signs of the end times about which Christ warned His followers was an increase in false Christs, prophets, and teachers (Matthew 24:11). He said that many of these would show great signs and wonders and deceive, if possible, even the elect (verse 24). The Apostle Paul warned that the devil disguises himself as an “angel of light” (2 Corinthians 11:14) in order to masquerade as Christ, the true “light of the world” (John 8:12). As such, Satan is the master of deceit.

Once we know the disguises of Satan, we can readily recognize any of his cultic counterfeits. The points below are general marks of cultic groups. When you notice a group exemplifying these marks, be on guard, for you will know you are up against the devil, the adversary of your soul (1 Peter 5:8):

1. They all deviate from viewing Scripture as God’s total, compete, and final written revelation to mankind.

2. They do not accept the living Word (Jesus) as the completely unique Son of God.

3. Cults are often anti-trinitarian; it’s usually the Holy Spirit they don’t accept as part of the triune Godhead.

4. All cults have some extrabiblical figurehead that they blindly follow.

5. Many cultic groups still insist they are fully entitled to be called “Christians.”

6. They are, for the most part, earnest and sincere people who believe in what they profess.

7. Many cultic groups are characterized by an end-of-theworld or last-days preoccupation.

8. There is often a strong separation from “worldly” thought.

9. They are autosoteric, meaning they practice some form of self-salvation.

10. Many cultic groups are characterized by an emphasis on self-sacrifice.

11. Most cultic groups vigorously oppose organized churches.

12. Most cultic groups are syncretistic by nature, building their beliefs by picking and choosing from many sources.

Not all cults will exemplify all these marks. Some groups will be characterized by more of these marks than others. But when you see any of these marks being manifested, your spiritual caution light should go on!

As Christians, we do not seek to be exclusive or legalistic. However, we must never compromise the biblical message of Christ, who said of Himself, “I am the way and the truth and the life. No one comes to the Father except through me” (John 14:6). He claimed to be the full and final revelation of God to man; the New Testament writers also attributed this uniqueness to Him: “Salvation is found in no one else, for there is no other name under heaven that has been given to mankind by which we must be saved” (Acts 4:12).

Therefore, whether or not we like it, that leaves out Buddha, Muhammad, Confucius, Krishna, Mary Baker Eddy (Christian Science), Joseph Smith, and the Reverend Sun Myung Moon, among many others. Of Christ alone it is said, “For God was pleased to have all his fullness dwell in him” (Colossians 1:19).

Nineteenth-Century Movements

There are three religious “movements” birthed in the nineteenth century that also merit consideration because they still thrive today. They are Mormonism, Jehovah’s Witnesses, and Seventhday Adventism. Each view themselves as Christians. However, these brief descriptions highlight some differences between these movements and the Christianity practiced in Scripture and the early church.

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS), informally known as the Mormon Church, follows Joseph Smith (1805–1844), a man who claimed direct visions from God. The Book of Mormon, not the Bible, is believed to be the “most correct” book of all. Smith claimed that the angel Moroni shared with him the location of some golden plates inscribed with messages from Moroni’s father, Mormon. Smith translated the mysterious ancient Egyptian text using special eyeglasses and a stone. They contained the “full gospel,” including how some Jews went to the Americas in 600 BC, with Jesus later making an appearance. Does this sound suspicious?

Other core LDS writings plainly contradict the Bible, teaching that God was originally a man, lives near a star called Kolob, and has a wife. Jesus and Satan are brothers, and you

and I can become gods. Mormons believe in three heavenly kingdoms, but only true Mormons make it to the highest heaven when they die. Salvation is supposedly by grace through faith but requires works—lots of works.

Jehovah’s Witnesses was begun by Charles Taze Russell (1852–1916), but the movement became a religious society under his successor, Joseph Rutherford (1869–1942). Much of their witness is through Gospel tracts and The Watchtower magazine, as well as door-to-door and public evangelism. Members are required to preach and witness monthly.

They worship God but believe that neither Jesus nor the Holy Spirit are deity or equal to God. Jesus is God’s creation. Therefore, they don’t believe in the Trinity. Adherents also do not celebrate Easter or Christmas because Jesus’ birth and resurrection are not considered essential, only His death.

The kingdom of God was supposedly established in heaven in the year 1914 when Jesus began ruling as king from there. Five years later, God chose the Watchtower Society and its leaders as His sole means of salvation to the world. Yet only Jehovah’s Witnesses will survive Armageddon. Sounds like bad news for you and me!

Finally, the Seventh-day Adventist (SDA) movement (advent means “coming”) was started by William Miller (1782–1849), who predicted Jesus’ return in 1843. When that didn’t happen, “The Great Disappointment,” as it was known, needed an explanation. A second revelation supposedly came through Ellen G. White (1827–1915), who proclaimed that Jesus entered into a second part of heaven in 1843/44 and began a second phase of work (hidden from us, of course). Despite her prophecies being disproven, White is given preeminent status in the SDA. Their website states: “We reaffirm our conviction that her writings are divinely inspired, truly Christ-centered, and Bible-based.”

Fundamental beliefs include a deep commitment to the Bible (typically the New King James Version, a generally accepted translation among Protestants) and worshipping on Saturday, the “true Sabbath,” or seventh day. Many adhere to vegetarianism because meat, or “flesh,” is considered unclean. They don’t believe people go to heaven or hell when they die but remain unconscious until Jesus returns. Groups within the SDA hold more extreme views, like Jesus and the archangel Michael being the same person.

The real question for the LDS, JW, and SDA is why a movement, sect, or denomination needs someone in modern times to both add revelation and put a different slant on what the Bible teaches. Is the Bible incomplete? Why is new revelation needed centuries later? Look at Deuteronomy 4:2, Proverbs 30:5–6, and Revelation 22:18–19; God’s consistent warning is not to add words to His Word.

Conclusion: When the Church Is Done

It’s important to close this journey through church history by remembering that our current job as the body of Christ is temporary. Our role will change once Christ returns. We will worship and serve Him forever (Revelation 7:9–10; 22:3), but it will not be as emissaries or as witnesses speaking on behalf of our Messiah and King. It will be to help administer His kingdom after it has been established “on earth as it is in heaven” (Matthew 6:10).

Until then, Jesus commissioned His disciples and us to spread the message of salvation outward, locally to globally (Acts 1:8). And He also revealed a clear description of the Church Age in Matthew 24:14: The Gospel will be shared to all ethnic groups, and then He will return.

Great advances are being made to achieve this from a human data-collecting perspective. Some estimates show that the Bible will be available in languages the entire world can understand within the next decade. The pervasion of technology in general and the internet and artificial intelligence in particular have brought the most remote parts of the world to our fingertips and have sped up the translation process.

The reality is, we don’t know God’s definition of when there

is a witness among all the peoples of the world. Does it have to happen completely in the present or cumulatively through time? Regardless, we know by faith it’s going to happen.

We are only given glimpses throughout the Bible of what the afterlife will be like for the church, but there is one verse Christians can really hang our hat on. These are Paul’s words quoting Isaiah 64:4: “‘What no eye has seen, what no ear has heard, and what no human mind has conceived’—the things God has prepared for those who love him” (1 Corinthians 2:9).

We have a lot to look forward to!

Until then, we have a lot bestowed on us by the hand of God to enjoy. We are truly blessed with such miracles as the indwelling Holy Spirit, the endless wisdom and encouragement from the Bible, and the fellowship with other believers.

All of life should be seen as a bonus after salvation. We have the victory through Jesus. Therefore, from the highest breakthrough to the toughest challenge, we can go forward with courage and strength because the battle belongs to the Lord!

We inherited a body of Christ that has gone through thousands of divisions. We should also be respectful of believers across the spectrum of backgrounds and beliefs. Let’s remember that only God knows each person’s heart. If they believe in their hearts and proclaim with their mouths that salvation is by grace through faith, we cannot claim they are unsaved. So, let’s find practical ways to express in the global church the unity that is so scarce in today’s world. We need to show the unsaved what they’re missing!

The Chalcedonian Definition (or Creed)

We, then, following the holy Fathers, all with one consent, teach men to confess one and the same Son, our Lord Jesus Christ, the same perfect in Godhead and also perfect in manhood; truly God and truly man, of a reasonable soul and body; consubstantial with the Father according to the Godhead, and consubstantial with us according to the manhood; in all things like unto us, without sin; begotten before all ages of the Father according to the Godhead, and in these latter days, for us and for our salvation, born of the virgin Mary, the mother of God, according to the manhood; one and the same Christ, Son, Lord, Only-begotten, to be acknowledged in two natures, inconfusedly, unchangeably, indivisibly, inseparably; the distinction of natures being by no means taken away by the union, but rather the property of each nature being preserved, and concurring in one Person and one Subsistence, not parted or divided into two persons, but one and the same Son, and only begotten, God the Word, the Lord Jesus Christ, as the prophets from the beginning have declared concerning him, and the Lord Jesus Christ himself has taught us, and the Creed of the holy Fathers has handed down to us.

THE LAST 2,000

Relating the history of the church—with all its successes, failures, schisms, revivals, and creeds—is impossible for one book to achieve, let alone a 30-day devotional. Yet it is critical for Christians to be aware of their own spiritual history. The fractures in the church that we see so often today have deep roots in the beliefs and actions of our forefathers.

The Last 2,000 is a brief introduction to some of these foundational events, including the first days of Christianity under Roman persecution, early debates over the deity of Christ, the Protestant Reformation, and the formation of denominations. Two important themes will emerge. The inadequacy and divisiveness that characterizes our church-leading abilities will be on full display. But you’ll also see the relentless and lifetransforming advance of the Gospel led by the Holy Spirit.

We pray this church history devotional will be a helpful resource in understanding the history of our faith, and we hope you will share it with others!

About the authors

Joseph Williams serves as CEO of Feed the Hunger, a Christian mission organization based in North Carolina. He is an ordained minister, has a Master’s degree in Ministry, and is currently pursuing his Doctorate in Ministry. He has been in full-time ministry for nearly 30 years, traveling for the sake of the Gospel to 45 countries. He has written numerous books, devotionals, and studies to help Christians grow in their walk with the Lord and to reach nonbelievers with the truth of Jesus Christ.

Matthew Byrd is Feed the Hunger’s Communications Associate and Editor. He received his PhD in Microbiology and Immunology from Wake Forest University and his Master’s degree in Ministry at Piedmont International University. Matthew is an ordained deacon and is passionate about theology, church history, and biblical studies (particularly Old Testament).