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Chapter 2: Extracts of Working Plan FLORA AND FAUNA
The forests have been classified in the following types according to “A revised survey of the forest type of India� by H.G. Champion and S.K. Seth.
FLORA Composition and Condition of the crop The distribution of vegetation follows an altitudinal zonation similar to that in the outer Himalayas but on account of the marked variation in the annual precipitation along the entire length of the Satlej Valley the tract can be divided into three main climatic zones as under :(I) Wet Zone: This zone comprises of the lower or outer valley, extending from Maneoti Dhar in Nichar Range to Kilba along the north and upto Wangtu along the southern aspects. It includes all forests of Kilba Range. This zone receives bulk of rainfall during rainy season from south west monsoons and heavy snowfall in winter. (II) Dry Zone: This zone lies between Kilba and Purbani on the left Bank of Sutlej and Kalpa on the right Bank of Sutlej. It extends over parts of Kilba and Kalpa ranges. The rainfall shows a progressive decline, as we proceed eastwards. The snow fall during winter is heavy.
Group 9. Subtropical pine Himalayan Chil Pine forests.
Forests
:
C.I.b
Upper
or
Group 10. Subtropical dry Evergreen Forests : C.I.a Olea ferruginea Scrub forests. Group 12.
Himalayan moist temperate forests : C.I.a
Baan Oak forest (Q. leucotrichophora);
C.I.c
Moist Deodar forest (Cedrus deodara);
C.I.d Western mixed coniferous forest (Spruce, Blue Pone, Silver Fir) C.I.e
Moist temperate deciduous forest.
C.I.f
Low level Blue Pine forest (P. walliachiana)
C.2.a Kharshu Oak forest (Q.semecarpifolia) C.2.b West Himalayan Upper Oak/Fir forest
(III) Arid Zone: This zone lies beyond Purbani and Kalpa extending to the indo-Tibetan border. This zone does not get practically any rainfall. The winter is severe and the tract experiences heavy snowfall during winter. Snow melts by the end of the May and thereafter the tract is practically dry for the rest of the year.
C.2.c
Moist temperate deciduous forest
I.S.1
Alder Forests
General edaphic and seral types of Himalayan moist temperate forest.
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Group 13.
Himalayan Dry Temperate
Group 16.
C.1.
C.1.
Dry broad-leaved and coniferous forests (Quercus ilex-P.geradiana)
C.2.a Neoza Pine forest (P. geradiana) C.2.b Dry Deodar forest (C. deodara) C.4
West Himalayan high level dry Blue Pine
West Himalayan sub-alpine Birch/Fir forests (Betula/Abies)
C.1.a West Himalayan sub-alpine Fir forest. C.1.b West Himalayan sub-alpine Birch/Fir forest. Seral and degraded types of sub-alpine forests.
Group 15.
Dry alpine scrub.
The ecological status of the forest communities constituting these groups, forests and sub types is influenced by climate, geology, rock, soil, aspect, slope and altitude.These types overlap each other to a great extent. General Description of the Growing Stock :
9.C.I.b. Upper Himalayan Chil Pine Forest :
Sub alpine forests C.1.
Dry alpine scrub.
The following is the general description of growing stock :-
forests (P. wallichiana) Group 14.
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I.S.1
(Hippophae/Myricaria/Myricaria brakes)
I.S.2
Deciduous sub-alpine scrub.
Moist alpine scrub. C.1.
Birch/Rhododendron scrub forests.
C.2.
Deciduous alpine scrub.
C.3.
Alpine pasture.
This type occurs between 1000 to 2000 m elevation in NC-1, NC-2 and NC-3 of Bhabanagar Range. It gradually merges into the tropical dry deciduous forests below and gives way to the temperate broad-leaved and coniferous forests above. A little beyond Wangtu, this type is replaced by Neoza pine (P. gerardiana). The predominant species among the conifers is Chil (Pinus roxburghii). It forms open, poor quality crops on the rocky and shallow soil but on the northern aspects there are a few good pure patches of poles and middle aged frop in undemarkated forests. The crops is generally irregular and mature trees and mature trees are few and scattered. Admixture of other species occur along the upper limits as well as lower down in streams and damp revines. The common associates are Quercus leucotrichophora, Rhododendron arboretum, Peiris ovalifolia. The associates may occur in light admixture or occasionally ay form an understorey in the pine forests. Kail (P. wallichiana) makes its appearance in the upper reaches and is sometimes found extending into Chil, as may be noticed along Maneoti Dhar in UF 59. The flora constituting the under growth varies in type and density according to the aspect and the overhead shade ; open stands of Chil, Woodfordia, Rhus cotinus, Buddleia, paniculata, Desmodium sambuense, D.
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continuum, Rubus ellipticus are common. Higher up and under a more regular canopy bush growth is less rempant and here Desmodium spp ; Berberis spp; Indigofera spp; are found with Plectranthus spp; Lespedeza sp ; and other Compositae as the common herbs. On hot southern aspect, the shrubby undergrowth is very light owing to regular burning and winter grazing.
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storeyed forest of open Chil stands with an Oak-Rhododendron under wood, Lyonia ovalifolia (Syn. Pieris ovalfolia) being almost as common as Rhododendron in some places. Alnus nitida is found near flowing water, Kail and Deodar occur sporadically on the drier ground towering high above the mass of deciduous species. 12.C.1.c Moist Deodar forest (Cedrus) :
10.C.Ia. Olea ferruginea scrub forest : This type is of only academic interest, because it is found on a very small scale along the river Sutlej on the alluvial deposits. The trees are lopped during winter for fodder. The generation of this species is absent and no young plants have been seen. Himalayan moist temperate forests : This formation extends in the west zone tract between the Chil pine forests below and the sub-alpine formation above. In the inner Sutlej Valley with dry climate, it is replaced by the dry temperate forest. The altitudinal range of this type is between 1500-3350m. Within this Range its distribution is governed by aspect, microclimate, edaphic and biotic factors. Both in coniferous as well as broad-leaved sub-types pure crops are more frequent than mixed ones. Even in mixed stands dominant species are few and generally conifers predominate. 12.C.1.a. Ban Oak forest (Q. leucotricophora):
The Deodar forests cover the altitudinal range 1800-2450m but may go a little lower down in depressions on cool aspects and nalas and higher up on the warm southern aspects and sunny ridges with better drainage. The forests may be nearly pure Deodar or with an admixture of Kail and occasionally Spruce near the upper limits. The forests seem to have been greatly influenced by biotic influences like the Fire, heavy grazing and shifting cultivation in the past and so are not climax forests. The canopy is fairly complete but very dense (except locally in young crops) and the boles are straight and tall; a height of 3040m is usual. There are usually scattered Oaks and Rhododendron under the conifers and a scrub growth depending largely on the intensity of grazing. Given proper protection, Deodar will colonize much greater proportion of the area than is seen at present. Good example as may be seen in C.68(a)I, C.69(c) and C.86. In the upper reaches, Spruce and Kail appear, especially in depressions and cooler aspects and moist areas usually unfit for the growth of Deodar. The natural balance here is kept up by drastic openings in the canopy of Spruce. Under kail crop with scattered Deodar seed bearers, conditions are more suitable for Deodar resulting in beautiful sapling crop. Good examples may be noted in almost all blocks for forests above Chora, Taranda and Nichar. Good Deodar plantations under Kail overwood have been raised in C.68(a), 72(a). The undergrowth depends upon the intensity of grazing and the opening in the canopy. Viburnum spp; and Indigofera spp; are common all over. Lonicera angustifolia, Rosa spp, Daphne cannabina and Jasmininum officinale differentiate the moist type
This type is found over a small area near villages in undemarkated forests of Nichar ranges. The altitudinal range is between 1800-2450m. It thus overlaps into the altitudinal zone of all the lower conifers, and is a common companion of the Blue Pine, Deodar and Spruce, as well as the Chil. In the upper part of the Chil belt, however it is really the main forest forming species and combines with Rhododendron orboreum to form broad-leaved forest on ground too damp or too cold for Chil Pine, while in the middle range the tree combines to form a two Comprehensive CAT Plan of Satluj River Basin
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from the drier temperate type namely, Plectranthus spp, Berberis spp, Prinsepia utilis and Desmodium spp, etc. The herbaceous vegetation varies. The common species are Viola serpens, Fragaria vesca, Smilax spp, Thalictrum spp, Gerbera spp, Ainsliaea aptera, maidenhair fern (Adiantum spp). Towards the upper level, the bracken fern (Pteris aquiline) fills up the open glades and Iris nepalensis often forms large patches. Some of the common grasses are Agropyron longearistatum, Agrostis alba, Andropogon gryllus. Regeneration does not present a problem provided the forest is kept free from grazing, weeds and Fires. 12.C.I.d. Western Mixed Coniferous Forest (Spruce, Blue Pine, Silver Fir): This type is commonly referred to as mixed coniferous forest but it is also includes pure Spruce, Spruce and Silver Fir, pure Silver Fir, Spruce Deodar and Deodar Kail formations. This type occurs above the Deodar zone between altitudes 2000m and 3500m in the interior of side streams such as Kandlu, Chaunda, Sholding, Melgad, Lisnam of Nichar and Bhabanagar ranges. Conifers from remarkably pure stands with strips and patches of broad-leaved species. The stocking is fair. Both the undergrowth and herbaceous flora is fairly rich. Grazing is heavy but fires are almost unknown. For convenience of description this type is subdivided into the following subtypes on the basis of altitudinal zonation. 1. Spruce-Deodar forest. Along the upper limit of Deodar zone, Spruce grown mixed with Deodar, the former predominating is nalas and shady places and the latter mainly along the spurs. Such admixtures are found in forests of Tranda and Bari. Deodar admixtures occurs only along the periphery of these groups. Kail also comes in such areas along the spurs which are too dry for both Deodar and Spruce. Deciduous broad-leaved species viz horse chestnut,
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walnut, maple, bird cherry grow in nalas. The age class distribution is irregular with mature classes predominating. In tension belt forests, Spruce is spreading under Deodar. Biotic interference plays and important part in determining the proportion of Deodar and Spruce in these forests. In areas adjoining villages where Spruce is lopped and Deodar is protected, the proportion of Deodar is increasing. Heavy grazing in mesophytic situations held Deodar in holding its place. In nalas and cooler sites, where the conditions are more mesophytic, the proportion of Spruce is increasing in the younger age classes and Deodar is being gradually ousted. The composition of undergrowth and herbaceous flora is almost the same in Deodar forests except that it is thicker especially in nalas and the meaophytic species predominate. 2. Predominately Spruce forest : These forests occurs in the narrow belt above Deodar-Spruce mixture and below Spruce-Silver Fir forests. C.77 can be cited as an example of good Spruce formation. The over wood is principally of Spruce with scattered Silver Fir trees. Along the spurs, scattered trees of Kail and Deodar appear. Nalas are inhabited by deciduous trees species like Horse chestnut, Walnut, Mapple and Bird cherry. Ban Oak along the lower side and Kharsu Oak along the upper portion also occur in small pockets or narrow strips. The undergrowth and herbaceous flora is fairly thick and consists of species described later under Spruce Silver-Fir forests. Spruce is not the climax vegetation of this zone and is being gradually replaced by Silver Fir. 3. Spruce-Silver Fir forest. Forests of this type occur above predominating Spruce forests and below western Oak Fir forests from an altitude of about 2600m to 3200m. Fir forests of Bari, Panwi and Melgad are fine examples of this type. Spruce predominates in the lower one and along spurs while the upper portion and nalas carry Silver
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Fir. Intimate mixture of two species is met with only in pockets. Silver Fir is spreading under Spruce and younger age classes predominate. Deciduous species like Walnut, Mapples, Bird cherry and Betula grow in nalas. Among the Oaks, Kharshu grows on the top. The under storey is generally this and consists of scattered Texus bacatta and Silver Fir and Spruce poles. The undergrowth is fairly thick and consists of mainly of Viburnum continifolium, Desmodium spp, Indigofera spp, Spiraea lindleyana, Deutzia corymbosa Lonicera quinquelocularis and scattered Arundinar falcate clumps. The herbaceous flora is also very rich and especially so during the rainy season. The main species are Strobilanthes spp, balsam ferns, Ainsliaea aptera, Iris spp, Fragaria vesca, Nudicaulis, Polygonum spp, Rosa spp, etc. Vitis semicordata is the common climber, and Hedera helix occurs only sporadically. The stocking is generally fair except in the nalas where the stocking is comparatively poor because of snow slides. The forests are of selection type with IIA and larger trees predominating. Ounger age classes and regeneration are generally deficient. The spruce and Silver Fir trees grow to magnificent heights and attain big dimensions. 4. Pure Silver Fir forests. These occur in Nichar and part of Kilba Ranges. In these pure Silver Fir stands, Spruce is practically absent and there4are no broad-leaved trees either except a few scattered trees of Batula and Maples. The crop is on the whole open with no tree growth in nalas because of snow slides. The under storey is generally absent and only scattered Taxus baccata and poles of Silver Fir occur. The under growth and herbaceous flora is fairly thick and consists of the same species as given n Spruce, Silver fir mixture. Young generation is absent. 12.C.1.e. Moist temperate deciduous forests : The type is commonly found between 1800-2750m in moist hollow and depressions often as strips along the hill streams and
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also on many of the gentler slopes in Nichar and Kilba Ranges. The oaks are only occasional members of this type, which is commonly known as thach (grazing land) owing to the richness of the shrub growth and the quantity of loppings which the mixed broad-leaved species provide. The common trees are Acer caesium, Aesculus indica, Betula alnoides, Carpinus spp, Celtis australis, Juglans regia, Pyrus lanata, Ulmus spp, Prunus cornuta. The shrub growth is a mixture of Cotoneaster spp, Deutzia corymbosa, Sarcococca saligna, Viburnum spp etc. The herb growth is poorly developed except in a few rather specialized types of canopy e.g. a dense growth of Chaerophyllus reflexum under a poor stand of Pyrus lanata, Salvia glutinosa, Viola and Adiantum from under a pure stand of Aesculus indica. 12.C.I.f. Low level Blue Pine forest (P. Wallichiana) : The Blue Pine or Kail accompanies Deodar throughout the whole field of its distribution. The Blue Pine has two altitudinal zones which are well-defined, although the tree is quite common on intermediate ground between these two habitats too. The low level form, depending on a moderately good monsoon rainfall is found in Bari forests. The high level type is dependent on a heavy and long lying winter snowfall and is confined to the upper forest limits in the inner hills such as in UF 33 of Kalpa Range. 12.C.2.a. Kharshu Oak forest (Q. semecarpifolia) : This type generally occurs between 2500 to 3300m particularly on southern aspects and scarp slopes. This type occurs in parts of Bhabanagar and Kilba ranges. In this type the dense oak forests reach the bottom edge of alpine pastures. On others exposures, this oak descends down the nalas and the depressions and occurs as scattered trees. Betula utilis and B. aloides are its associate in the second storey. Under dense pure stands of Kharsu oak, shade is so thick that no young
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green plants exist. Even the seedlings of Kharshu do not survive under this shade. Kharshu generation can usually be observed on steep hillsides or near rocky ledges where the drainage is better and the sun light finds entry at least from the side. Under Kharsu oak, the bush growth is not so dense as in the lower Spruce forests, but there is good deal of Coroneaster acuinata, Viburnum foetens, V. Stellulatum, V. cotinifolum, Lonicera spp, the herbaceous cover is usually coarse and consists of Anaphalis triplinervis, Nepeta govaniana, Prumula denticulate etc. 12.C.2.b. West Himalayan Upper Oak/Fir forest : This type occurs between2600 and 3400m especially on northern aspects and sheltered sites. It lies above the mixed coniferous forests, too high for Deodar through Spruce may occur. The sites occupied are under snow for several months in the wi9nter. Grassy meadows are typical and more extensive than in the lower zone and often join up with the alpine pastures above tree limit. A deep moist humus layer is usually present. The herbaceous cover is usually coarse and consists of Anaphalis spp, Iris spp, Saxifraga spp, Senecio spp, etc. The common grasses are Melica scaberrina and Pennisetum flaccidum and the common climbers, namely Vitis semicordata and Schizandra grandiflora. I.S.1. Alder forests : These are found along the blanks of the larger streams. The species occurs on newly formed shingle beds along the streams and on landslips, also on river banks with the roots often exposed in the flowing water. The altitudinal range is a wide one, extending from the lower subtropical belt of about 1200m upwards through the middle & upper oak to about 2700m. The woods are usually pure Alnus nitida. An underwood may not be present. Good examples of this type are met with in Sholtu Khad and Melgad.
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Himalayan Dry Temperate Forests : This type is confined to Kalpa and part of Kila Ranges. Conifers predominate ; Deodar, Neoza Pine, Juniperus macropoda being most characteristic with Kail and occasionally Fir at higher elevation. Among the broad-leaved trees, characteristic xerophytic species such as Fraxinus xanthoxyloides, Q. ilex and Olea ferruginea occur, the trees being of poor height growth and occurring either scattered among the conifers or forming more or less small pure patches. Xerophytic shrubs such as Daphne oleoides, Artemisia spp, Caragana spp, and Astragalus spp, occur freely and form a continuous cover but more often leave a good deal of the soil exposed. Epiphytes and climbers hardly occur except some Dioscorea deltoidea. 13.C.1. Dry Broad leaved and Coniferous forest (Quercus ilex P. gerardiana) : An open forest of pine rarely exceeding 16m in height mixed with overgreen oaks and few other xerophytic trees which together may form a fairly complete cover at least on sheltered sites and cool aspects, but generally leave much of the soil exposed. There is fair amount of low shrub growth definitely xerophytic and often aromatic, and thin grass. Locally the pine is absent and Oaks predominate. This type is found in Kilba Range. The typical examples can be seen below C.139, 167 and 248. The type occur between 2000m and 2400m extending 300m lower on cool aspects and 300m higher southerly exposures. Upper storey consists of Pinus gerardiana, Cedrus Deodara, Quercus ilex, Acer pentapomicum etc. The second storey consists of Fraxinus xanthoxyloides & Olea cuspidate etc. Common shrubs are Artemisia maritime. A vulgaris, Daphne oleoides & Lonicera angustifolia. Grasses are Agrophyron longearistatum & Agrostis alba.
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13.C.2.a. Neoza pine forest (P. gerardiana) : Neoza pine replaces the Chil pine near Wangru and continues along the Sutlej as far as Kanam. Nearly pure crops, locally mixed with some Deodar are seen. The forests being open a great deal of the surface is bare. These are much frequented by men for the collection of the Neoza seed which has got a ready market. Upper storey consists of Pinus gerardiana and occasional Cedrus Deodara. In the second storey Fraxinus xanthoxyloides is common. Among the shrubs Artemisia maritime, Daphne oleoides, Ephedra gerardiana & Lonicera hypoleuca are common. 13.C.2.b. Dry Deodar Forest : A nearly pure coniferous forest, broad-leaved trees being confined to the moist ravines. It varies from the completes canopied forests to a very open forests of low branching trees depending upon moisture factors. The Deodar tends to be gregarious and forms nearly pure crops. On drier situations it is found mixed with Pinus gerardiana but open mixed crops are common especially in the more and tracts where the pine extends much higher up the slopes. Blue pine is frequently present and may occur pure over limited areas, especially at the higher elevations. The undergrowth varies in type and density considerably in pure or mixed forests and also according to the dryness of the locality. Under pure or nearly pure Deodar in transitional zone, the common shrubs and herbs are Ploectranthus spp, Indigofera spp, Fregaria vasca and Viola serpens etc. When Kail is dominant, Desmodium tilidefolium, Asparagus filicinus and Salvia glutinosa are more in evidence. This type is confined to Kalpa and a part of Kilba Renges. The forests lie between 2100 and 3250m elevation. 13.C.4. West Himalayan high level dry Blue Pine forests (P. wallichiana) :
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This type is met with on the higher altitudes of Kalpa and Kilba ranges. The Blue Pine replaces both the Kharsu Oak and the Silver Fir as the typical high level tree of dry zone at high elevation of 3000m to 3600m. It extends as far towards the arid Tibetan uplands as Deodar does. Below this level the Pine occurs quite frequently as a companion of Deodar, but its general tendency is to retreat uphill with increased aridity, depending more and more upon the long lying snow beds of the colder northern aspects for its moisture supply. Silviculturally, this high level Blue Pine is quite different from the low level type, it is forms very open stands on gentle slopes which hold snow well, while the low level type prefers warm well drained ridges. Ecologically also the two types of blue pine were different. Low level Blue Pine is merely a seral phase in the reclothing of slopes from which the forest has been expelled by Fires, and leading it back to climax forest type of Deodar. The high level Blue Pine on the other hand is a true climatic climax type for the very specialized conditions in which it grows, and there is no other species except scrub Juniper spp, which could take over its role on the aride tracts. Important trees and shrubs met with in this type are Betula utilis, Juniperous commonis, Potentilla eriocarps, P. fruticosa, Pyrus foliolosa, Rhododendron anthopogon, R. companulatum, Salix hastate. Among the herbs, the common are Aconitum heterophllum, A chesmanthum, Anaphalis spp, Anemone spp, Aster spp, Geranium spp, Nepeta spp, Senecio spp, etc. West Himalayan dry Juniper forest (J. macropoda) : It is a very open xerophytic formation which is met with in the innermost Valley of the Sutlej brodering the Tibetan border. The annual precipitation is below 300mm with temperature touching 25’C during winter. The vegetation consists of dwarf trailing shrubs such as J. macropoda, J. pseudosabina, Caragana spp, Ephedra spp, and Artemisia maritime etc.
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14.C.1.a. West Himalayan Sub alpine forest :
15.C.3. Alpine Pastures :
This type occurs not as a continuous belt but in large irregular patches above 3050m. Albies spectabilis is found pure or mixed with Betula utilis. The examples can be seen on slopes of Kailas and above Roghi but it is seldom as common as the high level Blue Pine, which eventually displaces it altogether.
Extensive alpine pastures forms a characteristic feature of the tract above the tree line. The limit of their altitudinal distribution between 3600-4550m elevations the upper limit extending even to the perpetual snow line. The slops are usually gentle and bear a thick mat of alpine grasses. Large flocks of sheep and goats graze in these pastures May to September, the areas remaining snow bound from November to April. The common herbs are Primula spp, Anemone spp, Iris spp, Gentiana spp, and the common grasses are Agropyron longearistatum, A. semicostatum, Brachypodium sylvaticum, Bromus asper, B. japnicus, Poa spp, Dactylis spp, Milium effusum etc.
14.C.1.b. West Himalayan sub-alpine Birch/Fir forest : This type occurs in large open and irregular patches above 3000m elevation or so. The predominant conifer is Abies spectabilis and occasionally a few Kail. The crops are usually stunted with varying proportions of deciduous Betula utilis. Low Rhododendron companulatum forms dense mats and Kharsu Oak shrub sometimes extends into this type. Among the shrubby undergrowth Juniperus macropoda, Sorbus foliolosa, Cotoneaster spp, are common. The herbaceous undergrowth consists of Primula, Aconitum etc. Examples may be seen in the upper reaches of the Chaunda, Panwi, Melgad, Lisnam catchments. Birch/Rhododendron scrub forest : This type forms the upper limit of the alpine forest and occurs as patches of varied size in the sheltered sites and usually on northern and western aspects. This type forms a low evergreen forest almost entirely of species of Rhododendron but with some birch and other deciduous trees so dense as to make it difficult to penetrate, particularly in an uphill direction as owing to snow pressure, the stems all curve up from a more or less horizontal or downwards bent base. The common shrubs are Salix spp, Cotoneaster spp, and herbs such as Potentilla spp, Primula spp, Polygonum spp, Jurinea macrocephala etc.
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