Vol1-Chapter3

Volume I: Part I: Section 3: Chapter: 1

3.1.1

Section 3 Collection of Other Secondary data Chapter 1: Physical Factors (Land Forms) 1.1 Introduction

major landslides

This chapter deals with types and sources of secondary data collected.

Physical features affect the catchment positively as well as negatively.

Inventorying these features has provided the base to arrive at the treatment measures for improvement of catchment in terms of soil and water conservation. While an overview of Satluj basin is provided in this chapter, the full details for each MWS in each Sub-catchment is provided in Volumes IV to XV Sr. No.

Data

Sources

1.

Rivers, Rivulets, and Tributaries; Boundaries of Watershed, SubWatershed and MicroWatershed;

Survey of India; All India Landuse and Soil Survey

2.

Village, Taluka and District boundaries; urban and village settlement areas; roads and highways

Survey of India, Directorate of Economics and Statistics (HP Govt.), Revenue Dept (HP), HPPWD,

Soil type data

National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land use Planning

3.

4.

All geological features (faults, fissures, etc.) and location of

Geological Survey of India

5.

Forest areas including forest divisions and forest beats

Forest Survey of India, Forest Department

6.

Grazing areas; cultivated areas and orchards or areas under plantation

State Agricultural Universities, Solan And Palampur, Horticulture, Agricultural And Forest Department, State Revenue Dept.

7.

Siltation data

Bhakra Beas Management Board, Satluj Jal Vidyut Nigam, Jaypee Hydroelectric, CWC, other Hydroelectric projects like NJPC, Sorang, Ganvi etc

Areas under erosion were taken as per the identification available from the National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning and a delineation of the areas was done with respect to the erosion intensity.

Following thematic maps were used for delineating areas prone to soil erosion. •

Land use/ Land cover map (Data generated from Indian Remote Sensing (IRS), LISS III sensor

Comprehensive CAT Plan of Satluj River Basin

Volume I: Part I: Section 3: Chapter: 1 •

Slope map (generated through standard triangulation techniques using digitized counters at 40 m interval derived from Survey of India 1:50,000 scale topographic sheets.)

•

Soil map ( digitized and produced using soil maps available from National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land use Planning)

•

Prioritization of each sub-watershed was done which would make the basis for selection of area for treatment of the catchment.

The information concerning FCA cases for diversion of forest lands for non forest use in the Satluj basin since 1991 was also studied.

This included following: 1. Area of forest diverted, 2. All amounts levied on the different project implementing agencies on account of

•

•

i.

Compensatory Afforestation,

ii.

Lease Value of Forest Land,

iii.

Net present value of forests, and

iv.

Any other amount levied in connection with diversion of forest land was gathered from the Forest Department.

Statistics of biodiversity, plantation and forest conservation program was gathered from previous ecological assessment reports.

All this data was collected separately for each forest division.

NERIL also collected data on how much of the amounts levied on the project implementing agencies has been recovered by the forest department, and thereafter how these amounts were allocated to each DFOs within the forest department.

3.1.2

•

Progress reports for CAT Plan implementation were collected. The expenditure of the amounts collected from the project implementing agencies was assessed. The expenditure data were collected at the level of individual micro-watershed and then incorporated in the GIS portal.

•

The requirement of ToR is that the data in respect of all other plantation, afforestation and forest conservation programs, including state and national government funded forestry projects or schemes, all externally financed projects, all watershed projects etc. be gathered.

However, it is stated that, this was not available at village, block and tehsil level. NERIL attempted to obtain this data from all these levels plus from the planning commission at Shimla. It is stated that in the absence of such secondary data NERIL has relied upon the primary data obtained during its 100% site survey.

1.2 Landforms Earth is a collaboration of the various physical features found on its surface.

Landforms are the geographical features of earth that manipulate and control the ecosystem, climate, weather and above all they affect the life on the earth.

Forces of nature like wind, water, ice and the movement of the tectonic plates of the earth, have all contributed in the formation of these landforms.

Some of these landforms are created within few hours while others take years to form and appear. It is essential for these landforms to move and grow in a systematic order under full control and supervision of the natural forces.

Any deviation in the normal movement or existence of these landforms can cause immense destruction to life and property.

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3.1.3

In other words, according to earth sciences and geology sub-fields, a landform or a physical feature comprises of a geomorphological unit, and is largely defined by its surface form and location in the landscape, as part of the terrain, and as such, is typically an element of topography.

Landforms are categorized by characteristic physical attributes such as elevation, slope, orientation, stratification, rock exposure, and soil type.1 The entire catchment area of Satluj River has 5 different types of landforms.2 They are listed in this table.

Glaciers are large persistent bodies of ice that originate on land and slowly flow due to the stresses induced by their weight. Glaciers form where the accumulation of snow and ice exceeds The Lesser (Lower) ablation (removal of Himalayan Range lies to Unit Description material from the the north of the Sub- 1 surface of an object by Glaciers Himalayan or Sivalik vaporization, chipping, Steep to very steep high Range and south of the 2 or other erosive hills of Greater Himalayas Greater Himalayas. The processes). There is a height of these debate on whether Steep to very steep high 3 mountains varies from glaciers are more hills of Lesser Himalayas 1800 to 4600 meters. erosive than streams, Millions of years of 6 where some workers like Glacio-fluvial valley folding, faulting and over Clague, 1986; Braun, 7 Fluvial valley (River) thrusting have resulted 1989; claim that glaciers into the formation of are more erosive than 3 these mountains. streams while some workers like Sugden, 1976, 1978; Lindstro¨m, The Greater Himalayas are the only 1988; have found evidences that there areas in the world other than the Polar is no or little difference in their erosive Regions to be covered with glaciers and powers.4 permafrost. The Satluj basin comprises A valley is a landform, which can range from a few square kilometres to hundreds of square kilometres in area.

It is typically a low-lying area of land, surrounded by higher areas such as mountains or hills. Glacial valleys tend to have a peculiar U-shape that contrasts sharply with the V-shape created by stream erosion.5 The glacial valleys were formed several thousand years ago (mostly during the last Ice of the high hills of the Greater Age) because of the erosive power of Himalayas as well as the Lesser Himalayas that have intense slope.

4

1

List of landforms-Wikipedia 2 State Land Use Board, Himachal Pradesh Govt.

3 type of landformshttp://lifestyle.iloveindia.com/lounge/types-oflandforms-11269.html

David R Montgomery ,Valley formation by Fluvial and glacial erosion ,Department of Earth and Space sciences, University of Washington,Seattle,Washington-98195,USA 5 Fundamental e-book-Landforms of glaciationsPhysicalgeography.net

Comprehensive CAT Plan of Satluj River Basin

Volume I: Part I: Section 3: Chapter: 1 glaciers.

Glacio-fluvial valleys are formed when the material moved by glaciers is later sorted and redeposited by flowing streams and rivers formed as a result of the melting ice.

Fluvial processes comprise the motion of sediment and erosion or deposition (geology) on the river bed.6 Fluvial valleys are V shaped valleys and are created as a result of stream erosion.

Physically based models have proposed that the development of U-shaped glacial valleys takes place from initially V-shaped fluvial valleys (Harbor et al., 1988; Hirano and Aniya, 1988; Harbor, 1992).7 The distribution of these landforms in our project area can be seen in the map given here after:

6

Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia David R Montgomery, Valley formation by Fluvial and glacial erosion, Department of Earth and Space sciences, University of Washington,Seattle,Washington-98195,USA 7

Comprehensive CAT Plan of Satluj River Basin

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Volume I: Part I: Section 3: Chapter: 1

7

3.1.5

Unit

Description

1

Glaciers

2

Steep to very steep high hills of Greater Himalayas

3

Steep to very steep high hills of Lesser Himalayas

6

Glacio-fluvial valley

7

Fluvial valley (River)

Note: Units are assigned to facilitate short and simple representation of the landform titles which are descriptive in nature. These units will be used as names of the landforms.

It can be seen from the map above that Glacio-fluvial type is seen in very small region in pink colour with unit no. 6.

The major area is covered by type Steep to very steep high hills of Greater Himalayas followed by Steep to very steep high hills of Lesser Himalayas.

Glaciers are also seen in some region.

Thus our study area has a variety of landforms that range from glaciers to steep hills of the Himalayas.

Comprehensive CAT Plan of Satluj River Basin

Volume I: Part I: Section 3: Chapter 2

3.2.1

Section 3: Chapter 2: Physical Factors (Forest types) According to the India State Forest Report, 2009 of FSI, the actual forest area occupied in HP is 14668 km² that accounts to about 26.35% of its area.

The forest cover of Himachal Pradesh constitutes to nearly 0.44% of the total forest cover of India.1

The trees commonly found in the Dry alpine forests are Juniperus, Caragana,

When forests are classified into different types, the key factors taken into consideration are climate, soil type, topography, and elevation. As a result, the forest types vary from region to region. Thus out of the various types of forests that are present in India, our study area has the following forest types: Sr No

Forest types

Units

1

Dry alpine forests

1

2

Moist alpine forests

2

Dry alpine forests - Juniperus

3

Sub-alpine forests

3

4

Himalayan moist temperate forests

4

Eurctia,Salix and Myricaria. These trees and shrubs have needle shaped leaves which reduce transpiration in the extreme cold climate.

5

Sub-tropical pine forests

6

6

Sub-tropical hill forests

7

broad

leaved

Note: Units are assigned to the forest types so as to facilitate short and simple representation of the forest types which are descriptive in nature.

These units will be used as names of the forest types

1

Chief characteristic feature of the moist alpine forest is dominance of dwarf, evergreen shrubby conifers and broadleaved trees along with prominent shrub layer under them. The dominant trees in these forests are Juniperus and Rhododendron while prominent shrubs are Thalictrum, Lonicera, Saxifraga, Arenaria, Bergia, Sedum and Primula.

These shrubs have beautifully colored flowers and fruits.

Forest Survey of India report,2009-Himachal Pradesh

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3.2.2

above 100 cm. These forests have a combination of evergreen and deciduous trees. The evergreen trees have leaves throughout the year whereas the deciduous types shed leaves at maturity. The trees that are commonly observed are pines or spruces like Pinus wallichiana, Picea smithiana, Abies pindrew etc.3

Moist alpine forests- Arenaria The characteristic feature of the subalpine forests is presence of some evergreen conifers and broad-leaved trees along with prominent shrub layer.

These Sub-alpine trees have triangular shape so as to prevent excess accumulation of snow on their 2 surfaces .

Himalayan Moist temperate– Cedrus deodara Sub-tropical pine forests occur in the middle altitudes i.e. between 15002000m of the Himalayas. Chief characteristics of the forests are pine trees like Pinus roxburghii and Pinus khasiana.

Sub-alpine forests - Betulla utilis The Himalayan Moist temperate types of forests are also present in the catchment area of Satluj which is under our study. These forests are found at 1700-3500 m altitude in eastern and western Himalayas. They occur in areas having annual rainfall 2

Environment of Earth-Physiographical regions of India

3

Environment of Earth-Natural vegetation of India

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Volume I: Part I: Section 3: Chapter 2

3.2.3

Sub-tropical catechu

Sub-tropical pine–Pinus roxburghii Another type of forest observed in our study area is Sub-tropical broad leaved hill forest. As the name suggests, the forests comprise of broad leaved trees like Dalbergia sissoo, Acacia catachu, Cedrela toona, Anthocephalus cadamba, Lagerstroemia parviflora.

The soil is rich in alluvium deposited by rivers that drain through the Himalayas.4

4

broad

leaved

-

Acacia

The details account of the trees mentioned above can be found in the Biodiversity section of the report.

The distribution of these Forest types in our project area has been represented in the map given at the end of this chapter: As described previously, elevation plays an important role in deciding the forest type of a region. Similarly in the project area, the tropical zone extends from 1000-1200 m while the subtropical zone is present upto 2200m.

The sub-tropical zone is an intermediate between the Tropical and Alpine zone. The alpine zone exists between the Tree line and the Snowline. The tree line is the edge of habitat beyond which trees are unable to grow because of the harsh environmental conditions whereas the Snow line is point above which snow and ice cover the ground throughout the year. The Alpine type of forest is further divided into 3 subtypes viz Dry Alpine, Moist Alpine and Sub-alpine.

The Dry alpine forest extends from 2,200 to 2,700 m while the Moist Alpine forest are present between 2,700 to 3,600 m. The Sub-alpine

Environment of Earth-Natural vegetation of India

Comprehensive CAT Plan of Satluj River Basin

Volume I: Part I: Section 3: Chapter 2 forests are present just below the snowline upto an elevation of 5000m.

3.2.4

This map shows that there are 6 different types of forest in the Project area. The details of the types of forest are described in the following section:

Dry alpine forests Moist alpine forests Sub-alpine forests Himalayan moist temperate forests Sub-tropical pine forests Sub-tropical broad leaved hill forests Satluj river Spiti river

Map showing the various forest types of the Satluj Catchment

Comprehensive CAT Plan of Satluj River Basin

Volume: I: Part I: Section: 3 Chapter: 3

3.3.1

Section 3: Chapter 3: Physical Factors (Agro-Ecological zones) India is gifted with heterogeneous landforms. It has a variety of climatic conditions like the lofty mountains, raverine deltas, high altitude forests and peninsular plateaus. Besides it is also endowed with temperatures varying from arctic cold to equatorial hot, and rainfall from extreme aridity with only a few cms (<10 cm) to perhumid with worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s maximum rainfall (1120 cm) of several hundred cms. These factors have led to formation of varied landforms like high plateau, open valleys, rolling upland, plains, swampy low lands and barren deserts. Such varying environmental situations in the country have resulted in a greater variety of soils. Therefore, the systematic appraisal of agroecological regions has tremendous scope in grouping relatively homogenous regions in terms of soil, climate and physiography and conducive moisture availability periods (length of growing season).1

Climate of the study region is cold or warm. The climate is dependent on the elevation of the region. Our project area has a variety of bioclimatic conditions that range from Arid, Semi-arid, Semi-dry, Dry, Sub-Humid, Per humid to Moist. The physiography or location of our project is the Lesser or Greater Himalayas. The length of growing period refers to the time taken in days by the crops grown in the particular region. Here the LGP ranges from less than 60 days to 330 days. It can be observed here that time required for the growth of crops increases as we go from higher elevation to lower elevation.

The nomenclature used in describing AEZ may be denoted as CBcPL Where: C= Climate Bc = Bioclimate P= Physiography LGP= Length (days)

of

growing

period

1 K.S Gajbhiye and C.Mandal, Agro-Ecological Zones, their Soil Resource and Cropping Systems ,National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning, Nagpur

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3.3.2

The agro-ecological zones (AEZ) which are present in our project area are: Sr No

Agro-ecological zone

Unit

1

Cold, Arid, Greater Himalayas with <60 days LGP

1

2

Cold to Warm Semi-arid, Semi-dry, Greater Himalayas with 60-120 days LGP

2

3

Warm, Dry, Sub-Humid, Greater Himalayas with 120-180 days LGP

3

4

Warm, Sub-humid, Moist, Lesser Himalayas with 180-270 days LGP

5

5

Warm, Per humid, Lesser Himalayas with 270-300 days LGP

6

6

Humid/Per humid, Lesser Himalayas with 300-330 days LGP

7

Note: Units are assigned to the agro-ecological zones so as to facilitate short and simple representation of the agro-ecological zones which are descriptive in nature. Henceforth these units will be used as names of the agro-ecological zones.

Farms on the banks of Spiti â&#x20AC;&#x201C; A view from the Key Monastery

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3.3.3

The LGP refers to Length of growing period in days for a certain crop. The distribution of the agro-ecological zones in our project area can be seen in the map given below:

Legend: Cold, Arid, Greater Himalayas with <60 days LGP Cold to Warm Semi-arid, Semi-dry, Greater Himalayas with 60120 days LGP Warm, Dry, Sub-Humid, Greater Himalayas with 120-180 days LGP Warm, Sub-humid, Moist, Lesser Himalayas with 180-270 days LGP Warm, Per humid, Lesser Himalayas with 270-300 days LGP Humid/Per humid, Lesser Himalayas with 300-330 days LGP Satluj river Sub catchment boundary

Map showing the distribution of various agro-ecological zones in the Satluj catchment

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Volume: I: Part I: Section: 3 Chapter: 4

3.4.1

Section 3: Chapter 4: Physical Factors (Soil types) Soil is one of the most important natural resource. It is indispensable for the existence of plants and animals.

Most soil forming material is derived from the disintegration of rocks by a process known as weathering. This process involves a combination of mechanical agents such as expansion and contraction, and chemical reactions such as solution. Besides various biological processes which are

driven by microbes and plants play an important role in soil formation.

Soils of India are classified based on their colour, structure and place where they are found. Himachal Pradesh is present in the mountainous region and it is well drained by a wide range of seasonal and perennial rivers. These rivers carry a lot of silt and deposit the alluvium on the banks. As a result, the soil types vary in Himachal Pradesh.

The soil types which are present in our project area are: Sr No 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Soil types

Unit

Rock outcrops covered with glaciers: associated with: Shallow, excessively drained, sandy skeletal soils with sandy surface, severe erosion and strong stoniness.

1

Shallow, excessively drained, sandy skeletal soils on very steep slopes with sandy surface, severe erosion and moderate stoniness, associated with: Rock outcrops.

2

Mountain & valley glaciers & rock outcrops; associated with; medium deep, excessively drained, sandy-skeletal soil on very steep slopes with sandy surface, severe erosion & moderate stoniness.

5

Rock outcrops associated with medium deep excessively drained, loamyskeletal soils on very steep slopes with loamy surface, severe erosion and moderate stoniness.

8

Rock outcrops associated with deep, excessively drained, sandy-skeletal soils with loamy surface, very severe erosion and moderate stoniness.

16

Shallow, somewhat excessively drained, mesic, coarse-loamy soils on moderate slopes with loamy surface and severe drained, fine-loamy soils with loamy surface and severe erosion.

27

Rock outcrops associated with, Medium deep, excessively drained, mesic loamy-skeletal soils on very steep slopes with loamy surface, severe erosion and moderate stoniness.

29

Deep. Excessively drained, mesic. Loamy. Skeletal soils on very steep slopes with loamy surface. severe erosion and moderate stoniness associated with Rock outcrops

31

Rock outcrops, associated with Medium deep, somewhat excessively drained, mesic, sandy soils on steep slopes with sandy surface and severe erosion.

32

Comprehensive CAT Plan of Satluj River Basin

Volume: I: Part I: Section: 3 Chapter: 4 Sr No 10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

3.4.2

Soil types

Unit

Medium deep, somewhat excessively drained, mesic, coarse-loamy soils on moderate slopes with loamy surface, severe erosion and slight stoniness associated with Shallow, somewhat excessively drained, coarseloamy soils with loamy surface, severe erosion and slight stoniness.

34

Shallow, excessively drained. Thermic, sandy-skeletal soils on steep slopes with loamy surface, very severe erosion and strong stoniness, associated with, Rock outcrops.

36

Shallow, somewhat excessively drained, thermic, loamy-skeletal soils on moderately steep slopes with loamy surface. Severe erosion and strong stoniness, associated erosion and strong stoniness, associated with Rock outcrops.

37

Shallow, well drained, thermic. loamy, skeletal soils on moderate slopes with loamy surface, moderate erosion and moderate stoniness, associated with Shallow, somewhat excessively drained, coarse-loamy soils with loamy surface, severe erosion and severe erosion and slight stoniness.

43

Medium deep well drained, thermic. Fine loamy calcareous soils on moderately steep slop16es with loamy surface and severe erosion, associated with, Medium deep, well drained, fine-loamy soils with loamy surface and moderate erosion.

48

Medium deep, well drained, thermic, fine loamy soils on moderately steep slopes with loamy surface, severe erosion and slight stoniness, associated with Shallow, well drained, fine-loamy soils with loamy surface and moderate erosion.

49

Medium deep to deep, well drained, thermic. Fine-loamy soils on steep slopes with loamy surface and moderate erosion, associated with medium deep, well drained, coarse-loamy soils with loamy surface and severe erosion.

54

Deep, well drained, thermic, fine-loamy soils on moderate slopes with loamy surface and moderate erosion, associated with Medium deep, well drained. Loamy-skeletal soils with loamy surface and severe erosion.

55

Medium deep, well drained, thermic, fine loamy soils on moderate slopes with loamy surface, severe erosion and slight stoniness, associated with Medium deep. Somewhat excessively drained, coarse-loamy soils with loamy surface and severe erosion.

57

Medium deep, well drained, thermic, fine- loamy soils on moderate slopes with loamy surface and severe erosion, associated Shallow, well drained, coarse-loamy soils with loamy surface, severe erosion and slight stoniness.

60

Medium deep well drained thermic, coarse-Ioamv soils on moderate slopes with loamy surface and moderate erosion associated with Shallow.

Excessively drained. Coarse-loamy. Calcareous soils with loamy surface and moderate erosion.

64

Comprehensive CAT Plan of Satluj River Basin

Volume: I: Part I: Section: 3 Chapter: 4 Sr No 21

22

23

24

3.4.3

Soil types

Unit

Medium deep to deep, well drained, thermic, loamy-skeletal soils on steep slopes with loamy surface and severe erosion associated with Medium deep well drained, calcareous, fine-loamy soils with loamy surface and moderate erosion.

72

Medium deep. Well drained. Thermic. Loamy. Skeletal soils on very gentle slopes with loamy surface. Moderate erosion and moderate stoniness, associated with Deep. Well drained fine-loamy soils with loamy surface and slight erosion.

75

Medium deep, well drained, thermic, fine-loamy soils on moderate slopes with loamy surface and moderate erosion associated with Medium deep well drained coarse-loamy soils with loamy surface and moderate erosion.

83

Deep, moderately well drained, hyperthermic, fine-loamy soils on moderate slopes with loamy surface and moderate erosion, associated with Medium deep, somewhat excessively drained, sandy soils with loamy surface, severe erosion and moderate stoniness.

86

Note: Units are assigned to the soil types so as to facilitate short and simple representation of the soil types which are descriptive in nature. Henceforth these units will be used as names of the Soil types for convenience sake.

Our project area has about 24 different types of soils. The map given below is for representational purpose and has Sub catchment boundary evident along with the soil layers:

Map

showing

the

distribution

of

soil

types

of

the

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Satluj

catchment

Volume: I: Part I: Section: 3 Chapter: 4

3.4.4

From the map it is evident that the distribution of soil types in the Project area varies greatly. Hence it is convenient to refer the SCIS for better understanding of the soil types in each sub-catchment of micro-watershed.

Meanwhile we can understand the soil type from following graph

Rainfall:

is from July to September. Our project area has the rainfall which is divided into the following ranges:

Himachal Pradesh is a hilly and mountainous state situated between 30°22’ and 33°12’ N latitude and 75°47’ and 79°4’ E longitude. Its neighbors are Jammu and Kashmir in the north, Punjab in the west and south west, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh in the South and Tibet in the east.

It is surrounded by mountainous regions except for Haryana and Uttar Pradesh which have sub-mountainous terrain. The altitudes in various areas range from 350-7000 m above MSL1.

This affects the amount of rainfall in the region. The Monsoon season in HP 1 Himachal Pradesh Profile, Development reportPlanning commission of India

From the given graph below, we can analyze that soil type no. 55 covers maximum project area of 72,609 Ha. followed by soil 49.

Rainfall determines the cropping season of a region. In areas like Himachal Pradesh which have underdeveloped irrigation facilities, Sr No

Rainfall range in mm

1

<700

2

750-1000

3

1000-1500

4

1500-2000

5

>2000

almost all of the agricultural activities depend on the rainfall.2 Maximum rainfall getting region is smallest and that is Sub-catchment Si. Whereas major area gets rainfall below 700mm and those are Kinnaur and Lahaul Spiti.

2 GENERAL REVIEW Economic Situation at National Level http://himachal.nic.in/finance/ES/eseng08.pdf

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The distribution of rainfall in our study area is represented in the map given below:

Conclusion: Major portion of the project is covered

by Steep to very steep high hills of Greater Himalayas which is most of the time in a year covered with snow. The population here is very less. The forest type is of dry alpine and moist alpine with rainfall less than 700mm which is lowest in entire Satluj basin. It is in this region that the crops take lesser time to cultivate with agro-ecological zones Cold, Arid, Greater Himalayas with <60 days LGP and Cold to Warm Semi-arid, Semi-dry, Greater Himalayas with 60-120 days LGP. It is strange that when majority of the time this region is cover with snow and strong cold winds, the vegetation here can grow with less that 60 or less than 120 days.

While the lower elevation area has Steep to very steep high hills of Lesser Himalayas with very less snow covered days. The population here is high comparatively. The forest type is Subalpine, Himalayan moist temperate, Sub-tropical pine, Sub-tropical broad

leaved hill type. The time taken by crops to grow is maximum with agroecological zones like ‘Warm, Subhumid, Moist, Lesser Himalayas with 180-270 days LGP’; ‘Warm, Per humid, Lesser Himalayas with 270-300 days LGP’; ‘Humid/Per humid, Lesser Himalayas with 300-330 days LGP’.

The rainfall zone varies from 7501000mm to more than 2000mm.

4.1

Other references:

1. ICIMOD, The Changing Himalayas: Impact of Climate Change on

Comprehensive CAT Plan of Satluj River Basin

Volume: I: Part I: Section: 3 Chapter: 4 Water Resources and Livelihoods in the Greater Himalayas 2. Manmohan Nath Kaul, The glacial and fluvial geomorphology of western Himalayas.

3. Forest cover assessment in western Himalayas, Himachal Pradesh using IRS 1C/1D WiFS data 4. P. K. Joshi*, Sarnam Singh, Shefali Agarwal and P. S. Roy Indian Institute of Remote Sensing

3.4.6

(National Remote Sensing Agency), 4 Kalidas Road, P. B. No. 135, Dehra Dun 248 001, India 5. Yash Veer Bhatnagar, Relocation from Wildlife Reserves in the Greater and Trans-Himalayas: Is it Necessary? Nature Conservation Foundation and Snow Leopard Trust-India 6. G. W. A. Sparrow, Soils and Landforms, Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists' Association-March 1965

Comprehensive CAT Plan of Satluj River Basin