ALSA Legal Writing Compilation 2016 by External Public Relations ALSA LC UI

Theme: Back to Base: Humanity

Avitya Danastri Batch of 2014 ALSA LC UI

Human rights are essential for any civil society. In fact, it is an inalienable right of every individual because she or he is a human being. The struggle to protect and preserve human rights is as old as human civilization itself. It has been a long and slow historical process for the realization of these rights. We cannot escape human rights because they address who we were, and who we are as human beings. They force us to look at ourselves, at life, and at how we treat each other. They raise universal and controversial questions about the value of individual life, lived with others, and what it means to be truly human.1 The struggle for human rights is as old as humanity. Great law-givers from the time of Hammurabi have sought by legal means to protect individual against oppression by the strong. 2 Human rights are defined as rights inherent to all human beings, whatever our nationality, place of residence, sex, national or ethnic origin, colour, religion, language, or any other status. We are all equally entitled to our human rights without discrimination. In the Islamic tradition, each individual could claim the rights to brotherhood, to justice, to safety, and to the protection of his/her reputation. Hinduism taught that there were "kingly obligations" to the common man. In the great age of Greece, equality before the law, equal respect, and freedom of speech were the rights of citizens, although these rights did not apply to the large section of the population who were slaves. Modern concept of human rights and fundamental freedoms has taken shape during the long development of democratic society. Magna Charta of 1215, the Habeas Corpus Act of 1679, the Bill of Rights of 1689, the American Declaration of Independence in 1776, the French Declaration of the Rights of Man in 1789, were

Paul Gordon Lauren, The Evolution of International Human Rights: Vision Seen, 2nd ed., (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003). 2 United Nations, Dept of Public Information, These Rights and Freedoms: Lake Success, New York, 1950, p. 1.

milestones along the road in which the individual acquired protection against the capricious acts of kings and despots and the right to lead a free life in a free society.3 The promotion and protection of human rights, which was formerly vested in nation states, had been made an international responsibility. Nor was this responsibility limited merely to an international pledge set forth in general language. It became part of an International programme, sponsored by the major organs and agencies of the United Nations and articulated in the working program of appropriate commissions, committees, and sub-committees. The human rights program of the United Nations is broad and dynamic. It is concerned with the rights and freedoms of all people everywhere. It is designed to safeguard for all time people's heritage of basic rights and fundamental freedoms. Even after the proclamation of universal declaration of human rights, the struggle for human rights is still continuing. Today, we notice the cases of violation of human rights at various levels. The prominent among these are unemployment, poverty, economic disparity, inhuman condition of work in factories, trafficking of women and children, sexual and mental harassment for working women, gender discrimination, terrorism etc.4 These are the major challenges to human rights in front of the whole world. Nowadays, the growing pace of economic globalization has created more migrant workers than ever before. Unemployment and increasing poverty have prompted many workers in developing countries to seek work elsewhere, while developed countries have increased their demand for labour, especially unskilled labour.5 As a result, millions of workers and their families travel to countries other than their own to find a job. Yet at the same time migrant workers often enjoy little social protection and are vulnerable to exploitation and human trafficking. Skilled migrant workers are less vulnerable to exploitation, but their departure has deprived some developing countries of valuable labour needed for their own economies. Migrant workers don't have their rights as human beings. ILO standards on migration provide tools for both migrant sending and receiving countries to manage migration flows and ensure adequate protection for this

Ibid, p. 2. Kumar Arvind (ed), Encyclopedia of Human Rights Violence and Non-Violence, Anmol publication pvt Ltd. Vol-I, 1998, p. 1. 5 Wilfred C. Jenks, Human Rights and International Labour Standards: The London Institute of World Affairs, 1960. 4

vulnerable category of workers.6 Protection of migrant workersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; rights at work (labour rights) and basic human rights to prevent gross abuse and exploitation has been at the forefront of global, regional and domestic campaigns on migration. Often the focus has been on the prevention of migrant abuse at the workplace or in everyday living, particularly relating to official abuses of power and extortion/discrimination. Many migrants migrate for economic reasons with plans to make a better life for themselves or their families, primarily through sending remittances home. The issue of social protection as a long-term protection measure for migrants is of crucial importance. The informalization of labour and the increasing insecurity of work across the world means that many of the origin and destination countries of migrant workers, particularly in the developing world and particularly for low skilled migrants in ASEAN, have a situation wherein the vast majority of the working population works in informal work sectors that are not fully covered by labour laws, let alone social protection measures. In addition, the sending and receiving countries of low-skilled migrants, particularly in the developing world and as seen is ASEAN, have weak social protection or social security systems and organizations.7 I would like to take the example from Indonesian migrant workers named Ceriyati Binti Dapin. Ceriyati Binti Dapin, a 37-year-old mother of a handicapped son, had no other choice but to become a migrant domestic worker in order to supplement the income of her husband Ridwan, who worked as an ojek driver in the Central Java town of Brebes. Despite the long recruitment process and delays in getting employment in Malaysia, she had a strong desire to help her husband cover her sonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s regular medical costs. After undergoing job training to become a migrant domestic worker, managed by the employment agent in Jakarta, Ceriyati departed for Kuala Lumpur in 2006. After spending one month waiting for work in a dormitory belonging to her Malaysian agency, she was hired as a migrant domestic worker by a Malaysian family with a working contract stipulating that she will be paid 450 MYR (Malaysian Ringgit) per month. For the first four months, however, she received only 200 MYR (Malaysian Ringgit) a month due to deductions to cover her recruitment fee. Ceriyatiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s female employer rarely gave her more than one meal a day with tap 6

ILO, http://www.ilo.org/global/standards/subjects-covered-by-international-labourstandards/migrant-workers/lang--en/index.htm#P14_3481 7 Fesasia, http://www.fesasia.org/media/publication/2012_MigrantWorkersRightsToSocialProtectionInASEAN_ Hall.pdf

water, and she regularly slapped, kicked and beat Ceriyati when Ceriyati made frequent mistakes. After working for four and half months, Ceriyati told the husband of her employer that she wanted to quit her job, but he did not have the courage to discuss it with his wife. As Ceriyati was unable to endure her employer’s abuse any longer, she made a plan to escape. She escaped from that house through the window and screaming for help from residents on the lower floors. The residents then asked some firefighters, who happened to be conducting an emergency drill nearby, to help her gets down safely using the extendable ladder of the fire truck. Finally, the firefighters brought her to the nearby police station and a couple of Indonesian Embassy officials came to pick her up from the hospital and Ceriyati was saved.8 From that story, we know that Ceriyati doesn't have her rights as a human living and her rights as Indonesian migrant workers. Both governments should have a clear particular law to protect migrant workers from violence or maybe even worse. As I read on Voice of America news, the Indonesian government says it plans to stop sending maids and migrant workers overseas by 2017 in an effort to decrease violence and discrimination against them. 9 I argue that plan is a good idea but that's not a solution for now because restricting migrant workers from seeking employment overseas would increase unemployment. The Indonesian government should ratify ILO (International Labour Organization) convention, 1975 no.143 which provides protection of rights, promotion of equality, and also improve living conditions for migrant workers. "Human rights” is a fairly modern concept, and it is one that has been getting a great deal of attention here in the early years of the twenty-first century. Nowadays, we notice the cases of violation of human rights at various levels. One of them is a non-fulfillment right of the migrant workers. Migrant workers offer the most comprehensive survey of international instruments for the protection of the rights of migrant workers and members of their families available to date. As we know, there's a United Nations agency called ILO who is responsible for promoting rights at work, encouraging decent employment opportunities, and strengthening dialogue on workrelated issues. I hope that ILO and also the government can make better changes for the migrant workers because based on article 1 ILO convention, 1975 no. 143, every 8

ILO, http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---asia/---ro-bangkok/---ilo jakarta/documents/publication/wcms_164268.pdf 9 VOA News, “Indonesia Stop Sending Migrant Workers Abroad”, http://www.voanews.com/content/indonesia-stop-sending-migrant-workers-abroad

countries who's involved in this convention must respect the basic human rights of all migrant workers. I believe that any concept of human rights should include the right for individuals. Without rights, I do not believe that it is possible for people to truly be free. However, I believe that it is possible to achieve a world society in which all people are free and live in peace.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Nickel, James W. Making Sense of Human Rights. n.p.: PT. Gramedia Pustaka Utama. 1996. Indonesian National Commission on Violence against Woman. Indonesian Migrant Domestic Workers. n.p.: Ford Foundation. 2003. Lauren, Paul Gordon. The Evolution of International Human Rights: Vision Seen, 2nd ed., Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. 2003. United Nations, Dept of Public Information. These Rights and Freedoms: Lake Success, New York. 1950. Jenks, Wilfred C. Human Rights and International Labour Standards. n.p.: The London Institute of World Affairs. 1960. Kumar Arvind (ed). Encyclopedia of Human Rights Violence and NonViolence. n.p.; Anmol publication pvt Ltd. Vol-I, 1998. http://www.ilo.org/global/standards/subjects-covered-by-international-labourstandards/migrant-workers/lang--en/index.htm#P14_3481 http://www.fesasia.org/media/publication/2012_MigrantWorkersRightsToSoci alProtectionInASEAN_Hall.pdf http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---asia/---ro-bangkok/---ilo jakarta/documents/publication/wcms_164268.pdf http://www.voanews.com/content/indonesia-stop-sending-migrant-workersabroad

THE USE OF CHEMICAL WEAPONS IN ARMED CONFLICT By: Joviony Veronica Honanda War is a word that is very familiar in this world. War is an action, which could happen if there is a conflict between two parties. Usually these two parties identic with two countries. It has existed since humans exist too as can be seen in the phrase “1Armed conflict is as old as humankind itself” . This is why until now, there has been so many wars happened. In this modern era, it‟s important to have a regulation or rules that may limit the actions of the two parties. This regulation is currently known as International Humanitarian Law or IHL. 2

International Humanitarian Law (IHL) is a set of rules that seeks, for humanitarian

reasons, to limit the effects of armed conflict. It protects persons who are not, or are no longer, participating in hostilities, and imposes limits on the means and methods of warfare. International Humanitarian Law is also known as „the law of war‟ or „the law of armed conflict‟. IHL is a part of public international law that is made up primarily of treaties or conventions between states, customary rules, and general principles of law. Humanitarian law does not only include the Ius ad bellum (law of war) but also includes Ius in bello. Ius ad bellum is the law of war, which discusses when or in what circumstances a country has rights to do war. 3 While Ius in bello regulates the conduct of parties engaged in an armed conflict. 4Ius in bello is divided to: law that regulate how to do war (conduct of war) which is commonly called The Hague Laws and law that regulate the protection of those who are victims of the war which is commonly called The Geneva Laws. So, The Hague Laws and The Geneva Laws are the two fundamental rules of International Humanitarian Law. In International Humanitarian Law also regulates the general conduct of hostilities on the basis of three core principles: distinction, proportionality, and precaution. 5The principle of distinction requires that the parties to an armed conflict distinguish at all times between civilians and civilian objects on the one hand, and combatants and military objectives on the other, and that attacks may only be directed against combatants and military objectives. The 1

“War and International Humanitarian Law, http://www.icrc.org/eng/war- and-law/overview-war-andlaw.htm. Accessed on 9th November 2015, 18.00 WIB” 2 https://www.icrc.org/en/document/what-international-humanitarian-law. 3 Ibid. 4 Hayomataram, Hukum Humaniter. C.V. Radjawali: Jakarta, 1994, page 2. 5 https://www.icrc.org/en/document/what-international-humanitarian-law.

principle if proportionality, dictates that incidental loss of civilian life or injury must not be excessive in relation to the concrete and direct military advantage anticipated. The principle of precaution requires all parties to an armed conflict to take specific precautions such as, when conducting an attack, to verify that targets are military objectives or to give the civilian population an effective warning before the attack. International Humanitarian Law also regulates the restrictions on the means of warfare such as in particular weapons. IHL prohibits means and methods of warfare that cause superfluous injury or unnecessary suffering. Many treaties have therefore banned the use of many weapons, including exploding bullets, chemical and biological weapons, blinding laser weapon. The use of these weapons also against the principle of distinction which some weapons may cause superfluous injury or unnecessary suffering. It also can attack the civilians who are not combatants and military objectives. The prohibition of the use of chemical weapons getting serious when there is The 1993 Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC), although the use of chemical weapons has been banned before6. Meanwhile, Hague Regulations also regulates about the used of weapons in conflict. We can see from Article 22 of The Hague Regulations of 1907 which tell us that the right of belligerents to adopt means of injuring the enemy is not unlimited. While Article 23 of The Hague Regulations of 1907 said that it‟s prohibited to use a weapons, or materials that can give superfluous injuries. Here will be discussed about the usage of chemical weapons by one of the country in the world which is Syria. Syria, or officially known as the Syrian Arab Republic is one of the countries in West Asia that has been in a civil war since April 2011. The civil war is between the government and the opposite parties. The demands of the demonstrators at first was a democratic 7 and economic 8 reforms from the government. Armed conflict in Syria has received much attention of international organizations, especially organizations that based on human rights. International organizations have accused both sides do a great violation of the human rights9. Apparently, this war which has been going for many years is using a chemical

Prohibition of using chemical weapons for the first time can be seen in 1925 Geneva Protocol for the prohibition of the Use in war of Asphyxiating, Poisonous of the Gasses, and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare, which is one of IHL source 7 “Syria – Freedom in the World” www.freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2013/syria 8 “Protesters Take to the Streets in Syria” http://www.npr.org/2011/04/29/135846442/protesters-taketo-the-streets-in-syria 9 “UN Human Rights probe panel reports continuing ‘gross’ violations in Syria”

weapons. The UN got the chance to prove that there‟s the use of gas called sarin10. It is such a news of the use of chemical weapons in Syria since the Ghouta Chemical Attack in August 2013. 11Ghouta Chemical Attack is an attack to the opposite parties with a rocket which have a chemical weapons inside, which is a gas called sarin. Hundred of people died in the attack that occurs in the early morning. This incident makes about 281 peoples died and there are about 1729 victims 12 . While the witness saw no physical injuries. According to Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) in Annex on Chemicals, Sarin in this case is one of the Schedule 1 Chemical lists which is on of toxic chemicals. Which is why the use of Sarin is prohibited by CWC. By this incident, we can see that one of the principles of IHL is not fulfilled, that is the principle of distinction. By this attack, not only the military objective is being attacked, but also the other civilian who are not the target or the military objective As one of the part of UN, Syria have rights to maintain international peace and security. While, armed conflict in Syria which use a chemicals weapons have already contradict to that point because the use of chemicals weapons have threaten the international peace and security. As a member of the 1925 Geneva Protocol for the prohibition of the Use in war of Asphyxiating, Poisonous of the Gasses, and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare, Syria is bound to obey the provisions in 1925 Geneva Protocol. Beside that, the Hague Convention IV of 1899 and 1907 have been considered as part of customary international law, therefore according to Article 22 and Article 23 Hague Regulations, the use of chemical weapons in armed conflict automatically is a violation of international law13. To face this serious problem of the use of chemical weapons, clearly all parties have to uphold international humanitarian law, which absolutely bans the use of chemical weapons 14.

http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=42079, 10 “United Nations Mission to Investigate Allegations of the Use of Chemical Weapons in the Syrian Arab Republic”, https://unoda-web.s3.amazonaws.com/wpcontent/uploads/2013/12/report.pdf 11 “Syria’s Allegedly Worst Chemical Weapons Attack Described by Witnesses”, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/08/21/syria-worst-chemical-weapons- attack_n_3790755.html 12 Bodies still being found after alleged Syria chemical attack: Opposition” http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2013/Aug-22/228268-bodies-still-beingfound-after-allegedsyria-chemical-attack-opposition.ashx#axzz2chzutFua 13 “Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land. The Hague, 18 October 1907.” http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/INTRO/195 14 “Chemicals Weapons: An Absolute Prohibition under International Humanitarian Law.” https://www.icrc.org/eng/resources/documents/interview/2013/07-18-syria-chemical-weapons.htm

Which as we can see that in the Hague Convention 1899 and 1907, there is no specific provision that clearly states that what punishment will be given if a country break the provisions. While in CWC, there states a punishment that will be given to the members if they break the provisions. But, CWC does not consider the source of funds necessary to destroy such weapons, so that there are many countries that have not destroy their chemical weapons because of lack of funds. In this case, Syria has to show some good faith to maintain international peace and security that can be done by to run framework related to destroying their chemical weapons. If in the case Syria failed to destroy all the chemical weapons, then Syria will be seen as a country that does not have a good faith to maintain international peace and security. And based on Article 5 of UN Charter, if Syria failed to implement the framework, the United Nations has the right to suspend the rights and obligations of Syria as part of United Nations General Assembly.

Bibliography BOOKS Gasser, Hans-Peter. International Humanitarian Law: An Introduction. paul Haupt Publisher: Berne- Stuttgart-Vienna, 1993. Hayomataram. Hukum Humaniter. C.V. Radjawali, Jakarta, 1994. RULES Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on Their Destruction. The Hague Convention 1899. The Hague Convention 1907. United Nations Statute.

HUMANITY UNRESTORED: THE CONQUEST BY ISLAMIC STATE OF IRAQ AND SYRIA By Tatiana Kanisha Diamira

Living in the world with a lot of people from many countries with various beliefs and principle has made the world itself fragile. Those diversities many times has caused conflicts or, at a severe level, could cause a war. Even though conflict or war sometimes unavoidable, there must be a set of rules regarding the protection of civilians who does not interfere with the hostilities such as women and children. This is because humanity should be considered as important at any stakes, since it is everyone‟s rights to be treated the way they deserve as a human being. Since post-World War II, such matter has regulated and called as International Humanitarian Law. According to International Committee of the Red Cross Advisory Service of Humanitarian Law, International Humanitarian Law is a set of rules that center upon 1

limiting the effects of armed conflict, which aims to protect persons that are not or no longer participating in hostilities and restrict some warfare provisions (the use of particular weapons and military tactics). International Humanitarian Law is regulated under Geneva Conventions of 1949 and has been developed by further agreements; Additional Protocols of 1977 relating to the protection of victims of armed conflicts. Besides, there are also several other agreements that supplementary to it. International Humanitarian Law is applied to armed conflict, whether it is international or non-international. Since its existence, International Humanitarian Law has been beneficial to resolve many humanitarian issues that emerged due to armed conflict. Nevertheless, it cannot avoid the occurrence of a conflict so that hostilities still happening at some time at some part of the world. For instance, the rise of a militant organization (or a state, as they claimed) called Islamic State of Iraq and Syria started from early 2013. In April 2013, Islamic State of Iraq and Syria was formed under the leadership of Abu Bakar Al-Baghdadi and has become one of the main jihadist groups fighting government forces in Syria and Iraq. Since then, Islamic State of Iraq and Syria starts to conquer many areas in Iraq and Syria with the ways they called as “Jihad”, or Holy War, that is fighting to protect the faith against others. The governance of Islamic State of Iraq and Syria is 1

https://www.icrc.org/eng/assets/files/other/what_is_ihl.pdf.

Cited on September 1, 2015.

following the Takfiri doctrine based on The Holy Koran and the prophecies of Muhammad in a radical way. Thus, any slight denial from those two sources is considered as apostasy. The Islamic State of Iraq and Syria has a purpose to build an Islamic State under its command and is committed to purifying the world from apostles by killing vast numbers of people who denies Islam. Besides, Islamic State of Iraq and Syria also claims to have fighters from the United Kingdom, France, Germany, and other European countries, as well as the US, the Arab world and the Caucasus.

Islamic State of Iraq and Syria has seen considerable military success, as seen by the took over of the Syrian city of Raqqa, Fallujah, Ramadi, and the last was its conquest in 3

Mosul in June 2015. Although their actions gave benefit for their own interest, it also caused several casualties to the society. United Nations report details a number of violations of international humanitarian law attributed to Islamic State of Iraq and Syria, such as engaging in “executions and targeted killings of civilians, abductions, rape and other forms of sexual and physical violence perpetrated against women and children, forced recruitment of children, destruction or desecration of places of religious or cultural significance, wanton 4

destruction and looting of property, and denial of fundamental freedoms”. Not only that, there are over 24.000 Iraqi civilians have been injured or killed by Islamic State of Iraq and Syria in the first eight months of 2014 and that number is still increasing by time. These actions constitute serious violations of International Humanitarian Law and caught the world‟s attention. If related to International Humanitarian Law, there are some points about this issue that can be discussed. Those are why and how can International Humanitarian Law apply in this case, what regulations that breached by Islamic State of Iraq and Syria, and what obstacle that is faced in order to stop Islamic State of Iraq and Syria‟s atrocity actions. In Geneva Conventions 1949, it is stated that International Humanitarian Law applies 5

to all cases of declared war of any other armed conflict. An armed conflict characterized by the specific intention of one party to engage in armed conflict against another specific state or

http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2015/03/what--‐Islamic State of Iraq and Syria-‐really--‐wants/384980/. Cited on September 1, 2015. 3 http://www.bbc.com/news/world--‐middle--‐east--‐24179084. Cited on September 1, 2015. 4 http://humanityinwarblog.com/2014/10/22/building--‐a--‐case--‐against--‐the--‐islamic--‐ state-‐war--‐crimes--‐investigations--‐in--‐iraq--‐and--‐syria/. Cited on September 1, 2015. 5 See Geneva Conventions 1949, Article 2.

party. In this case, Islamic State of Iraq and Syria has proven to be consistently using an armed force to conduct its conquest and thus, International Humanitarian Law may apply. Even though Islamic State of Iraq and Syria is not a State, IHL still can applies since it operates beyond national boundaries of two States (Iraq and Syria) and it is fought by the states occupied by it. It is aforementioned that International Humanitarian Law applies to whether international or non-international armed conflicts. This case is a form of noninternational armed conflicts because it involves an armed group that do not operate under 7

state authority at all , while international armed conflicts shall have at least two States are involved as parties to the conflict. Moreover, it may be more widely accepted today that the international law is binding states even in their internal affairs, a consideration that applies not only to human rights obligation of states towards their own citizens, but also to norms of International Humanitarian Law applicable in non-international armed conflicts.

The inhumane actions conducted by Islamic State of Iraq and Syria should be stopped, because of its cruelty and disturbance to international peace. Its act clearly breached the International Humanitarian Law. According to Jean-Marie Henckaerts and Louise Doswald-Beck on their book, the parties to the conflict must all times distinguish between civilians and combatants. Attack should only be directed against combatants, not civilians.

International law also provided the factor that distinguishes the legal status between combatants and civilians. Combatants, is a person who directly participating in hostilities. For example, members of the armed forces of a state, an armed group, or a person who „accompany the armed forces‟ are considered as combatants so that they are authorized to participate directly in the hostilities. This issue also regulated in Geneva Convention 1949 Article 3, which mention “persons taking no active part in the hostilities...shall be treated humanely, without any distinction founded on…religion or faith...” and act of violence to life and person, taking of hostages, and carrying out executions without previous judgement should be prohibited at any time and in any place. Instead of only attacking the armed forces or combatants of the opposite party, Islamic State of Iraq and Syria attacks anyone who stands their way regardless of their legal status. As a result, there are many civilians 6

Gary D. Solis, The Law of Armed Conflict: International Humanitarian Law in War, (New York: Cambridge, 2010), p. 152. 7 Dieter Fleck, The Handbook of International Humanitarian Law Third Edition, (United Kingdom: Oxford, 2013), p. 581. 8 Ibid., p. 585. 9 Jean--‐Marie and Louise Doswald--‐Beck, Customary International Humanitarian Law: Volume I (International Committee of The Red Cross), p. 3.

casualties. Anyone who does not like the group‟s governance, against the group‟s governance, or have another belief aside from Muslim would considered as apostles and will be executed. This action seems like done solely for the sake of the group‟s prominence. As an addition to it, the atrocity done by the group also posed an irony to this case. Islamic State of Iraq and Syria claimed that they run their „states‟ based on Islam, which is a religion and believe that the application of sharia law in the world would bring good to the society. They build their religious states with their atrocity and force, while there is no religion in this world those permits such action towards fellow human beings. Islamic States of Iraq and Syria‟s concept of religion and actions are however very contradictive. After discussed about International Humanitarian Law related to the actions conducted by Islamic State of Iraq and Syria, it is evident that ISIS has done a breach to international law and thus shall be accused of it. Now comes another question: why is that after several years and enormous amount of casualties, Islamic State of Iraq and Syria still cannot be stopped? There are some reasons to answer it. First, Islamic State of Iraq and Syria has become very powerful in terms of human resources. ISIS members possessed a high level of fanaticism, which is very influential to the younger generation living inside their environment. Islamic State of Iraq and Syria are also known to have a widespread of recruits around the world. In other words, the member of ISIS could possibly grow and expand massively within the following years. Many of the recruits come from low class citizens. The most common reason of them joining ISIS is because they are offered positions as high rank generals in ISIS (which is obviously much better than living below standard). Secondly, ISIS also has financial power, as it is known that ISIS has secured large cash flows from oilfields in eastern Syria besides getting money from its conquered region‟s assets and receiving financial supports from its confidential members from another country. Third, accusation of ISIS before international law can only be done by parties who are directly affected by ISIS‟ actions. Meaning that states that are not directly affected by the radical actions of ISIS are only able to give advice to Iraq and Syria regarding how to deal with ISIS and how to push back the militants. In conclusion, ISIS‟ actions are undoubtedly a breach of international law, specifically International Humanitarian Law. However, its action is still hard to stop since ISIS has become so powerful in both human and financial resources and the enforcement of international law needs to follow certain principle that is not yet fulfilled in this case. The least that we can do to stop it is give an advice to the related parties, stop any ISIS

propaganda in our own country, and provide help for the victims through official international organizations.

BIBLIOGRAPHY BOOKS Fleck, Dieter. The Handbook of International Humanitarian Law Third Edition. United Kingdom: Oxford University Press, 2013. Marie, Jean and Lousie Doswald-Beck. The Law of Armed Conflict: International Humanitarian Law in War. International Committee of the Red Cross: Geneva. Solis, Gary D. The Law of Armed Conflict: International Humanitarian Law in War. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010.

WEBSITES https://www.icrc.org/eng/assets/files/other/what_is_ihl.pdf. http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2015/03/what--‐Islamic State of Iraq and Syria-‐really--‐wants/384980/. http://www.bbc.com/news/world--‐middle--‐east--‐24179084. http://humanityinwarblog.com/2014/10/22/building--‐a--‐case--‐against--‐the--‐islamic--‐ state--‐war--‐crimes--‐investigations--‐in--‐iraq--‐and--‐syria/.

Violations of International Humanitarian Law during Israeli-Palestinian Conflict Vinka Damiandra Ayu Larasati Introduction

International humanitarian law is a set of rules which seek, for humanitarian reasons, to limit the effects of armed conflict. It protects persons who are not or are no longer participating in the hostilities and restricts the means and methods of warfare. International humanitarian law is also known as the law of war or the law of armed conflict. International humanitarian law is part of international law, which is the body of rules governing relations between States. International law is contained in agreements between States – treaties or conventions –, in customary rules, which consist of State practice considered by them as legally binding, and in general principles.1 International humanitarian law applies to armed conflicts. It does not regulate whether a State may actually use force; this is governed by an important, but distinct, part of international law set out in the United Nations Charter. "Serious violations of international humanitarian law" are "war crimes." The two terms are today interchangeable. They can take place in international or non-international armed conflicts. Violating international humanitarian law is by definition violating human rights, while ensuring respect for IHL does not necessarily ensure respect for all human rights.2 Violations are serious, and are war crimes, if they endanger protected persons (e.g. civilians, prisoners of war, the wounded and sick) or objects (e.g. civilian objects or infrastructure) or if they breach important values. 1

Advisory Service on International Humanitarian Law, International Committee of the Red Cross,

https://www.icrc.org/eng/assets/files/other/what_is_ihl.pdf 2

Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights, Working Paper on the

relationship between human rights law and international humanitarian law by Françoise Hampson and Ibrahim Salama, E/CN.4/Sub. 2/2005/14, 21 September 2005, available at www.ohchr.org („Human Rights Bodies‟ – „Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human

Rights‟-„Documents‟).

The majority of war crimes involve death, injury, destruction or unlawful taking of property. Acts can amount to war crimes because they breach important universal values, even without physically endangering persons or objects directly. These include, for example, abusing dead bodies and recruiting children under 15 years of age into the armed forces. In this essay, writer will try to analyze the infamous Israeli-Palestinian conflict for its massive violation of international humanitarian law.

Main Issue The Israeli-Palestinian conflict is rooted in a dispute over land claimed by Jews as their biblical birthright and by the Palestinians, who seek self-determination. Despite repeated attempts to end the conflict between the Israelis and the Palestinians, there is no peace settlement in sight. Neither side has fulfilled the commitments it made under the 2003 roadmap â&#x20AC;&#x201C; a phased timetable designed to lead to a viable Palestinian state alongside Israel, put together by the United States, the European Union, Russia, and the United Nations.3 Under that peace blueprint, the Palestinian Authority was to rein in militants, and it embarked on a U.S.-backed law-and-order campaign in the occupied West Bank. But Hamas, a militant group whose stated aim is the destruction of Israel, beat rival Fatah party in the Palestinian parliamentary elections in 2006 and took control of the Gaza Strip in 2007. Fatah retained control of the West Bank. Hamas rejects Western calls to recognize Israel and renounce violence. Despite the roadmap's call for a halt to Israeli settlement activity, Israel continues to expand settlements in the West Bank and in Arab East Jerusalem. Fatah and Hamas signed a reconciliation agreement in May 2011, but it was not implemented until 2014. Under the deal, a U.S.-backed unity government was formed in June 2014 and elections are to be held within six months. Israel says it rejects any government that includes Hamas. More than 50 percent of Palestinians in the West Bank and Gaza â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2.2 million people â&#x20AC;&#x201C; are refugees, many of whom live in crowded camps. Life in the Palestinian territories has got worse in recent years and economic hardship has deepened. Socio-

Israeli-Palestinian Conflict, Thomson Reuters Foundation,

http://www.trust.org/spotlight/Israeli-Palestinian-conflict/?tab=briefing

economic conditions in Gaza, which is subject to the most severe Israeli restrictions, have deteriorated particularly sharply and the population is increasingly reliant on food aid. On July 8th of 2014, the Israel Defense Forces (“IDF”) announced that they had launched „Operation Protective Edge,‟ a military intervention into the Gaza territory. The IDF stated that the goals of Protective Edge were “aimed to retrieve stability to the residents of southern Israel, eliminate Hamas‟ capabilities and destroy terror infrastructure operating against the State of Israel and its civilians.”4 By September 4th, less than two months later, at least 2,131 Palestinians had been killed, of whom 1,473 were civilians and 501 children.5 The Israeli airstrikes on the Gaza Strip during the IDF represent severe and massive violations of international humanitarian law as defined in the Geneva Conventions, both in regard to the obligations of an Occupying Power and in the requirements of the laws of war. Those violations include: 1. Collective punishment - the entire 1.5 million people who live in the crowded Gaza Strip are being punished for the actions of a few militants. The prohibition on collective punishment, or the punishing of individuals not responsible for criminal action (but who often bear some relation to those who may be), is a “fundamental guarantee” to all global citizens under Article 4(2)(b) of the Second Additional Protocol (Protocol II) to the Geneva Conventions.6 Moreover, Article 33 of the Fourth Geneva Conventions states the following:

No protected person may be punished for an offence he or she has not personally committed. Collective penalties and likewise all measures of intimidation or of terrorism are prohibited. Pillage is prohibited. Reprisals against protected persons and their property are prohibited.7

Operation ‘Protective Edge’ Commences as IDF Targets Terror Sites in the Gaza Strip, Israel

Defense Forces Blog (July 8th, 2014), available at: http://www.idfblog.com/blog/2014/07/08/operationprotective-edge-commences-as-idf-targets-terror-sites-in-the-gaza-strip/

Occupied Palestinian Territory: Gaza Emergency Situation Report, UN Office for the

Coordination

Humanitarian

Affairs

(September

4th,

http://www.ochaopt.org/documents/ocha_opt_sitrep_04_09_2014.pdf 6

Article 4(2)(b) of Protocol II

Article 33 of the Fourth Geneva Conventions

2014),

available

at:

2. Targeting civilians - the airstrikes were aimed at civilian areas in one of the most crowded stretches of land in the world, certainly the most densely populated area of the Middle East. This kind of international humanitarian law‟s violation is specifically enshrined in Article 48 of Additional Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions, stating that:

In order to ensure respect for and protection of the civilian population and civilian objects, the Parties to the conflict shall at all times distinguish between the civilian population and combatants and between civilian objects and military objectives and accordingly shalldirect their operations only against military objectives.8

One of the key goals of international humanitarian law has been to try to shield innocents from the violent geopolitical battles that go on around them. Without it, not only could warring states fire indiscriminately without worry and taking civilians as collateral damage, but civilians could become strategic targets themselves, one of the greatest concerns of the international community. In this light, we can see why the Principle of Distinction is so important, and why the International Criminal Court, under Article 8 of the Rome Statute, declares it a war crime to “[direct] attacks against the civilian population as such or against individual civilians not taking direct part in hostilities.”9 Similarly in the following subsections of Article 8, direct attacks on either “civilian objects…which are not military objectives” or “personnel, installations, material, units, or vehicles involved in a humanitarian assistance or peacekeeping mission in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations” are also deemed war crimes.10

3. Disproportionate military response - the airstrikes have not only destroyed every police and security office of Gaza's elected government, but have killed and injured hundreds of civilians; at least one strike reportedly hit groups of students attempting to find transportation home from the university.

Article 48 of Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to

the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I), 8 June 1977 9

Article 8(2)(b)(i) of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court

Ibid.

Conducting an individual attack in a disproportionate manner is contrary to customary international humanitarian law under Article 51(5)(b) of Additional Protocol I, codified as follows:

Among others, the following types of attacks are to be considered as indiscriminate: â&#x20AC;Ś(b) an attack which may be expected to cause incidental loss of civilian life, injury to civilians, damage to civilian objects, or a combination thereof, which would be excessive in relation to the concrete and direct military advantage anticipated.11

Earlier Israeli actions, specifically the complete sealing off of entry and exit to and from the Gaza Strip, have led to severe shortages of medicine and fuel (as well as food), resulting in the inability of ambulances to respond to the injured, the inability of hospitals to adequately provide medicine or necessary equipment for the injured, and the inability of Gaza's besieged doctors and other medical workers to sufficiently treat the victims. States party to IHL treaties are legally bound to comply with the rules and must do everything in their power to respect and ensure respect for IHL. Possible actions that could be imposed to countries which violate the international humanitarian law are complaints, compensation fee, and reprisal. Serious violations of IHL constitute war crimes by individuals at all levels of society can be held individually criminally responsible. After all, international law is a system without sanctions.12 The primary responsibility for the prosecution of those accused of war crimes rests with States, regardless of where they were committed. Certain specific acts found in the Geneva Conventions and Protocol I, such as willful killing, torture or inhuman treatment, rape and other acts which willfully cause great suffering or injury to body or health, must be punished. IHL also requires States to search for people accused of grave breaches and bring them before their own courts or hand them over for trial in another State. It is concurrently important for States to require military commanders to prevent the commission of war crimes and to take measures against those under their control who commit grave breaches.

Article 51(5)(b) of Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I), 8 June 1977.

J. G. Starke, An Introduction to International Law, (London: Butterworth & Co., Bell Yard, Temple Bar, 1947), p. 30.

As well as domestic prosecutions, the international community has established a number of international tribunals that aim to supplement national courts. In 2002, the International Criminal Court (ICC) entered into force. This is the first permanent body established to have jurisdiction over serious international crimes, including war crimes, regardless of whether they were committed in an international or noninternational armed conflict. The ICC will only operate when a State is genuinely unable or unwilling to prosecute those who are accused of crimes and are within their own jurisdiction. Increasingly, various countries are also creating mechanisms to prosecute those accused of war crimes that are part of the domestic jurisdiction but also incorporate international support. On June 2014, The Palestinian Authority has handed over its first submission of evidence of Israeli war crimes to the ICC, in a bid to speed up an ICC inquiry into abuses committed during last year's Gaza conflict. The Palestinian documents submitted were not made public. It is understood that the documents describe Israeli settlements and why Palestine sees the action as a violation of international law. After decades of being immune to and not bound by international law, Israel's actions are finally being exposed to legal scrutiny. But, it also applies for the action of Hamas in the Gaza strip. Where attempts at political solutions have manifestly failed, taking to the international courts now seems like the only sensible solution - and not just for Palestinians, but for Israelis too. For its part, Israel will have to decide whether it will cooperate with the ICC. If it refuses to do so, it risks further isolating itself and inviting more international condemnation.

Conclusion The Israeli airstrikes today, and the catastrophic human toll that they caused, challenge those countries that have been and remain complicit, either directly or indirectly, in Israel's violations of international humanitarian law. That complicity includes those countries knowingly providing the military equipment including warplanes and missiles used in these illegal attacks, as well as those countries who have supported and participated in the siege of Gaza that itself has caused a humanitarian catastrophe. Certainly the rocket attacks against civilian targets in Israel

are unlawful. But that illegality does not give rise to any Israeli right, neither as the Occupying Power nor as a sovereign state, to violate international humanitarian law and commit war crimes or crimes against humanity in its response.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

•

Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I), 8 June 1977.

•

Starke, J.G. An Introduction to International Law, London: Butterworth & Co., Bell Yard Temple Bar. 1947.

•

Occupied Palestinian Territory: Gaza Emergency Situation Report, UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (September 4th, 2014)

•

Operation ‘Protective Edge’ Commences as IDF Targets Terror Sites in the Gaza Strip, Israel Defense Forces Blog (July 8th, 2014)

•

Advisory Service on International Humanitarian Law, International Committee of the Red Cross, https://www.icrc.org/eng/assets/files/other/what_is_ihl.pdf

•

Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights, Working Paper on the relationship between human rights law and international humanitarian law by Françoise Hampson and Ibrahim Salama, E/CN.4/Sub. 2/2005/14, 21 September 2005

•

Israeli-Palestinian

Conflict,

Thomson

Reuters

Foundation,

http://www.trust.org/spotlight/Israeli-Palestinian-conflict/?tab=briefing

TANTANGAN INDONESIA MENGHADAPI ALUR TRANSAKSI GLOBAL DALAM ETALASE E-COMMERCE Uvani Martaulina Rodoputri Menurut riset Google yang bekerja sama dengan idEA dan TNS, transaksi Ecommerce di Indonesia pada tahun 2013 mencapai US$ 8 miliar (Rp 94,5 triliun). Sedangkan pada tahun 2016, nilainya akan mengendut tiga kali lipat. Di sisi lain, survey Litbang Kompas menyatakan, transaksi E-Commerce di Indonesia pada tahun 2015 menembus Rp 145 triliun. Meningkatnya transaksi E-Commerce di Indonesia antara lain disebabkan membaiknya kondisi perekonomian, di samping berkembangnya masyarakat kelas menegah. E-Commerce merupakan perdagangan yang dilakukan melalui media elektronik atau suatu sarana dalam kegiatan bisnis yang menyangkut konsumen, service provider dan perantara pedagang dengan menggunakan jaringan internet. Dengan menggunakan jaringan internet dalam dunia bisnis maka didapati beberapa kemajuan seperti memiliki kemampuan untuk menjangkau lebih banyak pelanggan dan setiap saat informasinya dapat diakses secara terus menerus, mendorong kreativitas para pedagang secara tepat dan cepat dalam pendistribusian informasi yang disampaikan secara periodik dan dengan adanya E-Commerce dapat menciptakan efisiensi waktu yang tinggi dan murah. Di Indonesia, pengaturan E-Commerce diatur dalam Undang-Undang No 11 Tahun 2008 tentang Informasi dan Transaksi Elektronik. Dua hal penting pengaturan Ecommerce dalam undang-undang tersebut adalah pertama, pengakuan transaksi elektronik dan dokumen elektronik dalam kerangka hukum perikatan dan hukum pembuktian, sehingga kepastian hukum transaksi elektronik dapat terjamin dan kedua, diklasifikasikannya tindakan-tindakan yang termasuk kualifikasi pelanggaran hukum terkait penyalahgunaan Teknologi Informasi disertai sanksi pidananya. Perlindungan konsumen dalam transaksi E-Commerce diatur oleh UndangUndang Perlindungan Konsumen dan Undang-Undang Informasi dan Transaksi Elektronik dan dapat dilihat dalam Pasal 1 ayat 1 UUPK yang mendefinisikan perlindungan konsumen dalam pengertian yang limitatif bahwa â&#x20AC;&#x153;Perlindungan Konsumen adalah segala upaya yang menjamin adanya kepastian hukum untuk memberi perlindungan konsumenâ&#x20AC;? dan dalam Pasal 4 huruf h menyatakan bahwa

konsumen antara lain memiliki hak untuk memperoleh informasi yang benar, jelas, jujur, tentang kondisi dan jaminan barang/jasa. Terkait transaksi E-Commerce Pasal 9 UU ITE juga menguatkan aspek perlindungan konsumen dalam transaksi perdagangan Elektronis dengan menyebutkan bahwa pelaku usaha yang menawarkan produk melalui sistem Elektronis harus menyediakan informasi yang lengkap dan benar terkait dengan syarat kontrak, produsen dan produk yang ditawarkan. Adanya pengakuan terhadap transaksi elektronik dan dokumen elektronik maka setidaknya kegiatan E-Commerce mempunyai ketentuan hukumnya dan memberikan perlindungan terhadap konsumen yang melakukan transaksi E-Commerce. Sehingga, UU Perlindungan Konsumen dan UU Informasi dan Transaksi Elektronik telah mampu memberikan perlindungan hukum yang memadai bagi konsumen dalam melakukan transaksi jual beli barang bergerak melalui E-Commerce. Perlindungan hukum tersebut terlihat dalam ketentuan-ketentuan UUPK dan UU ITE dimana kedua peraturan tersebut telah mengatur mengenai penggunaan data pribadi konsumen, syarat sahnya suatu transaksi E-Commerce, penggunaan CA (Certificate Authority), permasalahan klausula baku dan mengatur mengenai perbuatan yang dilarang bagi pelaku usaha dalam memasarkan dan memproduksi barang dan jasa yang dapat dijadikan acuan bagi objek dalam transaksi E-Commerce. Walaupun UUPK memiliki kelemahan yaitu hanya menjangkau pelaku usaha di Indonesia saja namun kelemahan ini sudah ditutupi oleh UU ITE dan berbagai ketentuan Internasional seperti UNCITRAL Model Law. Meskipun dinilai telah mampu memberikan perlindungan hukum yang memadai bagi konsumen, Perlindungan Konsumen yang diatur dalam UUPK maupun UU ITE haruslah dipertajam baik dari arti Perlindungan Konsumen itu sendiri serta masih ada beberapa subjek pengaturan yang belum diatur seperti Transparansi dan Pengungkapan Informasi, dan Konfirmasi Jual-Beli Dalam mempertajam pengaturan Perlindungan Konsumen dalam transaksi ECommerce, sebaiknya dilakukan sebagai berikut: Pertama, ada baiknya perluasan tafsiran mengenai makna perlindungan konsumen dimana juga mencakup seluruh aspek perlindungan konsumen

yang melakukan transaksi

elektronik,

bukan hanya

konvensional. Selain itu juga diperlukan implementasi terkait perlindungan konsumen dalam hukum positif lainnya. Penguatan perlindungan konsumen dalam perdagangan secara elektronik adalah aspek yang sangat penting. Penguatan tidak cukup hanya

sebatas pengaturan regulasi, diperlukan penguatan dalam bentuk mekanisme kelembagaan yang meningkatkan signifikansi dan kepercayaan (kredibilitas) dari lembaga-lembaga terkait yang memiliki kewenangan untuk melindungi kedua belah pihak (konsumen dan produsen) dari praktik penipuan dan penyalahgunaan media internet. Bentuk penguatan mekanisme kelembagaan dapat dilakukan dengan memperkuat fungsi lembaga keandalan sebagai pihak ketiga yang dapat dipercaya dalam menerbitkan Sertifikat Digital dan membuat iklim perdagangan Elektronis menjadi lebih aman dan terpercaya oleh masyarakat pengguna. Empat aspek keamanan sesuai dengan falsafah pendirian Institusi Certification Authority yaitu otentisitas, integritas, tidak dapat disangkal dan pertukaran informasi sesuai kelayakan penerima. Certification Authority tersebut memang bertujuan untuk melindungi konsumen namun sayangnya terdapat permasalahan dimana menurut pakar internet Onno W. dalam Undang-Undang Informasi dan Transaksi Elektronik, tepatnya tertuang dalam Pasal 522, transaksi elektronik diprediksi sulit berjalan karena justru akan menyulitkan perbankan. Transaksi elektronik sangat tergantung pada konsep tanda tangan digital dan konsep Certificate Authority. Padahal saat ini sebagian besar transaksi internet di Indonesia masih berbasis e-mail. Menurut Onno, 99,99% transaksi elektronik yang ada di Indonesia terutama melalui internet, tidak menggunakan tanda- tangan digital apalagi Certificate Authority. Dalam Pasal 10 UU ITE yang berbunyi â&#x20AC;&#x153;Setiap pelaku usaha yang menyelenggarakan Transaksi Elektronik dapat disertifikasi oleh Lembaga Sertifikasi Keandalanâ&#x20AC;?. Dengan adanya kata â&#x20AC;&#x153;dapatâ&#x20AC;? dalam UU tersebut maka Sertifikat tersebut bukanlah suatu keharusan yang harus dilakukan oleh pelaku usaha, namun jika tidak adanya sertifikat tersebut dapat membuat kepercayaan seorang konsumen berkurang, sehingga Pemerintah harus mencari inovasi terbaru untuk membantu pelaku usaha untuk mendapat kepercayaan konsumen selain menggunakan Sertifikat yang dibuat oleh Lembaga Sertifikasi Keandalan. Kedua, mengenai transparansi dan pengungkapan informasi, Pemerintah harus mengatur bentuk pengungkapan informasi online sebagai salah satu bentuk tindakan perlindungan konsumen dengan menitikberatkan pada pengungkapan informasi yang meliputi pengungkapan informasi mengenai bisnis meliputi legalitas dan identitas bisnis, informasi mengenai barang/jasa yang memungkin konsumen untuk mengunduh

representasi barang sebagai rujukan melakukan transaksi dan alat bukti ketika barang yang dikirim tidak sesuai dengan representasi yang telah diunduh dan informasi mengenai transaksi dimana pelaku usaha harus merinci secara jelas dan detail terkait terms and conditions dari transaksi

termasuk seluruh biaya yang seharusnya

dikeluarakan oleh konsumen. Ketiga, mengenai Konfirmasi Jual Beli yang harus diatur secara detil sehingga konsumen tidak perlu melakukan kesepakatan sebelum terpenuhinya seluruh persyaratan. Pengaturan mekanisme acceptance berkaitan tentang pernyataan telah diterimanya suatu penawaran oleh konsumen. Pihak yang memberikan penawaran harus menjelaskan secara terperinci metode penerimaan jika penawaran tersebut disetujui, serta harus dipastikan bahwa perjanjian online yang disepakati sudah memiliki pengamanan khusus seperti tanda tangan digital. Pemerintah dapat melakukan pembaharuan-pembaharuan peraturan mengenai Perlindungan Konsumen dengan merumuskan permasalah-permasalahan tersebut kedalam Rancangan Peraturan Pemerintah yang dibuat untuk menunjang UndangUndang Nomor 7 Tahun 2014 tentang Perdagangan. Selain mendapat tantangan dalam sisi yuridis, Pemerintah Indonesia juga mempunyai tantangan di luar sisi yuridis yaitu untuk melakukan sosialisasi mengenai semua peraturan yang mengatur E-Commerce kepada masyarakat karena hingga saat ini banyak masyarakat Indonesia yang masih menganggap remeh transaksi E-Commerce ini. Sehingga dengan sosialisasi ini diharapkan pelaku usaha, konsumen dan pemerintah dapat menyiapakan diri agar pelaksanaan dari Peraturan mengenai E-Commerce dapat berjalan dengan lancar dan efisien

REFERENSI

UNDANG-UNDANG Undang-Undang Nomor 11 Tahun 2008 tentang Informasi dan Transaksi Elektronik Undang-Undang Nomor 8 Tahun 1999 tentang Perlindungan Konsumen

ARTIKEL DAN JURNAL Bachdar,

Saviq.

Berapa

Sebenarnya

Nilai

Pasar

E-Commerce

Indonesia?.

http://marketeers.com/article/berapa-sebenarnya-nilai-pasar-e-commerceindonesia.html. diakses pada 27 Januari 2016 Setiawan, Iwan. Memahami Ketentuan Hukum E-Commerce di Indonesia-Sudah Siapkah

Kita?.

http://digitalsquad.co.id/file/icca/Memahami_Ketentuan_Hukum_E-

COmmerce_di_Indonesia.pdf. diakses pada 29 Januari 2016

IMPLIKASI INDONESIA INVESTMENT LIST TERHADAP PENANAMAN MODAL INVESTOR ASING DI INDONESIA Varial Ashari

Menurut Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, Investasi adalah penanaman uang atau modal dalam suatu perusahaan atau proyek untuk tujuan memperoleh keuntungan finansial. Definisi penanaman modal itu sendiri juga diatur dalam Undang-Undang No. 25 Tahun 2007 tentang Penanaman Modal. Dijelaskan dalam Pasal 1 ayat (1) UU No. 25 Tahun 2007 bahwa “Penanaman modal adalah segala bentuk kegiatan menanam modal, baik oleh penanam modal dalam negeri maupun penanam modal asing untuk melakukan usaha di wilayah negara Republik Indonesia”. Dalam upaya meningkatkan penanaman modal di Indonesia dan persiapan menghadapi ASEAN Economic Community (AEC), Pemerintah Indonesia memperbaiki ketentuan daftar bidang usaha yang tertutup dan terbuka dengan persyaratan di bidang penanaman modal (Daftar Negatif Investasi/DNI). Perbaikan ini tertuang dalam Peraturan Presiden (Perpres) No. 44 Tahun 2016 tentang Daftar Bidang Usaha yang Tertutup dan Bidang Usaha yang Terbuka dengan Persyaratan di Bidang Penanaman Modal, yang ditandatangani Presiden Joko Widodo pada tanggal 12 Mei 2016. Peraturan baru menggantikan peraturan lama, Perpres No. 39 Tahun 2014.1 Adapun tujuan Daftar Negatif Investasi di Indonesia, dapat dilihat dalam Pasal 3 Perpres No. 76 tahun 2007: 1.

Meletakkan landasan hukum yang pasti bagi penyusunan peraturan terkait dengan penanaman modal

Menjamin transparansi dalam proses penyusunan daftar bidang usaha yang tertutup dan bidang usaha yang terbuka dengan persyaratan

Memberikan pedoman dalam menyusun dan menetapkan bidang usaha tertutup dan bidang usaha yang terbuka dengan persyaratan

BKPM, “Daftar Negatif Investasi : DNI”, http://www.bkpm.go.id/id/prosedur-investasi/daftar-negatifinvestasi, diakses pada 24 Mei 2016

Memberikan pedoman dalam melakukan pengkajuan ulang atas daftar bidang usaha yang tertutup dan bidang usaha yang terbuka dengan persyaratan

Memberikan pedoman apabila terjadi perbedaan penafsiran atas daftar bidang usaha yang tertutup dan bidang usaha yang terbuka dengan persyaratan2

Perpres ini membagi tiga kelompok bidang usaha, yaitu: 

Bidang usaha yang tertutup;



Bidang usaha yang terbuka dengan persyaratan, bidang usaha yang dicadangkan atau kemitraan dengan Usaha Mikro, Kecil dan Menengah serta Koperasi;



Bidang usaha yang terbuka dengan persyaratan tertentu.

Perpres 44 tahun 2016 banyak mengatur bidang usaha yang terbuka dengan persyaratan. Ini sejalan dengan konsiderans penerbitan Perpres No. 44 Tahun 2015, pemerintah ingin membuka ruang investasi tetapi „tetap meningkatkan perlindungan bagi usaha mikro, kecil dan menengah serta koperasi serta berbagai sektor strategis nasional.3 Daftar bidang usaha untuk masing-masing terlampir dalam Perpres No. 44 Tahun 2016. Pasal 3 Perpres menegaskan jika ada bidang usaha tidak dimasukkan ke dalam bidang usaha tertutup atau terbuka dengan persyaratan maka bidang usaha tersebut masuk kategori terbuka. Salah satu yang secara tegas diatur dalam Perpres DNI baru ini adalah mengenai persyaratan lokasi, dimana Pasal 7 Perpres 44 tahun 2016 menegaskan Bidang Usaha yang Terbuka dengan Persyaratan harus memenuhi persyaratan lokasi sebagaimana diatur dalam peraturan perundang-undangan bidang penataan ruang dan juga pengelolaan lingkungan hidup.

Pasal 3, Peraturan Presiden Nomor 76 Tahun 2007 tentang Kriteria dan Persyaratan Penyusunan Bidang Usaha yang Tertutup dan Bidang Usaha yang Terbuka dengan Persyaratan di Bidang Penanaman Modal. 3

Hukum Online, “Akhirnyya Perpres DNI Baru Terbit”, http://www.hukumonline.com/berita/baca/lt5743d44aee472/akhirnya--perpres-dni-baru-terbit, diakses pada hari Selasa, 24 Mei 2016.

Dalam menetapkan revisi DNI ini pemerintah berpegang pada tujuh prinsip dasar yaitu: 4 1. Memberikan perlindungan sepenuhnya kepada pelaku usaha kecil dan menengah. 2. Memotong mata rantai oligarki dan kartel yang selama ini terjadi di beberapa sektor. 3. Membuat hal-hal yang dibutuhkan oleh rakyat menjadi lebih murah. 4. Mengantisipasi persaingan global. 5. Dengan DNI yang dilakukan perbaikan, lapangan kerja itu diharapkan akan bisa dibuka menjadi lebih baik. 6. Membuat perusahaan nasional akan semakin mempunyai daya saing yang kuat. 7. Bukan dalam rangka liberalisasi tetapi dalam rangka modernisasi.

Selain yang telah diuraikan diatas, Revisi Perpres DNI ini juga menimbulkan banyak perubahan terhadap penanaman modal oleh investor asing, berikut rinciannya : 

30% sebanyak 32 bidang usaha, yaitu antara lain budi daya hortikultura, perbenihan hortikultura, dan sebagainya. Tidak berubah karena mandat UU.



33% sebanyak 3 bidang usaha, yaitu distributor dan pergudangan meningkat menjadi 67%, serta cold storage meningkat menjadi 100%.



49% sebanyak 54 bidang usaha, di mana 14 bidang usaha meningkat menjadi 67% (seperti: pelatihan kerja, biro perjalanan wisata, lapangan golf, jasa penunjang angkutan udara, dan sebagainya); dan 8 bidang usaha meningkat menjadi

100%

(seperti: sport

center,

laboratorium

pengolahan

film,

industri crumb rubber, dan sebagainya); serta 32 bidang usaha tetap 49%, seperti fasilitas pelayanan akupuntur. 

51% sebanyak 18 bidang usaha, di mana 10 bidang usaha meningkat menjadi 67% (seperti: museum swasta, jasa boga, jasa konvensi, pameran dan perjalanan insentif, dan sebagainya); dan 1 bidang usaha meningkat menajdi 100%, yaitu restoran; serta 7 bidang usaha tetap 51%, seperti pengusahaan pariwisata alam.

Sekretariat Kabinet Republik Indonesia, “Diumumkan Besok, Inilah 7 Prinsip Dasar DNI”, http://setkab.go.id/diumumkan-besok-inilah-7-prinsip-dasar-dni/, diakses pada hari Selasa, 24 Mei 2016



55% sebanyak 19 bidang usaha, di mana semuanya bidang usaha meningkat menjadi 67%, yaitu jasa bisnis/jasa konsultansi konstruksi dengan nilai pekerjaan di atas Rp 10.000.000.000,00.



65% sebanyak 3 bidang usaha, di mana 3 bidang usaha meningkat menjadi 67%, seperti penyelenggaraan jaringan telekomunikasi yang terintegrasi dengan jasa telekomunikasi, Penyelenggaraan jaringan telekomunikasi yang terintegrasi dengan jasa telekomunikasi, dan sebagainya.



85% sebanyak 8 bidang usaha, di mana 1 bidang usaha meningkat menjadi 100%, yaitu industri bahan baku obat; dan 7 bidang usaha lainnya tetap karena UU, seperti sewa guna usaha, dan sebagainya.



95% sebanyak 17 bidang usaha, di mana 5 bidang usaha meningkat menjadi 100% (seperti: pengusahaan jalan tol, pembentukan lembaga pengujian perangkat telekomunikasi/tes laboratorium, dan sebagainya); dan 12 bidang usaha tetap 95% karena UU seperti usaha perkebunan dengan luas 25 hektar atau lebih yang terintegrasi dengan unit pengolahan dengan kapasitas sama atau melebihi kapasitas tertentu, dan sebagainya.5

Perubahan yang cukup signifikan dari pemerintah ini tentunya menimbulkan dampak yang akan berpengaruh terhadap penanaman modal asing di segala aspek bidang usaha, sebagai contoh industri perfilman dinyatakan bukan 100 persen untuk asing dalam Perpres 39 Tahun 2014 tentang Daftar Bidang Usaha yang Tertutup dan Bidang Usaha yang terbuka dengan Persyaratan di Bidang Penanaman Modal. Bidang usaha ini hanya dibuka untuk Penanaman Modal Dalam Negeri, namun melalui revisi Perpres ini, asing diperbolehkan ikut bersaing dan menanam modal dalam industri perfilman Indonesia. Kemudian pertanyaan yang akan muncul adalah apakah jika investasi asing terus mengalir di Indonesia, apakah industry dalam negeri telah siap untuk bersaing dengan investor asing? Dapat disimpulkan dari pembahasan diatas bahwa dengan adanya revisi Perpres tentang bidang usaha tertutup atau yang biasa disebut Daftar Negatif Investasi tentu 5

Detik Finance, “Pemerintah Revisi Aturan DNI, Ini Rinciannya”, http://finance.detik.com/read/2016/02/11/172351/3139784/4/pemerintah-revisi-aturan-dni-ini-rinciannya, diakses pada hari Selasa, 24 Mei 2016

membawa banyak perubahan pada pengaturan penanaman modal oleh investor asing. Dalam menghadapi situasi ini tentunya pemerintah harus lebih tegas dalam realisasi pelaksanaannya sehingga membuat Indonesia lebih maju dan berkembang namun tetap memperhatikan kesejahteraan industri dalam negeri.

DAFTAR PUSTAKA

ARTIKEL BKPM. “Daftar Negatif Investasi: DNI”. http://www.bkpm.go.id/id/prosedurinvestasi/daftar-negatif-investasi. Diakses pada 24 Mei 2016. Detik

Finance.

“Pemerintah

Revisi

Aturan

DNI,

Ini

Aturannya”.

http://finance.detik.com/read/2016/02/11/172351/3139784/4/pemerintahrevisi-aturan-dni-ini-rinciannya. Diakses pada hari Selasa, 24 Mei 2016 Hukum

Online.

“Akhirnya,

Perpres

DNI

Baru

Terbit”.

http://www.hukumonline.com/berita/baca/lt5743d44aee472/akhirnya-perpres-dni-baru-terbit. Diakses pada hari Selasa, 24 Mei 2016. Sekretariat Kabinet Republik Indonesia. “Diumumkan Besok, Inilah 7 Prinsip Dasar DNI”. http://setkab.go.id/diumumkan-besok-inilah-7-prinsip-dasar-dni/. Diakses pada hari Selasa, 24 Mei 2016

UNDANG-UNDANG

Peraturan Presiden Nomor 76 Tahun 2007 tentang Kriteria dan Persyaratan Penyusunan Bidang Usaha yang Tertutup dan Bidang Usaha yang Terbuka dengan Persyaratan di Bidang Penanaman Modal.

Peraturan Pemerintah No. 44 Tahun 2016 tentang Daftar Bidang Usaha yang Tertutup dan Bidang Usaha yang Terbuka dengan Persyaratan di Bidang Penanaman Modal.

LAW AND SOCIETY – INDIA RAPE CRISIS By Cynthia Yunita Ilyas Law and Society is an interdisciplinary minor that emphasizes the complexity and interrelationship of legal, social, and ethical issues in their historical context.

Law and

society has become a major issue around Asia as it covers many issue such as drug decriminalization, imprisonment, rape, and also racism. One of the issue that has become a worldwide concern is rape, especially in India. In a victory for survivors of rape and their advocates, the Attorney General announced a newly revised definition of rape for nationwide data collection to make sure that rape will be more accurately reported nationwide and this change sends an important message to all victims that what happens to them matters, and to perpetrators that they will be held accountable. This important change was held by the FBI Director Robert Mueller within the FBI’s Uniform Crime Report (UCR) Summary Reporting System (SRS). “Forcible rape” had been defined by the UCR SRS as “the carnal knowledge of a female, forcibly and against her will.”2 This definition hasn’t changed since 1927 and was outdated and narrow. It only included forcible male penile penetration of a female vagina. So, the new definition is “The penetration, no matter how slight, of the vagina or anus with any body part or object, or oral penetration by a sex organ of another person, without the consent of the victim.” 3 For the first time ever, the new definition includes any gender of victim and perpetrator, not just women being raped by men. It also recognizes that rape with an object can be as traumatic as penile/vaginal rape. This definition also includes instances in which the victim is unable to give consent because of temporary or permanent mental or physical incapacity. 4 This definition is more inclusive, so the reported crimes of rape are likely to

Law and Society, UC San Diego https://www.ucsd.edu/catalog/curric/LAWS.html An Updated Definition of Rape, 6 January 2012. https://www.justice.gov/opa/blog/updateddefinition-rape 3 Ibid. 4 Ibid. 2

increase. This does not mean that rape has increased, but simply that it is more accurately reported. Rape and violence against women are a massive problem in India. According to the country's National Crime Record Bureau, crimes against women have increased by 7.1 percent since 2010. The number of rapes reported has also risen. Nearly one in three rape victims in India is under the age of 18. One in 10 are under 14. Every 20 minutes in India, a woman is raped and India ranks third for the number of rapes reported each year.5 One explanation for the ongoing rape problem is the skewed sex ratio. Like China, India has a massive imbalance in its sex ratio. According to the Indian census, the sex ratio in the 6 and below age group has risen from 102.4 males per 100 females in 1961 (the Liberal Nehru days) to 108.9 in 2011 (the Fiery Hindutva Ideology days). In Gujarat, Indian PM Modi’s home state, the sex ratio is 112 to 100.6 And yet, the surplus of males in China doesn’t appear to be leading to a rape crisis there. In fact, research has found that while China has seen an uptick in general violence due to the Bare Branches, they actually tend to behave gently around women. No such correlation was found in India. The answer is because of Indian caste system. There is an expression in India that “bringing up a daughter is like watering a neighbor’s plant.” India places women lower than men. There is a total and complete disrespect for women in Indian religious scriptures. The Mahabharata, Book 13 Section 40 (13.40), states, “There is no creature more sinful, than woman. She is poison, she is snake.” Other texts say that “Women are living lies.”7 In a society where the national narrative conditions people to think that rape has no consequences; where violence has been unleashed by an imbalanced sex ratio; and where women have little or no cultural respect, 37,000 reported rapes per year is not shocking, or even surprising. It is just par for the course. This national narrative conditions resulting many brutal-rape cases that has been a global issue. The most notorious of all rape cases has to be the Delhi gang rape of 2012

More.com, “Is India the Rape Capital of the World?” http://www.more.com/news/india-rapecapital-world?quicktabs_2=0 6 Shaan Khan, What’s Really Behind India’s Rape Crisis, 25 March 2015, http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2016/03/25/what-s-really-behind-india-s-rape-crisis.html 7 ibid

that happened on 16 December 2012. Delhi Gang rape and murder case was one of the most brutal case not only in India but in the world. A 23 year woman and her friend were on their way to home from Saket to Dwarka. On their way, near Munirka, they aboard an off duty private bus to reach their final destination. Soon after some time, the male passenger, Awindra Pratap Pandey found that the bus was deviated and not going where they thought they were going. He was beaten by six people who were already on board with an iron rod and knocked unconscious. Then six of them of which one is a juvenile forced the woman, raped her and then he injected a wheel jack handle rite into her genitals, which damaged her abdomen and intestine. Their cruelty didn’t just end here, they threw both of them out from the moving bus, and vanished out of the spot. After a week of treatment, she died in a hospital in Singapore. All the six people were arrested and one of them Ram Singh committed suicide in trial period in jail. Four of them were hanged and the young boy under 18 is sent to a juvenile home.8 The Imrana rape case of 2005 brings to light another problem in India about separate laws for separate religions. Imrana was raped by her father in law in Uttar Pradesh and the village elders treated it as a case of adultery instead of rape and ordered Imrana to leave her husband and consider herself married to her father in law. After a lot of media attention she got justice as her father in law was sentenced to a term of 10 years of imprisonment. 9 Another brutal rape case is 2013 Mumbai gang rape. This gang rape was executed by five individuals in the abandoned Shakti Mills compound, Mahalaxmi, Mumbai. On August 22, 2013, a 22-year-old photojournalist with her male colleague went to the deserted compound on an assignment. Five men attacked them, tied the male colleague and molest the photojournalist. They also threatened both of them to not to report this incident. She gave her statement to police after four days on the 26 August, after receiving medical treatment from Jaslok Hospital. In her statement, she bravely said that, “I want no other woman in this city and country to go through such a brutal physical humiliation. Perpetrators should be punished hardly, they have ruined my life. No punishment short of a 8

Rank Red, “15 Worst and Most Brutal Rape Cases in India”, 30 June 2015, http://www.rankred.com/10-worst-and-most-brutal-rape-cases-in-india/ 9 Ibid.

life term will take away my pain, humiliation and physical abuse I underwent. Rape is not the end of life. I will continue my fight.” This spread like a fire in the jungle, and soon the police were able to catch those culprits in 65 hours. On April 4, three of the culprits were sentenced to death while two of them were awarded with the life sentence. So, looking at these brutal rape cases in India, there’s some ways that the government of India has done to overcome this issue. As a result of the 2012 Delhi gang rape case, the Indian government implemented a fast-track court system to rapidly prosecute rape cases.10 The fast-track court system has been welcomed by some, but their fairness questioned by legal experts and scholars. The legal scholars state that the fast-track courts may not be fair in an impoverished country where millions of cases are backlogged, and there are an average of just 14 judges per million people - among the lowest in a United Nations study of 65 nations. Fast track courts divert limited judicial resources and add delays to prosecution of other crimes. Also, the Indian government expanding their law regarding rape to handle the ongoing brutal rape in India. Indian law was expanded in 2013 to consider rape as any acts like penetration by penis, or any object or any part of body to any extent, into the vagina, mouth, urethra or anus of a woman or making her to do so with another person or applying of mouth to sexual organs without the consent or will of the woman constitutes the offence of rape. 11 The section has also clarified that penetration means "penetration to any extent", and lack of physical resistance is immaterial for constituting an offence. Except in certain aggravated situation the punishment will be imprisonment not less than seven years but which may extend to imprisonment for life, and shall also be liable to fine. In aggravated situations, punishment will be rigorous imprisonment for a term which shall not be less than ten years but which may extend to imprisonment for life, and shall also be liable to fine. The revised statutes of 2013 Indian law, in section 376A, mandates minimum punishment in certain cases. For instance, if the sexual assault inflicts an injury which causes death or causes the victim to be in a persistent vegetative state, then the convicted 10

Heather Timmons, “Rape Trial Challenges a Jam in India’s Justice System”, 23 January 2013, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/01/24/world/asia/gang-rape-trial-tests-indias-justice-system.html?_r=0 11 Section 376A, Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013

rapist must be sentenced with rigorous imprisonment of at least twenty years and up to the remainder of the natural life or with a death penalty." 12 In the case of "gang rape", the same mandatory sentencing is now required by law.13 The convicted is also required to pay compensation to the victim which shall be reasonable to meet the medical expenses and rehabilitation of the victim, and per Section 357 B in the Code of Criminal Procedure. Death penalty for the most extreme rape cases is specified. The 2013 law also increased the age of consent from 16 years to 18 years, and any sexual activity with anyone less than age of 18, irrespective of consent, now constitutes statutory rape and has made it mandatory for all government and privately run hospitals in India to give free first aid and medical treatment to victims of rape. As we can see, this India rape crisis is an issue that really need a serious attention as it is against human rights and law in a major way. We have to decrease the Indian caste system where they put women lower than men that makes men in India feels like they can do anything that they want to women because women is lower than men. We have to stick to the law and the human rights where men and women ae just the same. The Code of Criminal Procedure of the Indian law also have to be taken more seriously and implemented the way it should be so these rape cases can be avoided. We also have to stop thinking that the victim of rape is the one that is â&#x20AC;&#x153;wrongâ&#x20AC;? and was worth of the rape she or he accepted. At the end, it all comes back to our own thoughts and behavior towards each other and how we implemented law and human rights in our life.

R. C. Jiloha (2013), Rape: Legal issues in mental health perspective, Indian J Psychiatry. 2013 JulSep; 55(3): 250â&#x20AC;&#x201C;255 13 Ibid.

BIBLIOGRAPHY RankRED.

2015.

Worst

and

Most

Brutal

Rape

Cases

India,

http://www.rankred.com/10-worst-and-most-brutal-rape-cases-in-india/ The United States Department of Justice. 2012. An Updated Definition of Rape. https://www.justice.gov/opa/blog/updated-definition-rape More.com.

2013.

India

the

Rape

Capital

the

World?.

http://www.more.com/news/india-rape-capital-world UC San Diego. 2016. Law and Society. https://www.ucsd.edu/catalog/curric/LAWS.html R. C. Jiloha (2013), Rape: Legal issues in mental health perspective, Indian J Psychiatry. 2013 Jul-Sep; 55(3): 250–255 Heather Timmons. 2013. Rape Trial Challenges a Jam in India’s Justice System. http://www.nytimes.com/2013/01/24/world/asia/gang-rape-trial-tests-indias-justicesystem.html?_r=0 Section 376A, Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013 Shaan

Khan.

2015.

What’s

Really

Behind

India’s

Rape

Crisis?.

http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2016/03/25/what-s-really-behind-india-srape-crisis.html

Pro and Contra in Using Application-Based Transportation in Indonesia By: Hafil ALSA Local Chapter Universitas Indonesia I.

Background In the 21st century, there are so many things that has been changing our life, from

fashion, transportation, education, until the most growing in these few years is technology. Technology has changed so many things in our life, such as internet, mobile phone, computer, etc. Those things showed up to our life for making our life easier. Nowadays, we can buy a thing with just a click in our mobile phone or computer. This phenomenon also shown in transportation. We can order a taxi or even an ojek (motorcycle-based transportation in Indonesia) with only using our mobile phone. For business world, it is an innovation. For consumer, it is a solution for them. But, for some people who work in conventional transportation, it is disaster for their life. In Jakarta on March 22nd, about ten thousand of taxi drivers showed up to protest against application-based transportation, which means Uber and Grabcar.1 Many people said it was huge mistake made by taxi drivers, because most of the people will not believe anymore after the violence that they did. But, some people said it was logically things to do by the people who felt their life is threatened by some people. People who agree with presence of Uber and Grabcar said it is innovation and based on people’s need. People who using Uber and Grabcar loves the innovation because it is cheaper, more safety, and more efficient than conventional taxi. But, many people who disagree with presence of application-based transportation in Indonesia said it is illegal. Their opinion is based on Law Number 22 Year 2009.

II.

Basic Regulation Transportation in Indonesia has been regulating in Law Number 22 Year 2009

concerning Road Traffic and Transportation. In order to rules all of transportation in Indonesia, Government of Indonesia ruled it on Government Rules Number 74 Year 2014 concerning Transportation. Government of Indonesia also has a ministry which concern only about transportation in Indonesia, it is Ministry of Transportation. This 1

The Guardian, “Traffic Chaos and Violence as Thousands of Taxi Drivers Protest Uber in Jakarta”, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/mar/22/traffic-chaos-and-violence-as-thousands-of-taxi-drivers-protestuber-in-jakarta

ministry is based on President of Indonesia Regulation Number 40 Year 2015 concerning Indonesia Ministry of Transportation2. Ministry of Transportation has a function to establish a policy or regulation in order to do their duties. In order to rule public transportation, especially land transportation, Minister of Transportation rules in Secretary Regulation, such as Minister of Transportation Regulation Number 49 Year 2014 concerning Transportation and Decision of Minister of Transportation Number KM. 35 Year 2003 concerning Implementation of People Transportation with Public Transportation.

III. Legal Issue Based on reality and fact, application-based transportation, which means Uber and Grabcar, carried passengers and also took a charge of it. From those two fact, it can be qualified as public motorized vehicle. Based on Article 1 Number 6 Law Number 22 Year 2009 concerning Road Traffic and Transportation, public motorized vehicle is every motor vehicle which use for carry good and/or people with take a charge of it 3. It is similar like it said on Minister of Transportation Regulation Number 49 Year 2014 concerning Transportation and Decision of Minister of Transportation Number KM. 35 Year 2003 concerning Implementation of People Transportation with Public Transportation. There are few requirements in order to be public transportation, such as Tax Identification Number (NPWP), have a registered business entity in Indonesia, have a domicile of the company, have an office license, have a minimum five cars, and have a pool or place to keep the car. All those requirements is written on Article 36 KM. 35 Year 20034. From the fact, Uber and Grabcar do not have a pool to keep the car and especially for Uber, they just have fulfilled the requirements only about a minimum car, beside that they did not complete it yet. Although Grabcar almost completed all those requirements and Uber just have completed one, they cannot be defined as public transportation because they should fulfil all requirements, so they could charge people who using their service just like all public transportation did. They also should have permission to do their business, which written on Article 137 paragraph (1) Law

http://www.hukumonline.com/pusatdata/download/lt5539e73e93475/node/lt5539e521c4673 http://docslide.us/documents/law-no22-year-2009-on-road-traffic.html 4 http://dishub.surabaya.go.id/backend/upload/files/peraturan/KMHUB/km_no_35_Year_2003.pd 3

Number 22 Year 2009 concerning Road Traffic and Transportation, it said the company who provide public transportation service should have organization license for passenger transportation not in trajectories. If they still did it without permission, they will get administrative sanctions based on Article 199 paragraph (1) Law Number 22 Year 2009 concerning Road Traffic and Transportation, it said anyone who break the rules which written on Article 167, Article 168, Article 173, Article 177, Article 186, Article 187, Article 189, Article 192, and Article 193, will get administrative sanction such as, written warning, administrative penalty, suspension of license, and/or revocation of license. Also they will get punishment sanction which written on Article 308 number (b) Law Number 22 Year 2009 concerning Road Traffic and Transportation, it said punishment of imprisonment at maximum period of 2 (two) months or penalty at the maximum amount of Rp 500.000 (Five Hundred Thousand Rupiah) shall be imposed on anyone who drives public motorized vehicle who does not hold the organization license for passenger transportation not in trajectories5. Based on all those legal fact, Uber and Grabcar should not operate their services if they not fulfil all those requirements that written on Law Number 22 Year 2009 concerning Road Traffic and Transportation; and Decision of Minister of Transportation Number KM. 35 Year 2003 concerning Implementation of People Transportation with Public Transportation. If they were still operating their services, as long as they not fulfil all those requirements, then they will get an administrative sanction and criminal sanction.

IV.

Way to Overcome the Issue After a mass violence protest which held on March 22nd in Jakarta, Minister of

Transportation, Coordinating Minister for Political, Legal, and Security Affairs, and also Minister of Communication and Informatics directly had a meeting with representative from Uber and Grabcar. From that event, they reached an agreement that Uber and Grabcar should fulfil if they want to run their business. There are seven requirements from government to Uber and Grabcar, they are: have Tax Identification Number (NPWP), have a registered business entity in Indonesia, have a domicile of the company, have an office license, have a minimum five cars, have a pool or place to 5

Law No. 22 Year 2009

keep the car, should be a corporate in Indonesia, and should have pass the transportation test6. There are solutions from government, not only for Uber and Grabcar but also for application-based transportation in Indonesia. For the Government of Indonesia, there are few solutions to fix this problem. First, government of Indonesia should know about supply and demand regarding taxi. It should really be considered by the government to avoid any excess, both supply and demand. Second, if many Indonesia people need it, government of Indonesia should make all the requirements easier in order to fulfil people’s need. Government of Indonesia should facilitate what people’s need, such as easier transportation, cheaper price, more safety, and more efficient. All those solutions are proposed to overcome application-based transportation problem in Indonesia. Both government and application-based transportation provider, such as Uber and Grabcar, should cooperate with each other to make a better solution for Indonesia people.

Conclusion Application-based transportation, such as Uber and Grabcar, is a new innovation

that made for help peoples’ need. But, not all people like existence of new innovation. For example, Taxi Drivers. They do not like this innovation because in their opinion application-based transportation, especially Uber and Grabcar because these two company offers similar services like taxi, felt has been threatening, because in their view all those innovation makes their income significantly reduced. The benefit from application-based transportation or all current development should be felt by all people. But, because of some factor, all of the benefit cannot be felt by all people, especially conventional taxi drivers. One of the factor is most of conventional taxi drivers said Uber and Grabcar not fulfil the requirements which written in Land Transportation regulation, such as Law Number 22 Year 2009 concerning Road Traffic and Transportation, Minister of Transportation Regulation Number 49 Year 2014 concerning Transportation and Decision of Minister of Transportation Number KM. 35 Year 2003 concerning Implementation of People Transportation with Public Transportation. Based on those regulation, Uber and Grabcar cannot be defined as 6

Detik News, “Dishub Undang Grab dan Uber Bahas Waktu Pemenuhan 7 Syarat Pelegalan”, http://news.detik.com/berita/3171971/dishub-undang-grab-dan-uber-bahas-batas-waktu-pemenuhan-7syarat-pelegalan

Public Transportation because both of them not fulfill the requirements yet, but both of them already did like all public transportation did, which is carrying people and/or good and also took a charge of it. So, Uber and Grabcar did something that against the law. Even though Uber and Grabcar we can consider do an illegal thing, but most of the people who use it love with this innovation, because it is cheaper, more safety, and more efficient than the conventional one. So, to overcome this problem, both application-based transportation and government of Indonesia should cooperate in order to make a better condition in the society. For the provider of application-based transportation, such as Uber and Grabcar, they should fulfill all the agreement that has been reached after Taxi Drivers protest on March 22nd. For the government of Indonesia, they should count how many supply and demand regarding taxi services in Indonesia so there is no excessive between them and the government of Indonesia should facilitate what peoplesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; need. This issue proves that development of technology does not always reciprocal with what peoplesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; want, so that law should rule all development in order to create legal certainty in the society.

VI.

Bibliography The Guardian. Traffic chaos and violence as thousands of taxi drivers protest against

Uber

Jakarta.

2016.

http://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/mar/22/traffic-chaos-and-violence-asthousands-of-taxi-drivers-protest-uber-in-jakarta Presidential Regulation of the Republic of Indonesia Number 40 of 2015. http://www.hukumonline.com/pusatdata/download/lt5539e73e93475/node/lt5539 e521c4673 Law Number 22 Year 2009 concerning Road Traffic and Transportation. http://docslide.us/documents/law-no22-year-2009-on-road-traffic.html Decision of Minister of Transportation Number KM. 35 Year 2003 concerning Implementation of People Transportation with Public Transportation. http://dishub.surabaya.go.id/backend/upload/files/peraturan/KMHUB/km_no_35_ Year_2003.pdf Seven Requirements from Agreements between Ministry of Transportation and Uber and Grab (23 March 2015). http://news.detik.com/berita/3171971/dishubundang-grab-dan-uber-bahas-batas-waktu-pemenuhan-7-syarat-pelegalan

Human Rights and Law in Our Society By: Nadia Geraldine ALSA Local Chapter Universitas Indonesia

INTRODUCTION Nowadays, people live by the word “Liberty” or freedom. They want to be the ones that are in control of their lives. They want to take charge and make decisions for what is best for them. So the role of the government would be to make sure that the people are given options that are suitable and convenient and also applies to all. To make sure that all rules and regulations can apply to the people, the government needs to know what they need. Humans can’t live their lives alone. Whether it’s family, friends, or life partners/spouse, we need someone in our lives. We need someone to talk to, someone we could communicate with, someone to share our feelings, our achievements, sorrow and sadness and any other emotions that made us feel so human. But sometimes, human beings don’t always act positively. Sometimes, their actions can be selfish, self-centered and even violent, which is why we need the law with its function to preserve order in society so that people could live in a society where there is peace and harmony. Humans itself have rights and obligations. Usually, these obligations have something to do with being a citizen of a state or as we call it Civil Right, whereas the right of humans for being humans is called Human Rights.

II.

MAIN IDEA We are all equally entitled to our human rights without discrimination. These rights are all interrelated, interdependent and indivisible. 1According to the Indonesian rules or Undang-undang, Human Rights is a set of rights inherited in the nature and existence of human beings and God Almighty and His grace that must be respected, upheld and protected by the state, law, government and everyone for the respect and protection of human dignity.2 So it can be concluded as a right that we obtain from the moment that we are born and for as long as we shall live. It is something that all human beings have and continue to posses 1

United Nations Human Rights Office of the Commissioner, Rights?.http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Pages/WhatareHumanRights.aspx 2 Undang-Undang Number 39 Year 1999 about Human Rights

What

are

Human

despite their social status or physical conditions because essentially, all human beings are the same. Universal human rights are often expressed and guaranteed by law, in the form of treaties, customary international law, general principles and other sources of international law.3 Law itself has a meaning which is a set of rules and regulation in the form of norms and sanctions made with the aim of regulating human behavior, policing, justice, prevent chaos.4 Yes, humans have their own mind and are capable of making decisions for themselves. But sometimes, they’re too busy thinking about what they’re aiming for, they forget that they are stepping on someone else’s rights. Human Rights and Law doesn’t just apply to a certain type and groups of people. It applies to all human beings and therefore should uphold. But nowadays, it’s hard for human being to keep their human rights because day by day without even realizing what is going on, it is taken away from them, and often by force. Sometimes, a person is helpless towards their rights that are being violated because they don’t know what are their rights as a human being or sometimes they do know, but they are too weak and helpless to stand up for themselves and ended up being a victim of the crime against humanity. If you see the world in a modern way, you will think that everyone has already knows what they are entitled to.

But what is the function of law itself? a. Establishing standards It is a guideline for minimally accepted behavior in our society. Meaning, how we act and what we do are measured by the acceptance of the people in the society

b. Maintaining order We need order to live a peaceful and proper life for all human beings. How can someone properly live their life is there is robbery and massacre

Ibid. Temukan Pengertian. “Pengertian Hukum”. http://www.temukanpengertian.com/2013/08/pengertianhukum.html# 4

everywhere? Law is there to make sure that everything is in place and done accordingly

c. Resolving disputes When you live in a place where there are a lot of people, disputes are not avoidable. People have different minds, and different minds means different ideas. You have to be able to work on the differences in order to achieve peace and order. Law exist to provide and rules and regulations on how to solve disputes in a correct way and fair for all

d. Protecting liberties and rights Liberty is freedom. It is a freedom to do something, for example a freedom of expression. And by right, as mentioned before which is the Human Rights, or our rights as a human being. It is something that must be protected and uphold.5

CASE EXAMPLE Women’s Rights Women’s right is an important indicator to understand global well-being. Yet, despite many successes in empowering women, numerous issues still exist in all areas of life, ranging from the cultural, political to the economic. For example, women often work more than men, yet are paid less; gender discrimination affects girls and women throughout their lifetime; and women and girls are often the ones that suffer the most poverty.6

Racism Racism is the belief that characteristics and abilities can be attributed to people simply on the basis of their race and that some racial groups are superior to others changes our point of view and judgment about a certain person. We no longer judge them from their behavior or attitude, but also from the color of their skin. Just because they don’t have the same color, we discriminate them as being a 5

Business Law Basic. Chapter 3: Purposes and Functions of Law. http://www.businesslawbasics.com/chapter-3-purposes-and-functions-law-1. 6 Shah, Anup. Women’s Rights. 24 March 2010. http://www.globalissues.org/article/166/womens-rights

“lower class”. You can’t just step on someone’s right and think that because you are in a higher position as them, you are immune to the law. Although some people might think that in the globalization era racism might be gone, the fact is, there are still people out there who don’t get their rights. Victims of apartheid crimes in Africa or other parts of the world, they are still being the victim of color or ethnic discrimination, which is something that is against the Article 7 of Declaration of Human Rights: “All are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to equal protection of the law. All are entitled to equal protection against any discrimination in violation of this Declaration and against any incitement to such discrimination.” 7 So we are all protected by the law, regardless of our social status, race or gender, we are all equal in front of the law and therefor can, should and will get a protection regarding our rights if we ever feel that it is being threatened or endangered by someone or institutions that we see might or will violate it. There is a Human Rights’ lawyer where they defend the cases of the violation of Human Rights. Other than that, the use of Human Rights is also for judges or any other governmental institutions’ ground in making the rules and sanctions for every legal doing, so, if ever, there is someone who violates the law, that person can be given sanctions without violating his/her human rights. When someone is being accused of crime, he/she deserves to be put on trial first before being officially charged of the crime. This is to prevent false accusation against someone that might hurt or taint his/her good name in society. And if that person is indeed guilty, it is so that their punishment will be run fairly and accordingly to their crimes.

III.

CONCLUSION Law exists because we need order. The law also exists because it gives protection to the people. Protection about rights, and also state the obligations regarding the rights that they have. It is very important to have balance between rights and obligations so that the system in society will go smoothly. And not only that, the law also gives restriction to the people. It gives restriction toward someone else’s rights so that there would be no violation to the rights and also it gives a minimum 7

United Nations.Universal Declaration of Human Rights.http://www.un.org/Overview/rights.html

obligation so that the right of another person is also fulfilled. We need sanctions and assurance that someone who did a crime won’t keep repeating that crime over and over again. Therefor there is sanction. For example, in article 8, in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights: “Everyone has the right to an effective remedy by the competent national tribunals for acts violating the fundamental rights granted him by the constitution or by law.”8 When the law is implemented accordingly and there is order and balance in our society, implementing the Universal Declaration of Human Rights should not be hard. People from all parts of the world can truly feel what is like to be human with all the privilege that we have as a human being. Regardless of your gender, status, skin color or age, those are just the quantitative measures. We are all human.Equal to the eyes of law.

United Nations Human Rights Office of the Commissioner, Translated Universal Declaration of Human Rights. http://www.ohchr.org/EN/UDHR/Documents/UDHR_Translations/eng.pdf

Law and Society: Copyrights Infringement in Indonesia By Nadine Prasnya Paramitha ALSA Local Chapter Universitas Indonesia Piracy is the unauthorized use or reproduction of anotherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s work/ software piracy. Music, film, software, and academic paper piracy is the illegal copying, distribution, or use of computer software, movies, music, and other creations that is regulated by the law. piracy can be done by copying, downloading, sharing, selling, or installing multiple copies for personal use and personal gain. Several things that is most pirated are computer software, film, music, and academic papers. piracy is one of the things that is prohibited by the law of the country and it is an illegal thing to do because it means the creators rights have been taken. In the daily life, people consciously or not consciously aware that they have been violated the creatorsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; copyrights. Copyright means the right to copy but has come to mean that body of exclusive rights granted by law to copyright owners for protection of their work. Copyright protection does not extend to any idea, procedure, process, system, title, principle, or discovery. Similarly, names, titles, short phrases, slogans, familiar symbols, mere variations of typographic ornamentation, lettering, coloring, and listings of contents or ingredients are not subject to copyright.1 Copyright is important to creators like writers, musician, and artists because with copyright they can control their own work like how it is used, which is used for them to make a living from their work and for the publisher they can use the money into the production of new work.. Copyright infringement has created negative impact not only to the creators but also government, person who did the piracy, and people who contributed in the process of making the creation. It means that the artist, author, publishers gets nothing from the sale of their own music. The negative impacts are the creators will not earn the profit of their own creations, government will not earn the tax from sales tax of the creators work, people tend to buy the pirated one instead of buying the original one, and people who contributed in the process of making the creation will also lost their profit. Copyright infringement has been one of the big problem in some country and it happens a lot. It happens in every part of the world, especially in some country in 1

US Copyright Office Definitions. http://www.copyright.gov/help/faq/definitions.html accessed April 16, 2016

Asia. Indonesia is one of the country that is facing copyright infringement, Indonesia ranks as the 4th worst pirating nation2. To protect and enforce law about copyrights, there are several international treaties encourage reasonably coherent protection of copyright from country to country. They set minimum standards of protection which each signatory country then implements within the bounds of its own copyright law. 3Which are:

a) Berne Convention It is the oldest and most important treaty. Berne Convention was signed in 1886 (but has been revised many times since). It is ratified by nearly 180. It establishes minimum standards of protection, types of works protected, duration of protection, scope of exceptions, and limitations. It principles are “national treatment” (works originating in one signatory country are given the same protection in the other signatory countries as each grants to works of its own nationals) and “automatic protection” (copyright inheres automatically in a qualifying work upon its fixation in a tangible medium and without any required prior formality).

b) WIPO Copyright Treaty It was signed in 1996. It makes clear that computer programs and databases are protected by copyright. It regulates about recognizes that the transmission of works over the Internet and similar networks is an exclusive right within the scope of copyright, originally held by the creator, categorizes as copyright infringements both, the circumvention of technological protection measures attached to works, and the removal from a work of embedded rights management information. The Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS). It was signed in 1996. It was administered by the World Trade Organization. It includes a number of provisions related to the enforcement of IP rights and says that national laws have to make the effective enforcement of IP rights possible, and describes in detail how enforcement should be addressed.

Ruslan Burhani. Indonesia Urutan ke-4 Pelanggar Hak Cipta di Dunia. http://www.yrci.or.id/indonesia-negara-pelanggar-hak-cipta-terbesar-keempat-di-dunia/, accessed April 16, 2016. 3 World Intellectual Property Institution. Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works. http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/berne/index.html, accessed April 16, 2016.

In Indonesia, copyright is regulated in Law No. 28 of 2014. The law regulates about copyrights and related rights. In the regulation, it stated about definition of copyrights and other things that are related to copyrights and also it is stated that copyrights consist of economy rights and moral rights while related rights consist of performersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; moral rights; performers economic rights; and producer economic rights Phonograms; and economic rights Broadcasting Institution. It also regulates about penalty provisions for people who do infringement on copyrights and related rights. Piracy in music, film, software, and academic papers affects the society. The illegal duplication and distribution of software, music, movies, and academic papers has a significant impact on the economy, costing so many country billions of dollars a year in job losses and governmental tax lossesâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;money that would have gone back into local communities. In addition, companies facing loss of revenue due to piracy must pull resources from the development of new technology, and devote it to protecting both their creations, and its legitimate users. In Indonesia, piracy often happens and has faced piracy for decades. In Indonesian people daily life almost every second piracy happens. People can find illegal copies easily because it is everywhere in Indonesia. There are several factors why piracy often happens in Indonesia. First, the pirated one is cheaper than the original one. Second, in remote areas the original one often has not been distributed to the area. Third, consumer are not aware of how hard and important the process of making the creation. Fourth, lack of legal protection and law enforcement. Fifth, lack of control from the government. Lastly, a transaction process that needs credit card, so it is complicated for Indonesian people because not everyone has a credit card. Indonesian music sales now 95.7 percent piracy.4 The most important factor that affects piracy is lack of law protection and legal enforcement in Indonesia. Not only the government and law enforcer but also Indonesian society is still not aware about how important to protect copyrights. There is a regulation about copyright but it is not executed well by the law enforcer, so that makes the society disregard about copyrights. Piracy cost the music industry about 4 trillions of rupiah a year while for the film industry for only one movie it cost about 4,3 billions. 4

Jessica Helena Wuysang. Indonesian Music Sales Now 95,7 Percent Piracy (18 September 2015).. http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2015/09/18/indonesian-music-sales-now-957-percentpiracy.html accessed April 16, 2016.

Indonesiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s government has taken a good step, the government shut down websites which illegally provide music download links and movie streaming links. It can make the society buy the original one than the pirated one then the creators will get their rights back and money back. Piracy can be stopped if the government and law enforcer improve the law policy and law enforcement of copyright. The society must also support the government regulations in order to stopped the piracy. Other solution is the program that is planned by the head of the anti-piracy taskforce at the Economy Agency (Bekraf) Ari Juliano Gemawill start an alert system for online piracy in January 2016. The system, which was created in cooperation with stateowned telecommunications firm PT Telekomunikasi Indonesia (Telkom), will be installed on various websites that feature pirated music and movie content. Whenever users try to download illegal content, they will receive a notification, which will include information on the law they would be violating if they proceeded and the maximum sanction they would be facing, as well as links to other websites that provide legal downloadable content. The taskforce is part of Bekraf's efforts to eradicate online piracy by handling complaints from copyright holders on all types of piracy, including offline. It is made up of Bekraf officials as well as a group of professionals from the music and film industries. Bekraf's deputy of infrastructure Hari Sungkari said the streaming platform was expected to reduce music piracy in Indonesia, as it would offer low prices. Also, the music app that allows people to stream music like spotify and joox can be one of the solution to stopped music and film piracy. In conclusion, copyrights piracy act is a criminal act in every country around the world. Especially in Indonesia, pirated music has dominated music, movie, software, video game sales. However, copyright piracy act is still hard to stop since in Indonesia still lack of law enforcement and legal protection from the law enforcer, Indonesia society has a low awareness upon copyright. They donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t understand what copyright means. Secondly, the price of original material might be too expensive for most people. And for some reason, it is easier to find pirate product that the original one. The least that people can do to stop it is to buy the original one instead of the pirated one and support all the programs from the government that protect the creators work or copyrights.

Bibliography: WEBSITES US Copyright Office Definitions. http://www.copyright.gov/help/faq/definitions.html accessed April 16, 2016 Burhani, Ruslan. Indonesia Urutan ke-4 Pelanggar Hak Cipta di Dunia. http://www.yrci.or.id/indonesia-negara-pelanggar-hak-cipta-terbesar-keempatdi-dunia/, accessed April 16, 2016. World Intellectual Property Institution. Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works. http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ ip/berne/ index.html, accessed April 16, 2016. Wuysang, Jessica Helena. Indonesian Music Sales Now 95,7 Percent Piracy (18 September

2015).

http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2015/

09/18/

indonesian-music-sales-now-957-percent-piracy.html accessed April 16, 2016.

Free Movement of Legal Services and Lawyers Profession as a Breakthrough in ASEAN Economic Community by: Marieta Nurnissa Coordinator on Legal Writing of Legal Research and Development ALSA LC UI 2016

The ASEAN Economic Community, or well-known as AEC, is currently the fastest growing program through ASEAN countries. Starting effectively in 2016, AEC is being quickly-spread throughout ASEAN countries, inter alia: Indonesia, Singapore, Malaysia, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Philippines, et cetera. Necessary agreements and supporting legal umbrellas have been prepared, and also, the process of economic cooperation and integration within countries are still underway. The aim of AEC itself is to create ASEAN as a single market and production base in order to be more competitive and to elevate the economic standard throughout ASEAN countries. One of AEC objectives is the establishment of free flow services. It has been ratified in ASEAN Economic Community Blueprint 2015, which has been approved by each countries’ representations back in 2007, that “there will be substantially no restriction to ASEAN services suppliers in providing services and in establishing companies across national borders within the region, subject to domestic regulations.” This objective clearly implies that ASEAN leaders inclined to reach their expectations to rise globally as a single market base by cooperating with each other and strengthening each other through AEC. Furthermore, the AEC Blueprint 2025, adopted by the ASEAN Leaders at the 27th ASEAN Summit in Kuala Lumpur back in November 2015, consists of five characteristics, which are: 1.) A Highly Integrated and Cohesive Economy; 2.) A Competitive, Innovative, and Dynamic ASEAN; 3.) Enhanced Connectivity and Sectoral Cooperation; 4.) A Resilient, Inclusive, People-Oriented, and People-Centered ASEAN; and 5.) A Global ASEAN. These characteristics support the vision for the AEC as envisaged in the ASEAN Community Vision 20251. A Highly Integrated and Cohesive Economy’s main objective is to facilitate the seamless movement of good, services, investment, capital, and skilled labour within ASEAN in order to enhance ASEAN’s trade and production networks, as well as to establish a more

ASEAN Web, http://www.asean.org/asean-economic-community/, cited on February 16th 2016.

unified market for its firms and consumers2. For trade in services, it was stated that the blueprint’s objective is to further broaden and deepen services integration within ASEAN, and also to implement ASEAN Framework Agreement on Services (AFAS), with the objective of liberalization in trade services3, and ASEAN Trade in Services Agreement (ATISA) as the legal instrument for futher integration of services sectors in region. Free movement of services is currently taking over tourism, health care, creative industry, air transport, etc. However, this free movement of services is predicted would reach legal services in the near future. Seeing the necessity and higher demand for legal services and lawyers profession in recent years, it can be concluded that many people are considering this type of work. In Indonesia itself, the needs for legal services is increasing along with the increase of foreign capital investment, especially within ASEAN countries. Foreign businesses or companies start-up in Indonesia need to be informed about the rules and regulations applied in Indonesia by hiring advocates and other legal services. The condition also applies if Indonesia companies start up their businesses in Thailand or Singapore; they need to be informed about the local law in order to prevent acts of violation. In a journal published by Maastricht University, The Evaluation of the Legal Framework for the Free Movement of Lawyers4, they stated that “In general, the needs for cross-border legal services have increased since the introduction of the lawyers’ directives due to e.g. globalization, integration of market, family migration, cross-border marriages, cross border trade and mobility, and the ease of crossborder provision of services at a distance by the use of ICT. Most individual citizents and small business prefer a lawyer that speaks their language.” In accordance to that statement, the aim of AEC itself, which is single market and production base, will also encourage a lot of people to be more aware of the free movement of legal services and lawyers profession and prepare themselves when the time comes. 2

ASEAN Economic Community Blueprint 2025, page 3. Article I : Objectives The objectives of the Member States under the ASEAN Framework Agreement on Services (hereinafter referred to as "this Framework Agreement") are: (a) to enhance cooperation in services amongst Member States in order to improve the efficiency and competitiveness, diversify production capacity and supply and distribution of services of their service suppliers within and outside ASEAN; (b) to eliminate substantially restrictions to trade in services amongst Member States; and (c) to liberalise trade in services by expanding the depth and scope of liberalisation beyond those undertaken by Member States under the GATS with the aim to realising a free trade area in services. 4 Cited from Dr. Ricardo Simanjuntak, S.H., LL.M, ANZIIF.CIP writing in Hukum Online, “Mempersiapkan Advokat Indonesia dalam Menghadapi MEA” http://www.hukumonline.com/berita/baca/lt55dd2ee24fb0c/mempersiapkan-advokat-indonesia-dalammenghadapi-mea-br-oleh--dr-ricardo-simanjuntak--sh--llm-anziifcip-, cited on February 16th 2016. 3

In Indonesia, foreign counselors or foreign lawyers are only allowed to give legal opinions based on their own local laws and/or international law in arbitration and business. Also, their position in law firms are as employees or experts only5. They are not allowed to appear in court and/or undertake legal proceedings under any circumstances or giving legal opinions based on laws that are applied in Indonesia. This limitation does protect local lawyers, however, seeing the fast-growth of ASEAN Economic Community, it is predicted that it will not last long. Advanced technology makes it even harder to define the line between countries. The fact that there are many partnership between local law firms and foreign law firms also shows that the limitation given in the current legislation is not abiding. In European Union, the profession of lawyer is the only (liberal) profession that is covered by a separate system of Directives, the Lawyers’ Services Directive and the Lawyers’ Establishment Directive6. The Establishment Directive, based on full mutual recognition, allows a lawyer who is qualified in one EU Member State and an EU national to practice on permanent basis in another Member State under their home professional title 7. They have to register first to the competent body in the Member State in which they wish to practice8. Afterwards, they are able to advise on the law of their home states, international and European law, and also the law of the host state9. The EU Directive 2005/36/EC for medical professions and architects, also covered the liberal profession, which is lawyers, without affecting the two Directives mentioned above. Currently, ASEAN Mutual Recognition Arrangements (MRAs)10 only have seven in professional services, including engineering services, nursing, architectural, surveying qualifications, medical practitioners, dental practitioners and accountancy. It is more likely to create another MRA for legal services in the future with further negotiations. These MRAs have been developed to facilitate the movement of services professionals within the region. Nevertheless, it is rather challenging to implement this MRAs considering that passing new laws or reforming the existing domestic laws, such as labor law, immigration law and professional regulation, are difficult due to the Consitutional and other legislative restrictions. For example, in Singapore and Malaysia, there are no boundaries for legal services. On the 5

Law Number 18 Year 2003 on Lawyers, Article 23 Section 1, 2 and 3. Directive 77/249/EEC of 20 March 1977, [1977] OJ L 78 and Directive 98/5/EC of 16 February 1998 [1998] OJ L 77/36, cited in the journal published by Maastricht University, “The Evaluation of the Legal Framework for the Free Movement of Lawyers”. 7 The Lawyers Establishment Directive 98/5/EC, Article 2. 8 Ibid, Article 3. 9 Ibid, Article 5 Section 1. 10 A proposed arrangement among ASEAN member countries designed to facilitate the freer movement and employment of qualified and certified personnel between ASEAN member countries. 6

contrary, Indonesia and Philippines have some ground rules for this subject11. Although Article 3 of AFAS clearly stated that Member States shall liberalise trade in services in a substantial number of sectors within a reasonable time-frame, to be able to make new law is going to take years of deliberation. ASEAN Economic Community entity, one vision, one identity and one community, is expected to create an integrated area of ASEAN. If ASEAN were a single country, it would already be the seventh-largest economy in the world, projected to rank as the fourth-largest economy by 205012. ASEAN is making impressive strides in labor-force expansion and productivity improvements. By looking at this fact, it can be concluded that if the AEC works progressively throught ASEAN Member States, it is more likely that workers produced by ASEAN will be admitted as skillful workers that should be considered globally. Therefore, in facing the future free movement of services offered by AEC as a mission to create an integrated ASEAN, especially if it is going to reach legal services and lawyers profession, a standardization for foreign lawyers in terms of their knowledge about local laws in Indonesia is needed. The qualification of a foreign lawyer to practice in Indonesia should be defined clearly. In the other hand, improving education for college students in faculties of law throughout Indonesia is essential in order for them to compete with foreign lawyers later on after they graduate, if free movement of legal services and lawyers profession will occur in the future. PERADI, as Indonesia’s biggest organization for lawyers profession, should also take part in preparing Indonesian lawyers to compete in this ASEAN Economic Community era, because not only does universities where those students graduate take part, but also the organization, which gathers lawyers all over Indonesia, that should take a big part in improving these lawyers skills as well. It should not be about how do we protect ourselves from foreign lawyers invasion anymore, but it is about how are we going to elevate ourselves in order to compete with this foreigners in order to preserve our existence and our competence to be recognized globally. This free movement is inevitable in the future, therefore, Indonesian lawyers, both future and present, should improve their skills and ability so that they will not be left behind

Based on the data from Specific Commitments regarding The 8th Package of Commitments under ASEAN Framework Agreement on Services. 12 Vinayak HV, “Understanding ASEAN: Seven Things You Need To Know”, McKinsey’s Company, 2014. Cited on February 16th 2016. http://www.mckinsey.com/industries/public-sector/our-insights/understanding-aseanseven-things-you-need-to-know

by this single market era. By elevating skills and ability, it is more likely that Indonesian lawyers credibility will be seen as equivalent to those lawyers from both inside and outside of ASEAN countries.

References ASEAN Framework Agreement on Services 1995 ASEAN Economic Community Blueprint 2015 ASEAN Economic Community Blueprint 2025 ASEAN Services Integration Report: A Joint Report by the ASEAN Secretariat and World Bank 2015. Dr. Ricardo Simanjuntak, S.H., LL.M, ANZIIF.CIP. 2015. Mempersiapkan Advokat Indonesia

dalam

Menghadapi

MEA.

http://www.hukumonline.com/berita/baca/lt55dd2ee24fb0c/mempersiapkan-advokatindonesia-dalam-menghadapi-mea-br-oleh--dr-ricardo-simanjuntak--sh--llm-anziifcipLaw Number 18 Year 2003 on Lawyers Maastricht University. 2012. The Evaluation of the Legal Framework for the Free Movement of Lawyers. ASEAN Member States Specific Commitments regarding The 8th Package of Commitments under ASEAN Framework Agreement on Services. The Jakarta Post. 2015. AEC 2015: A Point of No Return for All Member States. http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2016/01/14/aec-2015-a-point-no-return-all-memberstates.html The Lawyers Establishment Directive 98/5/EC in European Union. The EU Directive 2005/36/EC for Medical Professions and Architects. Vinayak HV. 2014. Understanding ASEAN: Seven Things You Need To Know. McKinseyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Company.

http://www.mckinsey.com/industries/public-sector/our-insights/understanding-

asean-seven-things-you-need-to-know

The Implementation of Chemical Castration Punishment in Indonesia by Felula Salma Desfealucy Staff of Legal Research and Development ALSA LC UI 2016

Prior to the recent case of Yuyun, 14, who was attacked, gang raped, and murdered by a reported 14 men, the Indonesian government has made addressing violence against children a priority in its policy-making agenda. This is made possible through the establishment of Perppu 1/2016 on the Second Amendment to UU 23/2002 tentang Perlindungan Anak (Child Protection). One of the new regulations mentioned on Perppu 1/2016 is chemical castration as an additional punishment for child sexual offenders. Chemical castration is the use of drugs to reduce libido or sexual attraction1. Several countries, such as the United States, Poland, Russia, South Korea, New Zealand, and Argentina have introduced castration to deal with sexual offenders. The punishment will cause testicles of a male become defunct through pharmaceutical drugs. Aside from that, it causes sterilization, reduces the production of hormones, and lowered men’s libidos. Many argued that chemical castration appeared as “barbaric, retrograde, stone-aged and inhuman” nevertheless traditional law were not enough to cope such crime. The year 2013 was a year of national emergency over child sexual abuse. Escalation upon the number of child abuse cases in Indonesia has been very apparent. According to Komisi Nasional Anti Kekerasan terhadap Perempuan (National Commission on Violence against Women), thirty-five women in Indonesia are victims of sexual violence2. In 2010, Komisi Nasional Perlindungan Anak (National Commission on Child Protection) received 2,046 reports of violence against children, 42 percent of which were sexual offenses3. In 2012, the figure had risen to 2,637 cases, 62 percent of them were sexual offenses. Meanwhile, this is just the tip of the iceberg while there are many cases occurred which unreported. Recent cases have created urgency for the Indonesian government to make significant progress in protecting Indonesian children from all forms of violence. Indonesian government has introduced new punishments by creating Perppu 1/2016 as an emergency presidential decree, 1

Peter J. Gimino, III, Mandatory Chemical Castration for Perpetrators of Sex Offenses Against Children: Following California’s Lead, 25 PEPP. L. REV. 67, 74–75 (1997). 2 Hukum Online, 2016, 8 Alasan Komnas Perempuan Tolak Perppu Kebiri, http://www.hukumonline.com/berita/baca/lt569f46225d153/8-alasan-komnas-perempuan-tolak-perppu-kebiri, accessed on May 30th 2016 3 ibid

but the law can change within the parliament decision to overturn or demand revisions. President Joko Widodo (Jokowi) classified child sexual abuse as an extraordinary crime which threaten and endangers children, also destroys the the childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s future. Jokowi believed that the existence of Perppu 1/2016 will give a bigger authority for the judges to give the maximum punishment towards child sexual offenders. Aside from that, the objective of this new regulation is to give a deterrent effect for the offenders and effectively decrease the amount of sexual offense towards children. Article 81 of UU 23/2002 tentang Perlindungan Anak (Child Protection) regulates criminal punishment for those who have any intentions conducting a criminal action or attempt forcing children to perform sexual action with the perpetrator. The threat does not only apply for those who force himself with a children, but also force the children to conduct it with another person. Under the Perppu 1/2016, anyone who has conducted sexual abuse to an under aged child can face up to 15 years in prison and a maximum fine of 60 million rupiahs. Nevertheless, prevalence of child sexual abuse indicated a failure in the Indonesian legal system. Perppu 1/2016 on the Second Amendment to UU 23/2002 tentang Perlindungan Anak (Child Protection) intensifies sanction towards perpetrators to which will be sentenced to death, lifetime prison, a maximum of 20 years imprisonment, and minimum of 10 years imprisonment. Perppu 1/2016 also regulates three additional punishments which are chemical castration, informing the perpetratorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s identity to the public, and the installment of detection chip to the perpetratorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s body. Chemical castration as a punishment is stipulated in Article 81 and Article 81A. In a broad sense, Perppu 1/2016 amended two Articles on UU 23/2002 which are Article 81 and Article 82, also, added Article 81A. As written on Article 81 paragraph 7, chemical castration and chip installment may be conducted for perpetrators who fulfill the elements of crime described in paragraph 4 and paragraph 5. Whereas, prior to paragraph 4, aggravation of onethird of the punishment will be added upon sanctions that is stipulated on the first paragraph for perpetrator who is the parent, guardian, family relations, educators, institution that bridges child protection commission, or conducted by more than one person. Paragraph 5 further stipulated the criteria that must be fulfilled in order to be chemically castrated. As written on paragraph 5, perpetrators may be punished with capital punishment, lifetime imprisonment with maximum sentence of 20 years imprisonment, or a minimum 10 years imprisonment if the criminal act results in more than one victim, physical injuries, mental issues, and/or death.

Further elaboration of chemical castration as means of punishment is stipulated in Article 81A. Firstly, the lapse of time regarding to Article 81 paragraph 7 will be two years and conducted after the perpetrators has completed the criminal sanction. Secondly, chemical castration should be under the observation of the ministry(s) that handle government matters on law, social, and health. Thirdly, chemical castration should be followed by rehabilitation. Fourthly, other provisions upon the formal procedure and rehabilitation will be regulated further in Peraturan Pemerintah (PP). To add, the punishment will only apply to perpetrators that committed the crime since the Perppu is stipulated. Only minorities agreed upon chemical castration to be applied in Indonesia as a punishment. Among them is The Ministry of Law and Human Rights, Yasonna Laoly. The ministry emphasized that chemical castration will of course be determined by the Judge’s consideration, and therefore it applies as an additional punishment. The judges will look upon the facts, and chemical castration will not be easily appointed to any perpetrator. As for its legal effectiveness, some medical studies show lower recidivism rates for castrated criminals versus those who did not receive the procedures. A German study shows that only 3% of castrated offenders repeated their crimes. Meanwhile, 46% to 75% perpetrator that did not get castrated would repeat their criminal act4. Aside from that, Ikatan Dokter Indonesia (Indonesian Medical Association) who earlier rejected castration as it violates the code medical of ethics finally agreed if it is for the sake of rehabilitation. On another side, the Perppu was criticized for its formal procedure. Perppu constitutionally reflects the executive power. It aims to handle a certain condition characterized with duress and coercion or in the constitution written as, “kegentingan yang memaksa” or exigencies. Article 22 paragraph (1) UUD 1945 regulates, should exigencies compel, the President shall have the right to establish Perppu. It is the President’s subjective rights in an abnormal constitutional condition (noodverordeningrecht) to act fast, accurate, and measurable to protect the security of state. What appears as exigencies in the constitution are wars or dangerous conditions. Prior to Putusan Mahkamah Konstitusi No. 138/PUU-VII/2009, rights to stipulate Perppu should concise three criterias. First, the existence of a certain need to solve an issue efficiently based on law. Secondly, void in law exist because the non-existence of the law or the existence does not constitute with the current situation. Lastly, void in law could not be

Robert Prentky et al., Risk Factors Associated with Recidivism Among Extrafamilial Child Molesters, 65 J. CONSULTING & CLINICAL PSYCHOL. 141, 147 (1997)

made through a normal formal procedure. Therefore, the president should stipulate in the konsiderans and general elaboration upon the urgency of the second changes on UU 23/2002. Pusat Studi Hukum dan Kebijakan Indonesia (Indonesian Centre of Law and Policies Studies) argued that the forming chemical castration as a punishment does not constitute elements of the stipulation to be considered to form a Perppu.5 They believe that choosing to form Perppu brought aside principles of democracy as it is only made by one party without an intense discussion with the People’s Representative Council (DPR) especially with it related to the violation of human rights. Aliansi 99 and Institute for Criminal Justice Reform (ICJR) mentioned that sexual violation towards children classified the act as a serious crime, nevertheless, the formation of lieu of law upon chemical castration will not cease the issue6. Therefore, they argued that the formation of law should have been through RUU, so the issue will be solved democratically with more parties involved and produces more compatible solutions. Aside from its formal procedure, the substantive material views of Perppu 1/2016 were being criticized. The position of chemical castration regulated as a type of punishment (straf) and conduct (maatregel), are weak when facing the constitutional principles. Although Article 28J of UUD 1945 allows the limitation of human rights towards the law, Article a quo stipulated that the limitation should still consider religious morals and values. Justification values are not reflected if chemical castration stipulated to increase the amount of suffering. Perppu 1/2016 only applies as a retributive towards the perpetrator. Prior to the law, the reproduction system is only a tool to conduct the crime7. Meanwhile, data shows that sexual offenses were not merely physical acts, but also a mental problem, and castration only curbed the physical aspect 8. The urgency is to find comprehensive solutions to control the mind and soul to avoid immoral sexual offense. Needless to say, negative forces upon chemical castration as a criminal punishment continue to be apparent. Although the law appears to show a significant progress of Indonesian government in protecting Indonesian children from all form of violence, there are legal and most 5

Hukum Online, 2016. 2 Masalah Utama di Balik Wacana 101, http://www.hukumonline.com/berita/baca/lt57397e712b73f/2-masalah-utama-di-balik-wacana-perppu-kebiri, accessed on May 30 2016 6 Elizabeth M. Tullio, Chemical Castration for Child Protectors: Practical, Effective, and Constitutional. Chapman (2010). 7 Joanna H. D’Avella, Note, Death Row for Child Rape? Cruel and Unusual Punishment under the Roper-Atkins “Evolving Standards of Decency” Framework, 92 CORNELL L. REV. 129, 131 n.7 (2006). 8 Dabashi, Hamid, Rapist: Is Castration a Solution?, 2016, http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2014/06/rapists-castration-solution-201461273228520644.html., accessed on May 30 2016

importantly constitutional principles that being left. Now that the law has been signed by the president, this case shall be utilize as a mean of lessons when stipulating a new Perppu.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

D'Avella, Joanna H. 2006. Death Row for Child Rape? Cruel and Unusual Punishment under the Roper-Atkins "Evolving Standards of Dencency" Framework. Cornell Review. Vol.129: 131. Elizabeth M. Tullio. Chemical Castration for Child Protectors: Practical, Effective, and Constitutional. Chapman (2010). Gimino, Peter J. 1997. Mandatory Chemical Castration for Perpetrators of Sex Offenses Against Children: Following California's Lead. Pepperdine Law Review. Vol.67:74-75. Hukum Online. 2016. 2 Masalah Utama di Balik Wacana. http://www.hukumonline.com/berita/baca/lt57397e712b73f/2-masalah-utama-di-balikwacana-perppu-kebiri

Hukum Online. 2016. 8 Alasan Komnas Perempuan Tolak Perppu http://www.hukumonline.com/berita/baca/lt569f46225d153/8-alasan-komnasperempuan-tolak-perppu-kebiri

Kebiri.

Prentky, Robert. 1997. Risk Factors Associated with Recidivism Among Extrafamilial Child Molesters. Jornal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 141,147. Tullio, Elizabeth M. 2010. Chemical Castration for Perpetrators of Sex Offenses Against Children: Practical, Effective, and Constitutional. London: Chapman & Hall.

Implementation Problems of Dual Citizenship in Indonesia Written by: Hafizha Rika Nasution Citizenship problem is a big issue for some state, because someone’s right and obligation is related to their citizenship1. According to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights or ICCPR, Article 1 paragraph 1: “All people have the right of self-determination. By virtue of their right they freely determine their political status and freely pursue their economic, social and cultural development.”2. Citizenship policy paralleled with the civil and political right are mentioned in this article. These rights are universal for all people disregarding their nationality or their gender. In Thailand, their citizenship law is based on the Nationality Act of 1965 with Amendment No.2 AD 1992 and Amendment No.3 AD 1993. Under the applicable law in Thailand, Thailand will only allow dual citizenship to certain people, such as to child whose parents are Thai but were born in country(s) that applies ius soli and to a divorced woman who was once married to a foreigner or a woman whose husband was foreigner and already dead. If they meet the requirements, they can have their Thailand’s citizenship again3. Indonesia is currently planning to establish regulation on citizenship. The President of the Republic of Indonesia, Joko Widodo, have already submitted Rancangan Undang – Undang (RUU) tentang dwi kewarganegaraan to DPR (People’s Representatives Council)4. According to Undang Undang Nomor 10 Tahun 2004 tentang Pembentukan Perundangundangan, Article 17, this suggestion can be arranged based on national legislation program which can be run on the basis of law necessity in order to implementating the state activities5. With the launch on dual citizenship policy, it would give impact to government’s structural, mechanism, and policy6. The changes in the policy on citizenship resulted in the enactment of the regulation. There are 3 aspects in determining Citizenship based on Indonesian interpretation, which are:

Maciver, R.M. , The Modern State, reprinted ( London: Oxford University Press, 2006), page. 465. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, Article 1. 3 Multiple Citizenship, Thailand, http://www.multiplecitizenship.com/wscl/ws_THAILAND.html accessed on September 18, 2016 4 VOA Indonesia, Jokowi Janji Dorong Pembahasan Dwikewarganegaraan ke DPR, http://www.voaindonesia.com/a/jokowi-janji-dorong-pembahasan-dk-ke-dpr-/3027042.htmlaccessed on September 15,2016 5 Jimly Asshidique, Perihal Undang-Undang, (Depok: PT Rajagrafindo Persada, 2014), page. 185 6 Ramly Hutabarat, Laporan Akhir Pengkajian Hukum tentang Masalah Hukum Dwi Kewarganegaraan, (Jakarta: Badan Pembinaan Hukum Nasional, 2004) 2

1. From historical aspect, law on citizenship was made to form a national unity, because citizen is one of the conditions for a state to exist, as stated in the third principle of Pancasila, which is ―the unity of Indonesia‖. Citizens are the ones who formed positive law in a state7. 2. From sociological aspect, law on citizenship was made because of social factors that have devotion for many cultures that exist in Indonesia, maintain those culture within the country itself, and their sense of nationalist as a result of community struggle. 3. From philosophical aspect, law applied in Indonesia can be enforced when the law itself suits the philosophical values that exist in Pancasila, which are the ―five moral principles, namely ―Belief in the one and only God‖, ―Just and civilized humanity‖, ―The unity of Indonesia‖, ―Democracy‖, ―Social justice‖.8 Furthermore, the Indonesian concept of Citizenship, according to Article 1 number 1 Undang Undang 12 Tahun 2006 tentang Kewarganegaraan which stated that ―Citizen is a member of a state who is stipulated by legislation as one of the conditions for the establishment of the state‖9. This regulation has 4 principles, which are10: 1. Ius sanguinis (law of blood) determines citizenship by the nationality of the parents not by birthplace (citizenship by descent). 2. Ius soli (law of the soil), determines citizenship by birthplace (citizenship by birth). 3. One citizenship. 4. Limited dual citizenship. Based on the article 6 Undang Undang Nomor 12 Tahun 2006 tentang Kewarganegraan, Indonesia already allows limited dual citizenship, but it only applies for some children with following criteria11 : 1. A child from a legal marriage of an Indonesian father and a foreigner mother. 2. A child from a legal marriage of a foreigner father and an Indonesia mother 3. A child from an illegal marriage whose mother is a foreigner but the father, an Indonesian, recognizes the child as his child before the child turns 18 or unmarried. 4. A child born outside of Indonesian territory whose parents are Indonesian citizens and because of the law where the child was borm gave the child another citizenship.

Van Apeldoorn, Pengantar Ilmu Hukum, (Jakarta: Pradnya Paramita, 1981) page.88. Jimly Asshidique, Perihal Undang-Undang, ( Depok: PT Rajagrafindo Persada, 2014), page. 166 9 Undang-Undang Nomor 12 Tahun 2006 tentang Kewarganegaraan, Pasal 1 10 C.S.T. Kansil, Christine S.T., Hukum Tata Negara Republik Indonesia, (Jakarta: PT Rineka Cipta, 2011 ,Cetakan pertama revisi 2), page.207 11 Undang-Undang Nomor 12 Tahun 2006 tentang Kewarganegaraan, http://dapp.bappenas.go.id/upload/pdf/UU_2006_012.pdf, accessed on September 15, 2016 8

5. A child who was born from an illegal marriage of indonesian parents, who have not turned 18 and unmarried, but her father recognizes the child as his child, still recognized as indonesian citizen. 6. A child, who have not turned 5 of indonesian parents but was legally adopted by foreigners based on court decision, still recognized as indonesian citizen. The former Minister of Energy and Mineral Resources, Arcandra Tahar, was ―honorably dismissed‖ from his position on August 15th 2016. The dismissal happened because he has dual citizenship which are Indonesian and American. Since Indonesia does not embrace dual citizenship status, his Indonesian citizen was no longer valid in accordance with the Article 23 h Undang Undang Nomor 12 Tahun 2006 tentang Kewarganegaraan. Therefore, Mr. Tahar left despite the 20 days he had served as the minister. The current case regarding Mr. Arcandra Tahar’s dual citizenship sparked the issue back to Indonesia. Many have still been weighing the pros and cons, some even stated that dual-citizenship might bring harms to the country. To find out whether dual citizenship should be allowed in Indonesia or not, we have to consider both the positive and negative effects. The positive effects are12: 1.

Children’s request for naturalization which requires them to reside in Indonesia for five consecutive years or 10 years does not apply to children, so their rights can be protected.

Eliminating gender discrimination, state recognition of husband and children of Indonesian citizen.

Increasing tax income by deducting dual citizenship income.

Accelerating economic development by minimizing capital flight.

And the negative effects are: 1. Loosening the national security because of the high possibility of abuse of law. 2. The economic stability will be easy to change, because of the wider range of competition. Moreover, if we observe other developed countries such as United States and European Union countries, they already embrace the dual citizenship policy within their jurisdiction, and it affects positively to their countries, in all aspects including economic, social and technological aspect, dual citizenship policy has proven to be effective because

Ramly Hutabarat, op cit., http://www.bphn.go.id/data/documents/masalah_hukum_dwi_kewarganegaraan.pdf

they will open to a wider opportunity in inter-country relation, including easy access for people and goods, which promote their freedom of movement and political right13. Furthermore Indonesia is a rechstaat country and according to the legal experts of the European Continental, Friedrich Julius Stahl14, who interpreted rechstaat as a country that fully respect norms, therefore Indonesia should consider the right of people including the political right of every person by embracing dual citizenship policy through Indonesian law. Enabling dual-citizenship policy has been proven to be effective in other countries and we can also see the effect through their diaspora, for example. However, Indonesia needs a thorough research regarding the implementation of this policy, because it will have a massive effect to both Indonesian and foreign citizen. We should be aware of the dangers without having to ignore the benefits from implementing dual-citizenship15. With the implementation of dual citizenship, not only it will add some adjustments to the law but also change some existing law. In conclusion dual citizenship policy for Indonesia would bring more positive effects and open new opportunities for Indonesiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s development, but it also has to go through a profound research before jumping into any decisions. As a good citizen, we ought to understand about the law and be more sensitive to any risk that we are going to take. Every human being has the right to choose their own life respectively including right to choose their political status. Pancasila and the constitution are the basis of Indonesian legal system and also for any application of the law applied in Indonesia. Law should be made to protect the right of every human being, which is in accordance with the civil and political right aforementioned in the ICCPR. It has been recognized by Indonesia that every regulation applied in Indonesia should not overlap or contradict. To conclude, Indonesia government should also make it firm and clear so there would be no multi interpretation of the law in adjudging and answering current and future cases.

Ditjen AHU, Urgensi Dwi Kewarganegaran dalam Undang-Undang Kewarganegaraan, http://portal.ahu.go.id/id/detail/75-berita-lainnya/1076-urgensi-dwi-kewarganegaraan-dalam-undang-undangkewarganegaraan, accessed on September 13, 2016, 11.20 14 Seputar Pengetahuan, Ciri-Ciri Negara Hukum Menurut Para Ahli Hukum, 2014 http://www.seputarpengetahuan.com/2014/09/ciri-ciri-negara-hukum-menurut-para-ahli-hukum.html, accessed on September 15, 2016, 21.30 15 Peter J. Spiro, Dual-Citizenship as Human Right, (International Journal of Constitutional Law, 2010) http://icon.oxfordjournals.org/content/8/1/111.full, accessed on September 14, 2016, 10.00

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BOOKS Apeldoorn, Van. Pengantar Ilmu Hukum. Jakarta: Pradnya Paramita, 1981. Asshidique, Jimly. Perihal Undang-Undang. Depok: PT.Rajagrafindo Persada, 2014. —. Perihal Undang-Undang. Depok: PT.Rajagrafindo Persada, 2014. Kansil, C.S.T., S.T. Christine. Hukum Tata Negara Republik Indonesia. Vol. 1. Jakarta: PT.Rineka Cipta. 2011. Maclver, R.M. The Modern State . reprinted. London: Oxford University, 2006.

ARTICLE AND JOURNAL A noncommercial collection of information about citizenship, dual citizenship and multiple citizenship. http://www.multiplecitizenship.com/wscl/ws_THAILAND.html (accessed on September 18,2016, 17.30) Mazrieva, Eva. Jokowi Janji Dorong Pembahasan Dwi-Kewarganegaraan ke DPR. http://www.voaindonesia.com/a/jokowi-janji-dorong-pembahasan-dk-ke-dpr/3027042.html (accessed September 15, 2016) Hutabarat, Ramly."Laporan Akhir Pengkajian Hukum Tentang Masalah Hukum Dwi Kewarganegaraan."http://www.bphn.go.id/data/documents/masalah_hukum_dwi_kewarg anegaraan.pdf (accessed 09 14, 2016). Spiro, Peter J. Dual Citizenship as Human Right. http://icon.oxfordjournals.org/content/8/1/111.full (accessed September 14, 2016) Humas Direktorat Jenderal Administrasi Hukum Umum Kementerian Hukum Dan Hak Asasi Manusia Republik Indonesia.‖Urgensi Dwi Kewarganegaraan dalam UndangUndang Kewarganegaraan.‖ http://portal.ahu.go.id/id/detail/75-berita-lainnya/1076urgensi-dwi-kewarganegaraan-dalam-undang-undang-kewarganegaraan (accessed on September 18, 2016, 11.20) Susanto, Bob. Ciri-Ciri Negara HukumMenurut Para AhliHukum. http://www.seputarpengetahuan.com/2014/09/ciri-ciri-negara-hukum-menurut-para-ahlihukum.html (accessed September 15, 2016) REGULATIONS United Nations. "International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights." Undang-Undang No. 12 Tahun 2006 Tentang Kewarganegaraan Republik Indonesia. Lembaran Negara RI Tahun 2006, Nomor 63 Sekretariat Negara. Jakarta

INDONESIA DIGITAL SOVEREIGNTY: A CASE STUDY OF THE GOOGLE TAX by Shabrina D. Khansa Staff of Legal Research and Development ALSA LC UI 2016

GIANT DIGITAL COMPANIES EXPANSION American giant digital companies, such as Apple, Microsoft, Google, Intel Alphabet INTC, IBM, Cisco Systems and Oracle 1 has penetrated the world. In an interview with Recode, President Obama stated that "We have owned the internet. Our companies have created it, expanded it, perfected it. [European companies] who you know, can't compete with ours, are essentially trying to set up some roadblocks."2 This statement reflects the expansionistic geopolitical policies of American, so that access to all countries is opened widely for American companies communication technology innovation. However, a number of countries firmly reject the expansion because it might disrupt their national economy and politics. The refusal was seen by their creation of information search engines that dominate domestic market share. For example, China with Baidu (50 percent market domination), Russia with Yandex (50% market domination), and South Korea with Naver (70% market domination) and Daum (20% market domination).3 The collision between the expansion of giant digital companies and the protection of the states is also reflected in the matter of taxes, including in Indonesia. The problem arises because of the company’s domicile and the company's operation area is different, as expressed by the Minister of Finance of Indonesia, Sri Mulyani.

Digital

technologies are cross-border, but the tax activities are on the opposite. The companies

Samantha Sharf, The World's Largest Tech Companies 2016: Apple Bests Samsung, Microsoft And Alphabet, Forbes.com, May 26, 2016, http://www.forbes.com/sites/samanthasharf/2016/05/26/the-worldslargest-tech-companies-2016-apple-bests-samsung-microsoft-and-alphabet/#4cc3e73689ee , accessed on November 10, 2016. 2 Dan Schiller, Digital Capitalism: Stagnation and Content, October 13 2015, https://www.opendemocracy.net/digitaliberties/dan-schiller/digital-capitalism-stagnation-and-contention accesed on November 10, 2016, p. 13. 3 Berita Satu, Komunikonten Desak Pemerintah Tarik Pajak Google, http://www.beritasatu.com/pelangiramadan-2016/ekonomi/390076-komunikonten-desak-pemerintah-tarik-pajak-google.html accessed on November 10, 2016. 4 Kompas TV, Wawancara Menteri Keuangan RI (Sri Mulyani), “Rosi”, September 29, 2016.

take advantages of this condition with a mature tax planning, so it will be difficult for the countries to collect taxes.5 B.

ISSUES: A NUMBER OF QUESTIONS Therefore, it is important to know how Indonesia’s legal system responds to this issue, in particular, the norms became the legal basis for the imposition of taxes against giant digital companies. Especially, the Google case in Indonesia was interesting to be examined, as well as to know the tax efficiency strategy undertaken by the companies. In line with this, at the end we have to underline the criminal law sanctions that Over The Top (OTT) companies might face, if they do not comply with the Indonesian laws. Based on those problems, the future plans should be made in order to establish Indonesia’s cyber digital sovereignty.

DOES TAX LAWS OPTIMAL TO CAPTURE? Referring to the questions above, the analysis on the tax law optimization will be divided into four sections as follows. The first issue is the legal basis for the imposition of taxes. According to Rachmat Soemitro, who cites Adriani/Van Hoorn, tax is a levy that is by the ruler used to obtain money with juridical force, in order to finance expenditure to which the country can not be appointed the existence of a reciprocal services. Thus, the meaning of the tax law is the overall rules that govern the relations (rights and obligations) between the state as a tax collector by the people as taxpayers.6 Taxes that can be imposed on the giant digital companies are the income tax. The reason is because they operate in Indonesia as a tax subject in the form of agency (“badan”), as regulated by Article 2 paragraph (1) letter b Undang-Undang No. 36 Tahun 2008 tentang Perubahan Keempat atas Undang-Undang Nomor 7 Tahun 1983 Tentang Pajak Penghasilan (“UU PPh”). The agency is included as a foreign tax subject (“subjek pajak luar negeri”), as provided by Article 2 paragraph (4) of the UU PPh, which is not established and domiciled in Indonesia. The agency can get earnings from Indonesia by doing business through Badan Usaha Tetap (hereinafter named as

Pemeriksaanpajak.com, Digital Ekonomi & Celah Penghindaran Pajak, https://pemeriksaanpajak.com/2016/11/16/digital-ekonomi-celah-penghindaran-pajak/ accessed on November 10, 2016. 6 Rachmat Soemitro, Hukum Pajak Internasional Indonesia Perkembangan dan Pengaruhnya (Bandung: Eresco, 1976) p. 1-2.

“BUT”) (permanent establishment); or not through BUT which usually rely on passive income, such as interest, dividends, royalties, or rent. Definitively, the concept of BUT is is clearly defined in Article 2 paragraph (5) of the UU PPh, which says, BUT is a business form used by private people who don't live in Indonesia, a private person residing in Indonesia not more than 183 (one hundred and eighty-three) days within a period of 12 (twelve) months, and the agency is not established and domiciled in Indonesia to run a business or to do activities in Indonesia. There are 16 business forms, one of them is the "representative offices" as mentioned in Article 2 paragraph (5) of the UU PPh. The same term can also be seen in the Article 5 letter c Tax Agreement between Indonesia and America which mentions "an office.". In practical, the representative office is not allowed to conduct business activities in Indonesia. Its existence is merely to represent the company to do data collection, business feasibility study, promotion for the benefit of the principal company abroad, but excluding commercial or profit seeking activities.7 Based on the Explanation of Article 2 paragraph (2) UU Pajak PPh, the foreign tax subject including agency is also a tax payer (“wajib pajak”) because they get earning in Indonesia or through BUT. Tax payers of BUT equated their taxes with the tax payers of the domicile agency. The difference is, domicile taxpayers are subject to tax of all his earnings from worldwide, while the BUT tax payer are only taxed for the earnings obtained in Indonesia. Thus, taxpayer including the agency has complied with the subjective and the objective obligations. Consequently, instead of only value added taxes (“pajak pertambahan nilai”, hereinafter as “PPN”), but income taxes (“pajak penghasilan”) must also be deposited by this type of taxpayers. The second issue is the tax efficiency strategies used by giant digital companies, in this case being Google. This is the main challenges of Indonesia’s tax law enforcement. Until now, Google in Indonesia, namely PT Google Indonesia (PTGI) is not a BUT yet.8 PTGI is listed only as a domicile agency with the status of Foreign Capital Investment (“Penanaman Modal Asing”or ”PMA”) since 15 September 2011, which acts as a Google representative office of Asia Pacific Pte Ltd in Singapore. The earnings of PTGI are only fees that is less than 1% of Google’s total revenues in Indonesia (Rp 5,32 trillion) which amounted Rp 0,06 billion, if we assume the fees are 7

Jaja Zakaria, Perlakuan Perpajakan Terhadap Bentuk Usaha Tetap (BUT), (Jakarta: RajaGrafindo 2015), p. 14. 8 Tabloid Kontan, Gebrakan Indonesia Yang Dinanti Negara Sedunia, 26 September-2 Oktober 2016, p. 4.

1% of incomes. The basic calculation is the 2015 tax statistic that shows digital advertising market of all giant companies operating in Indonesia is Rp 10, 86 trillion, 70% owned by Google and Facebook, and 70% of that amount dominated by Google, which is about Rp 5.32 trillion, the tax that must be paid by PTGI is only their income taxes that amounted to 0.44% and is final in accordance with Article 15 of UU PPh. It means that the income tax paid by PTGI is 0.44% of Rp 0.06 trillion, which is equal to approximately Rp 264 million. It is much different when PTGI is BUT which she will have a duty to contribute the income tax of 25% plus others, including PPN.9 With Google's revenue in Indonesia amounted to Rp 53.2 trillion, then the income tax that must be paid is 25% of Rp 53.2 trillion, which amounted to Rp 1.32 trillion. The amount of BUT’s income tax is more than 1000 times that of the corporate income tax of only Rp 264 million. The above issue was originated from efficiency strategy of giant digital companies called “The Double Irish with a Dutch Sandwich.10 It is a tax avoidance technique employed by certain companies, involving the use of a combination of Irish and Dutch subsidiary companies to shift profits to low or no tax jurisdictions. This technique involves sending profits first through one Irish company, then to a Dutch company and finally to a second Irish company headquartered in a tax haven. This technique has allowed certain corporations to reduce their overall corporate tax rates dramatically. The technique involves two Irish companies, a Dutch company and an offshore company located in a tax haven. The first Irish company is used to receive large royalties on goods, such as iPhones sold to U.S. consumers. The U.S. profits, and therefore taxes, are dramatically lowered, and the Irish taxes on the royalties are very low. Due to a loophole in Irish laws, the company can then transfer its profits tax-free to the offshore company, where they can remain untaxed for years. The second Irish company is used for sales to European customers. It is also taxed at a low rate and can send its profits to the first Irish company using a Dutch company as an intermediary. If done right, there is no tax paid anywhere. The first Irish company now has all the money and can again send it onward to the tax haven company.11 The third issue is the criminal law sanctions. A giant digital company that breaches relevant Indonesian laws is certainly going to be threatened with criminal 9

Ibid., p. 8. Joseph B. Darby III, International “Tax Planning: Double Irish More than Doubles the Tax Saving”, Practical US/International Tax Strategies, No. 11, Vol. (9), May 15, 2007. p. 1. 11 Ibid. p. 2. 10

sanctions. Most importantly, Article 29 paragraph (1) Undang-Undang No. 28 tahun 2007 tentang Undang-Undang Ketentuan Umum dan Tata Cara Perpajakan (“UU KUP”), stated that the tax agency has the right to examine the compliance of taxpayers towards tax regime. In this case, taxpayers who refused to be checked, will be punished with six years maximum imprisonment and a maximum fine from four times of the tax payable, in accordance with Article 39 paragraph (1) the letter e UU KUP. For the record, digital companies that do not have any intentions in paying taxes, incur criminal penalties as well. In accordance with Article 39 paragraph (2) letter a UU KUP, those who have not signed up to get the staple “taxpayer number (“nomor pokok wajib pajak” or “NPWP”) or did not report his effort to be confirmed as a Taxable Entrepreneur (”pengusaha kena pajak” or “PKP”) is liable to get fined and/or imprisoned. The fourth issue is a plan to organize digital sovereignty. The case of Google is not the only issue faced by Indonesian government. Beside Google, OTT companies such as Facebook, Twitter, Yahoo, will also pursued by tax agency. Google is a priority because its market shares is bigger than other global OTT companies. Estimated global OTT companies’ advertising market by 2015 reached Rp 11 trillion. About 70% of them are dominated by Google and Facebook.12 From that 70% domination, Google holds 70%. Assuming that calculation, Google's revenue in Indonesia reached approximately Rp 5.5 trillion.13 Therefore, tax potential must be utilized optimally. Behind the strong efforts of Indonesian government to capture taxes, Google and other OTT companies should obey the applicable regulations in Indonesia. This is a momentum for rearranging digital sovereignty in Indonesia. The development of the national payments system should continue. It will be equipped with a national data center so that internet data traffic flow and electronic transactions are recorded.14 This obligation is contained in Article 17 paragraph (2) Peraturan Pemerintah Nomor 82 tahun 2012 tentang Organisasi Sistem dan Transaksi Elektronik (“PP Sistem Elektronik”). With a national data center, it will be easier for Indonesian government to detect traffic electronic transactions conducted.

Reuters, Indonesia to investigate Google over possible unpaid taxes, September 19, 2016, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-indonesia-google-idUSKCN11L0S9 accessed on November 10, 2016. 13 Fortune, September 19, 2016, http://fortune.com/2016/09/19/google-indonesia-tax-bill/ accessed on November 10, 2016. 14 Kompas, Kasus Google: Momentum Menata Kedaulatan Siber RI, September 21, 2016, p.1.

THE CONCLUSION AND THE SUGGESTION Indonesia could not avoid the conflict of interests between the giant digital companies expansion and the state protection. One of the problems that arise is the effort to collect taxes from those companies. Then, the issue raises a number of questions that must be answered so that national interests of Indonesia can be safeguarded. What is the legal basis for the imposition of taxes? Taxation of income tax on company will be optimal if they have registered as BUT, which contained in Article 2 paragraph 5 UU PPh. With this status, company that earn revenue from customers in Indonesia can be captured by the Indonesian government. The strategy of Double Irish with a Dutch Sandwich has become a firm grip by OTT companies. The tax evasion techniques must be carefully anticipated. Therefore, requiring all OTT companies to become BUT in Indonesia, is none other than our counter strategy against OTT companies’ strategy to avoid taxes. Could they be charged to criminal sanctions? Against Google, Facebook, Twitter, Yahoo, and other service provider of information technology companies, compliance with tax regulations are not negotiable, although the investment interests in Indonesia is also an important consideration. For their disobedience, they would face criminal sanctions, as set out in Articles 29 and 39 UU KUP. Lastly, what is the plan to organize Indonesian digital sovereignty? Not only firmness that has to be applied in the application of the tax regulations, but also other provisions related to electronic transaction should be put as a priority to run by giant digital companies. In this case, the placement of the national data center in Indonesia will be helpful in monitoring electronic transactions of the OTT companies in order to make law enforcement and taxation in Indonesia more effective. In that case, Indonesia will be ready to participate and support the idea of protecting the national interest and dealing with the expansion of giant digital companies’ interests at the same time. For the record, Indonesian government should be proud for being the first developing country that dared to resist “The Global Octopus”.

BIBLIOGRAPHY BOOKS

Soemitro, Rachmat. 1976. Hukum Pajak Internasional Indonesia Perkembangan dan Pengaruhnya. Bandung: Eresco. Zakaria, Jaja. 2005. Perlakuan Perpajakan Terhadap Bentuk Usaha Tetap. Jakarta: RajaGrafindo.

ARTICLES

Berita Satu. 2016. Komunikonten Desak Pemerintah Tarik Pajak Google, Beritasatu, http://www.beritasatu.com/pelangi-ramadan-2016/ekonomi/390076-komunikontendesak-pemerintah-tarik-pajak-google.html Darby, Joseph B. 2007. “International Tax Planning: Double Irish More than Doubles the Tax Saving”, Practical US/International TaxStrategies, No. 11, Vol. (9). Forbes. 2016. The World's Largest Tech Companies 2016: Apple Bests Samsung, Microsoft And

Alphabet.

http://www.forbes.com/sites/samanthasharf/2016/05/26/the-worlds-

largest-tech-companies-2016-apple-bests-samsung-microsoft-andalphabet/#4cc3e73689ee Fortune. 2016. Google May Owe Indonesia More Than $400 Million in Back Taxes for 2015. http://fortune.com/2016/09/19/google-indonesia-tax-bill/ Kompas. 2016. Kasus Google: Momentum Menata Kedaulatan Siber RI. Kompas TV, “Rosi.” 2016. Wawancara Menteri Keuangan RI (Sri Mulyani). Kontan. 2016. Gebrakan Indonesia Yang Dinanti Negara Sedunia. Pemeriksaan

Pajak.

2016.

Digital

Ekonomi

Celah

Penghindaran

Pajak.

https://pemeriksaanpajak.com/2016/11/16/digital-ekonomi-celah-penghindaran-pajak/ Reuters.

2016.

Indonesia

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stagnation

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REGULATIONS

Convention Between Government of Indonesia and USA for the Avoidance of Double Taxation and the Prevention of Fiscal Evasion With Respect to Taxes on Income. 1990. Indonesia. Peraturan Pemerintah Nomor 82 Tahun 2012 tentang Penyelenggaraan Sistem dan Transaksi Elektronik. TLN No. 5348. Indonesia. Undang-Undang

Nomor 36 Tahun 2008 tentang Perubahan Keempat atas

Undang-Undang Nomor 7 Tahun 1983 Tentang Pajak Penghasilan. LN No. 133 Tahun 2008. Indonesia. Undang-Undang Nomor 28 Tahun 2007 tentang Undang-Undang Ketentuan Umum dan Tata Cara Perpajakan. LN No. 85 Tahun 2007.

Legal Opinion Penerapan Hukuman Kebiri di Indonesia Oleh Felula Salma Desfealucy & Valerie Irene Patricia ALSA Local Chapter Universitas Indonesia

A. Kasus Posisi (Facts) Pemerkosaan dan pembunuhan terhadap Yuyun, siswi kelas VIII SMP di Kecamatan Padang Ulak Tanding (PUT), Kabupaten Rejang Lebong, Provinsi Bengkulu terjadi pada tanggal 2 April 2016. Pemerkosaan dilakukan oleh sekelompok laki-laki berjumlah 14 orang.1 Kasus pemerkosaan yang terjadi terhadap Yuyun menimbulkan urgensi untuk memerangi kekerasan terhadap anak di Indonesia. Hal ini direalisasikan salah satunya melalui pembentukan Perppu 1/2016 tentang Perubahan Kedua Undang-Undang Nomor 23 Tahun 2002 tentang Perlindungan Anak. Salah satu pengaturan baru yang tercantum pada Perppu 1/2016 mengenai tindakan kebiri kimia

sebagai pidana tambahan untuk pelaku

kejahatan seksual terhadap anak. Kebiri kimia adalah jenis pengibirian yang menggunakan obat-obatan untuk mengurangi libido atau daya tarik seksual.2 Negara-negara seperti Amerika Serikat, Polandia, Rusia, Korea Selatan, Selandia Baru, dan Argentina telah memberlakukan hukuman kebiri bagi pelaku kejahatan seksual. Hukuman kebiri ini akan menyebabkan testis dari laki-laki menjadi tidak berfungsi sebagai reaksi dari obat-obatan kimia. Dampak lainnya yakni mensterilisasi, mengurangi produksi hormon, dan menurunkan libido laki-laki.3 Pro dan kontra terus bermunculan terkait isu pengibirian kimia tersebut. Banyak anggapan muncul yakni hukuman kebiri ini terkesan sebagai tindakan sadis, memperlihatkan kemunduran dalam pola pikir, kuno dan tidak manusiawi. Namun, ternyata penjara dirasa tidak lagi memberikan efek jera oleh para pelaku tindak kekerasan seksual sehingga jumlah

Phesi Ester Jukikawati,, Tempo, 2016, Tragedi Yuyun: Misteri Meja Basah & Orangtua Pun Terancam https://m.tempo.co/read/news/2016/05/06/063768792/tragedi-yuyun-misteri-meja-basah-orangtua-pun-terancam diakses pada 25 Juni 2016. 2 Peter J. Gimino, III, Mandatory Chemical Castration for Perpetrators of Sex Offenses Against Children: Following Californiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Lead, 25 PEPP. L. REV. 67, 74â&#x20AC;&#x201C;75 (1997). 3 Andy Budiman, DW, 2016, Kebiri Kimia: Kemanusiaan vs Perlindungan Korban http://www.dw.com/id/kebiri-kimia-kemanusiaan-vs-perlindungan-korban/a-16494556 diakses pada 25 Juni 2016.

kasus kekerasan terhadap anak masih terbilang tinggi bahkan terus mengalami peningkatan tiap tahunnya.4 Pada tahun 2010, Komisi Nasional Perlindungan Anak menerima 2,046 laporan kasus kekerasan terhadap anak, dimana 42% diantaranya merupakan kekerasan seksual.5 Kemudian pada tahun 2012, jumlah kasus meningkat menjadi 2,637 kasus, dimana 62% diantaranya merupakan kasus kekerasan seksual.6 Angka di atas tidak serta merta mencakup semua kasus kekerasan terhadap anak yang terjadi di Indonesia. Hingga akhirnya, tahun 2013 ditetapkan menjadi tahun darurat kekerasan seksual terhadap anak. Sejumlah kasus baru-baru ini mendorong pemerintah Indonesia untuk membuat kemajuan yang signifikan dalam melindungi anak-anak Indonesia dari segala bentuk kekerasan. Pemerintah Indonesia, dalam hal ini yaitu Presiden, memperkenalkan sanksi pidana baru melalui Perppu 1/2016. Pasal 81 UU No. 23/2002 tentang Perlindungan Anak telah mengatur sanksi pidana bagi mereka yang memiliki niat melakukan tindak pidana atau mencoba memaksa anak-anak untuk melakukan tindakan seksual dengan pelaku. Ancaman tidak hanya berlaku bagi mereka yang memaksa dirinya dengan anak-anak, tetapi juga memaksa anak-anak untuk melakukan hal tersebut dengan orang lain. Namun demikian, prevalensi kekerasan seksual terhadap anak telah menunjukkan kegagalan dalam sistem hukum Indonesia.

B. Isu Hukum Meskipun telah terdapat pengaturan yang menunjukan kemajuan dalam melindungi anak-anak Indonesia terhadap segala bentuk kekerasan, terdapat pula prinsip-prinsip hukum konstitusional yang ditinggalkan.

C. Dasar Hukum 1. Undang-Undang Dasar 1945 2. Putusan Mahkamah Konstitusi Nomor 138 / PUU-VII / 2009 3. Undang-Undang Nomor 23 Tahun 2002 tentang Perlindungan Anak 4

Hukum Online, 2016, 8 Alasan Komnas Perempuan Tolak Perppu Kebiri, http://www.hukumonline.com/berita/baca/lt569f46225d153/8-alasan-komnas-perempuan-tolak-perppu-kebiri, diakses pada 30 Mei 2016. 5 Ibid. 6 Soraya Bunga Larasati, 2013, Kejahatan Seksual terhadap Anak Marak di Tahun 2013, https://komnaspa.wordpress.com/2013/07/24/kejahatan-seksual-terhadap-anak-marak-di-tahun-2013/ diakses pada 30 Mei 2016.

D. Analisa Perppu 1/2016 mengintensifkan sanksi terhadap pelaku kekerasan seksual dengan meningkatkan beratnya pidana pokok berupa pidana mati dan pidana seumur hidup. Perppu tersebut juga mengatur tiga hukuman tambahan yakni kebiri kimia, pengumuman identitas pelaku kepada publik, dan pemasangan alat deteksi elektronik (chip) pada tubuh pelaku. Kebiri kimia diatur dalam Pasal 81 dan Pasal 81A Perppu 1/2016. Dalam arti luas, Perppu 1/2016 mengubah dua pasal dalam Undang Undang Nomor 23 Tahun 2002 yaitu Pasal 81 dan Pasal 82 serta menambahkan Pasal 81A. Seperti yang tertulis pada Pasal 81 ayat 7, tindakan kebiri kimia dan pemasangan alat deteksi elektronik (chip) dapat dilakukan terhadap pelaku yang memenuhi unsur-unsur tindak pidana yang dijelaskan dalam ayat 4 dan ayat 5. Pada Pasal 81 ayat 3 dijelaskan bahwa terdapat penambahan sepertiga dari ancaman pidana apabila pelaku merupakan orang tua, wali, hubungan keluarga, pendidik, lembaga yang menjembatani komisi perlindungan anak, atau dilakukan oleh lebih dari satu orang. Pada ayat 4 dan 5 diatur mengenai syarat-syarat yang apabila terpenuhi, sanksinya adalah pengebirian kimia. Tertulis juga pada ayat 5, dalam hal tindak pidana sebagaimana dimaksud dalam Pasal 76D menimbulkan korban lebih dari 1 (satu) orang, mengakibatkan luka berat, gangguan jiwa, penyakit menular, terganggu atau hilangnya fungsi reproduksi, dan/atau korban meninggal dunia, pelaku dipidana mati, seumur hidup, atau pidana penjara paling singkat 10 (sepuluh) tahun dan paling lama 20 (dua puluh) tahun. Penjabaran lebih lanjut tentang kebiri kimia terdapat pada Pasal 81A. Pertama, tindakan sebagaimana dimaksud dalam Pasal 81 ayat (7) dikenakan untuk jangka waktu paling lama 2 (dua) tahun dan dilaksanakan setelah terpidana menjalani pidana pokok. Kedua, pengebirian kimia harus berada di bawah pengawasan secara berkala oleh kementerian yang menyelenggarakan urusan pemerintahan di bidang hukum, sosial dan kesehatan. Ketiga, pengebirian kimia harus diikuti dengan tindakan rehabilitasi. Keempat, ketentuan lebih lanjut mengenai tata cara pelaksanaan tindakan dan rehabilitasi diatur dengan Peraturan Pemerintah (PP). Dengan catatan, hukuman hanya akan berlaku untuk pelaku yang melakukan kejahatan sejak Perppu ditetapkan. Hukuman tambahan kebiri kimia pada Perppu ini menimbulkan banyak pertanyaan mengenai penerapan hukum, efektivitas hukum, dan keputusan untuk membuat Perppu ini sebagai hukum. Menteri Hukum dan Hak Asasi Manusia Republik Indonesia, Yasonna Laoly menekankan bahwa tindakan kebiri kimia akan diputuskan berdasarkan pertimbangan hakim,

dan karena itu hukuman ini berlaku sebagai hukuman tambahan.7 Para hakim akan memberikan putusan berdasarkan pertimbangan yang matang melalui fakta-fakta yang ada, apakah pelaku tersebut sepatutnya dihukum dengan pengebirian kimia. Pada tahun 2012, 100 pelaku kejahatan seksual di Penjara Whatton menjalani hukuman kebiri kimia.8 Riset tersebut menekankan bahwa kebiri kimia memerlukan supervisi yang intensif. Terdapat pandangan bahwa kebiri kimia bukanlah solusi yang definit. Ditinjau dari segi substansi Perppu 1/2016, hukuman kebiri kimia terkesan hanya sebagai pidana tambahan untuk menyakiti pelaku, sehingga hanya berlaku sebagai hukuman yang retributif karena sistem reproduksi hanya merupakan alat untuk melakukan kejahatan. 9 Dr. Ludwig Lowensitein, seorang psikolog, berpendapat bahwa dorongan seksual muncul karena fantasifantasi yang membuat mereka tertarik dengan anak, sehingga pengurangan hormon tidak akan efektif10. Obat yang digunakan dalam pengebirian kimia tidak akan mempengaruhi sikap tersebut dan malah berdampak pada fisik seorang laki-laki yang akan menyerupai perempuan. Selain itu, hukuman kebiri dapat membuat pelaku lebih sulit untuk menyesuaikan diri ke masyarakat. Hal lain yang perlu digaris bawahi adalah hukuman kebiri juga dinilai melanggar hak asasi manusia. Penerapan hukuman kebiri dimaksudkan untuk memberikan efek jera kepada pelaku tetapi tidak dapat pula dibenarkan jika dilakukan dengan cara-cara yang melanggar HAM. Meskipun Aliansi 99 dan Institute for Criminal Justice Reform (ICJR) mengkategorikan kekerasan seksual terhadap anak sebagai tindak pidana luar biasa11, namun adanya hukuman kebiri dinilai tidak akan menghilangkan adanya tindak pidana tersebut. Banyak kritik yang kemudian muncul atas terbitnya Perppu 1/2016. Meski jika ditinjau dari segi konstitusional, Perppu 1/2016 menunjukkan berjalannya kekuasaan eksekutif di Indonesia. Ciri dijalankannya kekuasaan eksekutif salah satunya adalah dengan menangani kondisi tertentu dengan adanya urgensi atau yang di dalam konstitusi ditulis sebagai 7

Humas Sekretariat Kabinet Republik Indonesia, 2016, Menkumham: Perppu Kebiri Otomatis Sudah Berlaku http://setkab.go.id/menkumham-perppu-kebiri-otomatis-sudah-berlaku/ diakses pada 30 Mei 2016. 8 Karen Harrison, 2012, Should Sex Offenders be Chemically Castrated, http://www.theguardian.com/politics/reality-check-with-polly-curtis/2012/mar/13/prisons-and-probationcriminal-justice, diakses pada 28 Juni 2016. 9 Joanna H. Dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Avella, Note, Death Row for Child Rape? Cruel and Unusual Punishment under the RoperAtkins â&#x20AC;&#x153;Evolving Standards of Decencyâ&#x20AC;? Framework, 92 CORNELL L. REV. 129, 131 n.7 (2006). 10 Karen Harrison, Op.Cit. 11

Elizabeth M. Tullio, Chemical Castration for Child Protectors: Practical, Effective, and Constitutional. Chapman (2010).

"kegentingan yang memaksa". Tertuang dalam pasal 22 ayat (1) UUD 1945 yaitu Presiden berhak untuk membuat suatu Perppu atas dasar pertimbangan "kegentingan yang memaksa". Presiden

memiliki

hak

subjektif

dalam

kondisi

konstitusional

abnormal

(noodverordeningrecht) yaitu untuk bertindak cepat, akurat, dan terukur untuk melindungi keamanan negara. Kedudukan Perppu sebagai norma subjektif juga dinyatakan Jimly Ashiddiqie sebagai berikut, “Pasal 22 memberikan kewenangan kepada Presiden untuk secara subjektif menilai keadaan negara atau hal ihwal yang terkait dengan negara yang menyebabkan suatu undang-undang tidak dapat dibentuk segera, sedangkan kebutuhan akan pengaturan materiil mengenai hal yang perlu diatur sudah sangat mendesak sehingga Pasal 22 UUD 1945 memberikan kewenangan kepada Presiden untuk menetapkan peraturan pemerintah pengganti undangundang (Perpu)”. 12 Berdasarkan Putusan Mahkamah Konstitusi Nomor 138 / PUU-VII / 2009, ada tiga syarat sebagai parameter adanya “kegentingan yang memaksa” bagi Presiden untuk menetapkan Perppu. Pertama, adanya keadaan yaitu kebutuhan mendesak untuk menyelesaikan masalah hukum secara cepat berdasarkan Undang-Undang. Kedua, UndangUndang yang dibutuhkan tersebut belum ada sehingga terjadi kekosongan hukum atau Undang-Undang yang dibutuhkan sudah ada namun tidak memadai. Terakhir, kekosongan dalam hukum tidak dapat diatasi dengan cara membuat Undang-Undang secara prosedur biasa karena akan memerlukan waktu yang cukup lama sedangkan keadaan yang mendesak tersebut perlu kepastian untuk diselesaikan. Maka dari itu, dalam menerbitkan Perppu 1/2016 Presiden perlu memerhatikan konsideran dan penjelasan umum mengenai urgensi untuk mengamandemen UU 23/2002. Pusat Studi Hukum dan Kebijakan Indonesia menegaskan bahwa hukuman kebiri tidak memenuhi syarat untuk dibentuk sebagai Perppu13. Selain substansi material dari Perppu 1/2016 yang banyak dipertanyakan, pembentukan Perppu dinilai bertolakbelakang dengan prinsip demokrasi karena pembuatan peraturan dilakukan tanpa adanya diskusi diantara Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat.

C. Kesimpulan Terlepas dari tidak dipenuhinya syarat “kegentingan yang memaksa” dan pro kontra hukuman kebiri lainnya, bagaimana Perppu 1/2016 ini nantinya akan diterapkan juga masih 12

Jimly Asshiddiqie, Hukum Tata Negara Darurat, Jakarta: Raja Grafindo Persada, 2007, hlm. 209. Hukum Online, 2016. 2 Masalah Utama di Balik Wacana 101, http://www.hukumonline.com/berita/baca/lt57397e712b73f/2-masalah-utama-di-balik-wacana-perppu-kebiri, diakses pada tanggal 30 Mei 2016. 13

dipertanyakan. Walaupun hukuman kebiri telah terbukti dapat menurunkan residivisme di beberapa negara, terdapat pandangan bahwa hukuman kebiri merupakan pelangaran terhadap hak asasi manusia. Apabila memang harus diterapkan, terhadap penerapan hukuman kebiri harus dilaksanakan pengawasan yang intens disertai dengan perawatan psikologis dan kesehatan pelaku karena pengebirian kimia dapat membuat pelaku menderita migrain, batu empedu, pembekuan darah, reaksi alergi dan bahkan keinginan untuk bunuh diri14. Sedangkan tujuan dari penjatuhan hukuman itu sendiri bukanlah untuk menyiksa tetapi untuk memberi efek jera.

Karen Harrison, Op.Cit.

DAFTAR PUSTAKA

Asshiddiqie, Jimly. 2007. Hukum Tata Negara Darurat. Jakarta: Raja Grafindo Persada. Budiman, Andy. DW. 2016. Kebiri Kimia: Kemanusiaan vs Perlindungan Korban. http://www.dw.com/id/kebiri-kimia-kemanusiaan-vs-perlindungan-korban/a16494556. D'Avella, Joanna H. 2006. Death Row for Child Rape? Cruel and Unusual Punishment under the Roper-Atkins "Evolving Standards of Dencency" Framework. Cornell Review. Vol.129: 131. Gimino, Peter J. 1997. Mandatory Chemical Castration for Perpetrators of Sex Offenses Against Children: Following California's Lead. Pepperdine Law Review. Vol.67:7475. Harrison, Karen. 2012. Should Sex Offenders be Chemically Castrated. http://www.theguardian.com/politics/reality-check-with-polly curtis/2012/mar/13/ prisons-and-probation-criminal-justice. Hukum Online. 2016. 2 Masalah Utama di Balik Wacana. http://www.hukumonline.com/berita/baca/lt57397e712b73f/2-masalah-utama-dibalik-wacana-perppu-kebiri. Hukum Online. 2016. 8 Alasan Komnas Perempuan Tolak Perppu Kebiri. http://www.hukumonline.com/berita/baca/lt569f46225d153/8-alasan-komnasperempuan-tolak-perppu-kebiri. Humas Sekretariat Kabinet Republik Indonesia. 2016. Menkumham: Perppu Kebiri Otomatis Sudah Berlaku. http://setkab.go.id/menkumham-perppu-kebiri-otomatissudah-berlaku/. Jukikawati, Phesi Ester. Tempo. 2016. Tragedi Yuyun: Misteri Meja Basah & Orangtua Pun Terancam. https://m.tempo.co/read/news/2016/05/06/063768792/ tragedi-yuyunmisteri-meja-basah-orangtua-pun-terancam. Larasati, Soraya Bunga. 2013. Kejahatan Seksual terhadap Anak Marak di Tahun 2013.https://komnaspa.wordpress.com/2013/07/24/kejahatan-seksual-terhadap-anakmarak-di-tahun-2013/. Tullio, Elizabeth M. 2010. Chemical Castration for Perpetrators of Sex Offenses Against Children: Practical, Effective, and Constitutional. London: Chapman & Hall.

Suatu Pandangan terhadap Perlindungan Hak atas Anak sebagai Pelaku Tindak Pidana Mercia Namira – FHUI 2014 Sebagaimana konsep Negara hukum yang dikemukakan oleh para ahli baik Emanuel Kant dan Julius Stahl dengan paham rechtstaats-nya, pun Dicey dengan paham rule of law, kedua paham tersebut sama-sama mengandung unsur pengakuan atau adanya jaminan terhadap hak asasi manusia. Dalam pasal 1 ayat (3) Undang-undang Dasar Negara Republik Indonesia Tahun 1945 (“UUD NRI 1945”) sudah dengan jelas menyatakan bahwa Indonesia adalah Negara hukum. Oleh karena itu sudah sepatutnya Indonesia menjunjung tinggi dan melindungi hak-hak asasi rakyatnya, yang mana perumusan hak asasi manusia tersebut tidaklah harus selalu dirumuskan secara khusus pada undang-undang melainkan dapat secara implisit dalam pasal-pasal pada undang-undang sesuai dengan konsideran dan penjelasan undang-undang itu sendiri.1 Pada dasarnya pengakuan dan jaminan atas hak atas anak sudah diejawantahkan pada apa yang menjadi Staatsgrundgezets atau aturan dasar dari Negara Indonesia yang dapat dilihat pada Pasal 28 B ayat (2) UUD NRI 1945 yang mana pasal tersebut pada intinya menyatakan bahwa setiap anak berhak atas kelangsungan hidup, tumbuh, dan berkembang serta berhak atas perlindungan dari kekerasan dan diskriminasi. Begitu pula kita melihat konsekuensi dari adanya Pasal 28 B ayat (2) UUD NRI 1945, Indonesia sebagai negara hukum maka pemerintah Indonesia meratifikasi Konvensi Hak Anak (Convention on the Rights of the Child) melalui Keputusan Presiden Nomor 36 Tahun 1990, kemudian juga dituangkan dalam produk legislatif yaitu Undang–Undang Nomor 4 Tahun 1979 tentang Kesejahteraan Anak, Undang–Undang Nomor 23 Tahun 2002 sebegaimana telah diubah dengan Undang-Undang Nomor 35 Tahun 2014 Tentang Perlindungan Anak (“UU Perlindungan Anak”), dan Undang-Undang 1

Bambang Poernomo, Pandangan Terhadap Asas-asas Hukum Acara Pidana. (Yogyakarta: Liberty, 1982), hlm 10-11.

Nomor 11 Tahun 2012 tentang Sistem Peradilan Pidana Anak (â&#x20AC;&#x153;UU SPPAâ&#x20AC;?). Dari peraturan-peraturan tersebut, kesemuanya mengemukakan prinsip-prinsip umum perlindungan anak yaitu nondiskriminasi, kepentingan terbaik bagi anak, kelangsungan hidup dan tumbuh kembang serta menghargai partisipasi anak. Namun dengan lahirnya peraturan-peraturan tersebut bukan berarti dalam penerapannya sudah terlaksana dengan baik, maka dari itu perlu ditinjau lagi apakah pengaturan perlindungan hak-hak anak di Indonesia sudah terealisasikan sesuai dengan das sollen-nya. Tidak dapat dipungkiri adanya pemikiran yang didasarkan pada pertimbangan bahwa anak merupakan individu yang belum matang baik secara fisik, mental maupun sosial dan karena kondisinya yang rentan, tergantung dan berkembang maka dibandinkan dengan orang dewasa, seorang anak lebih berisiko terhadap tindakan eksploitasi, kekerasan, penelantaran, dan lain-lain memang benar adanya. 2 Dengan melihat hal itu maka sudah menjadi suatu keharusan adanya perlindungan bagi anak. Adapun perlindungan anak yang dimaksud dalam hal ini adalah segala usaha yang dilakukan untuk menciptakan kondisi agar setiap anak dapat melaksanakan hak dan kewajibannya demi perkembangan dan pertumbuhan anak secara wajar baik fisik, mental, dan sosial.3 Namun di sisi lain berdasarkan sifat-sifat dasar yang dimiliki sang anak itu pula, tidak jarang seorang anak melakukan tindakan yang dianggap tidak pantas bahkan sebenarnya sudah dapat dikatagorikan sebagai kejahatan atau tindak pidana, yang juga dikenal dengan penyebutan juvenile delinquency. Contohnya mulai dari melakukan perkelahian, perusakan barang, pencurian, penganiayaan sampai kejahatan seksual seperti pemerkosaan. Kejahatan-kejahatan tersebut dilakukan oleh anak, pada umumnya dikarenakan kurangnya pemahaman

Ima Susilowati, Pengertian Konvensi Hak Anak(Unicef), ( Jakarta: Harapan Prima, 2003), hlm. 46. 3 Maidin Gultom, Perlindungan Hukum Terhadap Anak (Bandung: PT Refika Aditama, 2008), hlm 33

anak terhadap hal yang baik dan buruk serta didukung dengan adanya faktor eksternal seperti lingkungan keluarga dan media massa. Meskipun demikian dalam hal ini anak tersebut harus tetap diberikan perlindungan agar anak tersebut tidak menjadi korban dari kesewenang-wenangan hukum. Menurut Fuad Hassan, juvenile delinquency atau yang dikenal dengan kenakalan remaja/anak adalah perbuatan antisosial yang dilakukan oleh remaja, yang apabila dilakukan oleh orang dewasa maka dikualifikasikan sebagai kejahatan.4 Adapun merujuk pada UU SPPA, perilaku yang dikatagorikan sebagai juvenile delinquency ialah perbuatan yang dilakukan oleh anak yang telah berumur 12 (dua belas) tahun, tetapi belum berumur 18 (delapan belas) tahun yang diduga melakukan tindak pidana. 5â&#x20AC;¨ Namun yang perlu diperhatikan disini meskipun perilaku kenakalan yang dilakukan oleh anak kadangkala sama dengan kejahatan yang dilakukan oleh orang dewasa, tidak berarti penanggulangan dan sanksi yang diberikan juga sama begitu juga terdapat perbedaan hak-hak dari anak sebagai pelaku tindak pidana dengan orang dewasa sebagai pelaku tindak pidana.6 Sehingga disini yang cukup menjadi permasalahan tersendiri adalah â&#x20AC;&#x153;Bagaimana perlindungan terhadap hak-hak anak yang berhadapan dengan hukum karena anak tersebut sebagai pelaku tindak pidana?â&#x20AC;?. Meskipun sudah terdapat kemajuan pada pengaturan mengenai perlindungan hak-hak anak yang berhadapan dengan hukum seperti adanya mekanisme Diversi pada UU SPPA dan juga pengaturan-pengaturan lainnya yang telah di selaraskan dengan instrumen internasional seperti Beijing Rules7, namun pada kenyataannya masih ditemukan celah yang mengakibatkan hak-hak anak 4

Nashriana, Perlindungan Hukum Pidana bagi Anak di Indonesia (Jakarta: PT Raja Grafindo Persada, 2011), hlm. 27. 5 Indonesia, Undang-Undang Sistem Peradilan Pidana Anak, UU No. 11 Tahun 2012, LN No.153, TLN No. 5332, Ps. 1 Angka 3. 6 Nashriana, Op. Cit., hlm. 75. 7 Diversi adalah pengalihan penyelesaian perkara pidana anak dari proses peradilan dibawa ke arah penyelesaian melalui musyawarah melibatkan korban, pelaku, keluarganya dan masyarakat di luar proses peradilan.

tidak terpenuhi secara sepenuhnya antara lain dalam hal ini yang menjadi fokus permasalahan adalah masih adanya sanksi pidana penjara bagi anak yang justru dianggap melanggar hak asasi dari anak itu sendiri karena dirasa akan menghilangkan masa-masa sang anak dalam mengembangkan dirinya juga meningkatkan kecerdasannya sesuai dengan minat dan bakatnya sebab anak tersebut harus terkekang di balik jeruji besi, yang mana hak-hak itu seharusnya dapat dilaksanakan karena dijamin oleh UU Perlindungan Anak. Dengan adanya hal itu, tujuan yang dicita-citakan dalam UU SPPA yaitu pengadilan anak yang bertujuan agar dapat terwujud peradilan yang benar-benar menjamin perlindungan kepentingan terbaik bagi anak yang berhadapan dengan hukum dianggap belum sepenuhnya tercapai. Restorative justice yang menjadi ruh dalam UU SPPA dapat dibilang menunjukkan suatu hal yang bertolak belakang dengan sistem peradilan saat ini yang mana disatu pihak otiritas negara melahirkan sistem peradilan pidana yang hanya berorientasi pada penyelesaian perkara pidana melalui satu jalur yaitu proses peradilan pidana. Sedangkan dengan adanya pendekatan restorative justice pada dasarnya konsep ini terfokus pada upaya mentransformasikan kesalahan yang dilakukan pelaku dengan upaya perbaikan, termasuk didalam upaya ini adalah perbaikan hubungan antara para pihak yang terkait dengan peristiwa tersebut,8 antara lain ditunjukkan dengan adanya mekanisme diversi sebagaimana yang telah disinggung sebelumnya. Namun jika melihat pada Pasal 71 ayat (1) huruf e UU SPPA memang masih terdapat adanya ancaman pidana penjara, yang mana ketentuan tersebut justru melegitimasi penjatuhan pidana penjara bagi anak sebagai pelaku tindak pidana yang seharunsya digunakan sebagai the last resort. Contohnya dapat dilihat pada putusan Nomor 628/Pid/SUS-ANAK/2014/PN.Pdg yang mana seorang anak berumur lima belas tahun divonis satu tahun penjara akibat melakukan pencurian. Kemudian diperkuat dengan data yang diperoleh dari Sistem Database Pemasyarakatan tertanggal 30 November 2016, nampak angka 8

Eva Achjani Zulfa, Keadilan Restoratif.(Depok: Badan penerbit FHUI, 2009), hlm. 55.

yang cukup tinggi atas total narapidana anak laki-laki dan perempuan diantaranya pada Kantor Wilayah Aceh berujumlah 68, Jawa Tengah berjumlah 151, Jawa Timur berjumlah 163, Banten berjumlah 84, Bengkulu 89, Jawa Barat berjulah 241, Lampung berjumlah 205, Riau berjumlah 129, Sumatera Selatan berjumlah 218, Sumatera Utara berjumlah 163, dan Sulawesi Selatan berjumlah 138.9 Data ini menunjukkan bahwa hakim disini menggunakan pasal 71 ayat (1) huruf e bagaikan secara cuma-cuma. Hal ini bila kita rujuk kepada Pasal 16 UU Perlindungan Anak dan Pasal 66 ayat (4) Undang-Undang Nomor 39 Tahun 1999 Tentang Hak Asasi Manusia yang pada intinya menyatakan bahwa penangkapan, penahanan, atau tindak pidana penjara anak hanya dilakukan apabila sesuai dengan hukum yang berlaku dan hanya dapat dilakukan sebagai upaya terakhir. Maka adanya kecenderungan hakim memvonis pidana penjara kepada terdakwa anak jelas tidak mengindahkan ketentuan dalam peraturan tersebut. Terlebih lagi tidak sedikit terpidana anak tidak dimasukan ke dalam lembaga pemasyarakatan anak tetapi dimasukan ke dalam lembaga pemasyarakatan yang sama dengan pelaku tindak pidana dewasa sehingga berujung memposisikan anak yang rentan menjadi korban tindak kekerasan oleh penghuni dewasa. Dalam permasalahan ini dapat terjadi tidak lain karena adanya keterbatasan jumlah lembaga pemasyarakatan anak. Hal ini dibuktikan dengan fakta bahwa Lembaga Pemasyarakatan Anak yang sekarang nomenklaturnya menjadi Lembaga Pemasyarakatan Khusus Anak (“LPKA”) sendiri hanya ada 17 unit dari 33 provinsi di Indonesia, namun dari 17 unit tersebut hanya 8 unit yang berfungsi khusus dalam menangani anak atau isinya murni anak.10 Atas hal tersebut maka dapat dipastikan bahwa anak yang

Sistem Database Pemasyarakatan, “Data Terakhir Jumlah Penghuni Perkanwil”http://smslap.ditjenpas.go.id/public/grl/current/monthly/year/2016/month/ diakses 30 November 2016. 10 Rina Muawwanah, “Efektivitas Lembaga Pemasyarakatan Terhadap Pembinaan Residivis Anak dalam Sisi Psikologis” http://www.kompasiana.com/rinamuawwanah/efektivitas-lembaga-pemasyarakatan-

menjadi tahanan atau anak yang menjadi Anak Dididk Pemasyarakatan 11 di daerah yang tidak memiliki LPKA akan ditempatkan penahanannya di Lembaga Pemasyarakatan Dewasa. Padahal jika melihat ketentuan yang ada, sudah secara jelas diatur berdasarkan Pasal 17 ayat (1) huruf a UU Perlindungan Anak yang mengatur bahwa setiap anak yang dirampas kebebasannya berhak untuk mendapatkan perlakuan secara manusiawi dan penempatannya dipisahkan dari orang dewasa. Maka teranglah meskipun peraturan yang dibuat oleh pemerintah sudah sedemikian rupa ditunjukkan untuk melindungi hak anak namun pada kenyataannya justru jauh dari apa yang dicita-citakan. Situasi overcapacity pada lembaga pemasyarakatan anak merupakan cerminan bagaimana beroperasinya sistem peradilan pidana anak yang tidak berpijak pada prinsip kepentingan terbaik bagi anak dan perlindungan terhadap hak anak.12 Seperti yang disinggung sebelumnya hakim kerap kali menjatuhkan pidana penjara kepada anak. Maka melihat pada fakta yang ada meskipun sudah terdapat pengaturan yang bertujuan untuk melindungi dari hak-hak anak justru bertolak belakang dalam praktiknya. Sejalan dengan pandangan Seto Mulyadi pada prinsipnya anak yang berhadapan dengan hukum juga membutuhkan perlindungan, karena pada dasarnya perlindungan hak asasi anak adalah

terhadap-pembinaan-residivis-anak-dalam-sis psikologis_57690780ab9273bd068ef799 diakses 30 November 2016. 11 Anak Didik Pemasyarakatan, adalah: 1. Anak Pidana, yaitu anak yang berdasarkan putusan pengadilan menjalani pidana di Lapas, anak yang paling lama sampai18 (delapan belas) tahun 2. Anak Negara, yaitu anak yang berdasarkan putusan pengadilan diserahkan pada negara untuk dididik dan ditempatkan di Lapas, Anak yang paling lama sampai berumur 18 (delapan belas) tahun. 3. Anak Sipil, yaitu anak yang atas permintaan orang tua atau walinya memperoleh penetapan pengadilan untuk dididik di Lapas, Anak paling lamasampai berumur18 (delapan belas) tahun. 12 Yayasan Pemantau Hak Anak, â&#x20AC;&#x153;Situasi Umum Anak yang Berhadapan dengan Hukum di Indonesiaâ&#x20AC;?http://www.ypha.or.id/web/wpcontent/uploads/2011/04/Situasi-Umum-Anak-yang-Berhadapan-dengan- Hukum-diIndonesia.pdf, diakses 24 November 2016.

meletakan hak anak ke dalam kehidupan masyarakat, sebagai bentuk perlindungan terhadap kepentingan-kepentingan anak yang mengalami masalah sosial.13 ketika terdapat ketentuan pidana penjara yang diatur pada Pasal 71 ayat (1) huruf e UU SPPA sebenarnya tidak akan memberikan dampak positif bagi anak maka dari itu lebih baik diterapkan sanksi yang lebih merestorasi pelaku sehingga dapat diterima kembali oleh masyarakat,14 sehingga lebih memberikan jaminan hak atas perlindungan anak itu sendiri. Begitu pula Niniek Suparnie berpendapat bahwa dengan dimasukannya narapidana tertentu (dalam hal ini anak) ke dalam lembaga pemasyarakatan hanyalah akan berpeluang untuk belajar atau setidaknya memperoleh hal-hal atau semacam informasi lainnya yang buruk dari para narapidana lainnya yang sudah professional, sementara program lembaga pemasyarakatan untuk meresosialisasi dapat dikatakan gagal total.15 Oleh karena itu penulis berpendapat ketentuan Pasal 71 ayat (1) huruf e UU SPPA lebih baik dihapuskan, dan lebih menekankan pada penerapan pidana pokok lainnya yang lebih menjamin terlindunginya hak-hak dari anak itu sendiri. Menarik benang merah yang telah dijabarkan pada penulisan ini maka dengan melihat bahwa anakanak memiliki kondisi fisik dan mental yang masih belum stabil maka dalam hal ini aparat penegak hukum seyogyanya harus memperhatikan akibat-akibat bagi anak baik ia sebagai pelaku tindak pidana maupun sebagai korban. Sehingga putusan yang dijatuhkan harus memenuhi rasa keadilan bagi para pihak, mengingat bahwa segala tindakan yang dilakukan oleh anak masih dibawah pengaruh hakikat mereka sebagai anak yang masih belum matang baik secara

Fitriyani, â&#x20AC;&#x153;Pelaksanaan Fungsi Balai Pemasyarakatan Jakarta Pusat dalam Perlindunan Hak Asasi Manusia pada Sistem Peradilan Pidana Anakâ&#x20AC;?, (Tesis Pascasarjana Universitas Indonesia, Jakarta, 2007), hlm. 3. 14 Rakimah Ohoiulun, â&#x20AC;&#x153;Pemberlakuan Pidana Penjara Bagi Terpidana Anak Menurut Undang-Undang Nomor 11 Tahun 2012 Dalam Perspektif Keadilan Restoratifâ&#x20AC;? Makalah Program Studi Magister Fakultas Hukum Universitas Brawijaya, Malang, 2012), hlm. 20. 15 Niniek Suparnie. Eksistensi Pidana Denda dalam Sistem Pidana dan Pemidanaan. (Jakarta: Sinar Grafika,1996), hlm.7.

fisik, mental. Maka dari itu sedapat mungkin Negara tidak hanya mengakomodir perlindungan bagi anak hanya dari peraturannya saja, melainkan harus memperhatikan

pula

bagaimana pada praktiknya norma-norma tersebut

dilaksanakan sehingga dapat mewujudkan kepentingan terbaik bagi anak. Karena bagaimanapun juga anak merupakan generasi penerus bangsa.

Daftar Pustaka

PERATURAN PERUNDANG-UNDANGAN Indonesia, Undang-undang Dasar Negara Republik Indonesia 1945.

Indonesia, Undang-Undang Sistem Peradilan Pidana Anak, UU No. 11 Tahun 2012. LN No.153, TLN No. 5332. Indonesia, Undang-Undang Perlindungan Anak, UU No. 23 Tahun 2002. LN No.109, TLN No. 4235. Indonesia, Undang-Undang Hak Asasi Manusia, UU No. 29 Tahun 2009. LN No.165, TLN No. 3886.

BUKU Achjani Zulfa, Eva. Keadilan Restoratif, Depok: Badan penerbit FHUI. 2009. Gultom, Maidin. Perlindungan Hukum Terhadap Anak. Bandung: PT Refika Aditama. 2008. Nashriana, Perlindungan Hukum Pidana bagi Anak di Indonesia. Jakarta: PT Raja Grafindo Persada. 2011. Poernomo, Bambang. Pandangan Terhadap Asas-asas Hukum Acara Pidana. Yogyakarta: Liberty. 1982. Suparnie. Niniek. Eksistensi Pidana Denda dalam Sistem Pidana dan Pemidanaan. Jakarta: Sinar Grafika.1996. Susilowati, Ima. et, al. Pengertian Konvensi Hak Anak (UNICEF). Jakarta: Harapan Prima. 2003

SKRIPSI/TESIS/DISERTASI Fitriyani, “Pelaksanaan Fungsi Balai Pemasyarakatan Jakarta Pusat dalam Perlindunan Hak Asasi Manusia pada Sistem Peradilan Pidana Anak”, Tesis Pascasarjana Universitas Indonesia. Jakarta, 2007. Setyobudi, Mukhamad Tri. “Pembinaan Anak Pidana Di Lembaga Pemasyarakatan Anak Tangerang”. Tesis Pascasarjana Universitas Indonesia. Jakarta, 2012.

JURNAL/MAKALAH Rakimah Ohoiulun, “Pemberlakuan Pidana Penjara Bagi Terpidana Anak Menurut Undang-Undang Nomor 11 Tahun 2012 Dalam Perspektif Keadilan Restoratif” Makalah Program Studi Magister Fakultas Hukum Universitas Brawijaya, Malang, 2012), hlm. 20. Pohan Agustinus, “Diversi: Realitas dan Prospek” Jurnal Kriminologi Indonesia Vol. 3 No. III (September 2004).

INTERNET Rina Muawwanah, “Efektivitas Lembaga Pemasyarakatan Terhadap Pembinaan Residivis Anak dalam Sisi Psikologis” http://www.kompasiana.com/rinamuawwanah/efektivitas-lembagapemasyarakatan-terhadap-pembinaan-residivis-anak-dalam-sis psikologis_57690780ab9273bd068ef799 diakses 30 November 2016. Sistem

Database Pemasyarakatan, “Data Terakhir Jumlah Penghuni Perkanwil”http://smslap.ditjenpas.go.id/public/grl/current/monthly/year/2016/ month/ diakses 30 November 2016.

Yayasan Pemantau Hak Anak, “Situasi Umum Anak yang Berhadapan dengan Hukum di Indonesia”. http://www.ypha.or.id/web/wpcontent/uploads/2011/04/Situasi-Umum-Anak-yang-Berhadapan-denganHukum-di-Indonesia.pdf

EFEKTIVITAS PERLINDUNGAN HUKUM TERHADAP HAK-HAK ANAK DI INDONESIA: MEMBANGUN KESADARAN NEGARA UNTUK MENUTUP RUANG PERKAWINAN ANAK

Pendahuluan Terpujilah inisiatif untuk membahas topik menyangkut nasib si buah hati

yang pada masa ini belum bermakna apa-apa, tetapi di masa depan dialah yang mengukir sejarah Indonesia. Si buah hati ini dalam bahasa formalnya disebut anak. Anak merupakan tunas harapan bangsa yang akan melanjutkan eksistensi kehidupan berbangsa dan bernegara Indonesia. Atas dasar itu, diperlukan perwujudan anak sebagai generasi muda berkualitas untuk memperkuat daya saing bangsa. Hasil proyeksi sensus penduduk tahun 2010, pada tahun 2014 penduduk Indonesia mencapai 252,2 juta jiwa. Sekitar 82,85 juta jiwa (32,9 %) di antaranya adalah anak-anak.1 Data tersebut menggambarkan bahwa investasi untuk anak adalah investasi untuk sepertiga penduduk Indonesia. Mengingat bahwa anak merupakan masa depan bangsa, maka muncul kepentingan bersama bangsa Indonesia untuk memenuhi hak setiap anak atas kelangsungan hidup, tumbuh dan berkembang, serta mendapatkan perlindungan dari berbagai tindak kekerasan dan diskriminasi. Sebagai alat kekuasaan rakyat dan petugas bangsa, maka negara berkewajiban untuk mengurus kepentingan bersama tersebut. 71 tahun Indonesia

merdeka, pencapaian atas pemenuhan atau

perlindungan hak-hak anak masih jauh dari ideal. Dalam kurun waktu tahun 20112016 jumlah pelanggaran hak anak mencapai 22.109 kasus.2 Padahal, hak anak telah dijamin dalam Pasal 28B ayat (2) Undang-undang Dasar (UUD) 1945.

Akhsan Naim, dkk., Profil Anak Indonesia 2015, (Jakarta: Kementerian Pemberdayaan Perempuan dan Perlindungan Anak, 2015), hlm. 2. 2 Komisi Perlindungan Anak Indonesia, â&#x20AC;&#x153;Rincian Data Kasus Berdasarkan Kluster Perlindungan Anak, 2011-2016,â&#x20AC;? http://bankdata.kpai.go.id/tabulasi-data/data-kasus-pertahun/rincian-data-kasus-berdasarkan-klaster-perlindungan-anak-2011-2016, diakses tanggal 18 November 2016.

Tingginya jumlah kasus pelanggaran hak anak menunjukkan ada permasalahan dalam upaya perlindungan hak-hak anak di Indonesia. Salah satu akar permasalahan ialah abainya negara melindungi hak anak dengan mengizinkan anak perempuan melaksanakan perkawinan. Pasal 7 ayat (1) Undang-undang Nomor 1 tahun 1974 tentang Perkawinan (UU Perkawinan) menyatakan “perkawinan hanya diizinkan jika pria sudah mencapai umur 19 (sembilan belas) tahun dan pihak wanita sudah mencapai umur 16 (enam belas) tahun”. Ketentuan ini bersifat diskriminatif dan kontradiktif dengan berbagai peraturan yang melindungi hak-hak anak. Persoalan semakin pelik ketika Mahkamah Konstitusi mengeluarkan putusan nomor 30-74/PUU-XII/2004 tertanggal 18 Juni 2015 yang menolak permohonan judicial review Pasal 7 ayat (1) UU Perkawinan terhadap UUD 1945. Putusan tersebut memperkokoh pengabaian negara untuk melindungi hak-hak anak perempuan. Padahal, perkawinan anak memiliki dampak negatif, seperti kehamilan atau melahirkan dini yang berbahaya bagi kesehatan, melahirkan bayi yang kurang gizi, gangguan kesehatan seksual dan reproduksi, berbagai gangguan psikologis, serta putus sekolah.3 II.

Konsep dan Definisi Anak dalam Kajian Ilmu Hukum Hukum membedakan kedudukan anak dan orang dewasa. Pembedaan ini

merujuk pada kecakapan seorang manusia dalam bertindak. Perbedaan ini berdampak pula pada pengaturan hak dan kewajiban yang diemban oleh anak, orang tua, masyarakat, dan negara.4 Pasal 1 Konvensi tentang Hak-hak Anak (Convention on the Rights of the Child) yang telah diratifikasi melalui Keputusan Presiden RI Nomor 39 tahun 1990 tentang Pengesahan Konvensi Hak-hak Anak menyebutkan bahwa “anak adalah setiap manusia yang berusia di bawah 18 tahun, kecuali berdasarkan

Subdirektorat Statistik Rumah Tangga BPS, Kemajuan yang Tertunda: Analisis Data Perkawinan Usia Anak di Indonesia, (Jakarta: Badan Pusat Statistik, 2015), hlm. 11-13. 4 Marlina dan Widati Wulandari, “Perlindungan Hukum Terhadap Anak yang Berkonflik dengan Hukum dalam Sistem Peradilan Pidana Indonesia,” dalam Hukum Perempuan dan Anak, (n.p.: USAID dan The Asia Foundation, n.t.), hlm. 458.

undang-undang yang berlaku bagi anak-anak ditentukan bahwa usia dewasa dicapai lebih awal”. Senada dengan konvensi tersebut, pasal 1 butir 1 Undangundang Nomor 23 tahun 2002 tentang Perlindungan Anak (UU Perlindungan Anak) menyebutkan bahwa “anak adalah seseorang yang belum berusia 18 tahun, termasuk anak yang masih dalam kandungan”. Penentuan batas usia anak tersebut tidak dilakukan secara sembarangan, namun berdasarkan perkembangan tingkat kematangan fisik dan psikis manusia. III.

Kewajiban Negara dalam Mengurus Kepentingan Bersama Perlindungan Hak Anak di Indonesia Ketika Negara Indonesia belum terbentuk, rakyat mengurus kepentingan

perorangannya sendiri-sendiri.5 Kemudian, rakyat bersatu menjadi bangsa yang selanjutnya membentuk negara untuk mengurus kepentingan bersamanya. Anak merupakan tunas harapan bangsa. Menurut Arif Gosita, jika bangsa Indonesia ingin berhasil melakukan pembangunan nasional, maka merupakan keharusan untuk memperhatikan dan menanggulangi masalah perlindungan anak secara bersama-sama.6 Atas dasar itu, perlindungan anak sebagai aset bangsa menjadi kepentingan bersama yang diurus oleh negara. Hal ini sejalan dengan kemerdekaan Indonesia yang oleh Ir. Soekarno dipandang sebagai bagian dari revolusi kemanusiaan.7 Revolusi kemanusiaan ini dipatri dalam sila kedua Pancasila. Mohammad Hatta memandang sila kedua ini memiliki konsekuensi sebagai pedoman negara untuk memuliakan nilai-nilai kemanusiaan dan hak dasar/asasi manusia dengan menjalankan fungsi melindungi segenap bangsa Indonesia dan seluruh tanah tumpah darah Indonesia, memajukan kesejahteraan umum, dan mencerdaskan kehidupan bangsa.8 Sebagai upaya mewujudkan kondisi tersebut, para pendiri Republik Indonesia menghadirkan Negara Indonesia dengan wujud negara pengurus (welfare state). Dalam hal ini,

Bono Budi Priambodo, “Aspek Hukum Administrasi Negara dalam Pengelolaan Sumber Daya Alam” dalam Buku Hukum Administrasi Negara Sektoral, (Depok: Badan Penerbit Fakultas Hukum Universitas Indonesia, 2016), hlm. 153. 6 Arif Gosita, Masalah Perlindungan Anak, (Depok: Badan Penerbit FHUI, 2004), hlm. 12. 7 Yudi Latief, Op.Cit., hlm. 237-238. 8 Ibid., hlm. 241.

negara berperan aktif dalam melindungi hak-hak anak Indonesia. Untuk itu, hak anak dijamin dalam Pasal 28B ayat (2) UUD 1945 yang menyatakan bahwa â&#x20AC;&#x153;setiap anak berhak atas kelangsungan hidup, tumbuh, berkembang, serta berhak atas perlindungan dari kekerasan dan diskriminasiâ&#x20AC;?. IV.

Realitas Perkawinan Anak dan Dampaknya Lebih dari 700 juta perempuan di dunia menikah ketika masih anak-anak.

Satu dari tiga di antaranya menikah sebelum usia 15 tahun.9 Di Indonesia, setiap tahunnya sekitar 340.000 anak perempuan menikah sebelum mencapai usia 18 tahun.10 Peningkatan prevalensi perkawinan anak terjadi pada anak perempuan usia 16 - 18 tahun.11 Perkawinan anak menimbulkan dampak negatif bagi anak perempuan, anaknya kelak, dan masyarakat. Bagi anak perempuan, perkawinan akan menyebabkan kehamilan dan persalinan dini yang berisiko tinggi terhadap kesehatan karena fisiknya belum matang untuk melahirkan.12 Jika ia hamil, maka akan terjadi persaingan antara janin yang dikandung dengan dia sendiri dalam memperebutkan nutrisi dan oksigen. Dalam perebutan tersebut, maka salah satu atau dua-duanya akan kalah.13 Dampaknya, jumlah kematian ibu dan anak di Indonesia mencapai 359 per 100.000 kelahiran (Survei Demografi dan Kesehatan Indonesia, 2012). Perkawinan anak juga berpotensi menghambat anak perempuan untuk melanjutkan pendidikan. 85 % anak perempuan di Indonesia mengakhiri pendidikan mereka setelah menikah.14 Bagi anaknya kelak, terdapat risiko kematian dua kali lebih besar sebelum berusia satu tahun.15 Anak tersebut juga lebih berpotensi untuk lahir prematur dan 9

United Nations Childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Fund, Ending Child Marriage: Progress and Prospects, (New York: UNICEF, 2014), hlm. 1. 10 Subdirektorat Statistik Rumah Tangga BPS, Op.Cit., hlm. 2. 11 Ibid., hlm. 29. 12 Centre for Reproductive Rights, Accountability for Child Marriage: Key U.N. Recommendations to Goverments in South Asia on Reproductive Health and Sexual Violence (fact sheet), (New York: CFRR, 2013), hlm. 4. 13 Kartono Muhammad dalam Keterangan yang diberikan sebagai Ahli pada sidang Perkara Nomor 30/PUU-XII/2014 di Mahkamah Konstitusi. 14 Mark Evenhuis dan Jennifer Burn, Just Married, Just a Child: Child Marriage in the Indo-Pacific Region, (n.p.: Plan International, 2014), hlm. 25. 15 Subdirektorat Statistik Rumah Tangga BPS, Op.Cit., hlm. 13

kurang gizi.16 Bagi masyarakat, perkawinan anak dapat melanggengkan siklus kemiskinan, rendahnya tingkat pendidikan, dan kualitas kesehatan yang buruk. Hal ini akan menghambat pembangunan nasional. V.

Hambatan-hambatan Penghapusan Perkawinan Anak di Indonesia Perkawinan anak tidak serta merta dilaksanakan atas keinginan anak itu

sendiri. Beragam faktor menjadi alasan perkawinan anak. Faktor pertama ialah maraknya pandangan yang memberikan peran perempuan sebatas sebagai istri dan ibu. Perempuan dianggap lebih baik dinikahkan pada usia muda dan tidak diharuskan untuk mengakses pendidikan secara optimal. Faktor kedua ialah kemiskinan. Orang tua menikahkan anak perempuannya karena mereka percaya bahwa perkawinan anak merupakan cara terbaik bagi anak dan keluarga untuk membantu ekonomi keluarga. Kedua faktor ini didukung dengan ketidakpahaman akan dampak-dampak negatif dari perkawinan anak, serta justifikasi oleh nilai agama dan budaya yang mereka yakini. Faktor-faktor tersebut menjadi hambatan upaya menghapus perkawinan anak di Indonesia. Terlebih, perkawinan bagi anak perempuan diizinkan oleh negara melalui Pasal 7 ayat (1) UU Perkawinan. Pasal tersebut jelas menghambat upaya perlindungan anak yang terdapat di peraturan perundang-undangan lainnya. Sebagai contoh, ketentuan Pasal 7 ayat (1) UU Perkawinan tidak sejalan dengan upaya-upaya perlindungan anak yang terdapat pada Pasal 26 ayat (1) huruf c UU Perlindungan Anak yang mewajibkan orang tua untuk mencegah perkawinan anak, kemudian bertentangan dengan perlindungan hak asasi anak yang diatur dalam Undang-undang Nomor 39 tahun 1999 tentang Hak Asasi Manusia yang melindungi anak sampai usia 18 tahun, bertentangan pula dengan batas usia anak yang diatur dalam Undang-undang Nomor 12 tahun 2006 tentang Kewarganegaraan, serta bertentangan dengan Pasal 131 ayat (2) Undang-undang Nomor 36 tahun 2009 tentang Kesehatan yang menyatakan bahwa upaya pemeliharaan kesehatan anak dilakukan hingga anak

Saranga Jain dan Kathleen Kurz, New Insights on Preventing Child Marriage, (n.p.: United States Agency for International Development, 2007), hlm. 8.

berusia 18 tahun. Selain itu, perkawinan anak juga berpotensi menghambat program wajib belajar 12 tahun yang telah dimulai sejak bulan Juni tahun 2015.17 VI.

Angan dan Langkah Strategis Negara perlu berperan aktif untuk menutup ruang perkawinan anak.

Langkah utama yang harus dilakukan ialah merubah norma Pasal 7 ayat (1) UU Perkawinan yang bersifat diskriminatif dan kontradiktif dengan upaya perlindungan hak-hak anak. Dalam hal ini, negara perlu menaikkan batas usia perkawinan perempuan sama dengan batas usia bagi laki-laki. Kemudian, mengingat besarnya dampak negatif yang ditimbulkan dari perkawinan anak, diperlukan pula peraturan mengenai pemberian sanksi bagi siapapun yang memaksa anak untuk melaksanakan perkawinan. Sebagai contoh, Pemerintah Kamerun memberikan sanksi pidana berupa penjara dan denda bagi setiap orang yang memaksanakan pelaksanaan perkawinan.18 Dalam hal ini, hukum berperan sebagai alat atau sarana negara untuk mengoptimalkan upaya perlindungan hakhak anak dengan mencegah perkawinan anak. Kemudian, pemerintah wajib menyosialisasikan alasan perubahan norma tersebut ke masyarakat. Harapannya masyarakat sadar dan memahami dampak buruk perkawinan anak. Sosialisasi dapat dilakukan dalam bentuk programprogram khusus bagi orang tua. Sebagai contoh, Pemerintah China melaksanakan “Sekolah untuk Orangtua” demi mendukung peraturan pemerintah setempat yang mewajibkan setiap keluarga hanya memiliki satu anak. Pemerintah dapat menggandeng pihak-pihak di luar pemerintah untuk mendukung

program

tersebut.

Sebagai

contoh,

Pemerintah

Kamerun

menggandeng United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) untuk mendukung upaya menghapus perkawinan anak di Kamerun. UNFPA ialah suatu badan Perserikatan Bangsa-bangsa yang memperjuangkan setiap kehamilan yang

Bayu Galih, “Puan Maharani: Wajib Belajar 12 Tahun Dimulai Juni 2015,” http://edukasi.kompas.com/read/2015/01/13/01183401/Puan.Maharani.Wajib.Belajar.12.Tahun.Di mulai.Juni.2015, diakses tanggal 26 November 2016. 18 Maroua dan Yaounde, “New Rules to Help End Child Marriage in Cameroon,” http://www.unfpa.org/news/new-rules-help-end-child-marriage-cameroon, diakses tanggal 27 November 2016.

diinginkan, persalinan aman, serta pemenuhan hak anak. Kemudian, UNFPA membangun kerjasama dengan organisasi-organisasi lokal demi mengoptimalkan upaya penghapusan perkawinan anak. Terakhir, negara perlu memberikan perhatian khusus bagi anak yang terlanjur melaksanakan perkawinan. Perhatian khusus tersebut berupa akses untuk mendapat pelayanan kesehatan seksual dan reproduksi, serta kemudahan untuk mengakses pendidikan. Upaya ini penting demi memenuhi hak-hak anak yang terlanjur melaksanakan perkawinan. VII.

Penutup Pasal 7 ayat (1) UU Perkawinan telah membuka ruang perkawinan bagi

anak perempuan di Indonesia. Hal ini berdampak negatif bagi hak-hak anak perempuan, hak-hak anaknya kelak, dan masyarakat. Kondisi ini bertentangan dengan upaya negara dalam melindungi hak-hak anak. Padahal, terdapat kepentingan bersama mewujudkan generasi muda berkualitas untuk melanjutkan dan memperkuat eksistensi kehidupan berbangsa dan bernegara Indonesia. Atas dasar itu, negara perlu berupaya keras dalam menutup ruang perkawinan anak di Indonesia.

DAFTAR PUSTAKA Centre for Reproductive Rights, Accountability for Child Marriage: Key U.N. Recommendations to Goverments in South Asia on Reproductive Health and Sexual Violence (fact sheet). New York: CFRR, 2013. Evenhuis, Mark dan Jennifer Burn, Just Married, Just a Child: Child Marriage in the Indo-Pacific Region. n.p.: Plan International, 2014. Gosita, Arif, Masalah Perlindungan Anak. Depok: Badan Penerbit FHUI, 2004. Jain, Saranga dan Kathleen Kurz, New Insights on Preventing Child Marriage. n.p.: United States Agency for International Development, 2007. Naim,

Akhsan, dkk., Profil Anak Indonesia 2015. Jakarta: Kementeriaan Pemberdayaan Perempuan dan Perlindungan Anak, 2015.

Marlina dan Widati Wulandari, “Perlindungan Hukum Terhadap Anak yang Berkonflik dengan Hukum dalam Sistem Peradilan Pidana Indonesia,” dalam Hukum Perempuan dan Anak. n.p.: USAID dan The Asia Foundation, n.t. Priambodo, Bono Budi, “Aspek Hukum Administrasi Negara dalam Pengelolaan Sumber Daya Alam” dalam Buku Hukum Administrasi Negara Sektoral. Depok: Badan Penerbit Fakultas Hukum Universitas Indonesia, 2016. Subdirektorat Statistik Rumah Tangga BPS, Kemajuan yang Tertunda: Analisis Data Perkawinan Usia Anak di Indonesia. Jakarta: Badan Pusat Statistik, 2015. United Nations Children’s Fund, Ending Child Marriage: Progress and Prospects. New York: UNICEF, 2014.

MENILIK UPAYA PEMENUHAN HAK-HAK DASAR ANAK DI INDONESIA : PEMENUHAN HAK PARTISIPASI Oleh : Puji Prasetyawati

PENDAHULUAN Anakmu bukanlah milikmu, mereka adalah putra putri sang Hidup, yang rindu akan dirinya sendiri. Ia lahir melaluimu, namun bukan darimu. Sekalipun ia bersamamu, ia bukan milikmu. Kau bisa memberinya cinta, tapi jangan menjejalinya dengan pemikiranmu. Ia punya pemikirannya sendiri. Kau bisa mengurung tubuhnya, tapi tidak dengan jiwanya. Karena jiwanya bersemayam di rumah hari esok, yang tak bisa kau kunjungi, tak juga dalam mimpi. -Kahlil Gibran Kendati progress yang baik semenjak pengadopsian Konvensi Hak Anak

pada tahun 1989, hak-hak jutaan anak masih sering terabaikan setiap harinya, termasuk di Indonesia. Bersama dengan hak hidup, hak perlindungan, dan hak tumbuh kembang, hak partisipasi dirumuskan sebagai salah satu hak dasar anak. Perlindungan dan pemenuhan terhadap hak partisipasi anak merupakan hal yang esensial, mengingat merekalah yang akan meneruskan roda kehidupan ini nantinya. Pembangunan yang berwawasan lingkungan dan mendengarkan aspirasi anak adalah sebuah keharusan. Sudah lebih dari 14 tahun sejak Undang-Undang No. 23 Tahun 2002 tentang Perlindungan Anak diberlakukan, bagaimanakah implementasi dari kewajiban melakukan perlindungan dan pemenuhan hak partisipasi anak? Sudah tercapaikah standar yang seharusnya dicapai dalam melakukan pemenuhan hak partisipasi tersebut?

II.

INSTRUMEN HUKUM TENTANG HAK ANAK Hak Anak merupakan salah satu aspek hak asasi manusia yang diakui secara

universal paling awal. Pengakuan mengenai Hak Anak secara universal dapat kita

temukan pertama kali pada Declaration of The Right of The Child yang digagas oleh Eglyante Jebb, pendiri Save The Children,1 yang kemudian diadopsi oleh Liga Bangsa-Bangsa pada tahun 1924 di Jenewa, 24 tahun sebelum munculnya Universal Declaration of Human Rights pada 1948. Tahun 1989, rancangan Konvensi Hak Anak diselesaikan dan pada tahun itu juga naskah akhir tersebut disahkan dengan suara bulat oleh PBB tanggal 20 November 1989 dengan nama resmi Convention on The Rights of The Child (CRC), dan sudah diratifikasi negara di seluruh dunia kecuali Amerika Serikat.2 Di Indonesia sendiri, pengaturan mengenai perlindungan Hak Anak dapat kita temukan dalam Pasal 28 Undang-Undang Negara Republik Indonesia 1945. Dalam tingkatan undang-undang, mengenai Hak Anak sudah diatur semenjak adanya Undang-Undang No. 4 Tahun 1979 tentang Kesejahteraan Anak. Indonesia kemudian menjadi negara pihak dalam CRC, dan meratifikasi konvensi tersebut semenjak tahun 1990. Pengaturan mengenai Hak Anak selanjutnya dapat kita Pasal 53 - Pasal 65 Undang-Undang No. 39 Tahun 1999 tentang Hak Asasi Manusia. Selanjutnya, pengundangan Undang-Undang No. 23 Tahun 2002 tentang Perlindungan Anak merupakan sebuah titik yang penting bagi perkembangan perlindungan anak di Indonesia, yang selanjutnya diubah dengan Undang-Undang No. 35 Tahun 2014. Mengenai peradilan anak, diatur dalam Undang-Undang No. 3 Tahun 1997, yang selanjutnya dicabut dan digantikan dengan Undang-Undang No. 11 Tahun 2012 tentang Sistem Peradilan Pidana Anak. 3

III.

HAK PARTISIPASI SEBAGAI HAK DASAR ANAK Banyak ahli mendefinisikan partisipasi anak dari berbagai sudut pandang.

Namun kemudian Kementerian Pemberdayaan Perempuan dan Perlindungan Anak memberikan definisi Partisipasi Anak sebagai “Keterlibatan seseorang yang belum berusia 18 tahun dalam proses pengambilan keputusan tentang segala sesuatu yang

Irwanto, dkk., Analisis Konsep Perlindungan Anak dan Implementasinya di Indonesia : Kajian Awal, (Jakarta : Save The Children, 2008), hlm. 6. 2 United Nations, “United Nations Treaty Collections”, http://treaties.un.org/pages/viewdetails.aspx?src=treaty&mtdsg_no=iv-11&chapter=4&lang=en , 30 November 2016. 3 Nathalina Naibaho, “Hak Anak”, http://bem.law.ui.ac.id/fhuiguide/bahankuliah/download/19 , 30 Mei 2016.

berhubungan dengan dirinya dan dilaksanakan atas kesadaran, pemahaman serta kemauan bersama sehingga anak dapat menikmati hasil atau mendapatkan manfaat dari keputusan tersebut. Dalam pelaksanaannya partisipasi anak di kelompokkan dalam tingkatan atau tahapan tertentu.”4 Terdapat 4 hak dasar anak yang meliputi hak hidup, hak tumbuh kembang, hak perlindungan, dan hak partisipasi.5 Hak Partisipasi sendiri merupakan pengejawantahan dari amanat Pasal 4 dan Pasal 10 Undang-Undang Perlindungan Anak.6 Partisipasi anak merupakan bagian dari proses tumbuh kembang anak, anak yang aktif akan tumbuh kembang fisik dan mentalnya lebih baik dari pada anak yang pasif. Sikap dan persepsi orang dewasa terhadap anak menentukan kualitas tumbuh kembang anak. Namun demikian untuk menjadi anak yang aktif, anak-anak memerlukan ruang, kesempatan dan kondisi lingkungan, sarana dan prasarana yang mendukung. 7

IV.

UPAYA PEMENUHAN HAK PARTISIPASI ANAK DI INDONESIA Pemenuhan hak partisipasi anak bukanlah sesuatu hal yang belum diupayakan

di Indonesia. Berikut adalah beberapa contoh dari upaya pemenuhan Hak Partisipasi Anak di Indonesia : a. Kongres Anak Indonesia Kongres Anak Indonesia (KAI) merupakan salah satu gagasan dari para aktivis anak pada tahun 2000 yang dinamakan Forum Anak dalam rangka peringatan Hari Anak Nasional yang dihadiri dari beberapa perwakilan anak dari Propinsi di Indonesia. Pada tahun yang sama, kegiatan Forum Anak yang diorganisir oleh Komisi Nasional Perlindungan Anak Indonesia (KAI) berubah menjadi

Lampiran Permeneg PPPA No. 4 Tahun 2011, hlm. 22. Godham, “Empat Hak Dasar Anak”, http://www.organisasi.org/1970/01/empat-4-hak-dasaranak-indonesia-menurut-seto-mulyadi-komnas-perlindungan-anak.html ,diakses 30 Mei 2016. Lihat juga definisi perlindungan anak dalam Pasal 1 ayat (2) UU No. 23 Tahun 2002. 6 Indonesia, Undang-Undang Perlindungan Anak, UU No. 23 Tahun 2002, Pasal 4 dan Pasal 10. 7 Iin, “Pemenuhan Hak Partisipasi Anak”, http://berau.prokal.co/read/news/38949-pemenuhanhak-partisipasi-anak , diakses 15 November 2016. 5

Kongres Anak Indonesia, hal ini atas rekomendasi yang dihasilkan oleh Forum Anak. Kongres Anak Indonesia sudah berjalan 13 kali sejak tahun 2003. Kegiatan ini

bertujuan untuk

memberikan

pembelajaran

dan

memfasilitasi hak partisipasi anak untuk dapat mengeluarkan ide, gagasan dan suaranya terkait persoalan dan kebutuhan hak-hak dasarnya sebagai seorang anak. Setiap agenda yang berlangsung dalam KAI yang melaksanakan adalah anak-anak yang berusia di bawah 18 tahun, dari mulai pimpinan sidang, peserta, hingga penyusunan rekomendasi, hingga pemilihan Duta Anak Indonesia, semua dilakukan oleh anak-anak itu sendiri. Peserta KAI adalah anak-anak perwakilan dari setiap provinsi di Indonesia, dimana setiap provinsi diwakili 3-5 orang ananak. Para peserta ini dipilih Forum Anak Daerah yang berasal dari kabupaten/kota dan difasilitasi oleh Lembaga Perlindungan Anak (LPA) Propinsi yang bekerjasama dengan dinas-dinas terkait dengan agenda pemahaman hak anak, motivasi diri, pemetaan masalah hak anak di daerah, penyusunan rekomendasi Propinsi hingga pemilihan Duta Anak Daerah yang akan dikirim untuk mengikuti Kongres Anak Indonesia. Namun sayangnya, anak-anak yang mengikuti KAI begitu panjang prosesnya untuk bisa terlibat aktif dalam Kongres Anak Indonesia ini tidak dipandang serius atau diabaikan oleh pemerintah. Fakta diabaikannya Kongres Anak Indonesia ini adalah tidak ada perhatian serius dari negara untuk menjadikan KAI sebagai salah satu agenda negara untuk dapat menyerap langsung persoalan-persolan hak anak yang berasal dari anak-anak itu sendiri. Selama 12 (duabelas) kali pelaksanaan Kongres Anak Indonesia, rekomendasi yang diterima oleh Pemerintah dalam hal ini Presiden/Wakil Presiden maupun DPR-RI hanya dapat dihitung jari. Hasil rekomendasi yang diterima oleh negara dan menjadi bagian dari kebijakan negara diantaranya pada tahun 2001, hasil Kongres Anak Indonesia menjadi salah satu bagian dari pembahasan pertemuan menteri (Mincom) V di Beijing â&#x20AC;&#x201C; China dengan dimasukan kedalam Deklarasi Beijing. Pada tahun 2003, Wakil Presiden RI Hamzah Haz menerima delegasi Duta Anak Indonesia dan Rekomendasi yang dihasilkan di Istana Wakil Presiden. Masih di tahun 2003, 5 Duta Anak

Indonesia dikirim untuk menghadiri dan menjadi satu-satunya utusan perwakilan negara peserta yang melibatkan anak dalam Pertemuan Asia Pasifik Organisasi Pariwisata Dunia untuk membahas Eksploitasi Seksual Komersial pada Anak di Lingkungan Pariwisata. Yang menarik di era Soesilo Bambang Yudhoyono ini adalah, adalah pernyataan negatif saat menerima hasil rekomendasi di tahun 2005 dengan pernyataan “ini hasilnya kok menuntut semua, apa benar-anak yang merumuskannya.” Atas pernyataan dari Presiden tersebut, sebagian besar anak yang mengikuti acara puncak menahan marah dan kemudian kemarahan itu diluapkan diatas Bus saat membawa rombongan kembali ke Hotel, karena merasa Presidennya meremehkan kemampuan dari anak-anaknya sendiri. Dan puncaknya adalah di tahun 2007, dimana hasil Rekomendasi KAI ternyata dirubah semuanya saat dibacakan didepan Presiden pada peringatan Hari Anak Nasional, dan diketahui pada saat pembacaan. Setelah kejadian tersebut, Kongres Anak Indonesia seolah-olah menjadi virus yang berbahaya bagi Negara, karena sejak saat itu Kongres Anak Indonesia tidak lagi menjadi perhatian serius oleh Negara dan bahkan wajib di hindari. Hal ini terlihat daripenyelenggaraan KAI yang tidak lagi masuk menjadi agenda tetap rangkaian dari Hari Anak Nasional yang diselenggarakan oleh Pemerintah Pusat. Meski demikian, ternyata masih banyak pemerintah provinsi yang memberikan perhatian serius untuk menjadikan Kongres Anak Indonesia sebagai bagian referensi Pemerintah Provinsi dan mengambil kebijakan terkait perlindungan anak. Disamping itu, Duta Anak Indonesia juga masih dilibatkan dalam Penyusunan Draft Program Nasional Bagi Anak Indonesia 2015.8 b. Forum Anak Forum anak adalah wadah partisipasi anak di tingkat Kabupaten/Kota, Kecamatan yang berperan dalam proses penyusunan kebijakan, perencanaan, pemantauan, evaluasi dan umpan balik di dalam pengambilan kebijakan.9 Wilfun Afnan, ”Kongres Anak Indonesia : Hak Partisipasi Anak yang Kini Diabaikan Negara”, http://www.ayom.komnaspa.or.id/2015/11/03/70/ , diakses pada 29 November 2016. 9 Badan Pemberdayaan Perempuan dan Keluarga Berencana, “Forum Anak”, http://bppkb.kebumenkab.go.id/forum-anak/ , diakses pada 30 November 2016. 8

Forum anak difasilitasi pemerintah, dan anggota serta kepengurusannya terdiri dari anak-anak utusan dari berbagai organisasi atau kelompok kegiatan anak. Forum Anak memiliki fungsi sebagai wadah untuk menampung aspirasi anak-anak, menyuarakan aspirasi anak-anak, ikut terlibat dlm Forum Musyawarah Pembangunan Provinsi, Kabupaten/Kota, Kecamatan, Desa/ Kelurahan, melakukan sosialisasi hak anak, dan melakukan jejaring dengan komunitas-komunitas anak. Forum Anak didirikan dengan harapan agar setiap anak kelak mampu memikul tanggung jawab sebagai penerus bangsa. Untuk itu, anak perlu mendapat kesempatan seluas-luasnya untuk tumbuh dan berkembang secara optimal baik fisik, mental, sosial dan berakhlak mulia, dan perlu dilakukan upaya konsisten untuk mewujudkan kesejahteraan anak oleh pemangku kepentingan anak. 10 Forum Anak didirikan di berbagai tingkatan, mulai dari kelurahan, kota/kabupaten, provinsi, dan nasional. Anggota Forum Anak berasal dari anak dari berbagai kalangan, mulai dari anak sekolah, anak jalanan, anak berkebutuhan khusus, anak yatim piatu, dan sebagainya. Forum Anak secara institusional berada dalam pengawasan Badan Keluarga Berencana dan Pemberdayaan Masyarakat (BKBPM) di tingkat provinsi dan kabupaten/kota, dan Kementerian Pemberdayaan Perempuan dan Perlindungan Anak di tingkat nasional. Kegiatan dalam Forum Anak ini berbagai macam bentuknya. Misalnya saja di Forum Anak Kota Malang, pada tahun 2011 diadakan pemetaan kekerasan terhadap anak. Selain itu, secara berkala juga dilakukan berbagai macam pelatihan untuk mengembangkan minat, bakat, dan keterampilan anak di Kota Malang. Sebagai puncak dari kegiatannya, setiap tahun Forum Anak Kota Malang mengadakan Temu Anak Kota Malang, dimana melalui kegiatan tersebut dilakukan penyerapan aspirasi anak, untuk kemudian dirangkum dalam Rekomendasi Temu Anak untuk selanjutnya disampaikan dan dibacakan dihadapan Walikota Malang. Banyak hasil rekomendasi yang kemudian

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Forum Anak Daerah sebagai Wujud Hak Partisipasi Anakâ&#x20AC;?, http://www.balisruti.com/forumanak-daerah-sebagai-wujud-hak-partisipasi-anak.html , diakses pada 30 November 2016. 10

menjadi rujukan pemerintah dalam melakukan pembangunan, misalnya saja pembuatan ruang anak di perpustakaan daerah, dan pembuatan beberapa taman bermain di beberapa kawasan di Kota Malang, seperti Merjosari, Blimbing, dan Klojen.11 Sebagai bentuk apresiasi dan pembinaan bertingkat, secara reguler diadakan Pertemuan Forum Anak Daerah di tingkat provinsi, dan Pertemuan Forum Anak Nasional di tingkat nasional. Melalui pertemuan tersebut, diadakan peningkatan kapasitas bagi perwakilan anak yang hadir, sekaligus penjaringan aspirasi anak.12 Selain itu, dalam Pertemuan Forum Anak Nasional dilakukan juga penganugerahan penghargaan Data Forum Anak (DAFA) Award untuk Forum Anak terbaik, dan Tunas Muda Pemimpin Indonesia, untuk anak-anak berprestasi, dan dapat menjadi inspirasi bagi sekitarnya. 13

PENUTUP Hak Partisipasi Anak merupakan salah satu dari 4 hak dasar anak yang

merupakan hak anak untuk ikut serta mengambil keputusan dalam segala sesuatu yang berhubungan dengan dirinya. Telah dilakukan berbagai upaya untuk melaksanakan pemenuhan Hak Partisipasi Anak, diantaranya melalui Kongres Anak Indonesia, dan pembentukan Forum Anak di berbagai tingkatan. Pemenuhan Hak Partisipasi Anak belumlah sempurna, namun upaya pemerintah haruslah diapresiasi dan didorong untuk ditingkatkan progresnya disaat bersamaan.

Berdasarkan pengalaman dan pengetahuan penulis sepanjang menjabat sebagai pengurus Forum Anak Kota Malang Tahun 2009-2011, Forum Anak Daerah Jawa Timur Tahun 2012, dan Ketua Pelaksana Temu Anak Kota Malang tahun 2011. 12 http://fan.or.id/tentang-fan/, diakses 27 November 2016. 13 Penulis merupakan ketua delegasi Jawa Timur untuk Pertemuan Forum Anak Nasional 2012.

DAFTAR PUSTAKA “Forum

Anak

Daerah

sebagai

Wujud

Hak

Partisipasi

Anak”,

http://www.balisruti.com/forum-anak-daerah-sebagai-wujud-hakpartisipasi-anak.html , diakses pada 30 November 2016 Afnan, Wifnun ”Kongres Anak Indonesia : Hak Partisipasi Anak yang Kini Diabaikan Negara”, http://www.ayom.komnaspa.or.id/2015/11/03/70/ , diakses pada 29 November 2016. Badan Pemberdayaan Perempuan dan Keluarga Berencana, “Forum Anak”, http://bppkb.kebumenkab.go.id/forum-anak/ , diakses pada 30 November 2016. Godham, “Empat Hak Dasar Anak”, http://www.organisasi.org/1970/01/empat-4hak-dasar-anak-indonesia-menurut-seto-mulyadi-komnas-perlindungananak.html. http://fan.or.id/tentang-fan/ , diakses 27 November 2016. Iin, “Pemenuhan Hak Partisipasi Anak”, http://berau.prokal.co/read/news/38949pemenuhan-hak-partisipasi-anak , diakses 15 November 2016. Indonesia.

Peraturan

Menteri

Negara

Pemberdayaan

Perempuan

dan

Perlindungan Anak Petunjuk Pelaksanaan Kebijakan Partisipasi Anak dalam Pembangunan. Permeneg PPPA No. 4 Tahun 2011, BN No. 60. ._______. Undang - Undang Perlindungan Anak. UU No. 23 Tahun 2002, LN No. 109. ._______. Undang – Undang Perubahan Terhadap Undang-Undang Nomor 23 Tahun 2002 Tentang Perlindungan Anak. UU No. 35 Tahun 2014, LN No. 297, TLN No. 5606. Irwanto, dkk., Analisis Konsep Perlindungan Anak dan Implementasinya di Indonesia : Kajian Awal, (Jakarta : Save The Children, 2008). United

Nations,

“United

Nations

Treaty

Collections”,

http://treaties.un.org/pages/viewdetails.aspx?src=treaty&mtdsg_no=iv11&chapter=4&lang=en, diakses 20 November 2016.