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International Handbook of Psychological Well Being in Children and Adolescents Bridging the Gaps Between Theory Research and Practice 1st Edition Bonnie Kaul Nastasi
Graciela Tonon. Universidad Nacional de Lomas de Zamora and Universidad de Palermo, Argentina
Editorial Board
Alex Michalos, University of Northern British Columbia, Canada
Rhonda Phillips, Purdue University, USA
Don Rahtz, College of William & Mary, USA
Dave Webb, University of Western Australia, Australia
Wolfgang Glatzer, Goethe University, Germany
Dong Jin Lee, Yonsei University, Korea
Laura Camfield, University of East Anglia, UK
Aims and Scope
The International Handbooks of Quality-of-Life Research offer extensive bibliographic resources. They present literature reviews of the many subdisciplines and areas of study within the growing field of quality of life research. Handbooks in the series focus on capturing and reviewing the quality of life research literature in specific life domains, on specific populations, or in relation to specific disciplines or sectors of industry. In addition, the Handbooks cover measures of quality of life and well-being, providing annotated bibliographies of well-established measures, methods, and scales.
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8365
Rhonda Phillips • Cecilia Wong Editors
Handbook of Community Well-Being Research
Editors Rhonda Phillips Honors College and Agricultural Economics
Purdue University West Lafayette, IN, USA
Cecilia Wong School of Environment, Education and Development
The University of Manchester Manchester, UK
ISSN 2468-7227
ISSN 2468-7235 (electronic)
International Handbooks of Quality-of-Life
ISBN 978-94-024-0876-8 ISBN 978-94-024-0878-2 (eBook)
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made.
Printed on acid-free paper
This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature
The registered company is Springer Science+Business Media B.V. Dordrecht
Acknowledgements
We wish to thank our contributors to this volume. Their work is inspiring, and we are eager to share it with others.
1 Community Functioning That Fosters Sustainable Social Well-Being
Ronald E. Anderson
2 Punk Rock Wisdom: An Emancipative Psychological Social Capital Approach to Community Well-Being .
Craig A. Talmage, C. Bjørn Peterson, and Richard C. Knopf
3 The ART of Hope: Healing the Wounded City .
Derek Cook
4
5 Happiness: An Alternative Objective for Sustainable Community Development .
Scott Cloutier and Deirdre Pfeiffer Part II Engaging and Participating for Well-Being
6 Debriefs as Process Evaluation for Community Well-Being: Community-based Participatory Research with Métis Settlements in Alberta, Canada .
Fay Fletcher, Alicia Hibbert, and Brent Hammer
7 Achieving Community Well-Being Through Community Participatory Governance: The Case of Saemaul Undong
Seung Jong Lee and Yunji Kim
8 A Citizen-Led Approach to Enhancing Community Well-Being
Sylvia Cheuy, Leesa Fawcett, Karen Hutchinson, and Tracey Robertson
9 Community Well-Being and Information Technology
Claire Wallace and Kathryn Vincent
Vern Biaett
What We Can Learn from America’s Highest Well-Being
Dan Witters
Public Health and Urban Planning: Challenging Options for Well-Being: Experiences from Germany
Sabine Baumgart
Colleen Cameron and Tanya Wasacase
The Human Development Approach: Stimulating a Fact-Based Conversation About Improving the Human Condition in Sonoma County, California
Sarah Burd-Sharps, Patrick Nolan Guyer, and Kristen Lewis
Community Capacity in End of Life Care: Can a Community Development Model Address Suffering and Enhance Well-Being?
Kyle Y. Whitfield and Martin LaBrie
From National to Local: Measuring Well-Being at the Community Level
Bryan Smale and Margo Hilbrecht 17 Building Well-Being: Neighbourhood Flourishing and Approaches for Participatory Urban Design Intervention
Jamie Anderson and Cathy Baldwin 18 Stakeholder Preferences on a Working Waterfront: Quality of Life, Land Uses and Planning Processes in Chelsea, Massachusetts
Justin B. Hollander and Jessica Soule 19 LISADEMAS: A Life Satisfaction Decision-Making System for Integrated Community Development Planning
Vaios Kotsios 20 A Geographic and Mixed Methods Approach to Capture Unequal Quality-of-Life Conditions
Javier Martinez, Jeroen Verplanke, and Gianluca Miscione
21 Distinguishing Flourishing from Distressed Communities: Vulnerability, Resilience and a Systemic Framework to Facilitate Well-Being
Clifford J. Shultz II, Don R. Rahtz, and M. Joseph Sirgy
22 Measuring Community Well-Being and Individual Well-Being for Public Policy: The Case of the Community Well-Being Atlas
Yunji Kim and Kai Ludwigs
23 Delivering Community Well-Being from the Happy City Concept: A Practical Approach to Urban Planning and Design
Tzu-Yuan Stessa Chao, Shao-Kuan Liu, Balint Kalman, Hsin-Chieh Cindy Lu, and Miaoqi Cai
Part V Community Concepts and Applications
24 The Role of Community-Based Organizations: The Case of the Saemaul Undong Women’s Club
Oe-Chool Choi
25 Rural Poverty and Well-Being: Material and Sociocultural Disconnections
Paul Milbourne and Brian Webb
26 The Role of Spirituality in Building Capacity for Women’s Leadership in Crisis Conditions: A Community Level Analysis of Burma
Phyusin Myint
27 The Decisive Contribution of Youth to Community Well-Being
Ilya Shodjaee-Zrudlo and Hoda Farahmandpour
28 Community Well-Being and National Well-Being: The Opinion of Young People
Graciela Tonon
29 Understanding the Impact of Alberta’s Early Child Development Community Coalitions on Community Well-Being
Samantha Berger, Launa Clark, and Line Marie Perron
30 The Green Machine Mobile Market: An Innovative Response to Food Insecurity in the Bluff City .
Antonio Raciti and Kenneth M. Reardon
31 Can Living Wage Be a Win-Win Policy? A Study of Living Wage Effects on Employer and Employee Performance in Hamilton, Canada
Zhaocheng Zeng and Benson Honig
Erratum
About the Editors and Contributors
Editors
Rhonda Phillips, Ph.D., FAICP Rhonda’s research and outreach efforts focus on quality of life and well-being related to community and economic development. At Purdue, she serves as dean of the Honors College and a professor in the Agricultural Economics Department. Rhonda is author or editor of over 20 books, including Sustainable Communities: Creating a Durable Local Economy; Community Development Indicators Measuring Systems; and Introduction to Community Development. She is editor of the series Community Quality of Life and Well-Being (http://www.springer.com/ series/13761). Formerly a senior sustainability scientist with the Global Institute of Sustainability, Rhonda also served as director and professor in the School of Community Resources and Development at Arizona State University and founding director of the University of Florida’s Center for Building Better Communities. She is a member of the College of Fellows of the American Institute of Certified Planners (FAICP). She is currently president of the International Society for Quality-of-Life Studies (www. isqols.org) and a co-researcher with the Community Wellbeing Institute, a Social Science Korea project (www.communitywellbeing.org).
Cecilia Wong, Ph.D., FAcSS, MRTPI Cecilia is professor of spatial planning and director of the Spatial Policy and Analysis Laboratory of the Manchester Urban Institute at the University of Manchester. She is a fellow of the UK Academy of Social Sciences, co-editor of Town Planning Review, and member of the UK Economic and Social Research Council’s grant assessment panel. She is a chartered town planner and received degrees from the Chinese University of Hong Kong, the University of Liverpool, and the University of Manchester. Her research interests include quantitative indicators, spatial policy monitoring and analysis, urban and regional development, and housing and infrastructure planning. She has conducted major research projects for the UK central government departments, Economic and Social Research Council, Joseph Rowntree Foundation, Royal Town Planning Institute, and regional and local bodies. She was a commissioner of the UK Labour Party’s Lyons Housing Review and expert panel member of the Department for Community and Local Government’s planning and housing panel, the European Commission’s Urban Audit II, and the UN-Habitat City Prosperity Index (Middle East).
Contributors
Jamie Anderson Jamie is a knowledge transfer fellow at BuroHappold Engineers and the University of Cambridge. Jamie’s Ph.D. was funded by an interdisciplinary EPSRC studentship and jointly supervised by the Department of Architecture and the Well-Being Institute of Cambridge University. His research interests focus on the relationship between urban design, public space, health, and well-being. He has 11 years of urban design experience, including 6 as a practitioner and 5 in a research capacity. As a practitioner, he worked with private sector investors and public authorities to frame and implement policy on social sustainability and city design. He spent five years working at URBED as a cooperative director and project manager and has worked on over 50 projects. His research skill set comprises action-oriented research with qualitative and quantitative methods. Jamie is a member of the International Association of People-Environment Studies and the Cambridge Neuroscience group. He is advisor to Bristol’s Happy City Index and coinvestigator of a health and well-being study funded by the National Institute for Health Research.
Ronald E. Anderson Ron is emeritus professor of sociology at the University of Minnesota. For two decades, he coordinated research on information technology in K-12 education in over 25 countries. As the US national research coordinator for the IEA Computers in Education study from 1990 to 2005, he secured several large grants from the National Science Foundation to conduct a variety of research projects. After retiring from the University of Minnesota in 2005, he continues to serve on the editorial boards of several professional journals, and he currently is co-editor of Social Science Computer Review. Since 2014, he has been on the board of directors for the International Society for Quality-of-Life Studies. In 2014, Springer published his singleauthored book, Human Suffering and Quality of Life: Conceptualizing Stories and Statistics. In 2015, his edited, 32-chapter book, World Suffering and Quality of Life, was also published by Springer. Currently he is compiling chapters for a companion volume, Alleviating World Suffering
Cathy Baldwin Cathy is a postdoctoral associate in anthropology at the University of Oxford and works internationally as an applied social science consultant. She gained her DPhil in social and cultural anthropology and MSc from the University of Oxford and M.A. and B.A. from the University of Sussex. She specializes in the social, cultural, and health impacts of urban planning, environmental management, and climate change. She was a visiting research fellow at the World Resources Institute, an environmental NGO in Washington, DC. Cathy has also worked as a social and health impact assessment consultant in the UK at Atkins and Ben Cave Associates. She has provided social input to HIAs on high-speed rail and within the energy industry and completed short- term assignments in Australia. Other consultancy covered NGO projects to use ICTs to create socioeconomic development opportunities for communities in the developing world, participant observation of the UK’s National Health Service
management, and employee perceptions of a company. She was formerly a broadcast journalist with BBC World Service and has worked in NGO media relations.
Sabine Baumgart Sabine is chair of urban and regional planning in the School of Spatial Planning at TU Dortmund. She holds a Dipl.-Ing. in architecture at the University of Hannover and a doctorate in urban planning at the University of Stuttgart. She has worked as a research assistant at the University of Hannover and at the Technical University of Hamburg. She was trained for an administrative leadership position and passed the state exam and then headed an urban and regional planning consultancy for many years. She worked as a part-time lecturer at several faculties in Germany and has been a visiting professor at the Faculty of Architecture, University of Hannover, before taking the chair at TU Dortmund. The research focus of her department is on urban property development in existing quarters, integrated settlement and infrastructure development, climate change adaptation and renewable energies, public urban health promotion, small- and medium-sized towns, as well as spatially significant processes of development in mega urban regions.
Samantha Berger Samantha contributed to this work in her role as the community development researcher for the Early Child Development Mapping Project (ECMap) out of the University of Alberta. Her research with ECMap focused on the intricacies of coalition development, sustainability, and impact on local communities. Berger has a masters in social anthropology from the London School of Economics and currently works as a developmental evaluator and qualitative researcher with a number of not-for-profit initiatives and organizations including the First 2000 Days Network, the Café Institute and Calgary Reads, in Calgary, Canada. Prior to this work, she worked as the EDI coordinator at the Human Early Learning Partnership at the University of British Columbia and as a research assistant at the Institute for Health and Social Policy at McGill University.
Vern Biaett Vern is assistant professor of event management in the Nido R. Qubein School of Communications at High Point University where he recently brought to fruition a new bachelor of arts major track in event management. He received his Ph.D. from Arizona State in community resources and development in 2013. Prior to his current appointment at High Point University, Vern served for eight years as a faculty associate at Arizona State University teaching event management courses in a special event certificate program he co-created following a 30 year career in leisure services primarily producing festivals and events for the cities of Phoenix and Glendale, Arizona, for purposes of downtown revitalization. His doctoral research examined the behavior of attendees at community festivals with implications for social capital using an ethnographic grounded theory method. His latest writing and research has focused on both the optimal experience of festivity as well as issues surrounding the estimation of attendance at major events.
Sarah Burd-Sharps Sarah is co-director of Measure of America of the Social Science Research Council and co-author of two volumes of The Measure of America (Columbia University Press, 2008, and NYU Press, 2010) as well as well-being reports for California, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Marin and Sonoma Counties. Sarah has presented this research on national television and in academic and public fora across the USA and contributes opinion pieces regularly to media outlets. Prior to this position, Sarah worked for the United Nations for over two decades, with a focus on economic empowerment, democratic governance, and gender equity. Her last UN position was as deputy director of the UN Development Program’s Human Development Report Office, where she worked on three global Human Development Reports (Oxford University Press) and led the UN’s work on national human development reports on every continent. Sarah has worked in 14 African countries and in China. She received a master’s degree in international affairs from Columbia University.
Colleen Cameron Colleen is a senior program staff and interim associate director of education at the Coady International Institute, St. Francis Xavier University. She has more than 40 years of experience in the area of community health and development, adult education, and social justice initiatives. She has a bachelor’s degree of nursing from Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, and master’s degree of adult education from St. Francis Xavier University, Antigonish, NS. She has practiced and taught nursing and community health in Canada, Africa, and the Middle East. Her areas of teaching, research, and writing have been focused on the social determinants of health, community development, gender, building resilient communities, and community-driven health impact assessments. Since 1997, Colleen has been involved in the People Assessing Their Health network and consequently has been involved in assisting communities in developing and using a Community Health Impact Assessment Tool to assist in decision making in Canada, India, Ghana, and Sierra Leone.
Tzu-Yuan Stessa Chao Tzu-Yuan is assistant professor in the Department of Urban Planning and research fellow of Healthy City Research Center at National Cheng Kung University of Taiwan. She holds a master’s degree of city planning from the University of Pennsylvania and a doctorate of urban planning from the University of Nottingham. Her research mainly focuses on demographic change and urban planning system in terms of planning and design practices and planning regulatory system. She has been actively involved in age-friendly cities research since 2010 and was the first project leader of Taiwan’s National Age-Friendly Cities Program in 2010–2011. She has been a visiting scholar at the University of West of England WHO Collaborating Centre in 2012. She has published a number of journal articles and book chapters, including the Routledge Handbook of Planning for Health and Well-Being, on the age-friendly cities and communities from planning and design perspectives.
Sylvia Cheuy Sylvia is director of Tamarack Institute for Community Engagement, which develops and supports learning communities that help people to collaborate, co-generate knowledge, and achieve collective impact on complex community issues. She provides coaching, leadership, and support in the fields of collaborative leadership, collective impact, and community engagement. She is an internationally recognized trainer and community builder. She is also editor of Engage!, Tamarack’s award-winning e-magazine. Sylvia was formerly the director of Headwaters Communities in Action, a grassroots citizen group that fosters collaborative leadership and action in support of a long-term vision of well-being for Ontario’s Headwaters region. She is a skilled facilitator and has a proven track record in finding and securing grant funding, both project and capital, to support innovative community projects. She recently completed her masters diploma in social innovation at the University of Waterloo where she explored opportunities to create change within regional food systems.
Oe-Chool Choi Oe-Chool is the executive vice president and professor of Saemaul studies and international development at Yeungnam University. He currently serves as the president of the Global Saemaul Undong Forum and Global Saemaul Development Network. He also serves as an advisor to the prime minister of Cambodia and to the Amhara National Regional State of Ethiopia. He also advises the president of the Korea International Cooperation Agency. His research interests include Saemaulogy, regional planning, community development, community building, and governance.
Launa Clark Launa has been involved in the field of early childhood development for more than 20 years. She began as a preschool assistant and has gone on to teach in the early childhood education program at Lethbridge College, to run a family day home for 6 years, and to be a professional development and training administrator for the Alberta Resource Centre for Quality Enhancement. Launa has presented workshops at national and international conferences, including the National Association for Education of Young Children Conference in Washington, DC. She completed a B.A. in human services and labor relations at Athabasca University in 2010 with great distinction while working full-time and raising her children.
Scott Cloutier Scott is assistant professor, Walton sustainability fellow, and senior sustainability scholar within the Julie Ann Wrigley Global Institute of Sustainability at Arizona State University. He is focused on charting a new course for sustainability to maximize opportunities for happiness. Scott’s experience and expanding research agenda revolve around three key elements: (1) sustainable urban/neighborhood development research designed to integrate community development subsystems (e.g., water, waste, energy, transportation, business and economic development) to maximize community well-being through sustainable interventions, (2) qualitative and quantitative mixed method research designed to explore and reflect human/built-andnatural-environment/sustainability connections from both subjective and objective perspectives, and (3) theoretical processes research around
constructs of quality of life, community well-being, subjective well-being (happiness), hedonia, eudaimonia, and biological underpinnings.
Derek Cook Derek Cook currently serves as the director of the Canadian Poverty Institute at Ambrose University in Calgary, Alberta, Canada. Previously, Derek served as the executive director of the Calgary Poverty Reduction Initiative, leading the mayor’s task force on poverty reduction. Derek’s experience also includes work in social research and policy development with the city of Calgary and as a community development worker with marginalized populations in diverse organizations across Canada. Currently Derek is a member of the board of Canada Without Poverty, a national anti-poverty organization. Derek’s research interests and expertise lie in issues around income and poverty, diversity, and the labor force. Derek holds an MSc in rural planning development from the University of Guelph and a B.A. in political studies from McGill University and is a registered social worker in the province of Alberta.
Hoda Farahmandpour Hoda is completing a Ph.D. in adult education and community development at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the University of Toronto after earning an M.A. in the same department. She has spent the last 10 years involved in the development and implementation of youth programming in the greater Toronto area. She co-founded Wordswell Association for Community Learning, a nonprofit organization offering educational programs for the empowerment of young people in Toronto so that youth are accompanied to plan, execute, and analyze social action projects within their neighborhoods. She currently serves as a director of a regional office on behalf of the Office of Social and Economic Development at the Bahá’í World Centre, focused on the implementation and development of educational programs for youth in North America and the Caribbean. Her research interests include youth empowerment, experiential education, moral education, service learning, organizational change and development, community development, volunteerism, program development, and critical pedagogy.
Leesa Fawcett Leesa is associate professor in the Faculty of Environmental Studies at York University. Her interdisciplinary, feminist research on humananimal relationships crosses over between environmental and sustainability education and ethics, human ecology, and biological conservation. She has co-authored two books and numerous articles and is a member of WWF’s scientific advisory committee on the Endangered Species Recovery Fund. Leesa was a co-chair of Headwaters Communities in Action (HCIA) between 2008 and 2012 and was instrumental in the creation of the Headwaters Community Well-Being Report. She is dedicated to proactive community involvement that honors social and environmental justice issues and was drawn to HCIA because of their interest in the flourishing of all members of the Headwaters communities and their dynamic leadership model based on trust and responsibility.
Fay Fletcher Fay is associate dean in the Faculty of Extension at the University of Alberta. She has focused on the integration of research and teaching with the intent of making adult education more accessible, relevant, and meaningful for indigenous learners. Community-based research with First Nations communities and Metis Settlement colleagues and communities has informed the development and delivery of local and international adult continuing education programs as well as aboriginal youth life skills programs. She is an associate professor with the Faculty of Extension and academic lead on adult continuing education programs including aboriginal health promotion, indigenous community engagement, and aboriginal community-industry relations.
Patrick Nolan Guyer Patrick is director of research and evaluation for the Energy Project, a management consulting firm, and principal consultant at Chiffrephile Consulting. Previously, he was chief statistician and assistant director of Measure of America, a project of the Social Science Research Council, and has worked as a consultant to a variety of United Nations agencies and nonprofit organizations and the private sector. Patrick’s work focuses on designing innovative measures of well-being particularly for populations such as children and youth and using these metrics to inform better policymaking. Patrick has authored and co-authored ten journal articles, book chapters, and working papers on the measurement of wellbeing, development, and human rights and has presented his research on national television and in academic and public fora across the USA as well as in Canada and Japan. He holds an M.A. in international affairs from New School University.
Brent Hammer Brent is Ph.D. (ABD) candidate and instructor in cultural anthropology at the University of Alberta. He has worked as a qualitative research coordinator at the Faculty of Extension with the Métis Settlements Life Skills Journey program since 2013. Brent’s research focus was on conducting participant observation at the summer youth camps and facilitating evaluation data and analysis with the research team. Brent’s research interests include the intersection where people, place, and practice engage to shape cultural identity.
Alicia Hibbert Alicia has worked as an applied researcher since 2010 at the Faculty of Extension, University of Alberta, working with First Nations and Métis communities to build resiliency among their children and youth. She led a community needs and readiness assessment with Métis Settlements, which informed the development of the Métis Settlements Life Skills Journey program – a summer camp that focuses on building individual and community resiliency. She collaborated with a local advisory committee and community staff at Buffalo Lake Métis Settlement to design Life Skills Journey program resources as well as the framework for program delivery. She now administrates and provides evaluation leadership for summer implementation of Life Skills Journey with four Métis Settlements. With a background in anthropology and humanities computing, she has an interest in adapting
research and knowledge translation methods to the local context to improve program outcomes.
Margo Hilbrecht Margo is the associate director of research for the Canadian Index of Wellbeing (CIW) and a research assistant professor in the Faculty of Applied Health Sciences at the University of Waterloo where she is cross-appointed to the Department of Recreation and Leisure Studies. She received her Ph.D. from the University of Waterloo. Prior to joining the CIW, she was a senior research associate and postdoctoral fellow at the Centre for Families, Work and Well-Being of the University of Guelph. Her research focuses on time use and the intersection of work, family, and leisure. She is particularly interested in changing employment trends and practices and the implications of these and other social changes for quality of life. In her role at the CIW, she is engaged extensively in social indicators research both at the national level and in partnership with communities across Canada.
Justin B. Hollander Justin B. Hollander is an associate professor of urban and environmental policy and planning at Tufts University. He has a Ph.D. in planning and public policy from the Edward J. Bloustein School of Planning and Public Policy at Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey. He is a member of the American Institute of Certified Planners. His research and teaching is in the areas of shrinking cities, big data, brownfields, and the intersection between cognitive science and the design of cities. He directs the Urban Attitudes Lab, where researchers use advanced qualitative and quantitative methods to mine social media data for clues to community wellbeing. Most recently, he co-authored Cognitive Architecture: Designing for How We Respond to the Built Environment (Routledge, 2015) and is the author of three other books on urban design and planning.
Benson Honig Benson received his Ph.D. from Stanford University and is the Teresa Cascioli chair in entrepreneurial leadership at the DeGroote School of Business of McMaster University. His research interests include business planning, nascent entrepreneurship, transnational entrepreneurship, ethics in scholarship, social entrepreneurship, social capital, and entrepreneurship in environments of transition. He has published widely in leading academic journals and the media and serves on six editorial boards. He was past chair of the Academy of Management Ethics Education Committee, past president of the Canadian Council for Small Business and Entrepreneurship, and past chair of the International Theme Committee of the Academy of Management. He served for seven years as a decision editor for Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice and is the 2009 winner (with Per Davidsson) of the Greif Research Impact Award from the University of Southern California for the most cited entrepreneurship article in the previous five years, as well as the winner of the most cited article for the Journal of Business Venturing in 2009.
Karen Hutchinson Karen currently works as a project consultant to Headwaters Communities in Action (HCIA) where she supports the work of the Headwaters Food and Farming Alliance. Karen’s career has straddled the
private and nonprofit sectors, but she has spent much of the last decade actively working for food system change. Prior to her work with HCIA, Karen was the director of the Caledon Countryside Alliance (CCA), a nonprofit organization that delivered local community-based programs promoting sustainable living and countryside prosperity. Karen has a graduate diploma in social innovation and a bachelor of environmental studies (urban and regional planning) from the University of Waterloo. An active volunteer, Karen served as the co-chair of Sustain Ontario from 2010 to 2013 and is a founder and current board member with the Albion Hills Community Farm, a farm and learning center focused on food provision, education, community gardens, and near-urban agriculture.
Youngwha Kee Youngwha Kee is professor in the Department of Lifelong Education at Soongsil University and the president of the National Institute of Lifelong Education. She has served as the president of the Association of Adult and Continuing Education of Korea and director of the Korea Institute of Local Development Education. Currently, she serves on the editorial board of Springer’s Community Quality-of-Life and Well-Being book series, the International Journal of Continuing Education and Lifelong Learning (Hong Kong), the Lifelong Education Magazine (Taiwan), and Lifelong Education (China). Her research interests include educational gerontology, community and civic education, community well-being, community development, and governance.
Yunji Kim Yunji is a doctoral student in the Department of City and Regional Planning at Cornell University. Her research focuses on local government service delivery, community development, community well-being, and local finance. Yunji is also part of an international research project on community well-being funded by the National Research Foundation of Korea. She received her master’s degree from the Graduate School of Public Administration, Seoul National University, and her bachelor’s degree in government from Georgetown University.
Richard C. Knopf Richard is professor of community resources and development at Arizona State University and serves as director of ASU’s Partnership for Community Development. He carries an MSc in urban and regional planning and Ph.D. in natural resources and environmental policy from the University of Michigan and has served on the faculty of Colorado State University, Pennsylvania State University, and the University of Minnesota. He also served for eight years as a principal research social scientist with the US Department of Agriculture focusing on issues in community life quality development. His research and teaching expertise includes community development theory and practice, community needs and assets assessment, social enterprise, life quality enhancement, NGO and public sector capacity building, sustainable communities, sustainable economic growth, and social challenges such as poverty and hunger. He has authored over 140 publications in community quality of life. Richard’s passion rests in working with graduate students who focus on creating transformative social change.
Vaios Kotsios Vaios is now completing a Ph.D. in integrated development planning, focusing on quality of life. He is currently working as a research associate to the Metsovion Interdisciplinary Research Center of the National Technical University of Athens (NTUA). He has completed a B.A. in environmental science from Aegean University and an MSc in environment and development science, specializing in the investigation of social representations of environment and development concepts, from NTUA and another MSc in environmental education, specializing in the nonformal education and environmental ethics, from Aegean University. For over six years, he has been involved in researching factors that improve the quality of life in mountain communities. Since 2009, he has been teaching as a fellow and coordinator of the annual collective interdisciplinary research on the integrated development of prefectures and regions in Greece, as part of the interdisciplinary program of postgraduate studies “Environment and Development” of the NTUA.
Martin LaBrie Martin is a palliative consulting physician with Alberta Health Services, Calgary Zone. He is a clinical assistant professor in the Department of Family Medicine and the Division of Palliative Medicine of the Department of Oncology at the University of Calgary where he is involved in undergraduate and postgraduate medical education, as well as continuing professional development for other health professionals. His current interests include the development of capacity for provision of palliative care services for homeless and marginalized individuals and the development of community capacity for palliative care. He has been involved in community development activities for palliative care in Southern Alberta, British Columbia, and Burkina Faso in Western Africa.
Seung Jong Lee Seung Jong is professor in the Graduate School of Public Administration at Seoul National University. He received his B.A. and MPA from Seoul National University and Ph.D. from Northwestern University. His research interests include local governance, citizen participation, and community well-being. He served as president of the Korea Association for Public Administration and as editor in chief of several journals, including Korean Public Administration, Journal of Local Autonomy Studies (Korea), Journal of Local Administration (Korea), and Korean Policy Studies. He has actively participated in various governmental advisory positions, such as president of the Korea Research Institute of Local Administration, member of the 2013 Presidential Transition Committee, vice chair of the Presidential Committee for Local Administration System Reform, and chairperson of the National Evaluation Committee for Local Performance.
Kristen Lewis Kristen Lewis is co-director of Measure of America of the Social Science Research Council and co-author of two volumes of The Measure of America (Columbia University Press, 2008 and NYU Press, 2010) as well as well-being reports for California, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Marin and Sonoma Counties. Before founding Measure of America in 2007, Kristen was senior policy advisor to the water and sanitation task force
of the UN Millennium Project and was co-author of the task force report, Health, Dignity, and Development: What Will It Take? (Earthscan, 2005). She previously worked at the United Nations for many years, first with UNIFEM and then in UNDP’s policy bureau, and has served as a consultant on gender equality issues for numerous international development organizations, including UNICEF and UNFPA. Kristen contributes regularly to media outlets, with articles published in the The Nation, Huffington Post, and Stanford Social Innovation Review, among others. She received a master’s degree in international affairs from Columbia University.
Shao-Kuan Liu, Balint Kalman, Hsin-Chieh Cindy Lu, Miaoqi Cai were graduate students of the 2015 graduation studio of the Department of Urban Planning at National Cheng-Kung University, Taiwan.
Kai Ludwigs Kai is founder and director of the Happiness Research Organisation (HRO). The HRO, an independent research institute based at Dusseldorf, Germany, specializes in measuring subjective well-being, happiness, and quality of life. As a studied psychologist (Heinrich Heine University, Düsseldorf, Germany) and economist (Distance University, Hagen, Germany), he is known internationally in the areas of happiness, quality of life, positive psychology, and time-use research. He is also on the organization committee of the International Society for Quality-of-Life Studies, co-investigator of the Community Well-Being Institute in Seoul, and fellow of the Erasmus Happiness Economics Research Organization. He has given lectures at many different conferences and universities, presenting the “Happiness-Time-Use-Approach” and the “Happiness Analyser.”
Javier Martinez Javier is assistant professor in the Department of Urban and Regional Planning and Geo-Information Management at ITC, University of Twente, the Netherlands. He graduated as an architect from the Faculty of Architecture, Planning and Design (UNR), Rosario, Argentina, and obtained his MSc degree in geo-information for urban planning from ITC, University of Twente. He received his Ph.D. from the Faculty of Geographical Sciences, Utrecht University, with a thesis entitled “Monitoring Intra-urban Inequalities with GIS-Based Indicators: With a Case Study in Rosario, Argentina.” Between 1999 and 2001, he worked in Argentina in the Strategic Plan Rosario Office (PER) designing its urban indicators system. His research areas, publications, and training experience are in the application of GIS, mixed methods, and indicators for policymaking, urban poverty, quality of life, and intra-urban inequalities. Between 2010 and 2014, he was co-coordinator of the Network-Association of European Researchers on Urbanisation in the South (N-AERUS).
Paul Milbourne Paul Milbourne is professor of human geography in the School of Geography and Planning at Cardiff University. He has longstanding research interests in the geographies of welfare, particularly the relations between poverty, homelessness and place, and the scalar politics of welfare reform. Much of Paul’s research has explored these themes in the
context of rural regions and places. He has published widely on the rural dimensions of welfare, poverty, and homelessness, including Welfare Reform in Rural Places (Emerald, 2010), International Perspectives on Rural Homelessness (Routledge, 2006, with Paul Cloke), and Rural Poverty: Marginalisation and Exclusion in Britain and the United States (Routledge, 2004). Paul is also interested in the relations between nature, society, and space, with recent and ongoing research focused on environmental and food (in)justice in both rural and urban contexts.
Gianluca Miscione Gianluca joined the Management Information Systems group at the School of Business of University College Dublin in 2012. He was previously an assistant professor at the Department of Urban and Regional Planning and Geo-Information Management at the University of Twente, the Netherlands. He received his Ph.D. in information systems and organization from the Sociology Department of the University of Trento. As a postdoc researcher, he joined the Department of Informatics of the University of Oslo, where he developed his research on information infrastructures at the global scale. He conducted and contributed to research in Europe, Latin America, India, and East Africa and on the Internet. The focus remained on the interplay between technologies and organizing processes with a specific interest on innovation, development, organizational change, social networks, and trust. His approach is informed by qualitative and mixed methodologies.
Phyusin Myint Phyusin is the senior research and evaluation analyst for Multnomah County, Department of County Human Services, Community Services Division, Portland, Oregon. Her research at the county involves assessment and analysis of homelessness, housing services, anti-poverty programs, and poverty services. Myint is also concurrently an adjunct instructor at the Mark O. Hatfield School of Government at Portland State University. She received her Ph.D. in public affairs and policy from Portland State University where she was the recipient of the Sasakawa Young Leaders Fellowship for International Research. Her research focuses on sustainable development, developing nations, the leadership roles of women, the role of spirituality in sustainable development, and the implementation of sustainable development in crisis conditions. Prior to her work at Portland State University, Myint served as the Crisis Services coordinator for the Sexual Assault Recovery and Prevention Center for San Luis Obispo, coordinating a comprehensive and effective response for survivors of sexual violence.
Line Marie Perron Line is the founder and executive director for Early Childhood Development Support Services, a capacity building agency that supports the professional development of practitioners working with children and families. She holds a master’s degree of science in family ecology and practice as well as an indigenous early childhood leadership and management certification. Line has focused her areas of research and practice on building social and emotional skills in young children, trauma informed practice, and building leadership in the early childhood sector. She also spent five years
working as the community development and mobilization manager on the Early Childhood Development Mapping Project in Alberta.
C. Bjørn Peterson Bjørn is associate director and senior research associate at the Partnership for Community Development in Arizona State University’s College of Public Service and Community Solutions. His research includes leadership development and grassroots responses to climate change in the Himalayas and the Western USA using interpretive research design. His expertise lies in inclusive community development and sustainability, and he teaches nonprofit leadership and management as a faculty associate and Ph.D. candidate at Arizona State University. He further specializes in dialogical community development and transformational leadership, drawing on more than 15 years as a practitioner and consultant.
Deirdre Pfeiffer Deirdre Pfeiffer is assistant professor in the School of Geographical Sciences and Urban Planning at Arizona State University. Her research focuses on housing strategies in the USA relevant to an aging and diversifying society, the outcomes of the foreclosure crisis, and the relationship between suburban growth and racial equity. Her current research appears in Urban Geography, Urban Studies, and Housing Policy Debate.
Antonio Raciti Antonio is assistant professor in the City and Regional Planning (CRP) Department at the University of Memphis. He is currently teaching and working in the CRP Department in collaboration with several communities in distressed urban and rural regions. His research interests include long-term community-university partnerships, ecological planning, community development, and urban design. Antonio received his Ph.D. from the University of Catania (Sicily, Italy) and has been working with residents and community groups in various action research projects in Eastern Sicily. More recently, he has been part of community-university coalitions carrying out research in Memphis inner-city neighborhoods and generating communitybased plans and implementing projects such as the Green Machine presented in this book.
Don R. Rahtz Don is the J.S. Mack professor of marketing at the College of William and Mary in Virginia. He received his Ph.D. from Virginia Tech in 1984. His expertise is in integrated marketing communication programs, international competitive intelligence, marketing research, survey methodology, analysis, and market assessment. He has served as the editor of The Marketing Educator and on the editorial review boards of the Journal of Health Care Marketing and the Journal of Business Psychology. Presently he serves on the editorial review board of the Journal of Macromarketing and the Journal of Applied Research in Quality of Life. He is a founding member of the International Society for Quality-of-Life Studies (ISQOLS) where he has served on the executive board in a number of positions and as the vice president of programs for over a decade. He currently serves as the vice president of programs for the Macromarketing Society.
Kenneth M. Reardon Kenneth is professor and director of the newly launched graduate program in urban planning and community development in the School for the Environment at the University of Massachusetts Boston where he is engaged in research, teaching, and outreach in the areas of neighborhood planning, community development, municipal government reform, and community/university development partnerships. Prior to joining the University of Massachusetts, Ken served as professor and director of the graduate program in city and regional planning at the University of Memphis, associate professor and chair of the Department of City and Regional Planning at Cornell University, and assistant and associate professor in the Department of Urban and Regional Planning at the University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign. Temple University Press published Ken’s most recent publication, a co-edited volume with John Forester of Cornell University entitled Rebuilding Community After Katrina: Transformative Education in the New Orleans Planning Initiate, in 2016.
Tracey Robertson Tracey is the strategic lead for Prosperous People with the Ontario Trillium Foundation, one of Canada’s leading grant-making foundations. She has a graduate diploma in social innovation, a masters in social work from Wilfrid Laurier University, and a B.A. from the University of Western Ontario. She has 25 years’ experience in system change processes, strategic philanthropy locally and nationally, and community development in the voluntary and public sectors. She also led a major provincial research project for the foundation, analyzing the impact of its 100 million dollar investments in building organizational capacity in nonprofit organizations across Ontario. Prior to joining the Ontario Trillium Foundation, Tracey was the national director of programs for the Canadian Living Foundation, where she worked with corporations, education boards, and health and social service organizations to establish community partnership networks for nutrition programs nationwide.
Ilya Shodjaee-Zrudlo Ilya earned an M.A. in educational psychology and adult education at the University of Montreal. He has long been involved in youth programming as youth worker, trainer, and program coordinator in the Montreal region. He currently serves as a program officer in the Office of Social and Economic Development (OSED) at the Bahá’í World Centre. OSED facilitates learning about development by fostering and supporting action, reflection on action, study, consultation, the gathering and systematization of experience, conceptualization, and training among a network of collaborators and organizations in every continent, many of which are involved in the promotion and coordination of educational program for young people. His research interests include youth empowerment and organizing for social change, moral education, service learning, the philosophy of science, methodology in the social sciences, and the generation, application, and dissemination of knowledge within and among organizations and social movements.
Clifford J. Shultz II Clifford is professor and Kellstadt chair of marketing at the Loyola University Chicago, Quinlan School of Business, and serves as an international fellow of the Harvard-Fulbright Economics Teaching Program. He holds a Ph.D. from Columbia University. He has expertise on marketing and socioeconomic development in devastated, recovering, and transforming economies. He works with governments, NGOs, businesses, universities, and other organizations to study war recovery, reconstruction and institution building, and sustainable peace, prosperity, and societal wellbeing. Cliff served two terms as editor for the Journal of Macromarketing, served as president of the International Society of Markets and Development, and currently serves on several editorial and policy boards. He has over 200 publications in various scholarly outlets and has received several distinctions, including Fulbright appointments in Vietnam and Croatia, research grants, recognitions for best paper and article, awards for outstanding research and teaching, etc. He has been invited to lecture, to present, and to conduct research at universities, government agencies, NGOs, and research institutes on six continents.
M. Joseph Sirgy Joseph is the Virginia Tech real estate professor of marketing at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. He co-founded the International Society for Quality-of-Life Studies (ISQOLS) in 1995, and in 2010 ISQOLS honored him for excellence and lifetime service to the society. He was the president of the Academy of Marketing Science from which he received the Distinguished Fellow Award in the early 1990s and the Harold Berkman Service Award in 2007. He co-founded the Journal of Applied Research in Quality of Life in 2005 and has served as editor since 1995. He was also the editor of the QOL section in the Journal of Macromarketing since 1995. In 2010 he won the Best Paper Award in the Journal of Happiness Studies for his theory of the balanced life, and in 2011 he won the Best Paper Award in the Journal of Travel Research for his goal theory of leisure travel satisfaction. In 2012 he was awarded the EuroMed Management Research Award for outstanding achievements and groundbreaking contributions to well-being and quality-of-life research.
Bryan Smale Bryan is director of the Canadian Index of Wellbeing (CIW) housed in the Faculty of Applied Health Sciences at the University of Waterloo (UW). He is also professor in the Department of Recreation and Leisure Studies at UW and a research faculty associate in the Waterloo Institute for Social Innovation and Resilience. He has bachelor’s and master’s degrees in leisure studies from the University of Waterloo and a Ph.D. in geography from the University of Western Ontario. His research focuses on the role of leisure in the health and well-being of individuals and communities, the spatial distribution and analysis of leisure in communities, time-use allocation, and social indicators research. He is currently a member of Statistics Canada’s Advisory Committee on Social Conditions, on the Steering Committee of Research Data Canada, and editor in chief of Leisure/Loisir. He was elected as a fellow to the Academy of Leisure Sciences in 2012.
Jessica Soule Jessica Soule is the director of the EnvironMentors program, an environmental science mentoring program for high school students, at the National Council for Science and the Environment. Her work is at the intersection of environmental justice, education, and place. Jessica obtained an M.A. in urban and environmental policy and planning from Tufts University and a B.S. in biology from Boston College.
Craig A. Talmage Craig is a visiting assistant professor of entrepreneurial studies at Hobart and William Smith Colleges (HWS) of Geneva, New York, USA. He has a Ph.D. in community resources and development at Arizona State University and an M.A. in industrial-organizational psychology at Minnesota State University, Mankato. Craig instructs students regarding the economics of entrepreneurship, entrepreneurial tools and methods, and social entrepreneurship and innovation. At HWS, he focuses on empowering students and community members to apply entrepreneurial knowledge and skills to solve complex social problems. He formerly served as a postdoctoral research fellow and faculty associate at Arizona State University (ASU) in the School of Community Resources and Development and the College of Public Service and Community Solutions. His studies focused on the psychosocial development of individuals, associations/organizations, and communities to help them improve overall community engagement, health, and well-being. He continues this line of research at HWS.
Graciela Tonon Graciela is professor of community social work and social sciences research methodology. She has a Ph.D. in political science and did her postdoctoral studies at CIMESS-Universitá degli studi di Firenze. She is magister in political sciences and social worker. She is the director of the Quality of Life Research Program and UNI-COM (university and community) relationships at the Faculty of Social Sciences of Universidad Nacional de Lomas de Zamora, Argentina. She is the director of the Research Center in Social Sciences in Universidad de Palermo, Argentina. She was information officer of the Human Development and Capability Association and member of the executive committee of Childwatch International Research Network between 2013 and 2016. She has been a member of ISQOLS since 2001 and the board of directors of ISQOLS since 2005, vice president of professional affairs in ISQOLS from 2007 to 2008, chair of Latin America ISQOLS from 2009 to 2010, vice president of membership and publicity of ISQOLs from 2011 to 2012, and vice president of external affairs of ISQOLS from 2013 to 2016. She has been the chair of the editorial board of the International Handbooks of Quality of Life (Springer) since 2014. Her fieldwork expertise covers quality of life, qualitative research methodology, community, young people, and children.
Jeroen Verplanke Jeroen is lecturer/researcher at the Faculty of GeoInformation Science and Earth Observation (ITC) of the University of Twente in the Netherlands. Since graduating as a physical geographer from Utrecht University, he has been working on the intersection of social science and physical spatial planning, where stakeholder interests and land-use conflicts are at play. His work-related interests are in PGIS (participatory mapping and
GIS) and VGI (volunteered geographic information) and the role this plays in the interaction between policymakers, planners, and citizens. He has main international experience in sub-Saharan Africa as since 2001 he has worked there on education and research projects on an annual basis. He also has research expertise in Latin America and Asia.
Kathryn Vincent Kathryn did her postgraduate studies in sociology at the University of Aberdeen and received her Ph.D. in 2014. Her research interests and projects can be understood under the umbrella of well-being studies and include youth and generation, gender, migration, and use of information technology. The geographical area of her research includes Scotland, Ukraine, Moldova, Belarus, and recently the MENA region.
Claire Wallace Claire is professor of sociology at the University of Aberdeen, UK. She was elected president of the European Sociological Association between 2007 and 2009 and was editor in chief of the journal European Societies. She has been working for the last five years at the Digital Economy Research Hub “dot.rural” at the University of Aberdeen concerned with how digital technology can be used to help transform rural areas. She has published a variety of papers on quality of life and well-being in Social Indicators Research, the Journal of Happiness Studies, and other journals. She has just completed a co-authored book The Decent Society (Routledge 2016) which looks at social quality and well-being on a global scale. Claire has participated in a number of reports for the European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions to look at quality of life in a range of European countries. Most recently, she has been working with the city of Aberdeen to improve the quality of life in regeneration (deprived) areas with the help of digital technology and other mechanisms.
Tanya Wasacase Tanya is currently a program specialist at Coady International Institute and supports indigenous communities across Canada in the area of community-driven development. She designs and delivers training in the areas of asset-based community development and communitydriven health impact assessment for promoting sustainable, practical, and culturally respectful approaches to development. Prior to her current position at Coady, Tanya taught for eight years at St. Thomas University in the Native Studies Department. Tanya is a CGS SSHRC award holder and is working toward the completion of her Ph.D. in interdisciplinary studies (indigenous public health) at the University of New Brunswick. Her area of study focuses on how addiction research on alcohol abuse in some First Nations communities in Canada can shape alcohol prevention policy agendas. Tanya’s broader research agenda is concerned with indigenous health policies and how best to produce policies and practices that supports the well-being of indigenous communities.
Brian Webb Brian is a lecturer in spatial planning in the School of Planning and Geography at Cardiff University. He obtained his Ph.D. in planning and landscape from the University of Manchester where he was previously a researcher in the Centre for Urban Policy Studies. His current research
interests involve the use of spatial analysis of urban and regional environments and comparative intergovernmental policy analysis to evaluate policy and explore issues of equity within society. This has included research on indicator methodology refinement, the use of secondary data to examine and target investment in disadvantaged communities, the use of urban climatology in policy and practice, and the use of GIS as a public participation tool. He has undertaken research projects for the Economic and Social Research Council, Joseph Rowntree Foundation, Royal Town Planning Institute, and the Welsh government.
Kyle Y. Whitfield Kyle is associate professor in the Faculty of Extension at the University of Alberta in Alberta, Canada. She has a Ph.D. in planning from the University of Waterloo in Ontario, Canada, and is a registered professional planner. She believes in, practices, and explores capacity building in communities. Her program of research explores community planning as one way to improve health and healthcare. She is most interested in understanding the many factors that influence citizens to lead and plan their own approaches to enhancing their community’s health and well-being. She teaches community planning and engagement at the senior undergraduate level in the School of Urban and Regional Planning at the University of Alberta as well as health, community, and development at the graduate level in the School of Public Health. How communities engage in and plan their own individual-level, organizational, and interorganizational capacities to address social and health problems keep Kyle curious in both her research and her teaching.
Dan Witters Dan Witters is research director of the Gallup-Healthways Well-Being Index. Dan frequently presents at major conferences and summits, and his insights from the well-being index research appear regularly on Gallup.com and in the media, including appearances on CBS Sunday Morning, CNBC, HuffPost Live, WSJ Live, and NPR. As a consultant and analyst for Gallup, Dan has used his expertise in survey design, methodology, analysis, business outcomes modeling, report writing, and presenting results to help leaders better understand their company’s marketplace, customers, and employees. He has played an important role as an advisor and researcher to Gallup clients, creating effective strategies that enhance a business’ overall health and strength through enhanced engagement and well-being. Since 1993, he has directed more than $100 million in research for some of the world’s best-managed companies in the financial services, healthcare, telecommunications, hospitality, consulting, and pharmaceutical industries.
Zhaocheng Zeng Zhaocheng is a Ph.D. candidate in business administration at DeGroote School of Business of McMaster University in Canada. Her research interests include living wage and firm performance, entrepreneurship education, entrepreneurship support, technology start-ups, and immigrant entrepreneurship. She has presented papers at the Administrative Sciences Association of Canada (ASAC) Conference, On New Shores Conference, and the United States Association for Small Business and Entrepreneurship (USASBE) Conference.
Introduction
Community well-being is a wide-ranging concept encompassing multiple dimensions related to people and their communities. In this volume, we focus on “communities of place” situated within geographic spaces. In this context, community well-being includes “comprehensive and integrated concepts developed by synthesizing research constructs related to residents’ perceptions of the community, residents’ needs fulfillment, observable community conditions, and the social and cultural context of the community” (Sung and Phillips 2016: 2).
Community well-being is embedded with multidimensional values including the economic, social, and environmental aspects that impact people. While each of these values or aspects has a vital role in influencing community well-being outcomes and perceptions, there are also many different ways these can combine, depending on the particular characteristics of place. For example, the type of governance structure, the physical environment, and certainly the needs and desires of a community’s residents impact well-being.
Community well-being can also be thought of as an overarching concept with related conceptions such as happiness, quality of life, and community development often being mentioned jointly or interchangeably. These concepts are highly related yet different, given the scale or context. For example, happiness is often thought of as an individual state of being, although there are attempts of finding the collective happiness of communities, regions, or even countries. Quality of life is most often associated with individuals, and the World Health Organization Quality of Life (2002: 1) defines it as:
Individuals’ perceptions of their position in life in the context of the culture and value systems in which they live and in relation to their goals, expectations, standards and concerns.
Community development is both a practice and a discipline, focusing on improvement of people’s conditions in the built, social, environmental, and economic dimensions of communities of place. It is about social capacity building as well as process and outcomes. It is often part of public policy as well as urban and regional planning practice of which community development is a substantial component. The difference between community wellbeing and community development is that the latter seeks to take action in the public, social, and private sectors to achieve desirable goals (Sung and Phillips 2016). Given the complexity and interaction of community wellbeing with other dimensions such as quality of life, community satisfaction,
community development, sustainability, welfare, and personal well-being (e.g., life satisfaction and happiness), there are many points of intersection to consider (Christakopoulou et al. 2001; Maybery et al. 2009; Sirgy et al. 2010; Theodori 2001; White 2010; Wills 2001).
It is clear to see that defining community well-being is no easy task. Wiseman and Brasher (2008) define it as “the combination of social, economic, environmental, cultural, and political conditions identified by individuals and their communities as essential for them to flourish and fulfill their potential” (p. 358). Others focus on factors arising from interaction among different dimensions of society such as social, political, cultural, and even psychological; for example, McGregor stresses that well-being arises “in the context of society and social collectivity” (2007, 318).
As mentioned, the holistic nature of the concept of community well-being means that it is subject to different interpretations and is often used interchangeability with other related concepts. Community well-being falls neatly into which Rittel and Webber (1973) coined as “wicked problem,” as it exists in an evolving set of interlocking issues and constraints and embedded in a dynamic social context. The complexity of different aspects of well-being means that it is difficult to achieve a definitive definition. Nonetheless, it is precisely these challenges that make this handbook a valuable platform for researchers from different disciplinary areas and perspectives to share their knowledge, experience, and skills of researching community well-being under different socioeconomic contexts across the world. The richness of the content, in methodological approaches, theoretical arguments, and empirical findings, demonstrates that there is not a simple linear pathway to understand the problems, competing interests, priorities, and constraints of community well-being. As demonstrated by different contributors, the appropriate way to address these challenges is to develop shared understanding and shared commitment with our academic colleagues, with practitioners and policymakers, and, most importantly, with residents and communities.
It is interesting to note that the UN Habitat (2012) published the Cities Prosperity Index (CPI) and argues for the need to move toward measuring the broader conception of human and societal well-being. The CPI consists of five key dimensions: productivity, infrastructure (and amenities), quality of life, equity and social inclusion, and environmental sustainability (see Wong 2015). Of the 31 chapters in this handbook, the discussion of community well-being does cover all these five areas. It is clear that there is a common purpose across the international community to pursue a progressive agenda of new forms of prosperity across different spatial levels. In our case, the focus is at the community level of well-being and the research constructs used to help foster understanding.
This volume is presented in five parts, covering a range of topics, frameworks, and applications presented by scholars across a wide range of disciplines and practice. The work includes both qualitative and quantitative research approaches, and most include an illustrative community case. In the 31 chapters, 62 authors share their experiences and viewpoints on community well-being in the context of their work, research, and areas. We sought to
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of Saint Paul
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.
Title: Saint Paul
Author: Emile Baumann
Release date: July 23, 2022 [eBook #68595]
Language: French
Original publication: Bernard Grasset, 1925
Credits: Laurent Vogel and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This book was produced from images made available by the HathiTrust Digital Library.)
START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SAINT PAUL
É BAUMANN
SAINT PAUL
PARIS
BERNARD GRASSET, ÉDITEUR
61, RUE DES SAINT-PÈRES, 61
1925
DU MÊME AUTEUR
Les Grandes Formes de la Musique (Albin Michel, éditeur).
L’Immolé (Grasset).
La Fosse aux lions (Grasset).
Trois villes saintes (Grasset).
Le Baptême de Pauline Ardel (Grasset).
L’Abbé Chevoleau, caporal au 90e d’infanterie (Perrin).
La Paix du septième jour (Perrin).
Le Fer sur l’enclume (Perrin).
Job le prédestiné (Grasset).
L’Anneau d’or des grands mystiques (Grasset).
HORS COMMERCE :
Heures d’été au Mont Saint-Michel, avec des gravures sur bois de René Pottier.
POUR PARAÎTRE :
Le Signe sur les mains, roman.
IL A ÉTÉ TIRÉ DE CET OUVRAGE :
DIX EXEMPLAIRES SUR PAPIER JAPON NUMÉROTÉS DE 1 A 10 ; TRENTE EXEMPLAIRES PAPIER HOLLANDE NUMÉROTÉS DE 11 A 40 ET CINQUANTE EXEMPLAIRES SUR PAPIER VÉLIN PUR FIL MONTGOLFIER NUMÉROTÉS DE 41 A 90.
Tous droits de traduction, de reproduction et d’adaptation réservés pour tous pays
Copyright by Bernard Grasset, 1925
(Cathédrale de Reims)
SAINT PAUL
CELUI QUI FUT MON COMPAGNON
SUR LES ROUTES SAINTES DE L’ASIE, A FULTON JOHN SHEEN
J’OFFRE PIEUSEMENT
CE LIVRE QUE SES PRIÈRES ONT TANT AIDÉ E. B.
Louvain, le 25 janvier 1925.
SAINT PAUL
PRÉFACE
Une des plus grandes voix que la terre ait écoutées, c’est la sienne.
La figure dominatrice des temps apostoliques, c’est lui.
Si nous ne cherchions en son histoire que la destinée d’un homme, elle semblerait déjà prodigieuse : ce jeune Pharisien, animé par le zèle de la Loi à l’extermination d’une secte impie, et qui se fait brusquement l’apôtre irréductible de la doctrine exécrée, ce Juif, devenu, contre son gré, anti-juif, imposerait à notre surprise le cas inouï d’une âme retournée, comme d’un seul coup, dans le sens où elle s’irritait de voir tomber les autres. Supposez que Saint-Just, en signant des listes de suspects, ait pris, d’une manière subite, parti pour les suspects ; telle fut, mais bien plus étrange, la conversion de Saul le persécuteur
Et sa vie, après son changement, s’obstina trente années en une sublime et terrible aventure.
Avec deux ou trois compagnons, ou une faible escorte, seul parfois, il s’en va, sur des routes dont les brigands sont maîtres, vers des régions païennes ou barbares, gagnant son pain dans les villes comme tisserand, semblable aux ouvriers que j’ai vus à Tarse tisser des poils de chèvre pour les tentes des nomades.
Partout il annonce un Dieu nouveau, le Messie prophétisé, fils de Dieu, Rédempteur, Seigneur, Juge des vivants et des morts ; mais
ce Dieu n’est autre qu’un vagabond nazaréen, le blasphémateur et le séditieux qu’on a cloué sur une potence à Jérusalem et que ses disciples disent ressuscité. Paul croit en lui, avant tout, parce qu’il l’a vu, entendu parler ; et cette vision l’a renversé dans la poussière, a brûlé ses prunelles au point de le rendre trois jours aveugle ; il s’en souvient comme si la gloire du Christ fulgurait contre ses yeux, comme si sa voix foudroyait encore ses oreilles.
Il le prêche dans les synagogues aux Juifs, ses frères ; quelquesuns ont foi en sa révélation ; la plupart se méfient, poussent des clameurs, ameutent la populace, conspirent pour l’assassiner. Il secoue sur eux ses sandales et se tourne vers les païens qui veulent croire.
D’Antioche de Syrie à Chypre, de Chypre à Antioche de Pisidie, à Iconium, à Lystres, à Derbé ; puis, de la Cilicie en Troade, en Macédoine, en Thessalie, en Attique, en Achaïe ; puis de Corinthe à Éphèse, il établit des églises, il sème l’évangile de la promesse. Comme un orage promène l’éclair de l’Orient à l’Occident, sa parole court au-dessus des peuples, s’éloigne et revient.
« Mon champ d’action, proclame-t-il, non sans hyperbole, dans son épître aux Romains[1] , va depuis Jérusalem, en tous sens, jusqu’à l’Illyrie… A présent, je n’ai plus en ces contrées de place (où m’étendre)[2] . Mais j’ai, depuis de longues années, le désir d’aller jusqu’à vous ; si je me rends en Espagne, j’espère, en passant, vous voir ; et c’est vous qui me mettrez sur le chemin de ce pays, quand je me serai d’abord, en quelque mesure, rassasié de vous ».
[1] XV, 19-24.
[2] Il entend : J’ai fondé toutes les églises qu’il m’appartenait de fonder.
Si je me rends en Espagne ! L’ampleur de ses ambitions s’arrête avec peine aux limites du monde romain. Sa hâte est immense d’avoir, en tous lieux, fait adorer le Christ hier sans nom ; il veut que son Seigneur soit connu jusqu’aux extrémités de la terre. Ainsi, toutes les nations sachant que le Sauveur est venu, la plénitude des
temps sera prompte à s’accomplir ; le Juge, à l’heure que nul ne peut prévoir, descendra sur les nuées, et le Christ régnera dans les siècles des siècles.
De quel prix Paul paya ces conquêtes surhumaines, nous l’évaluons d’après les récits des Actes, d’après son témoignage immédiat :
« Des Juifs, cinq fois, j’ai reçu les quarante coups de lanière, moins un ; trois fois, j’ai été battu de verges ; une fois lapidé ; trois fois j’ai fait naufrage ; j’ai passé une nuit et un jour en plein abîme. Et mes voyages multiples : périls des fleuves, périls des brigands ; périls venant des gens de ma race ; périls venant des Gentils ; périls dans les villes, périls dans le désert, périls sur mer, périls au milieu des faux frères ; dans la peine, la lassitude ; dans les veilles souvent ; dans la faim et la soif ; dans le froid et la nudité ; et, sans parler des choses extérieures, l’agitation, pour moi, quotidienne, le tourment de toutes les églises[3] »
[3] II Cor. XI, 24-29.
De presque toutes les villes on l’expulse ; il y reparaît, intrépide. La contradiction exaltait sa force. Après le tumulte d’Éphèse pourtant et les conjonctures mal connues qui suivirent, il s’avouait « accablé, à ne plus savoir comment vivre[4] ».
[4] Cor I, 8
En 56, pendant son dernier voyage à Jérusalem, il est entraîné hors du temple ; sans les Romains, la foule l’écharpait. Il reste deux ans dans les chaînes à Césarée ; ensuite, pour ne pas tomber entre les mains des Juifs, il en appelle à César ; on l’embarque pour Rome. Une horrible tempête de quatorze jours le jette sain et sauf sur la grève de Malte. Il atteint Rome ; deux années encore sa captivité s’y prolonge, une captivité fructueuse où il enseigne, où il convertit.
Après, il entre dans la nuit ; certaines phrases des épîtres à Timothée laissent entendre que, libéré, il retourna en Asie, revint à
Rome, fut, de nouveau, incarcéré. Une ferme tradition fixe là son martyre, en outre attesté par cinq textes dont le plus ancien, l’épître de Clément romain, — écrite entre 92 et 101, — lui rend ce grave hommage :
« Chargé sept fois de chaînes, banni, lapidé, devenu héraut de la foi en Orient et en Occident, il a reçu pour sa foi une noble gloire. Après avoir enseigné la justice au monde entier, atteint les bornes de l’Occident, accompli son martyre devant ceux qui gouvernent, il a quitté le monde et s’en est allé au saint lieu, illustre modèle de patience[5] »
[5] Ed. H , ch. V.
Regardée du dehors, et crayonnée à gros traits, la carrière de saint Paul révèle des puissances de foi et de persuasion qui font de lui l’Apôtre type.
Si aucun homme n’est strictement nécessaire, certains sont uniques. Leur tâche, personne ne l’eût remplie comme eux ni aussi bien. La bataille d’Austerlitz se concevrait mal gagnée par un autre que Napoléon.
Entre les disciples de Jésus, ce n’est pas à nous de trancher quel fut le plus grand. Pierre eut le privilège d’une bonté simple et incomparable. Jamais Paul ne prononcera des mots comme ceuxci :
« Vous le savez, Seigneur, que je vous aime[6] . »
[6] Jean XXI, 16.
Ou, au boiteux du Temple avant de le guérir :
« De l’argent et de l’or, je n’en ai pas ; mais, ce que j’ai, je te le donne[7] . »
[7] Actes III, 6.
Cet ignorant, devenu capable de commander, de dogmatiser, ce timide qui, devant les princes des prêtres, soutient une magnifique fierté, nous arrête comme un miracle plus étonnant que ceux qu’il a faits.
La physionomie de Céphas, malgré tout, se réduit à des lignes élémentaires. Ses discours, ses deux épîtres instruisent de sa doctrine, des conflits qu’il domina. Sur lui-même nous savons trop peu.
Jean demeure, en quelque façon, voilé dans la hauteur d’une flamme divine. Il est l’orgue des Séraphins qu’on écoute sans voir celui qui joue.
Étienne fut le précurseur de Paul ; silhouette de voyant, « face d’ange » sur qui pleuvait la splendeur d’en haut. Le premier après Jésus il osa troubler l’illusion d’Israël croyant à la pérennité du Temple. Mais il devait disparaître pour que Saul, son assassin, reprît ses audaces et portât l’effort à son terme. Barnabé se laisse entrevoir comme un puissant compagnon. M. Loisy voudrait le grandir au détriment de Paul, ainsi que Michelet enlevait à Condé, pour en investir Sirot, la gloire de Rocroi. Ce sont là fictions de mauvais romantiques acharnés contre les statues traditionnelles. Si Barnabé fit d’admirables choses, son œuvre s’est fondue dans le travail commun ; et, s’il écrivit, rien n’en subsiste [8] .
[8] A moins que l’épître aux Hébreux n’ait été rédigée par lui.
Paul, au rebours, nous est précieusement familier. Certains points de son existence ont beau rester sous la nuée obscure, nous l’approchons, comme si nous avions pu vivre avec lui, et, plus on le fréquente, plus on sent la beauté de son âme, la vigueur de son génie.
Car il faut restituer sa valeur divine à ce mot trop humainement profané. Tous les apôtres reçurent le Saint-Esprit ; mais, selon l’axiome thomiste, les dons fructifient ad modum recipientis, d’après les capacités de celui qui les reçoit.
Paul ne fut pas appelé sans motif un vase d’élection. Il tenait de Dieu, en vue de sa mission, des facultés merveilleuses que la grâce épura, sublimisa.
Son naturel unissait, à un étrange degré, ces deux éléments : une énergie nerveuse, bondissante, toujours prête aux décisions extrêmes ; et l’intelligence la plus hardie, la plus flexible, traversant les hommes d’un coup d’œil, s’assimilant ce qui lui était le plus étranger, circulant parmi les idées comme celle d’un grec subtil.
Mais, bien qu’il fût né à Tarse, dans une ville hellénisée, qu’il parlât le grec aussi aisément que l’araméen, que des principes païens se fussent amalgamés à sa formation juive, le sang juif prévalait en lui. Sa fierté, c’était de se dire Juif. Sa dialectique accuse la discipline des rabbins[9] ; sa morale retiendra l’empreinte des conceptions juives. Son fanatisme de persécuteur est spécifiquement juif ; de même, sa tournure d’esprit, organisatrice et réaliste. La passion religieuse, dès sa jeunesse, gouvernait toute son activité. Il vivait, nous dit-il[10] , pour la Loi, les yeux attachés sur le Temple, dans l’espérance messianique d’un triomphe d’Israël, revanche des abaissements, promise par les Écritures.
[9] Sur cette évidence, aujourd’hui contestée, v. plus loin, p 56 et suiv
[10] Gal. I, 14.
La Loi lui suffisait, il ne souffrait point de l’étroitesse pharisienne ; ce qu’il savait du Christ, c’était pour l’abhorrer. Soupçonnait-il l’appel secret d’une Force novatrice ?
Le prodige est qu’il se soit précipité dans la foi qui renversait la sienne, sans regarder en arrière, semblable aux mystérieux animaux, aperçus par le prophète, qui allaient devant eux, étendant leurs ailes, et ne se retournant jamais.
Seule, la rudesse adroite de son élan pouvait abattre, là où devait s’y insérer le bloc d’angle, la muraille de la vieille Loi, ouvrir toutes larges aux nations les portes du Lieu saint.
Cependant sa rupture avec la Loi le bouleversa, le déchira. Sa douleur, ensuite, fut incessante de voir Israël raidir son cou contre l’aiguillon du salut.
En quoi Paul resta-t-il un Juif ? En quoi cessa-t-il de l’être ? Historiquement, le problème mérite un long examen. La tragédie intime de sa transformation suffirait à remplir ce livre.
Mais, j’ai hâte de le déclarer, une curiosité de psychologue ne m’en inspira point l’entreprise.
J’avais connu d’abord saint Paul par fragments, grâce aux simples épîtres de la liturgie. Le contact devint profond vers l’âge de vingt-six ans, alors que j’établissais les assises de mon œuvre. Pourrais-je dire tout ce que je lui dus, tout ce que je lui dois d’essentiel ? Il n’est point de mystère où l’on ne pénètre à sa suite « de clarté en clarté, réfléchissant comme en un miroir la gloire du Seigneur[11] ». La prédestination, les contraires suscitant les contraires ; l’abîme de la chute impliquant les magnificences de la Rédemption ; la Communion des Saints, toutes ces immensités, Paul les explore aussi loin qu’il est permis à une pensée d’homme illuminée par le Verbe. La pondération de ses vues en égale la sublimité.
[11] II Cor III, 18
Peu importent les bonds d’idées, les transitions obscures, les raccourcis violents. Au sortir d’une haie d’objections, voici la netteté suprême, la foudroyante véhémence, l’ampleur limpide, l’onction, la bonhomie.
Il écrivait aux Corinthiens : « Comme à des petits enfants dans le Christ, je vous ai donné du lait à boire [12] . »
[12] I Cor III, 2
Bue dans ses versets, la doctrine de vie prend en effet comme la saveur d’un lait bourru, mêlé à l’acide parfum de l’herbe qui pousse. Ce christianisme de plein air semble ventilé par les brises des grands ports où débarqua l’Apôtre ; il nous apporte en sa fraîcheur originelle l’ingénuité de la foi, le don d’espérer et d’aimer. Ineffable don quand l’espérance et l’amour vont à des fins qui ne mentent pas. Si nous l’avons, Paul nous a valu, pour une haute part, cette largesse ; et ce n’est pas une métaphore. J’ai plus d’une fois songé que les premiers missionnaires de la Gaule, dans la vallée du Rhône et à Lyon, venaient d’Éphèse et de la Phrygie, des pays où Paul et ses disciples avaient travaillé ; et le mysticisme lyonnais, celui de ma ville natale, se souvient de la vieille Asie chrétienne, ascétique et fervente.
Nous, fils des Gentils, serions-nous chrétiens si Paul n’avait eu la vocation d’ôter à l’Église adolescente le joug mosaïque ? Le monde païen n’aurait jamais, en masse, consenti, même sans la circoncision, à se faire juif. Paul, parmi les Apôtres, ne fut pas le seul qui le comprît ; mais, plus impérieusement que personne, il fit passer dans l’acte cette nécessité.
Entre tous les témoins du Christ il s’impose comme le plus difficile à confondre, parce qu’il a été son témoin malgré lui. Or, le christianisme n’est pas une chimère issue de la théodicée juive et des mystères grecs. Il repose sur des faits hors desquels il ne serait plus rien, ou plutôt, Paul l’a bien vu, toute foi en sa vérité dépend de ce fait unique : le Christ est-il, oui ou non, ressuscité ?
La résurrection, la vie permanente de Jésus, sa présence efficace dans le corps mystique de son Église, en chacun de ses fidèles par les dons qu’elle leur dispense, Paul n’a cessé de les affirmer vraies, d’une vérité totale, éternelle. Il a souffert et il a donné son sang pour soutenir que c’était vrai. Impossible de surprendre en ses épîtres une page, une ligne où il enseigne autre chose.
Je le rappelle ici dans une pensée d’exégète, non d’apologiste. Mais à quoi bon sous-entendre que je trouve en saint Paul la substance d’une foi qui est la mienne ?
Quand on aborde les origines du christianisme, on a toujours, d’avance, pris position. L’exégèse allemande est, dans son ensemble, partie d’une volonté nette d’avoir le dernier mot contre les Évangiles et l’orthodoxie. Renan, sous les démarches cauteleuses ou la froide ironie de sa critique, trahit l’impatience de blesser à mort le Dieu qu’il a renié. Ce n’est pas l’historien, mais l’idéaliste amoureux du néant qui, sur les visions de saint Paul, profère cette négation :
« Il n’a pas vu le Christ ; le Christ qui lui fait des révélations personnelles est son propre fantôme ; c’est lui-même qu’il écoute en croyant entendre Jésus[13] . »
[13] Saint Paul, p 563
Chez un Guignebert, un Loisy, le savant est sans cesse troublé par le fanatique. J’ai lu deux fois le commentaire de M. Loisy sur les Actes. Son effort m’évoqua ce que j’éprouvais, enfant, dans un presbytère de campagne où j’entendais, la nuit, des rats infatigables grignoter les bonnes poutres d’un grenier. M. Loisy est un grignoteur de textes, j’entends de textes sacrés ; s’il croit en arracher quelque brin, il est content. Sa critique s’agrippe aux difficultés ; celles qui existent ne lui suffisent pas. L’hypothèse d’une source honnête et sûre, altérée par un rédacteur, tantôt inepte, tantôt d’une incroyable astuce, ce nœud de subterfuges, de maladresses et de mensonges a l’air inventé par l’auteur d’un roman policier. Est-ce d’un historien ? L’ingénuité profonde et le sérieux des Livres saints, qu’en fait-il ?
M. Loisy, comme ses maîtres allemands, vit avec un spectre qui l’obsède : l’interpolation. Dès qu’un récit ressemble de très loin à un autre, il crie au doublet. Comme si le réel le plus réel n’était pas, à toutes les minutes, un recommencement !
Je n’en conclus point que le travail de l’exégèse négative soit demeuré stérile. En visant à ruiner l’autorité du Nouveau Testament, elle a enrichi la notion des milieux, nuancé l’apport des influences, élucidé les analogies des doctrines. Elle a travaillé, contre son attente, au profit de l’exégèse orthodoxe. Sans elle nous n’aurions
pas eu des monuments comme la Théologie de saint Paul du P. Prat ou le Messianisme chez les Juifs du P. Lagrange ni ses commentaires sur l’épître aux Romains et l’épître aux Galates.
Mais cette critique, si fière d’elle-même, souffre d’une débilité dont elle ne veut pas guérir : elle dissocie, elle dissèque, elle ne construit pas. Entre ses mains, la forte unité du caractère de Paul se désagrège[14] . Il n’est plus qu’un syncrétiste, un assembleur, inconscient ou habile, d’éléments mystiques pris aux stoïciens, aux mystères, au culte de Mithra, à toutes les théosophies, aux gnoses qu’il traversa. Son christianisme devient un champignon fortuit poussé sur le sol décadent des religions antiques.
[14] Voir en particulier N , Agnôstos Theos ; R , The Cities of saint Paul ; T , l’Hellénisme et l’apôtre Paul
Il est trop facile, en comparant les mystiques païennes à celle de saint Paul, de suggérer, avec des ressemblances de mots ou de rites, une confusion ; et, dans cette équivoque, les oppositions radicales s’évanouissent.
Au surplus, on oublie deux choses : un homme n’est point conduit, d’abord, par des idées ; il faut, pour l’expliquer, saisir le point vital de sa volonté, ne jamais perdre de vue sa race, son tempérament, les mœurs qui lui furent transmises. Quand on fait l’histoire d’un Juif, l’observation de ces traits s’impose plus stricte encore. Juster a montré[15] combien les Juifs dispersés à travers le monde romain, les Juifs de la Diaspora, se maintenaient jalousement séparatistes, s’isolant dans leurs ghettos, fidèles aux communes traditions.
[15] Voir son livre capital : les Juifs dans l’Empire romain
Philon[16] reconnaissait les Israélites entêtés « à se faire tuer plutôt que de laisser toucher à aucun usage des anciens, convaincus qu’il en arriverait comme de ces édifices auxquels on
arrache une pierre, et qui, tout en paraissant rester fermes, s’affaissent peu à peu et tombent en ruines ».
[16] Leg 16
Ils entretenaient, outre les synagogues, leurs écoles à eux, leurs bibliothèques, leurs tribunaux, leurs cimetières. S’ils portaient le costume romain, les Romains leur concédaient en privilège la perpétuité de leurs lois et coutumes. Un Juif, comme Josèphe, rallié aux vainqueurs, confondu d’admiration devant eux, s’adaptait, mais ne changeait pas[17]
[17] Voir sa vie racontée par lui-même, et ce qu’il dit de son éducation
De plus, pour helléniser Paul à tout prix, on récuse les témoignages des Actes, on récuse le sien. On prête à cet esprit loyal et perspicace d’indignes artifices ou des illusions puériles. S’il parle d’une révélation directe, c’est pourtant qu’il en avait l’évidence irréfutable. Sur la vie du Christ et ses enseignements il tint des Apôtres, il propagea intact ce qui lui fut transmis. A Damas, à Antioche, à Rome il trouva des chrétientés formées par d’autres, et où son langage théologique fut accepté, compris. Une tradition liait déjà ces églises primitives ; d’où venait-elle, sinon de l’Église palestinienne, d’un milieu nativement juif ?
En somme, quoi qu’on fasse, les textes des Épîtres, le récit des Actes, garderont plus de poids que les systèmes éphémères des philologues ; et les historiens s’appuieront toujours sur ces documents dont la structure se maintient inébranlée.
Jusqu’à la fin des temps, le conflit persistera entre ceux qui, racontant des faits où le surnaturel joue son jeu nécessaire, l’introduiront dans la trame de leur exégèse, et les autres qui auront assujetti l’interprétation d’événements surnaturels à ce postulat : le surnaturel n’existe pas.
Mais l’avantage des premiers, pour ne les considérer qu’en historien, c’est qu’ils s’établissent dans l’axe des croyances où
vécurent leurs personnages ; tandis que les sceptiques sont en contradiction perpétuelle avec les âmes de héros croyants. On pénètre mal, Renan l’avouait, ce qu’on n’aime point, ce qu’on réprouve comme faux.
Renan, historien de saint Paul, n’a pas échappé à cette incompréhension. « Le vilain petit Juif » l’étonne et le rebute ; il lui en veut d’avoir imposé au monde le mensonge chrétien ; il le juge raide, cassant. Étrange façon de méconnaître la souplesse pratique d’un homme qui déclarait tout au contraire :
« Je me suis fait Juif avec les Juifs pour gagner les Juifs ; infirme avec les infirmes pour gagner les infirmes… Je me suis fait tout à tous pour les sauver tous[18] . »
[18] I Cor. IX, 20-22.
Il a peine à lui pardonner son mépris des faux sages, et le méprise à son tour, sous prétexte qu’il a nié la science, qu’étant un homme d’action il est « un faible artiste ».
Pour saint Paul, évidemment, ni la science ni l’art ne sont au plan suprême. Il savait beaucoup, et la raillerie de Festus : « Tu as trop lu, Paul ; cela te rend fou[19] », suffirait à prouver que l’étendue de ses connaissances éblouissait même des Romains cultivés. Mais l’unique science dont il faisait cas, c’était de connaître Jésus mis en croix. Comme tous les Juifs, il se méfiait des statues et des peintures, instruments d’idolâtrie. Mais il demeurait sensible à la beauté du corps humain ; il magnifiait l’harmonie de la tête et des membres, image du Christ, animateur et chef de l’universelle Communion. Il aimait les fortes bâtisses ; nulle figure ne lui plaisait autant que celle d’une maison, d’un temple bien construits ; et il se comparait à un bon architecte « assurant des fondations[20] ». Il avait le goût de la musique sacrée, l’encourageait[21] Qu’il soit un poète admirable, personne, après l’avoir lu, n’oserait le contester. Norden a même relevé dans les Épîtres des suites rythmées comme des morceaux de poèmes. Certaines doxologies s’amplifient
