crossing border part ii by Ng Xing Ling

crossing border

Printed 2018 Edited by Ng Xing Ling Mentored by Prof Joshua Comaroff Master of Architecture Thesis Singapore University of Technology and Design

The Causeway, 2018.

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Territories are not simply static spatial classificatory containers. The life of territory is to be seen in the crossings-over, into and out of these meaningful spaces.â&#x20AC;? David Delaney

Contents

1 6 9

13 15 19 21

25 33 35 43 47

51 55 59 63 67 71 75 79

83 89

before we begin Abstract Border and Frontier Maritime Borders

the issue Border between Singapore and Malaysia Crossing the Causeway The Economic Disparity The Dominance of Watchtowers The People of Border

the border The Thesis Site Thesis Statement The Pier The Mix The Crossing

the binary typologies Equisite Corpse House School + Dormitory Office + Factory Hawker Centre Casino + Hotel Performance Hall Outlet + Market Hospital + Ward

the end Physical Model Photos Bibliography & Credits

Abstract What is a border? Contradictory to the notion of a well-defined territorial borderline, the border region often acts more like a thickened frontier zone with high mobility, filled with economic transfer and social interaction. There exists a conflicting relationship in these frontier regions as the rigidity of the border stands in contrast with the fluidity of these exchanges. In this thesis, I am interested in the possibilities of what architecture and urbanism can do in this highly activated yet transitional space.

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea Article 15 Delimitation of the territorial sea between States with opposite or adjacent coasts Where the coasts of two States are opposite or adjacent to each other, neither of the two States is entitled, failing agreement between them to the contrary, to extend its territorial sea beyond the median line every point of which is equidistant from the nearest points on the baselines from which the breadth of the territorial seas of each of the two States is measured. The above provision does not apply, however, where it is necessary by reason of historic title or other special circumstances to delimit the territorial seas of the two States in a way which is at variance therewith.

“The rapidly increasing circulation of people, things, capital, images, and ideas has given rise to claims about the increasing permeability of borders understood as the de-territoralization of the nation-state and the ‘erosion’ of sovereignty.” David Delaney

Border and Frontier Border A border is a line that defines the inside from the outside. This line of separation creates a distinction between two objects that are originally homogenous and identical. In terms of geography, a border is used to define territories and communities, resulting in the formation of different states and countries. As land is intrinsically linked to power and status, borderlands are also sites and symbols of power.1 As the expressions of power, physical barriers are put in place as a mark of sovereignty which prohibits anyone from crossing the border illegally. Some borderlines are armed with barbed wire, army troops and tall fences. These armed borderlines are also often a reflection of the international conflict between the two countries. One such example would be the heavily-armed demilitarised zone between North Korea and South Korea. While the term “border” has multiple meanings in different contexts, in this thesis, the term “border” will refer to the border between two countries for easier references. Frontier “Social, economic and political life cannot be ontologically contained within the territorial boundaries of states…Complex population movements, the growing mobility of capital, increased ecological interdependence, the expanding information economy and the ‘chronopolitics’ of new military technologies challenge the geographical basis of conventional international relations theory.” 2 Borderlands, the area near the borderline, depend highly on the sociopolitical and geographical situations between the countries. Instead of existing as simple lines that divide the nations, these borderlines affect billions of lives inhabiting near the borders in terms of travel, migration and work. While the border exists as a theoretical line, the frontier region is often a thickened zone of social and economic interactions between the two nations. The inter-dependency of the states expressed through human migration, trade and exchange of currency make the borderline to be more of a theoretical concept more than a physical and practical construct. Even though most of the territorial borders have stayed the same for the last century, the permeability across the borders increased over the years due to advancement in mobilities, globalisation and constant shift in the global economy.

1 Hastings Donnan, and Thomas M. Wilson, Borders: Frontiers of Identity, Nation and State, (New York: Berg, 1999), 1. 2 Agnew, John A., and Stuart Corbridge, Mastering Space: hegemony, territory and international political economy, (S.l.: Routledge, 1995), 100.

While the borderline is fixed, the movement of flow (people or goods) is in a constant flux. The territorial border does not limit the physical extent of the lives of people. People cross territories and are no longer confined to the fixed boundaries of a single territory. The significance of borders is then transformed from a static boundary line to a fluid landscape of exchanges. 6

Boundary of territory A boundary of territory refers to the outermost line that contains the territory. The nature of the boundary of a territory is thus determined by the relationship between the states. The borderlands can either connect or disconnect. While the borders are often the welcoming gateway to the states, the border regions are often seen to have imposing structures and tight security control. As ironic as it might seem, the border region has to convey contradictory messages of both invitation and surveillance simultaneously, and the result of this tricky situation is often a focusing on surveillance, making the border region a much less anticipated space to be in. The three main border typologies for connection are the door, the bridge and the gateway.3 Bridges are used primarily in the case of maritime borders in the cases where the countries are within a reasonable distance. The use of bridge changes the mode of transport from a water-based transport means to a land-based one. In some cases, a cleared space between the two nations will be delineated as an offset of the borderline on both sides.4 This is called the border vista which is usually established along unguarded territorial borderlines. For example, border vista along undefended portions of the Canada and United States span six-metre wide.

3 Tali Hatuka and Rachel Kallus, Loose ends: the role of architecture in constructing urban borders in Tel-AvivJaffa since the 1920s (Taylor & Francis, 2006). 4 Aul, Henry B, How to plan modern home grounds, (Sheridan House,1959), 280. 7

Territorial boundary often crosses untamed landscapes. 8

Maritime borders According to the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)1, territorial waters is a belt of coastal waters extending at most 12 nautical miles from the baseline of a coastal state. The territorial sea belongs to the territory of the state and it allows innocent passage of foreign ships or transit passage for straits. If the territorial waters overlap between states, a maritime border is formed and the border is taken as the mid point between the states’ baselines. The borderline is a conceptual line drawn on the water surface using geographical approximate. Normally the line is drawn at a distance away from the coastline. They serve as markers for one’s end of territorial waters. Maritime borders are often hard to determine and require redefinition periodically due to many factors which include shifting in coastlines and state’s newly acquired islands. Moreover, many resources in the ocean are inherently transboundary and are difficult to be handled in global terms.2 These factors result in regional conflicts that makes the definition of maritime borderline to be extremely tough as each case is intrinsically different. In the past, there was a three-mile limit to determine a country’s territorial waters which became an obsolete concept now except for a few countries such as Singapore who still retain the 3-nautical-mile (5.6 km) limit. The three-mile limit was determined in the 18th century as the distance in which cannon can be fired from land to the sea to protect the territory.3 However, most of the maritime territories have extended its limit to 12 nautical miles (22 km) from their respective coastlines and it is eventually established as the norm by UNCLOS.

1 "TERRITORIAL SEA AND CONTIGUOUS ZONE." United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. 2018. Accessed February 20, 2018. https://www.un.org/Depts/los/ convention_agreements/texts/unclos/ part2.htm. 2 Valencia, Mark J, Maritime Regime Building: Lessons Learned and Their Relevance for Northeast Asia (Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2001), 149. 3 Kent, H. S. K, "The Historical Origins of the Three-Mile Limit,” The American Journal of International Law 48, no. 4 (1954): 537-53. doi:10.2307/2195021. 9

one nautical mile (nm) = 1,852 meters

high seas max 150nm 176-200 nm

Exclusive Economic Zone Area of water where a coastal nation has control of all economic resources, including fishing, mining or oil exploration. Passage on, or under the surface of the sea is allowed.

12nm 12nm

Continental Shelf Natural prolongation of land territory; it may never exceed 350nm from the baseline. Coastal states have the right to harvest non-living material in its subsoil.

landmass

Territorial Sea Strip of sea over which the state exercises full sovereignty both over groundwater, seabed, subsoil and superjacent airspace. Vessels have the right of innocent passage.

High Seas Parts of the sea not included in exclusive economic zones, territorial seas or internal waters. They are free for all states and reserved for peaceful purposes.

Contiguous Zone Strip of sea over which a state can continue to enforce laws in four areas: customs, taxation, immigration and pollution. Internal Waters Covers all water on the landward side of the baseline. Foreign vessels have no right of passage. The coastal state is free to set laws and use any resource. 10

the issue

Crossing the Causeway

Pedestrian prohibited workers/students 15 - 30 mins SGD 0 to Singapore SGD 0 to Malaysia

Motorcycle workers 0.5 - 3 hrs SGD 4 to Singapore SGD 0 to Malaysia

Taxi tourists/businessmen 0.5 - 4 hrs SGD 27 to Singapore SGD 48 to Malaysia

To Woodlands

Singapore

1056 m Johor-Sin 13

Train shoppers/tourists 5 mins SGD 1.87 to Singapore SGD 5 to Malaysia

Bus students/workers/shoppers

Car

1 - 5 hrs

families/businessmen

SGD 0.50 to Singapore SGD 1.50 to Malaysia

0.5 - 4 hrs SGD 46.30 to Singapore SGD 13.30 to Malaysia

Malaysia

To Johor Bahru

ngapore Causeway 14

The Economic Disparity Malaysia and Singapore are economically interdependent even though they are independent states. In the 1980s, Malaysia experienced economic growth which led to the support of the Singapore-Johor-Riau (SIJORI) growth triangle concept. Many factories were relocated from Singapore to Johor due to the shortage of land and labour forces as a result of Singapore’s economic growth.1 The economies of both nations vary greatly in today’s context despite the similarities in social, political and geographical conditions. The rate of economic growth and the wealth distribution in Malaysia and Singapore are distinctly different.2 Singapore is economically more successful than Malaysia. This can be attributed to a few reasons but the main reason lies in the difference in ideas of governance which led to the contrast in progress. The increasing dominance of Singapore Dollars (SGD) over Malaysian Ringgit (MYR) over the years has contributed to the rise in movement across the borders. Singaporeans take advantage of the price differentials to purchase cheaper goods in Malaysia while Malaysians work in Singapore to earn a stronger currency. There is an increasing number of Singaporean families who move across the border to live in a bigger landed property which is similar in price to a Singapore’s 4-room HDB flat that is significantly smaller in size.3 The border landscape is void of any productive economy. Given its strategic location that lies between Singapore, an international trading hub and Malaysia, a nation full of natural resources, this space theoretically, should be very productive in nature.4 While a political re-merger based on principles is a distant possibility, a merger of economic activity is much more achievable. The border then provides a convenient and attractive landscape for a merger of economic activity by both sovereign states.

1 Takashi Shiraishi, Across the Causeway: A Multi-Dimensional Study of MalaysiaSingapore Relations, (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2009), 86. 2 Ibid. 3 “The Big Read: Iskandar’s lure is a strong pull for S’poreans”, Today, March 21, 2016, accessed April 22, 2018, https://www.todayonline.com/singapore/ big-read-iskanders-lure-strong-pullsporeans-0 4 Tan Tze Wei, “Border Landscapes of Johor Bahru and Woodlands”, Changing power, Changing landscape: Urban Transformation of Johor Bahru and Woodlands 1855-2009 (MArch diss., National University of Singapore, 2009), 43. 15

1988

1991

1994

1997

2000

2003

2006

2009

2012

2015

2018

The Economic Disparity Singapore a Toyota Vios car S$ 94,474

International primary school yearly school fees S$ 27,140

Average monthly salary S$ 4,100

1-room apartment in city S$ 2,800

1 pair of Nike running shoes S$ 124

20-pack Marlboro cigarettes S$ 13.15 1 cinema ricket S$ 12.00

MacDonald's McChicken meal S$ 5

1 kg of white rice S$ 2.90 1 litre of fuel S$ 2.21

Malaysia

RM 90,570 a Toyota Vios car

RM 25,490 International primary school yearly school fees

RM 3,480 Average monthly salary

RM 1,460 1-room apartment in city

RM 278 1 pair of Nike running shoes

RM 17.00 20-pack Marlboro cigarettes RM 15.00 1 cinema ticket RM 8.99 MacDonald's McChicken meal

RM 3.94 1 kg of white rice RM 2.47 1 litre of fuel

The Dominance of Watchtowers The Woodlands Checkpoint building of dominant tall blocks with slanted roofs resembles that of a ‘panopticon’ which demonstrates power and surveillance through the means of architecture. These watchtowers allow invisible monitoring over the Strait of Johor and Johor Bahru, and the building is the first thing one sees when he crosses the Causeway to enter Singapore. The imposing immigration complex is mirrored on the other side of the bridge. The Sultan Iskandar CIQ Complex (more commonly known as JB CIQ) at Johor is also a massive building after replacing the former CIQ Complex in 2008. With a giant canopy over the complex, the architecture shows status and power. The paradox lies in having a congested bridge in an unproductive landscape. The border landscape condition does not respond to its immediate surrounding, which is the Strait of Johor but rather is controlled by the over-concentration of different groups of power and events that contradict each other. This results in a stage for the two states to demonstrate and contest their powers.1 The silent tension comes from the need to limit the encroachment of the other state crossing the territorial boundary as well as the desire to extend its dominance over its territory.

1 Lim Chu Hwai, “The Paradox: Unproductive yet Contested”, Augmented Transgression: Unveiling the Inconsistency of the Border Spaces Between Singapore and Malaysia, (MArch diss., National University of Singapore, 2009), 26.

The People of Border

tour groups

construction workers

orang seletar

people living at the coast

people who work in singapore

businessmen

As one of the busiest border zones in the world, the Singapore-Malaysia border is an intrinsic piece of the everyday lives for many. 21

tourists

shoppers

workers

famiiles

bus drivers

students bus operators

immigration officers

the border

Can this hinterland between the two countries be designed such that the landscape or the typology mediates between spatial quality and the need for security?

Can the strait exists as a freezone and be free from all rules and regulations from both sides?

Can the border function as a productive territory?

Site The project will be located right in between the two countries, which is the Strait of Johor. The site will be the area near the Causeway where the traffic is the heaviest.

1 km 1 km

Site Bandar Johor Bahr u

a ysi a l Ma ore p ga Sin

Wo o d l a n d s

Site

la Ma S residential immigration schools offices / factories palace shopping centers shops / markets historical places religious sites hotels community centers prison petrol kiosk

ysi

ap ing

ore

Thesis Statement Contradictory to the notion of a well-defined territorial borderline, the border region often acts more like a thickened frontier zone with high mobility, filled with economic transfer and social interaction. A conflicting relationship arises in these frontier regions as the rigidity of the border stands in contrast with the fluidity of these exchanges. Can elaborate more here Singapore and Malaysia share a maritime border which lies on the Straits of Johor. The constant negotiations of the exact geographical borderline location due to land reclamation and sovereignty of smaller islands results in the border to be stuck in limbo. While both nations share many similarities, the differences in political outlook and methods of governance created a distinct economic disparity over the years. This in turn results in a heavy flow of traffic across the two countries where many tap on each countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s benefits to have â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;the best of both worldsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. This thesis is an attempt to spatialise the border paradox by exposing the intricacies of the two nations, which is in constant flux due to the everchanging nature of the socio-political and economic situations between Singapore and Malaysia. The project celebrates the notion of a frontier region rather than a non-negotiable hard boundary line to construct an active yet unusual spatial border experience. A new mixed-use typology is imagined in the Straits of Johor with the theoretical maritime borderline cutting through the middle of the building. The differences between the two countries are intensified by having two versions of law and regulations in a singular building. The building extends out from the existing Causeway, which provides the main mode of land transport across the two countries. The border is the engine of the building. Without the differences between the nations, the building will exist no less significant than a normal market place. The tension and the energy of the building feeds off from the border itself, integrating it into the border landscape.

lev

l ve

e or th

i em

i ep

The Pier

d c

leg end vertical circulation (escalators and stairs) vertical circulation (lifts) structure car park boarding zone for water transport 36

al tic ion ver culat cir

f po

str

d voi

n tio gra e i m c e im aran zon cle g in ard bo ty ivi t c a za pla a

The

ty ivi act za pla

use Ca y

car

g din oar

zon

on ati r g mi ce im aran cle b

ve cir rtic cu al lat ion

str of vo id

ng e

zo n

igh

fre

ar di

for

fis

pla

vo id

ity

tiv

pie

str

The Mix

x mi

o ol

si or

ay p

al ga

The Crossing

5_ moving freely from one zone to another

4_ playing at the free-zone area 1_ arrival at the pier

2_ skipping through immigration queues to Malaysia

3_ taking the lift up to second floor

freezone one can move between the line freely irregardless of oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s nationality

6_ moving freely from one zone to another

7_ taking the escalator down to the pier immigration border control will be cleared on the pier 8_ clearing immigration with simple biometric scans

9_ boarding the ferry and leaving the pier

to Singapore

the binary typologies

_house _rumah _ĺą&#x2039;

An apartment in Singapore costs the same as a three-storey bungalow in Malaysia. Having a house on both sides allow one to negotiate the spaces according to the respective laws too.

the sizes of each half of the house correspond to the average house unit in each country

the houses in malaysia take a more varied form due to the abundance of floor area; while the houses in singapore have a more polished look albeit being compact.

corridor serves as horizontal circulation

curtains are used to separate the two sides of the house

A person cannot be naked in a private place while being exposed to public view. Section 27A of Miscellaneous Offences (Public Order and Nuisance) Act Chapter 184

_ s c h o o l + d o r m it o r y _ s e ko la h + a s ra m a _学校 + 宿舍

Many students cross the border daily to receive an English-based education in Singapore.

school with voids that penetrate through a simple rectangular block, these void spaces allow light to reach to all the spaces

student dormitory housed like a mini kampong (‘village’ in malay), the student housing is designed as low-rise housing blocks with simple corridor and stairs surrounding the block for circulation

level 4: admin spaces meeting rooms

level 3: library

music rooms recital studios

4-room unit

level 2: classrooms

2-room unit

canteen

common room/ dining room/ leisure space

zone of interaction

“There are estimated to be at least 2,000 students who travel from home to Singapore daily since the age of 7, and this education journey can last up to 12 years.” from The Straits Times

iii

_ o f f ice + f a ct o r y _ p e ja b a t + k ila n g _公司 + 工厂

Many companies in Singapore have production factories and warehouses across the border due to the lower cost of industrial land area. Much of these business in Johor's industrial areas have traditionally been closely linked to Singapore. Singapore’s core effort centres around high-tech industries while Johor remains a territory for the more rough production processes. In terms of scale, Johor offers every kind of production site imaginable.

Industrial sites in Johor

Number of approved manufacturing projects in Johor state by foreign parties 120

Singapore

100 80 60

Japan

Taiwan

Hong Kong

USA

1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010

Announcement of Iskandar Plan

Foreign direct investment in Johor state by country of origin

4.0 bil RM 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0

Japan

Singapore

1.5 1.0

Taiwan Hong Kong

0.5

1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010

office high-tech company with the a production warehouse right beside it

Announcement of Iskandar Plan

factory warehouse having meetings with international clients

slits of openings allow ventilation and light to filter in

able to view the factory from the office lobby

glass windows to allow light to enter the factory entrance for the public

_ h a wke r c e n t re _ p u s a t p e n ja ja _小贩中心

Cook-off between two sides can now happen as the on-going debate of which country has the nicest food is finally able to be debated on fair grounds. It is also serving the people who work at the border regions, or those waiting for the vehicular jam to clear on the Causeway.

Service staff at the checkpoints

cad

-blo

ck.c

large overhang to shelter the spillover seats

Workers that cross the border daily

Serving the people who service the border.

Bus drivers

seating area

hawker stalls

_ c a s in o + h o t e l _ ka s in o + h o t e l _赌场 + 旅馆

The hotel is split into two sides where the hotel and casino staff stay in rooms which are identical in size as compared to the hotel guests. While it is unusual to have such a large dormitory or family room for service staff, it can happen here due to the contrast in currency. All nationalities enjoy free entry to the casino. Luxury is enjoyed for both the tourists and the staff.

hotel the bedroom size of the casino and hotel staff has the same floor area as the bedroom for hotel guests

family suite

double room

pool on top of the casino; linked to the hotel on the third floor

the casino is just a few meters away

greeted by the grand entrance of the casino first upon reaching the vicinity

casino free entry for everyone free of passport checks

_ p e r f o r m a n c e h a ll _ d ewa n p e rs e m ba h a n _čĄ¨ćź&#x201D;ĺ&#x17D;&#x2026;

With better acoustic systems and quality control, Singapore offers world class concert halls. Malaysia, on the other hand, still has many traditional performing arts running, such as the wayang kulit (puppet-shadow play). This performance ground is a merge of both countries' strengths and to showcase the best of both countries.

watching movies that are banned in Singapore here

wayang kulit theatre/ performance area

outdoor movie screening / outdoor performance area

escalator up from the pier

backstage / operational

concert hall

watching movies that are banned in Malaysia here

vii

_ b ra n de d g o o d s m a ll + m a r ke t _ p u s a t m e m b e li b e lah + p a sa r m a la m _品牌购物商场 + 市场

A combination of a pasar malam-like market selling all the cheaper staple goods with a branded outlet with the latest fashion. All under one roof.

grid layout for maximum flexibility

market buying toiletries and groceries

open-air, but occasionally gets some cool air from the air-conditioned outlet space

With the increasing difference between the two currencies, one is able to purchase houshold goods at a rate three times cheaper, by crossing over to Malaysia. *Round-up figure, as of August 2018.

large open plan space with attractive shelving varied facade

10am: getting groceries for the week

11am: getting a brand new MacBook

branded goods outlet fully airconditioned

shopping for the latest designs of the branded bags and clothes

viii

_ h o s p it a l + wa rd _ h o s p it a l + wa d _医院 + 病房

Singapore has more advanced medical services but the medical wards in Malaysia have a much cheaper and affordable rate.

1 bed in a 6-bedded ward in Singapore

is the same price as Single bed in an executive room in Malaysia

Ranked first for the most efficient healthcare system, out of 51 countries, in 2014 by Bloomberg Singapore

majority of the nurses come from Malaysia as the wages are lower

emergency cases can reach the place by car, boat or helicopter

ward the doctors and nurses will come over to the wards to check on the patients

hospital doctors and medical equipment are from Singapore

transport between hospital and ward through a travellator

nursesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; rooms and ward rooms are all located in Malaysia with more floor area

We have too many images of the sea as the sublime body. But the sea has actually been occupied, divided in all sorts of ways. Charles Lim

Bibliography 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

15 16 17 18 19 20 21

Anderson, Malcolm. Frontiers: Territory and State Formation in the Modern World. Cambridge: Polity Press, 1996. Ashraf, Kazi Khaleed. "Fluid space" The Architectural Review: Water, June 2017, 9. Callejas, Luis. Phamphlet Architecture 33: Islands and Atolls. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2013. Charney, Jonathan I. International Maritime Boundaries. Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2005. Chu Hwai, Lim. "Augmented Transgression: Unveiling the inconsistency of the Border Spaces Between Singapore and Malaysia." Master of Architecture diss., National University of Singapore, 2011. Comaroff, Joshua, and L'Heureux, Erik. Phamphlet Architecture: Wet. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2016. Delaney, David. Territory: a short introduction. Malden: Blackwell, 2005. Donnan, Hastings, and M. Wilson, Thomas. Borders: Frontiers of Identity, Nation and State. New York: Berg, 1999. Ibanez, Daniel, and Katsikis, Nikos. New Geographies 06 -Grounding Metabolism. Cambridge: Universal Wilde, 2014. Iskandar Regional Development Authority. Comprehensive Development Plan ii 2014-2025. Johor, 2014. Kent, H. S. K. “The Historical Origins of the Three-Mile Limit.” The American Journal of International Law 48, no. 4 (1954): 537-53. doi:10.2307/2195021 Kuan, Seng, and Lippit, Yukio. Kenzo Tange: Architecture for the World. Zurich: Lars Muller Publishers, 2012. Lim Yi Yong, Charles. SEA STATE. Singapore: National Arts Council, 2015. Lluis Alexandre Casanovas Blanco, Ignacio G. Galan, Carlos Minguez Carrasco, Alejandra Navarrete Llopis, Marina Otero Vezier. After Belonging: The Objects, Spaces, and Territories of the Ways We Stay in Transit. Zurich: Lars Muller Publishers, 2016. Shiraishi, Takashi. Across the Causeway: A multi-dimensional Study of Malaysia-Singapore Relations. Singapore: ISEAS Publishing, 2009. Topalovic, Milica. Architecture of Territory: beyond the Limits of the City: Research and Design of Urbanising Territories. Zurich: ETH D-ARCH, 2016. Topalovic, Milica. Architecture of Territory Hinterland: Singapore, Johot, Riau. Singapore: Tien Wah Press, 2013. Topalovic, Milica. Constructed Land: Singapore 1924-2012. Vilnius: Petro ofsetas, 2014. Tze Wei, Tan. "Changing Power, Changing landscapes. Urban Transformation of Johor Bahru and Woodlands: 1855-2009." Master of Architecture diss., National University of Singapore, 2009. United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. “Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone.” Accessed February 20, 2018. https://www. un.org/Depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/part2.htm Vox Border Series. “Nepal/China: How mountains become borders” Accessed December 5, 2017. https://www.vox.com/a/borders/nepalchina

Credits Maps All map drawings are courtesy of Openstreetmap, cadmapper, Google Maps and Snazzymaps.

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------I would like to extend my gratitude to my thesis mentor Prof. Joshua Comaroff, as well as my friends and family.