SCHOOL SEGREGATION BETWEEN INSTITUTIONAL CONTEXT AND INEQUALITY PATTERNS - Istanbul case study by Nicolò Chierichetti

Esenler-Kadikoy Case study, Istanbul

High School Entrance Exam and Choice Limitations

School Segregation between Institutional Context and Inequality patterns Esenler-Kadikoy Case study, Istanbul School of Architecture, Urban Planning and Construction Engineering MSc in Architecture and Urban Design 053066 - Urban Sociology

Prof. Cordini Marta Margherita Tutor Martina Atanasovska

GROUP #11 NicolĂ˛ Chierichetti 942782 Tugce Nur Koyuncu 939938 Tugce Selin Turk 939575 Maria Stefanova Aleksandrova 958480

00. INTRODUCTION

School Segregation between Institutional Context and Inequality patterns | High School Entrance Exam and Choice Limitations

THE RESEARCH QUESTION AND DRIVERS FOR SEGREGATION

This research was carried out by four students of Politecnico di Milano, School of Architecture, Urban Planning, and Construction engineering within the course of Urban Sociology of the MSc course of Architecture and Urban Design. The aim is to understand the LGS exam process, a standardized nationwide high school access exam, which is called the High School Transfer System, of Turkey, targeting middle school and high school parents who live/have lived in Istanbul. The aim of this study is to take this critical transition from middle school to high school phase, and to understand the priorities of families and students in the selection stage and the criteria for school selection within the framework of the socalled “School segregation”. Due to the pandemic situation, despite the effort to get a direct interview with schools’ members and deans, the sources of data for the analysis are mainly grey literature and a questionnaire form, realized by the authors, used in the research and anonymously - with an expected time of 5-6 minutes to be completed. In order to achieve the purpose of the study, respondents should answer all the questions expected, proposed interactively according to the previous given answers. Two main scenarios have been analyzed in terms of research question: In the first scenario - in some neighborhoods, there is no General High School(or some other type of high school) located in this region, so in this case you have limitation of choice of certain type of school in the neighborhood. You are forced to attend other types of school (for example Religious or Private), which leads to an informal-stated problem, families moving their home address to another neighborhood or moving their address just on paper - who have the opportunity to change their regions so that their children can go to a good high school. People are moving their home address to another neighborhood (after the student 2

has failed the test) because of the “bad” quality of education of the high schools in their region. In the second scenario, the socio-economic situation of the neighborhood in which the family live highly influence the choice of the school and the possibility of doing it, strictly in relation with the LGS exam preparation and examination. For the discussion on the topic two case studies have been selected as districts of the city of Istanbul - in particular Esenler and Kadikoy - because of socio-economic factors which will be described as we go through, and which are the main drivers of the school segregation we are dealing with. When we try to compare the two districts, we refer to the Life Quality index table in which we can see how Kadikoy (in the Anatolian side) is placed in a high position due to the average income, education quality and family life - on the other hand Esenler (in the European side) is in the opposite situation, with one of the lowest indexes. Also comparing specifically the quality and level of education, we notice how Kadikoy and it’s highranking provides better school education compared to Esenler situation, where the level of education is lower, and the quality of school consequentially. They are not supported by the government as in the first district and that’s why we have vocational high schools, in order to directly get a job and have better opportunities, still unequal though, to enter the work life. In both scenarios the segregation in the high school system is limiting the freedom of choice of public high schools (high schools admitting without passed exam). So we are trying to understand to what extend socio-economic inequalities affect the school mobility thinking about residential segregation, as well as what is the connection between the quality of life of different neighborhoods and the possibility of choice of the high school education career - to better understand if LGS test really grants equality.

01. THE SCHOOL SYSTEM IN TURKEY

1.1 Turkish Education System Turkey is one of the countries that aimed at increasing student success with access to education, in fact in the past decades, Turkey made innovations to develop the education system; this part gives information about the education system, curriculum, and exam system to enter the high schools in order to understand the general background in which this paper wants to deal with. Ministry of National Education (also known as MEB1) is responsible for directing all educational activities administered centrally and specified education levels as pre-school, primary school, middle school, and higher education. The Ministry transformed the eight-year compulsory education to the twelve-year in 20122, and this twelve-year mandatory education includes a primary and middle school education with three phases. This three-phase compulsory education system is called the 4+4+4 education system. Finished the 8th grade, students should take the high school entrance exam, commonly known as LGS3, to select their high school. The third and final phase is the four-year high school. 1.2 Primary School Education Primary School education is the first step of the 4+4+4 compulsory education system. The purpose is to prepare pupils for 4 years, from the compulsory age of six, by developing their interests and the basis of the education to a great extent, there are differences in the education received in public and private schools depending on the economic level. Individual attention in private schools is higher than in public ones.

1.3 Middle School Education The second ‘4’ of the compulsory education system starts at 5th grade. Middle Schools are separated as Middle Schools and Imam4 Hatip Middle School and the difference between Middle Schools and Imam Hatip Middle School5 is based on the curriculum. The class of Arabic, The Life of Muhammad, and the Quran are elective lessons in Middle Schools. However, these classes are mandatory in Imam Hatip Middle Schools which has a deeper vocation toward the religious subjects. At the end of middle school education, children mostly enter the High School Entrance Exam (LGS) to enter a high school. 1.4 High School Entrance Exam and School Choice Process The LGS is a high school nationalized entrance exam implemented by MEB, but which is not mandatory. In case of failure, students can choose a high school according to their middle school grade but in this specific situation, the most important driver in the selection and choice is the living address. The exam consists of 90 questions on 55 minutes of time and it is divided into two parts, which are the linguistic part and the numeric part; because of this, the education from middle school is really important for this exam. However, most of the parents think that the education level received from middle school is not enough for passing the exam6. Ministry of National Education has a central system for the students who will enter a high school which is giving two opportunities, Local Placing, and Central Placing. Central Placing is for the students

1 “Milli Egitim Bakanligi”, in English Ministry of National Education - from now on mentioned as MEB 2 F. Gun, G. A. Baskan, New education system in Turkey: (4+4+4): A critical outlook from Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences No 131, Elsevier, 2014, pp. 229-235 3 “Liseye Giris Sinavi”, in English High School Entrance Exam - from now on mentioned as LGS 4

In a general sense, the figure who leads Muslim worshipers in prayer.

It is an education institution. As the name suggests, they were founded in lieu of a vocational school to train government employed imams.

Data from the proposed survey cured by the authors within the Urban Sociology course at Politecnico di Milano

Esenler-Kadikoy Case study, Istanbul

THE INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK AND POLICY DEVELOPMENT

School Segregation between Institutional Context and Inequality patterns | High School Entrance Exam and Choice Limitations

who have LGS points, and there are two paths that parents can follow as a result of this process. In case of getting a good percentage in the exam results, they tend to choose the school according to their priority with central placing, while the second solution is when students don’t get a good percentage and so can choose schools without examination thanks to local placing, which in this study it is called ‘in case of failure’7. According to MEB, schools that can be chosen with the exam are: Science High Schools, Social Science High Schools, Anatolian High Schools, and some of the Imam Hatip High School, and Vocational and Technical High School8. In case of failure, local placing considers students’ address, middle school graduation score, and absence from the school as key-elements for the selection process. With this system, students can enter Anatolian High Schools without examination, Imam Hatip High School and Vocational and Technical High School.

Linguistic Section10 and Equal Wight Section11 according to their main interests. Vocational and Technical High Schools are aimed to directly prepare students to work life and they have five different types of school addresses: Industrial Vocational High School, Medical Vocational High School, Trade Vocational High School, Aviation Vocational High School, Maritime Vocational High School, and Girl Vocational High School. These schools have a total of 69 different types of sections that students can follow12. Imam Hatip High School implements programs that prepare students for both profession and higher education. They train students responsible for performing religious services such as imam13, preacher14, and teaching the Quran course. Imam Hatip High Schools’ curriculum has Islamic classes, including other high schools’ curriculum. Anatolian Imam Hatip School is a type of school that emerging from the merging of Imam Hatip High School and Anatolian High School curriculum15. 1.5 Classification of High School Education According to MEB’s National Education Statistics, Formal Education 2019/2020, Turkey has 13.046 high Last phase of the compulsory education system schools, including 4.470 Vocational and Technical ‘4+4+4’ for the students from age 14 to 18. High High Schools and 1.651 Imam Hatip High Schools. schools that need examination can be either a public The number of Anatolian High School is 2.846, or private school and prepare students for higher Science High Schools is 316, and Social Science learning institutions (i.e. University curriculum) School is 9216. Science High Schools prepares students for Primary + Elementary education school higher education who have an evident predilection for math and science. Social Science High Schools’ LGS NATIONWIDE STANDARDIZED TEST purpose on the other hand is to raise students to High school succeed in literature and social science. Science and Social Science High Schools are more successful Science High School than Anatolian High Schools (with examination) on Social Science High School University Entrance Exam. Anatolian High school Vocational and Technical High school Anatolian High Schools with examination is a Imam Hatip High school four-year education path, and student can be divided into three macro-areas which are Numeric Section9, University 7

The LGS exam is measured on the percentile.

8 U. Arslan, Meslek Lisesi Nedir (translated: “What is a Vocational High School”) from okul.com.tr, January 17th, 2020 - https://okul.com.tr/aileler-icin/ makaleleri/meslek-lisesi-nedir-496 - last-accessed: January 3rd, 2021 9

Numeric Section; students have an intense education on math, geometry, physics and biology.

Linguistic Section; students have an intense education on literature and history.

Equal Wight Section: students have an education with equal weight on numeric and linguistic lessons.

ibidem, note 7

13 “Imam”: In a general sense, the figure who leads Muslim worshipers in prayer. 14 “Preacher”: person who reads the sermon in the mosque before the Friday prayer on Fridays. 15

“Anatolian Imam Hatip high school” on Turkçebilgi - www.turkcebilgi.com/anadolu_imam_hatip_lisesi - last-accessed: January 2nd, 2021

National Education Statistics, Formal Education 2019/2020 by MEB

02. GEOGRAPHIES IN SEGREGATION

2.1 Quality of Life In the literature, there are several descriptions of the concept of life quality. Havighurst (1963) discussed life quality as a concept that encompasses individual internal factors and external factors such as participation in social contacts and social activities in an individual’s life. Dalkey and Rourke (1973), associated life quality with life satisfaction. Shin and Johnson (1978) tried to explain the life quality according to how often they can appreciate individual requests, how often they can join social activities, and how they can benefit from personal development opportunities. According to their researches: health, marriage, family life, national government, friendship, housing, business, community, spirituality and religion, recreation and sports activities, and financial status are determined as the indicators of life quality.

Besiktas. In the last rank in the life quality index, the district is Arnavutkoy, with its index value of -0,620. Sultanbeyli, Sile, Sultangazi, and Esenler are following Arnavutkoy, and they are among districts of which life quality is the least. The education levels of these districts, whose population and economic characteristics are different from each other, and the educational opportunities offered in the districts show different characteristics. Intense immigration and the age structure of a settlement are among the most important factors affecting the education level of that settlement. Due to these main differences, this study decided to take as an example two different neighbourhoods as case studies, in particular the Esenler and Kadikoy ones; the first one due to a situation with an income lower than average and mainly constituted by the working class - with a low quality of life index, the second district because of the different spatial and social dynamics and a quality of life index higher, second in the ranking. 2.2 School choice Segregation in Istanbul, cases of Esenler and Kadikoy

Esenler on the European side of Istanbul and Kadikoy district on the Anatolian side is selected as the research area to shrink this large data pool. The most important reason for choosing these two districts is that they are quite different from each other in socioeconomic terms. This study aims to examine the exam in the transition to high school, the LGS, the restrictive preference period that will occur in case of failure to pass, make a comparative evaluation by looking at the two districts’ socioeconomic development level and Fig. 2a - Istanbul Quality of Life Index, the population-school graph. Source: M.Seker, Quality of Life index: A case study of Istanbul, In order to reveal the educational status of these Econometrics and Statistics Edition No 23, 2015, pp. 1-15 districts, TUIK National Education Statistics data17 were used. The data pertaining to the population used When looking at index results that are evaluated in the study were obtained from the general population over 100 indicators for life quality of Istanbul’s census, and address-based population registration districts: Besiktas is observed as in the first rank with system (ADNKS) announced by TUIK. 0,911. Kadikoy, Bakirkoy, and Sisli are following 17

Esenler Municipality, 2013-2014 Faaliyet Raporları Kadikoy Municipality, 2013-2014 Faaliyet Raporları

Esenler-Kadikoy Case study, Istanbul

PRELIMINARY RESULTS FOR THE ESENLER AND KADIKOY NEIGHBOURHOODS

School Segregation between Institutional Context and Inequality patterns | High School Entrance Exam and Choice Limitations

KADIKOY

ESENLER

Fig. 2b - TUIK, Kadikoy, Level of Education, 2020

Fig. 2c - TUIK, Esenler, Level of Education, 2020

Source: Kadikoy Municipality, 2013-2014 Faaliyet Raporları, http:// www.kadikoy.bel.tr - last-accessed: December 29th, 2020

Source: Esenler Municipality, 2013-2014 Faaliyet Raporları, http://www.esenler.bel.tr - last-accessed: December 29th, 2020

There are 56 high schools in Kadikoy. Population number between 15-19 years old: 20.137

There are 18 high schools in Esenler. Population between the ages of 15-19: 37.470

There are 11 Anatolian High Schools with a good percentile that accept students by exam. While six of these high schools are Imam Hatip High Schools, five of them are Anatolian High Schools. In case of failure in the exam, there are 23 private schools and 10 Anatolian High Schools without examination in the district. There are also 10 Vocational and Technical Anatolian High Schools, and two Imam Hatip High Schools.

There is no Anatolian High School with a good percentage to be selected by an exam in the neighborhood. In case of failure in the exam, there are four private schools, four Anatolian High Schools without examination, five Vocational, and Technical High Schools and five Imam Hatip High Schools in the district.

2.3 Comparison

Schools without examination. So what are the reasons for this limitation in the The difference in the number of students between selection stage? the two districts is more significant. While the As can be understood from the survey, while the number of students in Esenler is 37.470, due to the scarcity of the youth population, this number in majority of middle and working-class chose Anatolian Kadikoy is 20.137. As can be seen, in the education High School first in case of passing the exam. In case service offered in both districts, Kadikoy provides of not passing the exam, this preference becomes an advantage in terms of the Anatolian High School variable. According to the middle class, this selection without examination, which is the most important follows with Private Schools then Anatolian High indicator of failure in the exam in terms of choosing School without examination. In cases where Imam Hatip High Schools and Technical and Vocational a non-theme school. High Schools were chosen as the first choice, it was To understand this segregation, it is needed observed that the demographic structure of the family to consider the socio-cultural background and was working-class or their education level was up to demographic structure of Esenler, as it can be noticed high school18. from Fig. 2c, high school education is generally not There are invisible restrictions during the selection taken. This situation makes it necessary to ‘prefer’ Vocational and Technical High Schools, and Imam phase. 77.64% of the families in Esenler have Hatip High School due to lack of Anatolian High primary, middle, and high school education levels19. 18 19

Fig. 2c - Graph 1.3. TUIK, Esenler, Level of Education,2020 ibidem

20 Turkish Newspaper, HaberTurk, Address-based high school in LGS launches migration https://www.haberturk.com/adrese-dayali-lise-sistemi-ailelerigoce-zorluyor-1941828

Anatolian High School Occupancy Middle School Parent's 1st choice Accountant 2 Anesthesiologist ATT Banker 3 Cashier Chef Civil servant 2 Computer Techinician 1 Data Entry Staff 1 Dentist Doctor 12 Engineer 2 Financial Handicrafts Head Nurse Health Technician 2 Housewife 17 Human Resources Laboratory Technician 1 Machinical Engineer 1 Molecular Genetics 1 Naval Architect&Ocean Engineer Nurse 11 Officer 1 Operator 1 Retired 1 Self- employment Teacher 17 Trainer 1 Tv 1 University Academician 1 Worker Grand Total over 135 participants 79

Anatolian High School High School Parent's 1st choice 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 2 13 1 1 1 2

3 1 1 1 6

1 42

Fig. 2d - Rank the potential high schools by priority - first choice (Middle school and High School pupilsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; parents) Source: Extracted data from the proposed survey cured by the authors within the Urban Sociology course at Politecnico di Milano

Esenler-Kadikoy Case study, Istanbul

The schools are mostly Vocational and Technical Esenler are forced to choose between these limited High Schools and this is continued by Imam Hatip options or the children do not continue their school High School, because of reasons such as having more life20. working-class people, low quality of life, and lower than average economic income. When looking at Kadikoy, it is observed that there are many private schools after Anatolian high Due to the lack of Anatolian High Schools that schools in the region. Some of the reasons for this can can be selected in case of not passing the exam be interpreted as the high quality of life, the middle arises a quota problem since the number of students class, and above living here. If children fail the exam, is much higher than the schools. While those who it is striking that their options are more than Esenler. have the opportunity to change their regions so that their children can go to a good high school if they do Having in mind the aim to consider this critical not pass the exam, the majority of families living in transition from middle school to high school phase,

03. SURVEY School Segregation between Institutional Context and Inequality patterns | High School Entrance Exam and Choice Limitations

DATA

and to understand the priorities of families and students in the selection stage and the criteria for school selection within the framework of the so-called “School segregation” - we delivered the survey to a target group made of parents of students who are in middle and high school stages of Turkish education. 3.1 Data-collection process The survey consists of 42 questions, including 8 multiple choice questions and some of them enabled or disabled due to previous answer. It has been completed by 152 respondents of which 17 did not have any children and hence were excluded. The survey structure includes questions about: Personal information, Economic status and Current educational status of children. The target group population of 135 respondents is further split at two additional stages based on whether the child is at middle or high school level of education and whether the child has passed or failed the LGS exam. We identified the respondents as different categories between working class, middle class and upper middle class according to their income data and profession (i.e. socio-economic status). It is important to understand each classes response. The diagram below illustrates the population subgroups. This group includes answers by parents with already realized intentions and an outcome for their children who are studying or have studied in high school.

The answers from the first question: “Which high school did your child attend?”, are showing the preferences for high school education. Large percentage of students attend Anatolian High School accepting with LGS exam (63%), significant is the percentage of students attending Private high schools (23%). (Fig. 3a) Regarding the second question “Do you think the high school education affects the university choice?”, 96% have responded that the choice of high school is important because it is linked to the university choice. To the final question of this section “Has your child been able to enter the sufficient percentage of the LGS exam? In other words, did she/ he win the exam?”, 25% or 14 students have failed the exam and 75% or 42 students have passed the exam. The group that has failed the LGS exam is receiving special attention in this analysis because they are subject to limitations regarding the choice of high school which has to be in their neighborhood. Those who fail the exam are facing two restrictions, they can choose to attend only schools that are accepting without examination and the second restriction which is related to segregation, is that the school must be in the neighborhood of residence of the student. (Private schools are not subject to the restrictions and can be freely chosen if the family can afford them). In addition to the thesis we tried to explain before, it was also interesting to understand whether the limitations resulting from failure of the exam are engaging with the socio-economic background of the

Fig. 3a - Which High school did your child attend?

Source: Extracted data from the proposed survey cured by the authors within the Urban Sociology course at Politecnico di Milano

are listed the Vocational and Religious high schools. While comparing socio-economical backgrounds we can understand the private schools chosen by middle and upper middle class, while working class chose Vocational and Technical High Schools for their second choice. In the case of Esenler even parents choose Anatolian High School without examination as first choice, considering the number of schools and students, quote problem will arise, and there will be 3.2 Scenario 1: Passing the exam no choice to select Imam Hatip or Vocational and A total of 42 children have passed the exam or 75% Technical High School if they want to continue the of the high school population from the respondents. education. To the question “Based on your ranking, Within this subgroup for the question “Rank the is your child’s current school your first choice?”, it is potential high schools by priority”, the most common observed that here also you are not assured that you rankings are again as first choice the Anatolian High are going to make your first choice, due to 21% have schools, the second most listed are the Private schools. answered with “No”. This is confirmed also by the conditional question “What would your first choice be if your child fails the exam?” Where most of the answers are for Private schools as an alternative, followed by Anatolian High school without examination and Vocational High schools. There are also some constraints for the students who have successfully taken the exam. The ranking when you are applying for High school does not always allow you to attend the first choice of high school that you have made, as can be seen in Esenler example. 3.3 Scenario 2: Exam failure Within this subgroup for the question “High school preferences according to priority” – the most common first priority answers are for the Anatolian high school without examination, as second alternative is mostly chosen the Private high schools and as last alternatives

Regarding the question “List the criteria for choosing the school”, as it has already been observed for the other groups, here again the main criteria is the Rate of acceptance into a university, but as a second most answered criteria there is increased interest in the Post Graduation Job Opportunity criteria. The opinion on the effectiveness of the Middle school education: “Do you think the education received in middle school is effective for the LGS exam?” is completely contrary to the opinion of the students who have passed the exam, here 64% have answered it is not effective, compared to 29% for the ones that have passed. (Fig. 3b-3c-3d-3e) From the answers to the previous question,logically follows the answers to the next one: “Does your child take private lessons for LGS exam?” Which shows that more than half of the students have taken additional private lessons.

Fig. 3b - Do you think the education received in middle school is effective for the LGS exam? - Students who passed Fig. 3c - Does your child take private lessons for LGS exam? Students who passed

Fig. 3d - Do you think the education received in middle school is effective for the LGS exam? - Students who failed Fig. 3e - Does your child take private lessons for LGS exam? Students who failed

Esenler-Kadikoy Case study, Istanbul

districts. In case of failure, it is affecting the choice and parents confronted with some possibilities in order to get better education. One is if they can afford, there is a possibility of private schools, or need to change their address to be able to benefit from local placing. From these possibilities we can analyze that those options only suits for middle or upper middle class parents, if you are in working class you have to accept the result.

School Segregation between Institutional Context and Inequality patterns | High School Entrance Exam and Choice Limitations

To the question â&#x20AC;&#x153;From what grade did your child start preparing for the LGS exam?â&#x20AC;?, most of the students began their private lesson preparation for the exam from 8th grade, unlike the students who took the exam, as they started to prepare from 6-7th grade. Many families think that middle school education is not sufficient for this exam. Although families try to turn the inadequacy of the lessons at middle school into an advantage by taking private lessons for their children, if the familyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s economic situation is not good, it is not possible for them to take these lessons.

04. CONCLUSIONS

The decision to take into consideration two different districts with two different socio-economic conditions was crucial to understand how this influenced the segregation related to the LGS exam. In fact, in paragraph 2.2 it was evident how the distribution of high schools was different both in terms of typology as well as numeric value – and how the socio-economic status highlighted two opposite situations (cfr. Quality of Life index table); here comes a first limitation of choice from students above the complete offer of the Turkish education system due to the local placing factor.

district in order to have a better local placing and live in a district with more educational offer21.

Considering the availability of schools and their typologies in relation to the LGS examination results (positive or negative) we could also notice how passing or failing contributes to a second limitation, where according to the results we have a shorter optionslist to choose between: “in case of failure”, as we discussed through the paper if students are not able to get in high school without examination, it determines the compulsory decision between the Vocational and Technical, or Imam Hatip High school. These types of schools are targeted to prepare students to the work life, and despite the different available addresses, they offer a lower quality education.

As a result, we can see that from the group of students that have passed the exam, 10% have relocated due to high school. This is very close to the relocation rate of the students that have failed the exam, 14%. Due to the conditions on which the survey has been implemented22 and the consequential low amount of entries, the thesis about this point remains suspended, as the negation of it may come from this situation.

Due to the lack of Anatolian schools without examination, families result in having to choose among the limited range of high schools (in case of failure) – choosing private schools where these limitations are not considered - or in another scenario, where the segregation phenomenon occurs, to change

21 22

As we stated in the introduction, we were also investigating whether the limitations resulting from failure of the exam were affecting the choice to change address due to educational reasons and segregation. This has been done by comparing the answers to the question “Have you had to move out because of your child’s high school?” between the two groups students who have failed the LGS and students that have passed the LGS.

Continuing the research proposal with bigger numbers may confirm or deny the correlation between school-mobility and LGS failure, but it is evident from the proposed charts and results how an higher quality district (such as Kadikoy) with an higher and wider number of schools offers less, but still some, limitations of choice – while the minority in badquality districts are the most impacted by the doublelimitation mentioned before.

In case of failure of the exam, students need to choose a school in their own neighborhood. Covid-19 pandemic did not allow the authors to perform a direct interview and to collect a scientifically-relevant amount of entries

Esenler-Kadikoy Case study, Istanbul

PRELIMINARY REFLECTIONS AND DISCUSSIONS

School Segregation between Institutional Context and Inequality patterns | High School Entrance Exam and Choice Limitations

REFERENCES

AA.VV, Address-based high school in LGS launches migration from HaberTurk, April 30th 2020, https://www.haberturk.com/adrese-dayali-lisesistemi-aileleri-goce-zorluyor-1941828 - last accessed: January 4th, 2021 AA.VV, İstanbul’da yaşam kalitesi en düşük üç ilçe (translated: “The three districts with the lowest quality of life in Istanbul”) from Milliyet, September 4th 2011, https://www.milliyet.com.tr/gundem/ istanbulda-yasam-kalitesi-en-dusuk-uc-ilce-1434438 - last-accessed: December 29th 2020 B. Aksit, B. T. Aksit, Opinions of secondary school students about socio-cultural change and education in Turkey: findings from a survey in may-June 2011 from Procedia - Socal and Behavioral Sciences No 47, Elsevier, 2012, pp. 557-565 E. A. Kavurmacl, Segregation in Istanbul: Measuring segregation in an ever-changing city from Przestrzeń Społeczna (Social Space) No 1, January 2015

Kadikoy Municipality, 2013-2014 Faaliyet Raporları - Kadikoy, https://www.endeksa.com/tr/ analiz/istanbul/kadikoy/demografi - last accessed: December 29th, 2020 K. Karabacak, The influence of secondary education entrance examinations practiced in Turkey (the placement test, sbs) on the students’ social life from Procedia - Socal and Behavioral Sciences No 106, for International Conference on New horizons in Education Inte2013, Elsevier, 2013, pp. 2866-2878 LGSTercih, LGS Okul Tercih Motoru 2020 (translated: “LGS School Choice Engine 2020”), https://www.lgstercih.com/okul-ara - last-accessed: January 3rd, 2021 M. Erdem, I. Aydin, M. Tasdan, U. Akin, “Educational proglems and solutions in Turkey: The views of district governors” in Educational Management Administration & Leadership, March 2011, pp. 242256

M. S. Bellibas, S. Gumus, The impact of SocioE. Bulduk, Defects of Turkish Education System, Economic status on parent involvement in Turkish Biikent University, May 5th 2013 Primary schools: Perspective of teachers, Journal of Progressive Education Vol. 9 No 3, Adiyaman Esenler Municipality, 2013-2014 Faaliyet Raporları University, INASED, January 2013 Esenler, https://www.endeksa.com/tr/analiz/ istanbul/esenler/demografi - last accessed: December M. Seker, Quality of Life index: A case study of 29th, 2020 Istanbul, Econometrics and Statistics Edition No 23, 2015, pp. 1-15 F. Ayhan, A comparison in terms of educational geography: BAKIRKÖY and SULTANGAZİ National Education Statistics, MİLLÎ EĞİTİM districts, Journal of Awareness, 2019 İSTATİSTİKLERİ Örgün Eğitim (translated: “National Education StatisticsFormal Education”), F. Gun, G. A. Baskan, New education system in 2019-20, Resmi Istatistik, http://sgb.meb.gov.tr/meb_ Turkey: (4+4+4): A critical outlook from Procedia iys_dosyalar/2020_09/04144812_meb_istatistikleri_ - Socal and Behavioral Sciences No 131, Elsevier, orgun_egitim_2019_2020.pdf, last-accessed: January 2014, pp. 229-235 2nd, 2021 H. K. Altinyelken, K. Cayir, O. Agirdag, Turkey at a crossroad: critical debates and issues in education, Comparative education Vol. 51 No 4, Routledge, 2015, , pp. 473-483

N. Chierichetti, T. S. Turk, T. N. Kuyuncu, M. S. Alexandrova, Kentsel Sosyoloji Araştırması / Urban Sociology Survey about School Segregation in Istanbul neighbourhoods, December 2020

Esenler-Kadikoy Case study, Istanbul

N. Dalkey, D. Rourke, The Delphi Procedure and Rating Quality of Life Factors from The Quality of Life Concept, 1973, Washington DC, Environmental Protection Agency N. Koseleci, “Progress towards good quality education for all in Turkey: a qualified success?” in Comparative Education, Vol 51 No 4, 2015 pp. 555-574 R. N. Somel, A. Nohl, Social change, competition and inequality: macro societal patterns reflected in curriculum practices of Turkish schools, Comparative Education, Vol. 51 No 4, Routledge, 2015, pp. 502-518 S. Gultekin, G. Hatunoglu, İşte İstanbul’da ilçe ilçe ‘nitelikli lise’ dağılımı (translated: “Here is the district by district ‘qualified high school’ distribution in Istanbul”) from Posta - Education & Career Section, November 8th 2017 (updated on april 26th 2018) https://www.posta.com.tr/iste-istanbulda-ilce-ilce-nitelikli-lise-dagilimi-1350338, lastaccessed: December 28th 2020 S. Kizilçelìk, An evaluation of the Turkish education system outside the Conflict between old and new, Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, Issue 59, 2015, pp. 149-164, https://files.eric.ed.gov/ fulltext/EJ1070675.pdf, last-accessed: December 1st, 2020 S. S. Erçetin, S. N. Açikalin, S. Akbasli, M S. çEvik, D. Gorgulu, H. Gungor, M. çelik, Main problems of Turkish education system and current discussions on education, International Science Association, 2019 U. Arslan, Meslek Lisesi Nedir (translated: “What is a Vocational High School”) from okul.com.tr, January 17th, 2020 - https://okul.com.tr/aileler-icin/ makaleleri/meslek-lisesi-nedir-496 - last-accessed: January 3rd, 2020

January 5th, 2021