Nishra Shah | UG Research work

Formalizing indigenous cartographies - Inhabiting landscapes

Tracing the intersection of landscape and culture through the layers of temporality and permanence A case of Zai and Aswali, Dahanu Directed Research Project - Spring 2022 Guided by: Prof. Divya Shah

Nishra Shah Faculty of Architecture, CEPT University

UNDER GRADUATE PROGRAMME IN ARCHITECTURE Undergraduate Program in Architecture STUDENT NAME: NISHRA SHAH

Declaration

Student Name: Nishra Shah

This work contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree

DRPDRP Title: the intersection of landscape and culture TITLE:Tracing Tracing the intersection of landscape and culture through the through the

or diploma in any University or other institutions and to the best of my knowledge does not

layers of temporality and layers of temporality andpermanence permanence

contain any material previously published or written by another person except where due reference has been made in the text.

The following study is hereby approved as a creditable work on the approved subject carried out and presented in the manner, sufficiently satisfactory to warrant its acceptance as a APPROVAL pre-requisite to the degree of Bachelor of Architecture for which it has been submitted.

The following study is hereby approved as a creditable work on the approved

subject carried out and presented in the manner, sufficiently satisfactory to warrant It is to be understood that by this approval, the undersigned does not endorse or approve its acceptance as a pre-requisite to the degree of Bachelor of Architecture for the statements made, opinions expressed or conclusion drawn therein, but approves the which it has been submitted. study only for the purpose for which it has been submitted and satisfies him/her to the

I consent to this copy of DRP, when in the library of CEPT University, being available on loan and photocopying.

Student Name: Nishra Shah Date: 16.5.2022

requirements laid down in the academic program.

It is to be understood that by this approval, the undersigned does not endorse or approve the statements made, opinions expressed or conclusion drawn therein, but

Signature:

approves the study only for the purpose for which it has been submitted and satisfies him/her to the requirements laid down in the academic program.

_______________________

Signature of the Guide Signature ofGuide the Guide Name of

Name of the guide: Prof. Divya Shah

II

______________________________

Dean, Faculty of Architecture Dean, Faculty Date:

of Architecture

Date: 16.5.2022

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Acknowledgments I would like to like to extend utmost gratitude to my guide Prof. Divya Shah for her meaningful discussion and introducing to various aspects and topics in the research. I would like to thank all my professors for constant motivation and guidance through these academic years.

I can barely express my gratefulness to my mother who is an enormous source of positivity and always motivating me, my father for his patience and understanding and my younger brother for encouraging, advising and competing me.

I would like to thank Tarjanee, my research mate for always pushing my limits and encouraging me to move forward.

Haryali for being there at the right time in these journey of five years. Khyati, Rutvik and Jay for there timely suggestions and enthusiasm to enable me to complete the research.

I would also like to thank MLA (Masters in Landscape architecture) students for there discussions and site understanding. From the site vist, I would like to thank Mr. Suryahas

“An imagined landscape, then, is a landscape not of being but of becoming: a composition not of objects and surfaces but of movements and stillness, not there to be surveyed but cast in the current of time.”

- Tim Ingold, Imagining Landscapes: Past

and Tapan, owners of Jungle farms, for there help in interacting with the locals.

Vipasha, Aesha, Sharvi, Varisha, Aryan, Preet for the unwavering support and humour throughout the college years.

At this juncture, I have many people to thank with open arms for their help and probably words will fall short. I would like to thank my friends and family for believing in me.

Thankyou all for your support along the way!

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Contents

3.2 Interpreting acts of habitation: Aswali, Forest transect 3.2.1 Larger region

Acknowledgments I Introduction

3.2.2 Components of larger region - Foothills

II Aim

3.2.3 Components of larger region - River edges

III Objectives

3.2.4 Acts of inhabiting

IV Research Question

3.2.5 Relationship between permanent, temporary and transient layers – Imprints

V Methodology

Chapter 4

VI Scope VII Limitations

Chapter 1

4.1 Conclusion 5

1.1 Recording site transects

4.2 Way forward References

1.1.1 Modes of site documentation

Bibliography

1.1.2 Landscape features of site transects

List of figures and image credits

1.1.3 Reading impressions of the site

Glossary

1.1.4 Introduction to the community

Appendix

Chapter 2

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2.1 Developing a lens 2.1.1 Permanent layers 2.1.2 Temporary layers 2.1.3 Transient layers

2.2 Framework of research

Chapter 3

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3.1 Interpreting acts of habitation: Zai, Coastal transect 3.1.1 Larger region 3.1.2 Components of larger region - Coast 3.1.3 Components of larger region - Dune 3.1.4 Acts of inhabiting 3.1.5 Relationship between permanent, temporary and transient layers – Imprints VI

VII

I. Introduction

I. Aim

“The landscape tells - or rather is - a story. It enfolds the lives and times of predecessors

To understand how indigenous communities inhabit landscape by studying the intersection

who, over the generations, have moved around in it and played their part in its formation.

of landscape and dwelling patterns in the narrow transect of the greater system of mountains,

To perceive the landscape is therefore to carry out an act of remembrance, and remembering

the Northwestern ghats at Dahanu.

is not so much a matter of calling up an internal image, stored in the mind, as of engaging perpetually with the environment that is itself pregnant with the past”― (Ingold, 2011) The landscape is a coherent experience in which people have lived and worked, and there is an understanding of complex patterns of life and ways adopted to sustain over generations as a result of that process. The activities that its inhabitants engage in offer the landscape its character. The concept of dwelling is derived from the native character that gives each location its distinct identity. The distinct geographic condition of any landscape shapes the way people inhabit and eventually form their way of life, which becomes deeply rooted in their culture. The study looks at different nuances of settling within the landscape as representation of spatial knowledge systems. Ways of understanding the spatial temporal process of inhabiting a landscape requires engaging with place-based narratives and acts which looks into daily lives and spaces of cultural enactment. This understanding of the resources that shape their livelihood practices is based on the physiography landscape conditions with which they are associated.

II. Objectives • To read and document the landscape patterns observed at the coast and foothills to understand the layer of context-specific adaptations by the communities.

• To understand the traditional ecological knowledge of native communities.

• T o study the shift in landscape and dwelling patterns through time.

• To understand the relationship between acts of inhabiting and how it is imprinted in the landscape.

• To document and analyze the lens of temporality and permanence between two distinct landscapes and culture within a larger landscape system.

III. Research Question • What are the temporary and permanent layers of landscape, and how is it reflecting the imprints?

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Stage 1: Documentation and representation using various methods - Field based site visit to document native communities

IV. Methodology • Documentation and representation based methods to understand traditional ecological knowledge of native communities.

• Documenting correlations of culture within the landscape through human movements, trails, perceived boundaries, and markers, the daily life patterns of indigenous

Stage 2: Identifying inhabitation patterns - Studying the settlement patterns, social spaces, and its physical character.

- Factors to identify physical and perceptual landscapes

communities through maps, drawings, stories, interviews and photo documentation.

• Identifying inhabitation in the physical and perceptual landscape, specifically looking at settlement patterns, social spaces, and physical resources.

• Deriving representation methods to depict permanence and temporality in rural landscapes and patterns of inhabitation in the landscape through mosaics.

Stage 3: Deriving method of documenting -Extract landscape mosaics of inhabitation - Ideas of permanence and temporal based on oral histories and anecdotes - Identify places which are under constant flux

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V. Scope The primary idea of research is to understand landscape and culture through ideas of permanence and temporality. The initial study area of the project extends to a vast stretch from the coast, midlands to foothills. It then confines the study of two villages of community belonging to a sea fisherman, namely Zai village, and the other which is forest-dependent the Warlis, namely Aswali village. The process documented changes observed in landscape and dwelling patterns that the local communities followed.

The study focuses on perpetual and transitory systems and processes of landscape and culture to establish certain cartographic studies. The study dealt with two major communities and their acts of setting in the landscape. Even though other complex systems exist in the landscape, the documentation of the study is based on-site observations and maps.

VI. Limitations The research does not focus on studying all the layers of landscape and ecosystem, but on the observations of temporality and permanent layers of it. The study is carried out at a specific time of year which does not include all the layers of seasonal variations. The secondary data collection of historical imagery from google earth is used as a reference to understand the seasonal and periodic shifts in landscape grain. The study considers two indigen/ous communities onto many communities that inhabit the landscape of Dahanu.

The observation and conclusion are land specific to these communities and their place.

Chapter one Recording site transects 1.1.1 Modes of site documentation 1.1.2 Characteristics of landscape features 1.1.3 Impressions of site (Transect study from coast to foothills) 1.1.4 Introduction to the community

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1.1 Recording site transects The site is located in the Dahanu region of Maharashtra, which has unique characteristics observed in the stretch of 11km from the Arabian sea to the Western ghats. It comprises varying landscapes from the coastal terrain to midlands to the foothills. Dahanu taluka is divided into 10-12 km wide coastal belts of lowlands with flat terrain extending from the sea coast to

Moist Deciduous Forest - Foothills of Aswali

the foot of the Sahyadri range, which is marked by a railway line. The forest belt is located to the east of the railway line, and it is approximately 20-25 kilometres long, running parallel to the coast at 15 kilometres from the shore. Natural resources abound along the entire coastal belt, including creeks, wetlands, mangroves, and river deltas. The the forest area, consists of tropical deciduous forests. (“Environmental Movement in Dahanu: Competing Pulls,” 2011) Perennial River - Midlands

The coastal area is a dynamic natural transition zone, constantly in flux with indefinable fluid boundaries. The marine and human environments converge here and sustain coastal, marine, and intertidal flora and fauna. The dune vegetation, littoral forest, and dense mangrove swamps firm vegetative barriers and protect the coastal land and communities from erosion, floods, waves, and storms. The natural landscape consisting of mangroves, mudflats, beaches, estuaries, and the sea, were coastal habitats that provided resources for livelihood

Zai Creek - Dunes

(Deshpande & Paul, 2015). The main occupation of this region is fishing, and the area is known as Zai. The settlement is concentrated on a dune with the coast and a creek on another side.

The people of the Mangela and Macchi communities dominate the village. As the landscape

A

was subjected to a series of changes or transformations, the region’s inhabitants accordingly

Natural Feat

shifted their livelihood patterns and cultural practices to adapt to these changing conditions.

Cultivated F A. Zai - Estuary - Bordi

The midlands are a series of wildly undulating or flatlands with riverine conditions and settlements adjoining them. The land is cultivated with vegetable plantations and chickoo orchards. This region is mainly divided into padas, clusters of settlements bordering the orchards. This settlement is occupied by the tribal community known as Warlis. This community

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expands to the foothills of the Aswali dam. The landscape is full of rolling hill ranges with

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teak forest, and there are terraced paddy fields and riparian edges along the river. Warlis are indigenous communities of forest dwellers living in this region, and their customs and

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SECTIO

traditions are weaved around mother nature. Thus, it is a unique landscape transect spreading from the coast to midlands to the foothills with the specific culture of the landscape grains.

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A.

Beach

KEY PLAN - Palghar District : Zai - Bordi - Brahmanpada - Aswali Fig.1: Key plan with 11km section marled and different landscapes of the region 7

1.1.1 Modes of site documentation Documenting coastal town known as Zai village

Fig.2: Photo documentation of different landscape and dwelling conditions of fishing village 8

Fig.3: Site section and specific condition sections of the settlement and landscape 9

Documenting the Aswali village on the foothills

Fig.4: Photo documentation of foothills and paddy fields along with the settlements

Fig.5: Plans of different conditions with detail spot sections extracted from the settlement study 10

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1.1.2 Characteristics of landscape features

Water: The water at the coast is saline and at the estuary, brackish water appears. Different water systems like wetlands, creek, freshwater lake, freshwater marshes, river, streams, oxbow lake, flood plains, wells, check dams and reservoirs.

The landscape is divided into different terrain categories in the stretch of 11km. It is defined as the coast, lowlands, midlands, foothills, and highlands. This changing terrain comprehends different land conditions, changing the nature of water which results in

Flora: The vegetative species found near the coast like mangroves, casuarina plantations,

varied vegetative species, and accordingly, different fauna is attracted. From the mean

seasonal grasses and wetland species, scrublands and other mangrove species . Tamarind

sea level, i.e., 0 altitudes, it varies from below mean sea level in coastal to about 360m in

trees, chickoo and mango orchards are noticed in the midlands. Toddy and date palms are

foothills. The mosaic of land, water, flora, and fauna is arranged in the section where circle

seen both at the coast and foothills. Bamboo and thor are observed as fences and boundary

tile depicts natural features and square tile depicts cultivated features.

markers of fields and houses. On the forest fringes one can observe teak in abundance and karvi plants.

Land: Soil conditions gradually change from the coast to the foothills. Mudflats, marshy, clayey and sandy soil textures are observed near the coast and creek edges. Midlands with

Fauna: Mudskippers and waders have their habitat at the creek edges. Midlands consist

a series of plantations have cultivated land, and river soil is noticed. Red laterite soil is

of most domestic animals and birds of the riparian forest. Aswali hill range with wildlife

found near the foothills and riparian edges are a composition of stones and gravel.

includes different bird species, leopards, jungle cat , wild boar , striped hyena and flying fox.

Tadi treeRain Tadi tree

Ox

Ants hills

Asian Koel

Hen

Leopard

Goat

Ox

Bamboo Bamboo (Tokar) (Tokar) Tadi tree

Thor Thor Moringa Ovafolia Moringa Ovafolia Karvi Moringa plant Karvi Ovafolia plant Teak Forest Teak Bamboo (Tokar) Thor KarviForest plant

- Midlands Prosopis Tamarind tree Chickoo tree Casuarina tree Submerged marshes Prosopis

Mango tree Tamarind tree

Fire Reed Chickoo tree

Exotica Palm Mango tree

Papaya

Fire Reed

Bombax Ceiba Exotica Palm

Rain tree

Tadi tree Bamboo (Tokar) Bombax Ceiba Rain tree

Papaya

Thor

Tadi tree

Moringa Ovafolia Karvi plant Bamboo (Tokar) Thor

Teak Forest Moringa Ovafolia

FreshwaterRiver MarshesRiver

Streams Streams River

River Freshwater Lake

Streams Freshwater Marshes

Check dam Check dam Streams

Check dam

Oxbow Lake Oxbow Lake StagnantStagnant water water Check dam Oxbow Lake

Oxbow Lake Streams

River

Stagnant water Check dam

Well Overflow Channel Channel Wellwater Flood plains Flood plains RetainedRetained stream water stream Meandering water Retained Meandering channels channels Overflow Aswali Reservoir Aswali Reservoir Watershed Stagnant Well Flood plains stream water Meandering channels Overflow Channel Watershed Aswali Reservoir

Well

Oxbow Lake

Flood plains Retained stream water Meandering channels Overflow Channel Aswali Reservoir Watershed Stagnant water Well Flood plains Retained stream water Meandering channels Overflow Channel

Aswali Reservoir

A. Zai - Estuary - Bordi

MudFlats

B. Mangelvada

B. Mangelvada A. Zai - Estuary - Bordi

Sandy soil

C. Machhivada

B. Mangelvada C. Machhivada

Natural Feature Marshy C. 0 10

Machhivada 50

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C. Machhivada

B. Mangelvada

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Plantations Plantations Plantations

River soil River soil Dry compressed DryRiver compressed Laterite plains on plainsEnscarpment Enscarpment Stone and Stone Gravel and Gravel PaddyStone fields Paddy Rocky Dry and DryRed Laterite Red soil Laterite soil Plantations soil Laterite on Dry compressed Laterite on plains Enscarpment andfields GravelRocky and Paddy fields Rocky and Dry

Red Laterite soil

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Creek edges Sandy soil

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0 10

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Clayey

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Submerged Clayey Soil Marshy Creek edges

Sandy soil

Muddy / Swamp Submerged Clayey Soil

Clayey

Cultivation Sandy soil

D. Farmlands across river

D. Farmlands across river

Plantations Plantations Muddy / Swamp Cultivation D. Farmlands across river

River soil Dry compressed Laterite on plains Plantations Plantations River soil E. Clustered settlement through river

D. Farmlands across river

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Enscarpment Stone and Gravel Paddy fields Rocky and Dry Red Laterite soil Dry compressed Laterite on plains Enscarpment Stone and Gravel Paddy fields

E. Clustered settlement through river

F. Scattered settlement through riverriver E. Clustered settlement through

B. Mangelvada

C. Machhivada

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E. Clustered settlement through river

F. Scattered settlement through river

F. Scattered settlement through river

F. Scattered settlement through river

G. Scattered settlement through river

G. Scattered settlement through river

G. Scattered settlement through river

Rocky and Dry

Red Laterite soil

G. Scattered settlement through river

D. Farmlands across river

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E. Clustered settlement through river

F. Scattered settlement through river

G. Scattered settlement through river

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300m

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200m

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MudFlats 0 10

A. Zai - Estuary - Bordi

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Muddy / Muddy Swamp/ Swamp Cultivation Cultivation Plantations Sandy soil Muddy / Swamp Plantations Cultivation

Cultivated Feature

A. Zai - Estuary - Bordi

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Clayey Clayey Submerged Submerged Clayey Soil Clayey Soil Sandy soil SandyClayey soil Soil Creek edges Clayey Submerged

Cultivated Feature

Cultivated Feature 400m

Creek edges Creek edges Marshy

LAND

A. Zai - Estuary - Bordi

MarshySandy Marshy soil

LAND

Cultivated Cultivated Feature Feature Natural Feature

LAND

Natural Feature Natural Feature Natural Feature MudFlatsMudFlats MudFlats Sandy soil Sandy soil

Watershed

LAND

Zai Creek - Dunes

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Watershed

LAND

Creek Freshwater Marshes Muddy water Freshwater Lake Creek Wetlands Muddy water Brackish Water

Wetlands Saline Water

Brackish Water

Freshwater Freshwater Marshes Marshes Muddy water Muddy water Freshwater Freshwater Lake water Lake Freshwater Lake Creek Muddy

Teak Forest

WATER

Saline Water

Creek Wetlands Creek

Wetlands Wetlands Brackish Water

WATER

Saline Water Saline Water Brackish Brackish Saline Water Water Water

Dunes

Karvi plant

WATER

Casuarina tree Submerged marshes Coastal Strands Mangroves

Leopard

WATER

Mangroves

Perennial River - Midlands

Asian Koel

Teak Forest

WATER

Coastal Strands

Leopard

FLORA

Rain tree Rain tree Bombax Ceiba

Goat

Rabbit

LeopardAsian Leopard Koel

FAUNA

Papaya Papaya Ceiba Ceiba Exotica Palm Bombax Bombax Papaya

Hen

Mallard

Asian Koel Asian OxKoel

FLORA

Exotica Palm Exotica Palm Fire Reed

Ants hills

Great Egret

Ox Goat

FAUNA

Fire Reed Fire Reed Mango tree

Rabbit

Ox

Goat Hen

FLORA

Mango tree Mango tree Chickoo tree

Great Coucal Great Egret Mallard Wader - Painted Stork Black Headed Ibis Great Coucal

Goat

FAUNA

ChickooTamarind tree Chickoo tree

Black Headed Ibis Black winged Stilt

Hen Ants Hen hills

FLORA

Mangroves Mangroves Casuarina tree tree Submerged Submerged marshes marshes Prosopis Prosopis TamarindTamarind tree Coastal Strands Casuarina Mangroves Casuarina tree Submerged marshes Prosopistree

Wader - Painted Stork Wader - Spoonbill

Ants hillsAnts hills Rabbit

Rabbit Mallard Rabbit

FLORA

Coastal Strands Coastal Strands

Mudskipper Black winged Stilt Wader - Sandpiper Lesser Cormorant Olive Ridley Turtle Sand bubbler crab MudskipperWader - Spoonbil Wader - lSandpiper Lesser Cormorant

Sand bubbler crab

MallardGreat Mallard Egret

FAUNA

Olive Ridley Turtle wali Moist Deciduous Forest - Foothills of Aswali

Wader - Painted Black Headed Coucal Wader Painted Stork Black- Ibis Headed IbisGreat Black Great Coucal GreatCoucal Egret Great Black winged Stilt-Stork Wader Painted Stork Headed Ibis Great Egret

FAUNA

Olive Ridley Olive Turtle Ridley Turtle Sand bubbler Sand crab bubbler crab Mudskipper Mudskipper Black BlackStilt winged Stilt Wader - Sandpiper Wader - Sandpiper Lesser Cormorant Lesser-Cormorant Olive Ridley Turtle Sand bubbler crab Mudskipper Wader Sandpiper Wader - Lesser Spoonbil Wader Cormorant - Spoonbil l l winged Wader - Spoonbil l

ali - Foothills of Aswali

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Beach Beach SECTION AA’ ada swali - Aswali Bordi - Brahmanpada - Aswali

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Dunes Dunes Beach

Beach Dunes npada Aswali District : Zai - Bordi - Brahmanpada - Aswali PLAN -- Palghar

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Dunes SECTION AA’ Beach

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Lowlands Lowlands Dunes

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Highlands Highlands / Western /500Western ghats ghats Highlands / Western ghats 0 100 200 1000m 0 100

Foothills Foothills

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Fig.6: Mosaic of geomorphic layers like land, water, flora and fauna annotated as the natural layer in circle

and cultivated layer in square, the section line marked with different altitudes and spot section for the study

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1.1.2 Impressions of site (Transect study from coast to foothills)

A. DUNE | Estuary The estuary above is a patch where the freshwater from the Zai and Bordi creek flows into the Arabian Sea forming brackish water. This ecosystem consists of moist forms of landscapes such as swamps, creeks, and salt marshes. The ecology depends on the 14-day moon cycle creating high and low tides indicating the inhabitants to go for fishing.

dune

Main temple

Plinths and shelters

Coastal common

Sea wall

Salt marsh

Estuary

mudflats

estuary

Emergent vegetation

mudflats

Prosopis

dune

Casuarina plantation`

Fig.7: Section through the estuary which includes marshes, creek and coastal common area and vegetation on

the dune and casuarina plantation on other side

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B. DUNE | Settlement (Mangelvad) The sand bar created towards the beach protects the settlement situated on the primary dune from high tides. On the other side, the mangroves are tightly rooted in the ground retaining the densely organized cluster of the old wooden houses. During high tides, the creek is full of water. Major clusters of coconut, palms, and bananas are found on the dune.

shore

Coast

Sand Bar Promenade

Storage and shops

BERM SCRAP

Street

BERM CREST

Village well

Primary dune

Old houses

swamps

Mangroves

mudflat

creek

Creek with mudflats

Fig.8: Section through the Mangelvad settlement with mangrove ecosystem on side holding tightly to the

creek and macchi settlement near to the coast with one story kachha houses.

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C. LOWLANDS | Settlement (Machhivada) The Primary dune is divided into Khazans, seasonal wetlands, and gradually slopes down to form a creek. The edges of the creek comprise mangroves and mudflats which sustains a large ecosystem of flora and fauna. The second fold in the landscape is the secondary dune and its depressions result in natural formations of lakes. The settlements have settled on these dunes.

Beach face

Shore

Stone wall

Coconut trees

Banana tree

Chowk as gathering space

Primary Dune

Dense vegetation

Wetlands

Wetlands

Old houses on bund

Dune

Creek

Secondary Dune

Mangroves and Mudflats

Lake

Lake

Submerged plants

Fig.9: Section through Macchivada settlement which is near to the coast on primary dune which forms a

wetland surrounded by mangroves crossing the creek full of mudflats till the lake edge

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D. MIDLANDS | Settlement (Brahmanpada) Midlands comprises of flat patches of cultivated lands of orchands and plantations. The grain reflects the strong grids formed due to chickooo and mango plantations. In this zone, there are check dams build on the river to retain and channelize water. People have claimed farmlands are arranged in clusters along the river. These clusters are known as Padas.

cultivation land

Toddy Tapping

Rural houses on bund

Females sowing the seeds

Chilli plants through drip irrigation method

Thor and Bamboo fencing

Fig.10: Section through Plantations of vegetables on different levels surrounded by palms and cactus marking the territory of the fields with houses on side

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Checkdam made of stone wall

uplands

riperian edge

Dry grasses between stones

River

riperian edge

Clothes drying

River

uplands

Pebble bed

Fig.11: Section through Checkdam near to Pada (settlement) used for washing clothes and bathing with steep edges on side

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E. FOOTHILLS | Clusterred settlement (Uvarsadapada) This region is towards the foothills, with gradual undulations of the land. The river takes an Oxbow lake turn and thus holds the piece of land from two sides. We observed Patches of paddy fields in the peripheries of the settlement. This cluster of settlements is densely organized with shared social spaces like chowks.

Scarp

Retaining wall for orchards

River

Rice farms

Stream with stone edges

Karvi hut in fields

Village well

Stable for cattle Borewell in chowk

Dense settlement made of brick, karvi, bamboo and asbestos

River

Street

Riperian edge

Bamboo fencing

Anganwadi

UPLANDS

Banana & Mango trees

Rice fields

CUlTIVATION LAND

UPLANDS

Grazing area near river bed

Group Gram Panchayat

Fig.12: Section perpendicular and parellel to river showing settlements, chowks, cultivation lands till gram panchayat and rice fields to settlements 22

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F. FOOTHILLS | Scattered settlement (Rautpada) This region in the immediate foothills has more undulations of the land. The river edges comprise the riparian vegetation which has a diverse range of Flora and Fauna. The region is a composition of pasturelands, paddy fields, and orchards. Due to this the settlements are scattered in small groups.

Riperian Stream Riperian edge edge

Streams

Settlements on bunds

Orchards

Street

Uplands

CULTIVATED LAND

Village well in rice fields

Uplands

Chickoo orchards

Fig.13: Section perpendicular to river showing scattered karvi houses, orchards and rice fields

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G. FOOTHILLS | Aswali Dam This region comprises a semi-deciduous Teak forest and is home to wild flora and flora. Due to the presence of the wild animals’ settlements are very less in number and are scattered.

The settlement is closer to the river and other natural features. Moving up the slope, we observed a major change in the type and density of vegetation.

riperian edge stream

Vegetation on the ridge line

Cultivated land

Small settlements

scrublands

Mixed forest

core forest

Teak forest

Fig.14: Section through the steep terrain of the foothills which includes teak forest, patches of cultivated land and scattered settlements 26

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1.1.3 Introduction to the community The landscape combines different communities occupying the region from coast to midlands to foothills. The coastal inhabitants are primarily fishermen of Gujarati and Marathi communities, the Tandels and Mangels. The primary occupation is fishing in sea and wetlands, while they have expanded their business opportunities to fish farming. Their culture and beliefs are associated with the sea; there is Hatri Mata temple in the middle of the sea, whom they worship before fishing. Matsya gandha, Tulsi plant, Narayali Poornima, and swadhyay are one of their rituals and beliefs. The traditional skills and techniques are weaving fishing nets, Rafan fishing, and navigating through wind and stars. Their staple food is fish and rice. Towards the midlands near Bordi, Parsi communities have migrated and settled in this region. The Parsis are land and orchard owners, and they are associated with both the fisherman and tribal community and provide them employment.

The nomadic tribe of the forest dwellers is the Warli community. The Warli is derived from ‘Varal,’ a small piece of land. They were formerly hunters and gatherers and have shifted into farming through time. Their occupation is associated with their land and forest, and they are engaged in toddy tapping, paddy cultivation, fodder collection, and labor work. The community has a deep sense of culture and its reflected through their art form, expression, and skill set. Tarpa dance performs during the harvest festival, Warli art, vernacular houses, making of local drinks, and botanical knowledge. Their tradition is closely woven around nature, Warli dance, nature worship, and the Waghoba temple are their cultural markers.

This community has occupied the foothills and midlands and is closely dependent on land.

Chapter two Developing a lens 2.1 Lens for the study 2.2 Framework of research

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2.1 Lens for the study

which means “of time.” Whereas temporality is a state that exists within or is relative to time. Some may argue that everything is temporary in a world of constant change and flux.

The evolution and transformation of the landscape define life and their complex interactions

The overview for that depends on different factors like day and night cycles and seasonal

weaved them within an ecosystem. The resources and associations define patterns of their

variations or the frame of reference based on which changes of the patterns are observed in

livelihood and practices. The forms of landscape and patterns of dwelling activities and the

the environment. Definitions of temporary will vary, but we can distinguish between social

association to series of interlocking cycles is based on the literature review by Tim Ingold

events and physical alterations to the landscape. The task associated with the temporal

in temporality of the landscape. The lens for the study is derived from literature review and

landscape is primarily sociable (Ingold, 2011). So, to be temporal in a specific region means

site observations. The research aims to look at different layers of landscape and cultural

constantly being in flux and showing a perceivable influence due to underlying factors over

intersection through the lens of permanence, temporality and transience. These layers are

a period of time.

analyzed via different cross sections through the case studies of coastal and forest zones.

2.1.3 Transient layers 2.1.1 Permanent layers Transient is defined as a state of lasting only for a short time. Transience is characterized Permanence is intricately bound to the life of any object or matter and is directly proportional

in landscapes through different results of earth’s natural environment and climatological

to time. The longer an object lasts, the more permanent it is perceived to be. Everything

processes which are associated with human intervention. Transience in landscapes can be

in nature has a particular order to it. There are repetitions, and despite variations in the

mapped out through different timescales. It is used for landforms that are not in equilibrium

repetitions, things follow cycles; they begin at a specific point and return to it. However,

with current environmental conditions, while in other cases on short term features that do

permanence is widely perceived as a linear concept. The changes perceived in everyday

not persist on longer time scales. A transient landform is one that has a duration that is

situations, followed by cycles, are adopted by an object over time, transforming its nature

shorter than the recurrence interval of the process that created it. A persistent landform,

more towards permanence. Permanence can thus be thought of or measured as the interval

on the other hand, lasts longer than the recurrence interval of the event that created or

between successive cycles - the longer the interval, the more permanent or durable the object

modified it (Wohl, 2010).

or “Human artifice” is (Touw, 2006). The ranges of hills derives a sense of static permanence, as the character of it is massive so it is perceived to be “forever.” The wide range of dunes

2.2 Framework of research

that are slowly moving and shifting while constantly changing to adapt to the prevailing wind. These characteristics along different conditions are no longer based on the partial

The research framework is built around an ontological foundation for this interpretative

truth of scale; instead, a study of the elements that comprise our world. This understanding

strategy, which generates an initial separation between humans as meaning-seekers and

seeks to comprehend their adaptation, synergies, and motion as they redefine permanence.

the physical environment as a raw material for construction; the ‘culturalisation of space’ is

The layer of permanence has its association with time and to study the degree of its impact

the result of this juxtaposition, in which social relations are mapped onto spatial relations

on different characters will have to be studied quantifying the layer of time.

(Ingold, 2011).

2.1.2 Temporary layers

Landscape: The landscape forms are generated in motion, and patterns of behaviour can be seen. The landscape has fixed forms; they are passive and inert unless

Temporary is defined as serving for a limited period, which leads to the concept of temporal,

acted upon from outside; they are in motion within themselves at a relatively

i.e., in relation to time. The word temporal is derived from the Latin word temporalis,

slower scale than our activities. Landscapes change, and change is an inevitable

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31

aspect of our lives. It is seen as a mosaic of “change and constancy” performed by

A series of activities are associated with a house, both inside and outside, in the open air

various environmental,

(Ingold, 2011). To dwell in a certain region, there are some modifications and adaptations

social, and cultural

factors perceived

as landscape acts.

performed in the landscape. Some changes impact the region’s environmental conditions, Dwelling: Temporality entails a viewpoint that contrasts sharply and places history and

while some merge into the existing fabric of the landscape. The way of living in a particular

chronology in a complementary oppositional relationship. When temporality and historicity

type of landscape affects the dwelling condition and influences its culture and occupation.

merge in the experience through, their activities emerges the process of social life. These

Through community expansion, the resources are plugged in, which modify the existing

activities are referred to as ‘taskscape.’ The landscape forms arise alongside those taskscape

landscape. Certain acts are performed as part of the occupation, in which some are temporary

within the same current of activity. The tasks are constitutive acts of dwelling. In the process

interventions, while some are inserted as a permanent trait to the existing landscape.

of dwelling, we do not act upon it, but we move along with it, and so it belongs to time (Ingold, 2011). In some instances, the rhythmic patterns of human activity performed in the

Various instances observed throughout civilization ages where people find their way in

landscape adapt to the existing conditions, whereas modifying certain things according to

the temporal domain of ordinary life through their own daily activities. The imprint of

their own are called acts of dwelling. The research aims to look at the acts observed in the

activities performed on it, as a congelation of ancestral beings’ past activity. Second, it is not

landscape and performed to dwell with the lens of what remains temporary, transient, and

a continuous surface because the topologically ordered network of places is distinguished

permanent.

by physical features and linked by paths. Third, by reflecting a specific point of origin, the landscape weaves with human inhabitants through personal and social identity. As a

2.2.1 Acts in Landscape:

result, the movement of social life is, fourthly, a movement in a landscape. These patterns imply that the landscape is not an external backdrop or platform for life as it was lived by

The landscape can be viewed as a binary relationship between man and nature at times.

ancestors or as it is relieved by their ordinary human incarnations in the temporal domain.

Each component tends to enfold its essence to the totality of its relationships with other

It is, rather, life’s everlasting monument (Ingold, 2011).

components in the landscape. (Ingold, 2011). The landscape’s character is experienced through sights, sounds, and smells. These are some things reflected in the activities that the inhabitants engage with. “Space” has attached meanings that are probably gathered from the landscape. Different layers observed in the landscape result from diurnal cycles and seasonal variations. These patterns are observed in erosion and deposition that reflect changes in land, water, flora, and fauna. The conditions of different acts of landscape present near the coastline, creek, river edges, and foothills with different geomorphic patterns form a degree that can range from temporary, transient to permanent.

2.2.2 Acts of Dwelling: The people who inhabit the world which constitutes culture and society and to which form and meaning have already been attached are associated with social and cultural anthropology (Ingold, 2011). As a result, it is assumed that they must first construct the necessity before acting on it. To dwell is, in a sense, to occupy a house, a dwelling place.

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33

2.2.3 Framework for research ACTS IN LANDSCAPE

ACTS OF DWELLING

Landscape forms are generated in motion and patterns of behaviour

Activities emerge the process of social life - referred as taskscape

Landscape as a mosaic of change and constancy

Adapting to certain conditions, while modifying things to occupy

Landscape character experienced through sights, sound and smells

Some changes impact while some merge into the existing fabric

Diurnal cycles and seasonal variations

Certain acts are part of occupation, temporary or permanent trait

Erosion and Deposition reflects changes in land, water, flora, fauna

Landscape weaves with human inhabitants through an identity

IDENTIFY THE CHANGE AND CONSTANT Layers of Permanent, Temporary and Transient

Chapter three OVERLAPPING THE PATTERNS OF LANDSCAPE AND CULTURE

Interpreting acts of habitation 3.1 Reading the layers of the coastal landscape of Zai region.

3.2 Reading the layers of the forest landscape of Aswali region.

Fig.15: Framework for the case study

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35

3.1 Reading the layers of the coastal landscape of Zai region.

3.1.1 Larger region The site has distinct variations extending from the coast to the foothills, so the study is conducted in two units of this transect. The first fragment of the study includes the coastal village known as Zai, and the second fragment is the forest village of Aswali.

The methodology consisted of varying scaled analyses, namely temporary, transient, and permanent layers, through various acts observed in landscapes and dwellings.

The coastal stretch is an amalgamation of varying landscape features. It includes a variety of topographies that unify to structure an ecosystem. Primarily, it incorporates a long coast, an estuary, and a partially land-enclosed coastal body of brackish water with one or more rivers flowing into the sea. This region is a transitional zone, apart from being a part of a larger ecosystem on the coast—Moreover, systems such as creeks, narrow systems inlets on shorelines, or channels in a marsh. The coast also encompasses permanent water systems, for instance, lakes and seasonal water bodies like wetlands and riverine landscapes in this region. The section from the sea comprises a shoreline followed by primary dunes, a creek, and secondary dunes, culminating with other water bodies observed in the hinterlands.

Settlements are concentrated in dense clusters occupying dunes. Various other settlements are found near the periphery of Bordi village. There are cultivated and plotted land clusters, and some orchards are found before the railway line. The study was selected in this region Fig.16: Different landscape and dwelling conditions of coastal village Zai

to map out the variables and constants observed in this landscape. They are commenced via various geomorphology features and studying the transition observed in landforms and water bodies. This landscape layer overlaps with different activities carried out by the community to interact and inhabit the landscape. The acts of dwelling to sustain in this condition are mapped out through various scales. The Scale-0 is annotated as the area of study in the whole region. Scale-1 includes distinct features of the region. Scale-2 is concentrated on the dune and immediate context, whereas Scale-3 is the imprints traced from specific parts of the dune; all these maps are processed to interpret both acts in landscape and dwelling.

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37

Forest Settlement Wetlands Agriculture Orchards Mudflats Sea Aquaculture

Fig.17: Base map with all the layers of contours, watershed boundary, rivers and other settlements, roads and

cultivated land

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39

3.1.2 Components of larger region - Coast This scale includes a long coastline, dunes and settlements, creek, riverine edges, and lakes.

This part of the region depends on the diurnal water cycle, and change in the landscape is observed during high and low tides, as marked on the maps. The terrain undergoes a series of undulations from the coastline to the dune through the creek towards the marshes. There are different acts observed in the landscape and in-dwelling, which is ephemeral. The water is constantly in flux, changing the levels at the shoreline, creek, and riverine edges. The shoreline is a dynamic geomorphological entity that responds to external forces exerted by waves and tides that result in sediment transport. Due to constant change in the shoreline, the sea wall was constructed at the edge. A large concrete mass is inserted at the tidal mouth and used as a common area by the community. The retaining walls are constructed at the creek edges to prevent erosion. The boats are presently parked in the creek during the off-season, for protection from the cyclones.

There are large aquatic ponds for fish farming near the marshes active in certain seasons.

Fig.18: Region of study marked from the base map consist of dune and river edges

The constant change in the terrain is anchored by some permanent acts which modify the existing conditions. Sea erosion is caused when the sediment transport entering a particular area is greater than the sediment eroding from the area (Shoreline Change Atlas of India (Volume – 2 Maharashtra and Goa), 2014). To stop beach erosion, casuarina trees are planted, which protect the coast from eroding. The other enduring condition is observed at the lake where water is stagnant due to its depth, sedimentation, and groundwater.

Permanent acts like a paved road for transit, bunds around the water bodies, and orchard plantations are observed in this region. The vegetation in this area gets impacted by seasonal and diurnal variations, but the overall pattern is transient. The overall region follows the pattern with different temporary acts as well as some have reached a degree of permanence.

Fig.19: View of the estuary, salt marsh and the coastal common area 40

41

Acts in Landscape

Scale-1

Acts of Dwelling

Scale-1

A

4 4 B 3

3

D A

1

2

2

4 2 1

B A

C

1

Fig.20: Annotation of temporary, permanent and transient layers in acts of landscape

Temporary Temporary

Permanent

Fig.21: Annotation of temporary, permanent and transient layers in acts of dwelling

Transient

Permanent

Temporary Temporary

Permanent Permanent

1. Tides keep on changing in respect to the diurnal cycle

A. Casuarina plantation to stop beach erosion

1. Freshwater prawn farming between earth bunds

A. Sand bar to prevent floods

2. Water level changes in the creek

B. Permanent water body - lake

2. Boats parked in the creek

B. Paved road

3. Slow moving river deposing silt in riverbed

3. Khazans (Seasonal wetlands) made using bunds

C. Earth bunds around the lake

4. Seasonal waterbodies

4. Paddy fields around water body

D. Orchard plantations

42

Transient

43

The section through the dune towards a larger basin of water channels formed into marshes, gradually moving upwards to a permanent water system of lakes. The terrain is held tightly by the casuarina belt, which protects different habitats. The marshland formed around the river basin is modified through occupational strategies. Aquatic ponds are constructed, enclosed water bodies surrounded by earth bunds used for fish farming. The landform is modified and shaped around the lake, as it is a vital water source for settlements to sustain their livelihood. The water channels are drained out to nearby orchards, and bunds are constructed to retain water.

Fig.22: Aquatic ponds for fish farming surrounded by bunds

Fig.23: Key plan with section line

Temporary

Acts of Dwelling

Scale-1

Retaining elements to hold the soil

Aquatic ponds for fish farming

Shelters nearby fields and lake

Earth bund as a retention elements

Acts in Landscape Coastline in constant flux due to change in water levels

44

Permanent

Scale-1 Casuarina plantations

Creek expanding to marshes

Drainage channel in between the earth bunds

Palm trees near to the bunds

Stangnant water system - lake

45

3.1.3 Components of larger region - Dune In this scale, the map includes the study of dunes and settlements concentrated on it.

The estuary, salt marshes, lakes, and river edge conditions are observed at a detailed scale. The landscape layers like the vegetative cover and the coastline are changed due to diurnal and seasonal variations. The landscape features of this region generate a distinctive character of changes while some remain constant over a more significant period.

Wetlands formed in the inter tidal zone of the sheltered coast, particularly in bays, lagoons, and estuaries, constitute the salt marsh and mangrove landscape. The vegetation of the two environments is very different: mangroves are made up of several tree species, whereas salt marshes are made up of seasonal grasslands and aquatic plants. Mangrove ecosystems are saltFig.24: Study region marked from previous scale to study the dune and settlements

tolerant because they are frequently swamped with saltwater, and as a result of this constant transition, it began to exhibit some permanent characteristics.. These dunes are sedimentary deposits assimilated by the movement of sediments from the beach due to the wind breeze.

On the front edge of the dune, a vast concrete embankment replaced a natural bank of the inner creek that existed as a continuum from land to sea. While on the sides of the dune, a retaining wall is constructed to prevent erosion and prevent the settlements from getting flooded.

The temporary acts noticed in this scale are changes in the shoreline due to tides. During high and low tides, the soil texture changes, levee, which are

sediments

deposited

naturally

alongside

a

river

by

overflowing

water.

There is freshwater fish farming on the marshes, a popular aquaculture production method where various aquatic species are cultured in the pond. These are temporary activities during some seasons when ponds must be adequately silted and built with earth bunds.

On the periphery of the water body, seasonal wetlands are also used for paddy cultivation.

Fig.25: Aerial view of the dune edge with settlements, vegetation layer and coastline

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47

Acts in Landscape

Scale-2

Acts of Dwelling

Scale-2

6

4 5 3

A B

B 5

1

A

C

2 1 3

A 2

4

Fig.26: Annotation of temporary, permanent and transient layers in acts of landscape at the scale of dune

Temporary

Temporary

Permanent

Fig.27: Annotation of temporary, permanent and transient layers in acts of dwelling at the scale of dune

Transient

Permanent

Temporary

Temporary

Permanent

Transient

Permanent

1. Change in coastline due to high and low tides

A. Mangroves and swamps on the creek edge

1. Fishing practices at coastal commons

A. Retaining wall at the edge of the creek

2. Mudflats observed during low tide

B. Palm groves

2. Aquatic ponds for prawn farming

B. Sand bar built to stop erosion and flood

3. Seasonal wetlands for paddy cultivation

C. Old two storey wooden house near mangroves

3. Deposition of sediments during high tide on marshes 4. Soil colour changes and erosion takes place 5. Riperian edge changes during low tide 6. Levee formed at the edges 48

4. Temporary houses made with wood, asbestos, plastic sheet 5. Zai Market during evenings 49

Acts in Landscape and Dwelling ( Lowlands| Settlement - Macchivada) Retaining wall

Soil texture changes

Temporary shelters without plinth

Palm groves

Raised plinth for shelter

Scale-2

Vegetation around bunds

Soft and dry terrain near to riverbed

Seasonal wetlands

Mangroves

Inlet channel

Temporary Permanent

Fig.28: Key plan with section line

The section consists of the interrelationship of the coastline through the dune occupied by the densely clustered settlements.

The terrain transforms near a river bed, where a significant portion of land is converted into seasonal wetlands. The river edge is surrounded by seasonal grasslands, mudflats, mangroves, and dense tree cover.

Acts in Landscape and Dwelling ( Dune| Settlement - Mangelvad) Children playing

Retaining wall

Low height structures

Market

Village well

Scale-2

Wooden houses Chowk

Temporary Coastline with tidal effect

Prosopis and neem trees

Palm groves

Raised platform with trees

Mudflats

Grasslands

Permanent

Fig.29: Key plan with section line

The terrain is slightly undulated while densely occupied by both vegetation and settlements. The relationship is dramatic on both sides of the dune. The coastline transforms periodically, while on another side, there are mangrove systems that naturally hold the terrain in its position. The creek is observed in a changing behavior according to the cycle.

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51

6

5

3.1.4 Acts of inhabiting 4

3

The coastal stretch is rich in diversity as different layers of the landscape system amalgamate.

The region is highly concentrated through various activities as the systems are in constant

2

flux. The settlement that occupies this dune showcases different conditions and is extracted in the form of imprints. The pattern observed throughout the terrain changes according to the dwelling conditions and occupation impacts. The features associated with this settlement include constituents of the traditional way of life, traditional belief systems, and traditional

1

livelihood that depend on fragile coastal ecology. At the same time, the notions of community and identity continued to survive in a rapidly changing urban context. The relationship of a boat owner and local fisherman with the landscape is different as the perceived notion Fig.30: Location of imprints marked on the larger base map of the village

1

2

is changing for some cases while some are still rotted to their original livelihood practices.

The factors transforming include coastal ecosystems, traditional livelihoods, work patterns, kinship structures, community dynamics, activities, customs, conventions, rituals, belief systems, values, way of life, culture, and living conditions. Despite the seasonal, fluctuating, and ephemeral nature of their occupation, the Mangelas and Tandels, since early days, were a settled tribe in the islands and had strong linkages and associations with the land. The way of

3

4

life and occupational patterns have affected their living conditions where there is a constant tension between the ephemeral nature of the landscape and permanent linkages towards the occupation. As the landscape was subjected to a series of changes or transformations, the region’s inhabitants accordingly had to modify their livelihood patterns and cultural practices to adapt to these changing conditions. These characteristics are mapped out in these imprints through the layers of landscape and culture.

5

6

Fig.31: Photographic documentation of the imprints shows different terrain and activities 52

53

3.1.4.1 Confluence of different activities

Acts in Landscape

Scale-3 Temporary

The estuary has a dune of settlements on one side, salt marshes in the middle and a dune

1.

Coastline changes the texture of soil and patterns changes

2.

Creek edges modify during low and high tide, and mudflats get exposed and submerged.

3.

Salt marsh formed due to the brackish water of the estuary

2

with casuarina plantations on the other side. The parallel streets open up forming activity nodes and community spaces referred to as coastal commons. It is the huge concrete mass anchored to the edge of the dune and the area is surrounded on all 1

sides by retaining walls to prevent flooding. differently, with mudflats exposed during

3

A

Because of tidal cycles, creek edges behave

Permanent A. Sea wall made of stones and concrete to protect coastal commons from tides

Fig.32: Estuary zone marked as a study area

low tide and submerged during high tide.

This change in the landscape is reflected in

are performed in this zone. Net drying and

dwelling conditions through activities in

tying, thermocol stacks, flags, ice boxes and

Temporary

common areas as well as in arrangement of

other fishing equipment are arranged before

Permanent

boats in the creek to be protected from high

the season. These activities are temporal and

tides. As the boats are immediately to the

constantly affected by their occupational

common area, all the activities before fishing

patterns.

Retaining wall and sand bar made of stones

Small fish drying on bamboo frames

Fig.33: Acts of landscape in the estuarian zone and creek

Acts of Dwelling

Scale-3 Temporary

B

Net tying and fishing Retaining equipments stacked wall

Boats parked in the creek

A

4

1.

Boats are arranged in the creek adjoining a retaining wall on the edges.

2.

Activities like net tying and repairing happen at coastal commons

3.

Iceboxes, thermocols, and flags are stacked near the boats.

4.

Old temporary shelters near the coast.

1 3

2 2 Coastal area affected by tidal influence

prosopis and seasonal vegetation

Water level in creek changes due to low and high tides

Permanent A. Sea wall and ramp B. Old wooden houses Temporary Fig.34: Acts of dwelling in the estuarian zone and coastal common

54

Permanent 55

3.1.4.2 Closely knitted systems

Acts in Landscape

Scale-3

This area is predominantly based around the

Temporary

mangroves. Mangrove wetlands are the

1.

dominant coastal ecosystem of tidal salt and freshwater areas. During the rainy season, these mangroves may be flooded for weeks

Permanent

or months, and solid sediment and organic

A. Mangroves as permanent protection improve water quality by filtering pollutants and trapping sediments from the land, reducing coastal erosion.

matter flow to the sea. Because of the strong cohesive landscape condition that impacts and holds the immediate dwelling tightly, the houses are densely clustered in this region. The settlement pattern is anchored

Fig.35: Mangrove systems marked as a study area

tightly to the terrain through double-story wooden houses on a raised plinth. Some

the creek edge on both ends of mangroves;

clusters have community spaces, which

this area is used for daily activities such as

are either occupied by the well or serve

prayer hall, crematorium, and resting space.

as common areas with diesel pumps for the boats and gathering spaces. Concrete

B. Cluster of palm trees

A

B

1

Retaining wall

Fig.36: Acts of landscape around mangroves and swamps

Acts of Dwelling

Scale-3 Temporary 1.

Storage area before the fishing season and semiopen resting area near the coastal commons.

2.

Prayer hall used by the community.

3.

Chowks formed between the houses used for tying nets and drying.

4.

Village well between the cluster

Abandoned boats tucked into the marshes

4

2 3

A

3 Mangroves and swamps

Temporary Permanent

paved areas and retaining walls are built at Old wooden double Washing clothes Verandah story houses

Mangrove swamps are found in the intertidal zone, where swamps are transitional areas, neither land nor water.

Permanent

Mudflats and seasonal grasslands

A. Old wooden double storey houses densely packed near to the mangroves.

1 Fig.37: Acts of dwelling around the older settlement 56

Temporary Permanent 57

3.1.4.3 Sense of transition

Acts in Landscape

While traversing the main road of the Zai

Scale-3 Temporary

B

village, one can observe that almost every house had an ota facing the main access

2

street, a verandah reserved for different

1.

Shoreline changes due to tides

2.

Papaya and Banana plantations on the verandah of houses

3.

Common spaces surrounded by vegetation

household activities of washing clothes, 1

barrels of water, and a tulsi plant. The street is an informal market occupied by local

3

women during the evenings to sell fish and

Permanent

vegetables. The place completely transforms as it extends to the main ram temple of the village. The temple periphery is used

2

A Fig.38: Coastline and market marked as a study area

B. Palm groves

for social gatherings during the festivals.

There is a swadhyay temple for meditation

coastline side, the vehicular paved road is

purposes. The vegetation layer is woven

inserted for ease of transport. The parapet

densely across this region, generating

adjoining the sea wall is used for making

shading

and drying concrete weights and tying the

spaces

for

users.

Near

the

coastline, Prosopis are found in abundance

A. Sea wall made of stones and concrete to protect small houses near the coast.

fishing nets.

Temporary Permanent Fig.39: Acts of landscape on the coastline and vegetation

Acts of Dwelling

Scale-3

surrounding the temporary shelters. On the

Temporary

Making concrete Children playing Sand bar weights Temporary shelters

1.

Evening Zai market, with women selling fish and vegetables.

2.

Periphery of temple compound used during festivals

3.

Washing clothes near the well.

4.

Temporary shed used for making concrete weights

Market zone

Well in a chowk

1

4

B 2

Changing coastline

Household plantations

Coconut trees

Permanent

Raised platform

A

3 5

A. Concrete paved promenade for vehicular access to the coast B. Ram mandir is the main temple Temporary

Fig.40: Acts of dwelling around the activity nodes 58

Permanent 59

3.1.4.4 Retention and Contraction

Acts in Landscape

Scale-3

Tidal creek networks etch the salt marsh

Temporary

D

surface, which becomes dry at low tide and

1.

Muddy texture of soil with sparse vegetation during low tide.

2.

Shallow water and waders found in the creek

forms mudflats in inter tidal areas where tides or rivers deposit sediments. This 2

imprint has two characteristics of the creek

C

edges, one with a hard edge by a retaining

B

wall used for parking abandoned boats. This

Permanent

modified edge holds many activities related

A. Hard-edge, which modifies the soft creek bed.

to the occupation, like untangling fishing nets. The hard concrete surface open area is used for ancillary activities connected

B. Prosopis, mangroves near the riverbed

1

Fig.41: Bridge and embankment as a study area

C. Palm groves

to the prayer hall used by the villagers for meditation and religious discourses. At the

during low tide and are prey to waders. On

same time, the opposite edge has muddy

the other side of the bridge, there is a long

textures and sparse vegetation formed into

stretch of mangroves inhabited by many

the marsh. The vegetation is transient on

species.

D. Mangrove patch near the creek

A

Temporary Permanent Fig.42: Acts of landscape around the creek edges forming levee

one edge, which sustains different habitats.

Acts of Dwelling

Scale-3

Mudskippers are found in this region Brick structures

Fishing equipments

Retaining wall Bridge

Temporary Abandoned boats

1.

Parked boats of different sizes near the retaining wall.

2.

Tying fishing nets, stacking flags, thermocol cutting, and drying concrete weights on paved surfaces.

3.

Abandoned boats tucked between mudflats.

4.

Prayer and meditation hall used during evenings

Orchard plantation

A

6 3 5

Coconut trees

levee formed around creek edges

3

B

Soft marshes and sparse vegetation

2

Permanent 1

4

A. Bridge constructed over the creek for access B. Retaining wall on the creek edge

Temporary Fig.43: Acts of dwelling on the deck near the retaining area 60

Permanent 61

3.1.4.5 A place for cultivation

Acts in Landscape

Scale-3 Temporary

According to the occupation strategy, the 1

terrain is modified and organised. This area

1.

Levee formed around the floodplain areas have sediments deposited by water flowing from the foothills

2.

Seasonal wetlands surrounded by dense vegetation

was taken from a larger river basin and transformed into cultivated wetlands. This vast open space is known as a ‘Khazan,’ or seasonal wetlands. The bunds are made of alluvial mud and stone from the riverbed.

Permanent

It is used in paddy cultivation as well as

A. Mangrove belt form which tightly packs the side of the dune

fish farming. During other seasons, children from nearby settlements use the space to play cricket. On the khazans’ embankment,

Fig.44: Khazans and riverbed as a study area

2

there is a belt of mangroves that acts as a wave breaker against tidal action. The

The landscape characteristic of this region

dense mangroves protect the houses next

consists of paddy fields in the floodplains,

Temporary

to them by forming a protective buffer. The

salt pan lands, coconut groves or plantations,

Permanent

semi open spaces between the houses are

and levees formed by deposition.

used for household activities. The houses

A

Fig.45: Acts of landscape in the seasonal wetlands and river edges

Acts of Dwelling

Scale-3

in this region are built on raised plinth.

Paddy cultivation

Earth bunds

Temporary

Light weight rood Raised plinth

Household activities

1.

Seasonal wetlands are used for paddy cultivation during monsoon, while in other seasons used as an open ground for playing cricket.

2.

Houses densely packed around the mangrove belt

3.

Small trails between marshes

3

A Seasonal wetlands

Mangroves

Permanent

Creek

A. RCC houses and the paved area near the mangrove belts

1

2 B

B. Earth bunds with stone stacked used as separators between plains Temporary

Fig.46: Acts of dwelling through paddy cultivation around settlements 62

Permanent 63

3.1.4.6 Shelters and gathering spaces

Acts in Landscape

Scale-3

The terrain near the coastline swiftly changes

Temporary

as the dune is protected by the sand bar and

1.

vegetation. Coconut and toddy palms are seen growing along the edges of the islands, forming the predominant vegetation. The

1

Permanent

ample open space is found at the village entrance,

used

for

festival

gatherings

A. Sea wall made of stones in layers near the settlement

A

during Narayali Poornima, and functions

Coastline changes during high and low tide, which modifies the texture of sand.

B. Palm groves

as a cricket ground. A casuarina plantation protects the soil bed from one side. The way of life and occupational patterns within

Fig.47: Temporary shelters as a study area

these communities differ, which is reflected

B

in the form and building typologies in these

funded houses are also found. During low

areas. There are temporary shelters made of

tides, the beach is occupied by children of

Temporary

wooden posts, asbestos sheets, and covered

the village to play cricket.

Permanent

with a plastic sheet, while some governmentChildren playing

Sand bar

Raised shelters

Temporary shelters Paved road and raised plinth

Fig.48: Acts of landscape on the coastline and groves

Acts of Dwelling

Scale-3 Temporary 1

Palm groves

Large open area outside the settlement boundary is used as a cricket ground

2.

Fishing nets and drying of fish near the edge

3.

Temporary houses made from wood, asbestos, and plastic sheets on the forepart of the lane

4.

Chowks used outside the shrine

A

2

Coastline changes

1.

3

Raised bund as a separator

3 4

Permanent A. Paved road cutting across the settlement

Temporary Fig.49: Acts of dwelling around the temporary settlements and ground 64

Permanent 65

3.1.5 Relationship between permanent, temporary and transient (Coast) The study of landscape patterns overlayed with the dwelling conditions in respect to the time scale. The lighter hatch are the landscape layers while the darker are seen in dwelling

2013

2003

Fig.50: Transition in water systems and vegetation

66

2021

Fig.51: Patterns expanding and contracting

Fig.52: Dense patterns observed in orchards and dune

67

3.1.5.1 Relationship between permanent, temporary and transient (Dune)

2003

Fig.53: Less built structure expansion of landscape systems

68

2013

2021

Fig.54: Landscape setting changes as built structures

Fig.55: Modified landscape features get controlled by the surrounding

69

3.1.5.2 Relationship between permanent, temporary and transient (Imprints)

2003

2013

2021

Fig.56: Imprint of estuarine zone over the years revolved around cycles of water shaping the terrain

The common coastal area is constantly in flux over the years as it is transformed due to water behavior and human inhabitation. The vegetation layer is in transition throughout the years but undergoes a seasonal shift, and near the creek edges, it expands over the dune after the wall was inserted. The coastline extends, contracts and the marsh is formed over the period through constant deposition and erosion due to the daily cycles of water and seasonal impacts. The more permanent layers like the retaining wall protect the dune while the sand bar on the coastline stops the erosion. Due to these permanent layers, the temporary activities started shifting and rearranging. The temporal acts like different fishing activities and parking of boats is increased which is reflected through the temporary patches. So through these imprints, one can identify that when there is particular modification due to human intervention, the landscape gets transformed or remains intact.

The mangrove systems have undergone a series of transitions, with a temporal nature observed where the swamps are formed as the water levels constantly change. Still, those series of actions have converted the mangroves into permanent systems which hold themselves tightly to the landscape. This series of acts in landscape gets reflected in the settlement patterns near the mangroves, and the houses are concentrated in a dense cluster and similarly expand over the years. The temporary activities observed in this region are concentrated in the in-between spaces and thresholds. This activity gets transformed and modified through specific cultural shifts, but the patterns are repetitive. The gathering spaces like chowks, village well, and prayer hall are concentrated between the clusters. The Fig.57: Mangrove forest and its relationship with the settlements and the pattern of occupying

Fig.58: Change in the coastline conditions after a permanent trait to the landscape 70

vegetative cover is less and in transition in this region due to settlements increasing over a period of time.

The vegetative cover patterns near the coast constantly shrink and transition due to certain climatic reasons and human activities. Some vegetation transforms into a permanent system as they are tightly rooted to their surroundings. Some permanent systems intervene in this expansion and contraction between the temporal patterns near the coast, like the retaining wall and paved paths. This system again gets concentrated through temporary tasks like vegetative plantations inside the house, drying concrete weights, and tying nets on the paved road. In contrast, the inner street of the village is not modified to an extent but holds tightly by the market and the temple. These activities are temporal and have not undergone much shift. The series of patterns over the years depicts an evident change in the transient layer due to its constant recurrence. It leaves a tangible impact on other surrounding activities.

71

2003

2013

2021

Fig.59: Transition of the creek edge modified by the hard edge and activities are transformed

Fig.60: The khazan systems surrounded by bunds and evolution of mangroves

Fig.61: Expansion and contraction between the settlements and surroundings 72

The terrain alongside the creek undergoes a series of transformations over the years, and the patterns reflect the expansion and contraction. This temporal behavior is engulfed through certain permanent anchors, which modify the landscape character and affect the dwelling conditions. The transit, which spans across the creek, changes the edges. Due to lack of space, the creek edge is converted into large concrete paved area adjoined with a retaining wall which contrasts entirely the behavior of the landscape where earlier the marshes get formed, and a levee is observed. This act of inserting a permanent trait encourages other temporary activities of parking abandoned boats and storing fishing equipment. Another permanent system developing on the bridge’s side, which has undergone transition, is the mangrove belt. The transient layers get impacted through permanent interventions, but they show certain resilient characteristics.

These patterns map out a constant transformation of the khazan system over the years.

The cultivation observed in this region is concentrated in different ways around the earth bunds and is also impacted by the soil nature. The extent of the khazan surrounded by earth bund remains constant. This permanent system changes the nature of vegetation around this region. The vegetation comprises palm trees and recently invaded Prosopis that are constantly in transition due to seasonal impacts. The other impactful change observed in this region is the growth of mangrove, which forms into dense vegetative cover over the years. This system encourages safe dwelling conditions on the edge as it is tightly packed.

The dwelling patterns increase over the years, and smaller gathering spaces get generated.

Due to climatic impacts, the river bed contracts, and one can observe the levee and sediment deposition is decreasing.

The vegetative cover reflected in this imprint has undergone a substantial transition, and the growth is decreased over the years. This change is intervened by certain hardscapes, the main road connecting the village and also retaining edges near the coast. Some of the transient layers, after a shift, started showing permanent characteristics. The palm groves hold themselves tightly to the landscape, and the dwelling is concentrated around it. The large open area gets purposely modified and converted into a cricket ground where a series of temporary activities and festivals are performed. The coastline changes as certain permanent acts take place. In these patterns, there are several patches of temporary layers that are fragmented and, at some points, intersect with the transient and permanent layers observed in dwelling conditions.

73

3.2 Reading the layers of the forest landscape of Aswali region.

3.2.1 Larger region The terrain varies dramatically from the coast to the foothills. The research is being carried out in two units along this transect. The second section is the Aswali forest village. The forest landscape is a one-of-a-kind combination of ranges, reservoirs, seasonal rivers, ravines, valleys, dense teak tree vegetation, and riparian vegetation. Near the foothills, the terrain is highly undulating and shifts to rock near the river’s edge. Along the water channel, the riparian edge is densely vegetated, with shrubs, trees, pebbles, and stone. It changes into undulating ravines at intervals. The riparian belt extends to floodplains, which are topographically defined as relatively flat surfaces adjacent to river channels. When the flood level rises, sediments are deposited in this area. In this region, the river forms a meandering curve and is referred to as an oxbow lake. These are silted up to form marshes, and then meander scars, which are distinguished by different vegetation or the absence of cultivation (Lustig, 2020). As a catchment area, the watershed from the ridges with surface run-off accumulates in the reservoir. On this reservoir, a dam is built to collect water and prevent flooding into the settlements.

Warlis is the indigenous community that resides in this landscape. The Warlis are primarily concentrated in the talukas of Dahanu and Talaseri in Maharashtra’s Thane district. They are Fig.62: Different landscape and dwelling conditions of forest village in Aswali

forest-dwelling communities in the northwestern ghats’ Sahyadri range. Warlis has adopted their own strong beliefs, traditions, and customs centered around mother nature. They are thought to have inhabited the region for centuries and to have developed a static life cycle through their traditional knowledge systems. Warli paintings vividly depict their way of life as it is intertwined with the landscape. Through their occupation of paddy cultivation, they have become inseparable from the landscape. Fields for growing rice, bunds, paths, a higher platform for living, and daily activities traversing to the forest for firewood are among the land surface features. The findings add layers of permanence, transience, and temporality to the pattern in the landscape and the community’s habitation.

74

75

Forest Settlement Wetlands Agriculture Orchards Mudflats Sea Aquaculture

Fig.63: Base map with the reservoir between the ranges, seasonal rivers, streams, riparian edges, orchards,

paddy fields and settlements in a scattered manner

76

77

3.2.2 Components of larger region - Foothills This area is selected for the study from the overall terrain as it is a more significant part with a range of foothills, as shown in fig.54. The region includes forest fringes, reservoirs, rivers, and ravines. The forest landscape depends on seasonal variations, and changes in the landscape are observed. This change is associated with different acts which modify the landscape and impact the dwelling conditions. The series of events that change while others remain constant is depicted in fig. The forest core is persistent over a prolonged period, Fig.64: Region for the study from the larger base map of the foothills

as the landform is the solid composition of rocks and laterite soil that undergoes fewer transformations. Teak trees are found in abundance and clusters in this region. Perennial and seasonal rivers flow through the valleys that cut through the ranges. These water channels drain into the reservoir and the Vahindar river. The vegetation along the river bed is transient, but as one moves upstream, there are numerous trees that have become anchored to this location over time.

With this landscape condition, the tribes have developed a relationship with nature and that is reflected in there patterns of dwelling. The task performed in landscape is definite and repetitive over the years. They have occupied themselves by modifying the terrain to a flat ground. Later, the flat ground is terraced, and bunds are built to collect water for paddy cultivation. These patterns can also be seen on forest edges, where scattered settlements are surrounded by fields. This characteristic can be found throughout the terrain, and its activities appear to be continual. Between these permanent acts, the community inserts changes, such as the clearing of forests in some areas.

Fig.65: Photographic plates of foothills, Aswali dam and typical tribal house 78

79

Acts in Landscape

Scale-1

Acts of Dwelling

Scale-1

A

C

2

1

1

B

A B

A

Fig.66: Annotation of temporary, permanent and transient layers in acts of landscape Temporary

Temporary 1. Seasonal river between the river bed surrounded by submerged and emergent vegetation.

2. Seasonal and perennial stream cutting across the valley, merging into the main river

80

Permanent

Fig.67: Annotation of temporary, permanent and transient layers in acts of dwelling Temporary

Transient

Permanent A. Forest core occupied by teak trees B. Water reservoir, a catchment area in between the foothills.

Permanent

Transient

Temporary

Permanent

1. Clearance in the forest fringes and mid part used for paddy cultivation and plantations

A. Paved road across the settlement till the school B. Stone retaining wall made on the dam to stop overflowing of water C. Forest fringes occupied by settlements surrounded by paddy fields and date palms

81

The section along the foothills through the valley transversing through the paddy fields

plinth for building schools for the tribal children.

modifies the existing terrain and shapes for cultivation and habitation. The terrain becomes

The land associations divided in this region from

rocky and dry through the dense vegetation on forest fringes till plantations near the

the immediate foothills to slightly undulating

settlement. The river’s meandering curves, combined with dense riparian vegetation and root

terrain with vegetation and paddy fields till the

systems, slow the flow of water and reduce soil erosion. Riparian zones are densely forested

riparian zone and towards the uplands where the

and provide forage for wildlife and livestock. A greenbelt visually defines these zones with

settlements are situated.

a characteristic suite of plants adapted to and depending on the shallow water table. As it expands towards the floodplains in this region, it is modified by constructing a raised

Fig.68: Key plan with section line Temporary

Acts of Dwelling

Permanent

Scale-1 Paddy fields Toddy palms Vernacular houses

Vegetable plantations

Temporary shelters for students

Acts in Landscape

School for tribal children

Scale-1

Teak forest in the core Clearance on forest fringes

82

River bed

Riparian vegetation

Earth bund to elevate from river bed

83

3.2.3 Components of larger region - Riparian edge This region is occupied with numerous landscape features and different layers of dwelling conditions. The terrain constitutes uplands and segments of the foothills. There are ground modulation near the ravines, which are occupied by seasonal vegetation. Near the foothills, the sloping terrain is shaped into earth bunds reinforced with the stone wall. They have drainage channels. This pattern is repeated throughout the settlements. The land occupied by the community is unique in the way that it forms a cluster of settlements near the river edge, Fig.69: Study region comprises of the riperian belt and different arrangement of the settlement

often referred to as padas. In contrast, the majority of the houses are scattered throughout the landscape. These huts are closed and have their own distinct sense of territory. They form a territory made out of dry grass, twigs, and branches collected from the surrounding area.

The region around the shelter inside the territory is used as a semi-open space. This place associates some of the temporal activities of drying the paddy, threshing, and winnowing are the stages after harvesting. Other tasks around the house include vegetable plantations, a kitchen garden, and livestock care.

Orchard plantations throughout the region alter the landscape grain. The most desirable location for plantations is in the uplands or on rolling terrain. To prevent soil erosion, it is grown on a raised platform made of soil bed and surrounded by densely rooted vegetation that anchors it to the landscape. The vegetation around the fields remains intact for a longer period of time, whereas the riparian edge shows some transition. The patterns reflected in the study indicate that the landscape is woven into a slow transition that influences living conditions. For years, the tribe has been associated with this landscape, which is reflected in their lifestyle and dependencies.

Fig.70: Flora and fauna near the riperian edge and surroundings of tribal house 84

85

Acts in Landscape

Scale-2

Acts of Dwelling

Scale-2

A

1

C

A C

2 B

C

2 3

B

1 C B

Temporary

1. River edge, large uncultivated terrain with grasslands 2. Riperian vegetation, submerged and emergent 3. River edge as levee with sediments deposited

86

3

1

A

Fig.71: Annotation of temporary, permanent and transient layers in acts of landscape

Temporary

1

Permanent

Fig.72: Annotation of temporary, permanent and transient layers in acts of dwelling Temporary

Transient

Permanent A. Teak trees in the forest core B. Dense foliage trees acts as a visual barrier` C. Old trees, date palms and thor plantations

Temporary

Permanent

Transient

Permanent

1. Orchard plantations on raised terrain

A. Paddy fields surrounded by earth bunds

2. Seasonal plantations for economic raise

B. RCC bridge span across the river

3. Sparse patterns of orchard cultivation in a grid

C. Large open area used as pasturelands

87

Acts in Landscape and Dwelling ( Uplands| Settlement - Cluster) Retaining wall for orchard plantation

Paddy fields

Vernacular houses Brick house Bamboo fences

Scale-2 Grasslands

Temporary Permanent River bed

Palm trees lining along the existing bunds

Seasonal vegetation

Fig.73: Key plan with section line

Ravines

The settlement is occupied on a raised platform with ravines on one side and stepped terraces on other. This section allows it to situate in a dense cluster near to the river edge.

Most of the houses are vernacular, while due to migration and urbanization some are replaced by brick structures. The river bed gets modified through deposition of sediments.

Acts in Landscape and Dwelling ( Uplands| Settlement - Scatter) Vernacular houses on bunds

Orchards

Bamboo fences and well

Scale-2 Orchards

Temporary Permanent Riperian vegetation

Exotica palms

Intermediate bunds in the fields control water run-off

Trenches allow storm water to pass through the fields

Fig.74: Key plan with section line

The section is along the river edge, modified by earth bunds for orchard plantations. The terrain is undulating from the river edge to the main street and elevates through stepped terraces on the foothills. The settlement forms small hamlets around the orchards and fields. Through a period, the terrain remains static; as habitation expands, it inserts different layers to the existing grain.

88

89

3.2.4 Acts of inhabiting The foothills proffer a diversity of modulations throughout its span; a combination of flat 3

1

and undulated terrain. The terrain befits as sloping on the foothills. On the other hand, the section of the vegetation is concentrated on the inner core, depleting as it moves towards the

2 6

edge of the fringes. Also, the riparian belt is enveloped with seasonal grasses, stone beds, and dense tree cover. The reservoir’s water flows through these areas on a seasonal basis.

4

Having a rough rocky bed and small streams that flowing into it, the edges have enriched themselves with an ecosystem that can become the backbone of various habitats and beings.

5

When we throw lights on human habitation on these sloping vegetated foothills, we can observe the stepped terraces for paddy cultivation, which are permanently anchored to the landscape and encompassed by date palms and thor plantations. A comprehensive Fig.75: Location of imprints marked on the larger base map of the village

1

2

understanding of these patterns in this region is that the settlements are dispersed. To survive, one must inculcate and develop a lifecycle that revolves around the landscape. As a result, dwellings are few and set out between the fields. To occupy the land and make it habitat worthy, flat terrain or an elevated platform is built between the forest fringes, and vernacular houses are anchored to those terrains with minimal resources. These include forest wood, karvi sticks, mud, and bamboo. The roof is made of tiles or asbestos sheets.

3

4

The dwelling pattern has changed as settlements have evolved, but the resources have remained constant. Warlis is a forest-dwelling community, thus every resource has been procured from the forest. Gradually, these knowledge systems have become deeply ingrained in their way of life. Although, because of seasonal changes, few of the vegetation near the river’s edge are transient in nature. Furthermore, there are household plantations of mango,

5

6

papaya, and vegetables during the off-seasons. In addition, numerous temporal activities take place as the function of the activity changes over time. Such as, some of the open spaces are converted to hay farming. The study of a specific grain in the landscape with distinct dwelling characteristics and its relationship to the landscape through permanent, transient, and temporary layers is the focus of imprints.

Fig.76: Photographic plates of different conditions of surroundings 90

91

3.2.4.1 Weaved in the landscape

Acts of Landscape

Scale-3 Temporary

As mentioned before, the density of the population varies according to the

1

2

modulation of the terrain. Because of its proximity to the river, the dwellings are

1.

Seasonal river with shallow water surrounded by a bed of stones and riparian vegetation.

2.

Vegetable plantations during the off-season near the houses

densely packed on the banks. In this region, the terrain shifts dramatically from a large

B

Permanent A. Vegetative cover around the settlement demarcates a boundary.

open area alongside the river’s edge to a raised earth bund. Clusters of settlements

A

occupy it until it gradually slopes back

B. Clusters of neem trees surrounding the chowk.

C

down to the river’s edge on the other side.

Fig.77: Dense cluster marked as a study area

Major node points that have attracted

C. The depression and undulation near to river edge, used as maidan by locals.

D

settlements in these areas are the road and

Anganwadi, a hospital, and a water tank are

the borewell. Several clusters of houses

located on one of the streets, which activates

are opening towards these nodes and have

the node. The settlements are adjacent to

allocated themselves surrounding them.

vegetable plantations line one side and

Irrespective that the houses are congested,

paddy fields on the other. Because these

they are all circumscribed by bamboo fences,

settlement patterns are closely knit, the

and settlements are demarcated with a

activities are intertwined, which binds them

boundary by an earth bund and vegetation.

tightly to the landscape.

D. Old trees with dense foliage along the edge of the settlement.

Temporary

Acts of Dwelling

Scale-3 Temporary A

E

B Dense trees as fence

Papaya and mango plantations

Permanent

Fig.78: Acts of landscape around the river edge and vegetation

Earth bunds with shrubs and trees

1 C

3

1.

Washing clothes and bathing near river edges

2.

Trails and gathering spaces.

3.

Seasonal plantations

4.

Children playing, women drying clothes, Anganwadi for kids, are associated in street

5.

Newly built brick houses

D 4 Gaushala for cows and buffalos

Vernacular houses on mud plinth

Rain tree

5

E

2

Permanent A. RCC bridge

3

B. Village well

E

C. Chowk with a bore well and the tamarind tree D. Vernacular karvi hut E. Bamboo is weaved together to make fences.

Temporary

Fig.79: Acts of dwelling surrounding the settlements 92

Permanent 93

3.2.4.2 Dispersed as well as connected

Acts in Landscape

Scale-3 Temporary

This landscape grain is in the account of orchards, river edges, scatter and cluster

1.

1

settlements, and paddy fields. Orchards are preserved naturally through a dense

A

layer of trees and vegetation. Sectionally,

Permanent A. Earth bund made by soil deposition used for orchard plantations near to the river edge.

then settlements are located, scattered in nature. The built archetype is that

B. Rain tree marking the crossroads and used as a place of assembly by the locals.

these dwellings are raised on platforms fabricated through karvi, mud, and wood and palm leaves as roofing materials.

Riparian vegetation changes due to seasonal impacts.

Fig.80: Scatter settlement marked as a study area

But gradually, newly built brick houses have taken place in the neighborhood.

settlements embody numerous temporary

Nonetheless, half-completed or abandoned

activities such as vegetable selling, bamboo

brick masonry blocks have been used to set

weaving, making toddy, boiling water, etc.

up dwellings. Due to these variations inbuilt

And into this bargain, voids of spaces have

methodology, a haphazard pattern has been

been formulated to conduct such activities.

observed in the grain. Moreover, their choice

Household activities such as taking baths,

of material depends on their belief that brick

washing clothes, etc. take place on the banks

Temporary

houses are too warm to sustain. These varied

of the river

1.

Orchard plantations in grid.

2.

Central gathering space used as a place for selling vegetables, children are playing, and locals were catering to the cattle.

3.

Government- funded brick houses as an alternative.

Uncultivated land between orchards

B

Temporary Permanent

Fig.81: Acts of landscape around earth bund and riperian edge

Acts of Dwelling

Scale-3

1

Rain tree

A

3

Permanent Orchard plantations and borewell

Bamboo fences

Brick houses Vernacular house

A. Vegetation protecting the bund

Well

B

C

B. Vernacular karvi hut

2 3 E

D Fig.82: Acts of dwelling around orchards and scatter settlements 94

C. Thor and palm trees as field boundaries.

D. Bamboo is weaved together to make fences.

E. Village well Temporary Permanent 95

3.2.4.3 Clusters and proximity to the foothills

Acts in Landscape

Scale-3 Temporary

This imprint pivots on numerous physical

1.

characteristics that people adapt to survive in this region. The river impacts the soil on the

1

banks in different ways. Due to the seasonal changes, the soil is temporarily dry or moist,

A

A

resulting in transient behavior of riparian the banks to manifest a dwelling. Paddy cultivation fields establish the potential environments,

Permanent A. Dense cluster of vegetation holding tightly to the landscape sustaining a rich habitat inside.

vegetation. A platform is usually built on

settlements/chowks

Riparian vegetation across the river edges changes through seasonal variations.

B. Forest fringes with dense vegetation in some parts.

Fig.83: Raised terrain marked as a study area

promoting people to dwell nearby. Earth bunds are embodied to prevent water from

Their houses are surrounded by vegetable,

overflowing from the nearby dam. These are

mango, and papaya plantations. This grain

a few permanent instances that have been

consists of large trees that are permanently

taken into practice to endure a living, but

anchored and temporary plantations around

these measures also incarnate temporary and

houses. With marked territories, people

transient changes in people’s lives. Inward-

cultivate wheat, create kitchen gardens,

looking houses are formed with semi-open

and make spaces for animals to eat hay.

B

Permanent Fig.84: Acts of landscape around earth bund and riperian edge

Acts of Dwelling

Scale-3 Temporary

spaces jotted within very small intervals.

Riparian vegetation

Temporary

A Stone and earthen bunds control surface water flow

B

1.

Open uncultivated land acquired to plant orchards.

2.

Vegetable plantations in the periphery of the house.

Permanent A. Bridge spanning across the perennial river B. Compound wall constructed around the school.

1 Seasonal grasslands

School of tribal children

Vernacular house

C. Permanent shelters build using wood, karvi, and mud.

C Plantations

D

2

2

E Fig.85: Acts of dwelling around river edges and foothills

96

D. Open gathering space between the cluster occupied by a water tank.

E. Bamboo is weaved together to make fences.

Temporary Permanent 97

3.2.4.4 A place for gathering

Acts in Landscape

Scale-3

These imprints along the clustered settlement A

can be seen as a concentration of houses on

Temporary

C

one edge and paddy fields on the other. In

1.

Open space, uncultivated land between fields.

2.

Flower plantations outside the panchayat block.

its vicinity, numerous activities occur, and 2

predominate nodes come into action. For

Permanent

instance, a panchayat block on one side

A. Fields surrounded by dense trees, thor, and date palms as fences.

and a provisional store on the other, along with a rickshaw stand. These public nodes have a social intention order to gather the

D

B

community. It is a group of gram panchayat

Fig.86: Raised terrain marked as a study area

that includes the villages of Aswali, Jhalwai,

C. Trees as a visual barrier around the karvi hut.

A

and Khunvade. As a result, the locals drive

forest, they process the hay turned by an

the center alive. A few parts of this land

ox in the wooden block pulley to make

are converted to hay farming and drying

heaps of hay for export or as food for their

wheat by traditional machines during the

livestock. Bamboo fences and plantations

off-season. Hay production process entails

protect the settlements away from the road.

D. Dense foliage trees on the main road.

1

Temporary Permanent

Fig.87: Acts of landscape through vegetative cover and terrain change

Acts of Dwelling

a number of steps, including cutting,

Scale-3 Temporary

curing, processing, and storing in the form of cubes. Because the Warlis populate the Bunds protected with vegetative cover

Fruit bearing trees

B. Cluster of neem trees, tamarind trees between the houses.

1 Mango plantation

Toddy palms and thor

1.

Vegetable and seasonal plantations in the backyard.

2.

Rickshaw stand, store the constant movement of people associated with different activities.

1

C

2

B

1

A

Permanent 3

Bamboo fences Kitchen garden Earth bund

Hay farming

A. Place for Hay farming used by the livestock and exported.

B. Paved road across the village.

Seasonal grass

D

C. Vernacular karvi huts perceived as permanent shelter by the locals.

D. Bamboo is weaved using the wattle and daub technique.

Temporary

Fig.88: Acts of dwelling around central area and hay farming 98

Permanent 99

3.2.4.5 Shelters on the rolling terrain

Acts in Landscape

Scale-3 Permanent

These imprints shape the patterns of

A. Forest fringes with a dense cluster of trees, some parts are occupied by chickoo plantation.

habitation in the foothills. The terrain is extremely undulating, and some forest areas have been cleared for human occupancy.

B. Palm trees and teak trees were observed on the sloping terrain.

The terrain is altered to formulate stepped terraces used for paddy cultivation in order to settle in the landscape. Certain dwelling

C. Thor plantations around the paddy fields.

C

acts are difficult to take place in such a sloping landform. There are only a few settlements

A

scattered throughout the region. Bunds are

Fig.89: Stepped terraces marked as a study area

built between fields to create flat terrain for building houses and other activities. Date

land. They are planted in a grid and are

palms are seen in various patterns near

surrounded by dense trees. Between these

the bunds. These living conditions do not

orchards, the owner constructs double-story

change over time, and they are repeated

bungalows. As a result, it separates from

as one moves uphill. There is livestock on

the overall grain of paddy fields, scattering

the periphery of the houses, which is tied

settlements and forest cover.

B Temporary Permanent Fig.90: Acts of landscape through dense vegetation on the slopes

Acts of Dwelling

Scale-3

inside at night. Moving down the slope,

Temporary

the orchards take up a large portion of the

1.

Orchard plantations immediate to the sloping terrain.

2.

Vegetable plantations during the off-season in the backyard, also the place for cattle to rest.

Thor and cactus

Date palms

1

Earth bund with drainage channel

A

Permanent A. RCC road surrounding the orchards.

B Vegetable plantations

Paddy fields

House surrounded by fields

Bamboo fences

C

B. Earth bunds built on the sloping terrain.

C. Vernacular karvi hut with a raised mud plinth and wooden columns. The shelters are low in height.

2 Temporary Fig.91: Acts of dwelling on steppes terraces of paddy fields 100

Permanent 101

3.2.4.6 Orchards and its relationship to paddy fields

Acts in Landscape

It is observed that habitation patterns are

Scale-3 Temporary

1

derived from the landscape. The community

1.

Vegetable plantations, flowers as side economic activity practiced by locals.

2.

Newly planted mango saplings protected from all sides.

procures the forest’s edge, and after that, it starts getting dispersed throughout the terrain between the fields. Through earth

D

bunds, the fields are permanently anchored himself in the middle of thor and date

B

palms, believed to be peripheries between the fields. The vegetation that surrounds

2

B. Tree with a life span of more than seventy years.

C. Earth bunds and vegetation around fields.

C

The orchards are planted along the river’s

pause point for school children and women

edge. The land is altered, and a high bund is

on their way to the forest. The front yard

built to support orchard plantations. Due to

of the house is employed to store firewood

the temporal nature of seasonal variations,

due to the scatter pattern of the settlement,

habitat, and activities vary with time. For

while the backyard is used for vegetable

instance, on the main road, there are large

plantations. As a part of the government relief

trees that serve as a gathering place for the

program, the newly inserted brick houses

villagers; nonetheless, this area serves as a

are tucked between the vernacular houses.

Barren land

Banyan tree

Plantations

D. Vegetative plantations also as a visual barrier.

Temporary

D

1

Permanent

Fig.93: Acts of landscape through dense vegetation near the fields

Acts of Dwelling

Scale-3 Temporary

C

Thor

B

2 4 Vernacular house

Paved street

Bamboo fences

1.

Orchard plantations in grid on a raised terrain.

2.

Open area between clusters of houses used as a gathering space.

3.

Activities like fence making, washing clothes, cleaning the livestock.

1

A

Orchard plantations

A. Rain tree with a dense foliage.

Fig.92: Orchards and houses marked as a study area

the houses and orchards acts as a barrier.

Earth bund

Permanent

A

to the landscape. Near the bund, one finds

3

Permanent A. Orchards surrounded by dense trees as fence.

B. RCC road surrounding the orchards.

C. Vernacular karvi hut with a raised mud plinth and wooden columns. The shelters are low in height.

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3

Temporary

Fig.94: Acts of dwelling near orchards and fields

Permanent 103

3.2.5 Relationship between permanent, temporary and transient (Foothills) The study of landscape patterns overlayed with the dwelling conditions in respect to the time scale. The lighter hatch are the landscape layers while the darker are the patterns seen in dwelling

2003

2013

Fig.95: Core forest cover, water retention and patterns of occupying on the

fringes of the foothills

104

2021

Fig.96: Water catchment area expands while patterns on the fringes remains

constant

Fig.97: Dam is built for water collection, tributaries and valleys formed in

the landscape

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3.2.5.1 Relationship between permanent, temporary and transient

2003

Fig.98: Origination of orchards, teak forest expanding towards foothills

106

2013

2021

Fig.99: Patterns of orchards increases, paddy fields forms a close pattern

near to the settlement

Fig.100: Forest cover expands till the uplands, retaining elements build to protect

orchards, bridges span across for smooth transit

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3.2.5.1 Relationship between permanent, temporary and transient (Imprints)

2003

2013

2021

Fig.101: The pattern of expanding and closely knitted dense cluster formed by the tribe

Fig.102: The change observed through orchard plantation while the settlement pattern remains constant

Fig.103: The riparian edge shapes the terrain while in the foothills it is held tightly

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The sequence in which the dwelling pattern evolves in this dense cluster suggests a nature of occupying in close proximity, which is engulfed around the vegetative barrier. The water systems and edges are transient after undergoing a series of modulations. The activities performed at the edges by humans are ephemeral and shape the river bed’s edges and ravines. The characteristics of the landscape and vegetation have been constant throughout the years as well as the patterns are shaped and have become static by the influence of dwelling. The expansion is observed in the settlement, which modifies some landscape elements. The relationship between the clusters through the idea of shared spaces has been generated over the years. The interrelationship between each house is defined by the constantly changing activities in the surroundings. The overall pattern suggests a strong connection between what is anchored to what revolves around it.

The imprints observed around the houses over the years are not altered by any factors.

But the pattern changes as new brick structures occupy the spaces around the vernacular dwellings—this edition to the existing terrain effect the tasks. While the terrain is shaped through bunds and territories marked by the individual houses, the pattern of occupying remains constant over a period. The impactful change in the landscape of this overall region is initiated after orchard plantations. The region earlier was stepped terraces for paddy fields covered by the river soil and converted into a lifted platform for cultivation. The terrain is held tightly by the dense vegetation around the orchards. The main street of this region has an ephemeral nature to the space as the events are time being and repetitive. This nature of temporal activities cast around all the static sources circulates the idea of interdependencies of landform and tasks performed on it.

The vegetative cover in these imprints shows a rooted relationship with the landscape. The riparian vegetation expands over time from the dense cluster it transforms into a linear patch. This transformation is due to changes in the landform of the riverine edge or through human habitation. In contrast, the vegetation along the foothills expands significantly and is highly concentrated. Over time, the settlements are observed between the clusters of trees and plantations. The tribe are forest dwellers and have a significant association with the land, so they modify the terrain into livable conditions. To anchor at a position in the landform, the landscape is raised, as seen in the imprints, and the boundary wall is constructed to hold the landform. The structures are built according to the terrain. Around the boundary, the settlements are arranged in a cluster and surrounded tightly by vegetation. This pattern reflects the idea of firmly occupying this terrain, and the resources changing and several acts of dwelling surrounding it.

109

Fig.104: The evolving centres surrounded by different seasonal and daily activities

Fig.105: The terrain of the foothills and patterns of settling in the rolling landscape

Fig.106: Expansion and contraction of certain temporal events in between the permanent trait 110

The association of dwelling with the landscape in this imprint is simplified into a pattern repeating in the whole grain. The terrain is modified according to the occupational needs, and as the settlement expands towards the foothills, there is clearance of forest observed, and the landform is modified into a stepped sequence. Specific associations and daily activities according to occupation started revolving during the off-season. The hay farming is processed near the road as it is smooth for transition and vehicular access. The task associated with the community as their livelihood and culture is cyclic. Toddy tapping, making of bamboo fences, plastering mud on walls, and vegetative plantations in the backyard are everyday affairs. This imprint generates a cohesive nature of different permanent systems intertwined by transient acts in dwelling.

This imprint is extracted from the sloping terrain on the foothills. It is highly undulating; the land is shaped into stepped terraces for paddy cultivation. This permanent trait to the existing land conditions modifies the nature of dwelling on it. The vegetation has remained transient over the years, and some growth is observed in the uplands. The terrain is held tightly by a stone wall and earth bunds with vegetation of toddy palms and thors forming a protective cover. Through this shift in the terrain, the settlements are dispersed throughout the grain and have started occupying a raised plinth to prevent overflowing. This characteristic of dividing space into fields and houses is repetitive throughout the foothills. The orchard plantations modify the landscape and reflect certain temporal characteristics. This grain reflects the nature of the terrain and its relationship to dwellings as a reflective approach, and once established it is repetitive.

The pattern of forming clusters to act as a scattered element in the landscape is observed as a pattern in the whole region and in association with the time scale. The terrain observed in this region is modified by the fields and orchards, but the grain is not changed once shaped over the years. The settlement is found in two different patterns; one near the road is in clusters, while some are scattered between the fields. Between this permanent nature of dwelling, a series of temporary activities revolve around it. The sense of community closely weaves this ephemeral nature of the surroundings of the tribal houses. The practices they follow to worship nature, shape the landforms according to their spatial knowledge systems, and extract resources from the forest are very well engraved in their sense of living and reflected in the landscape.

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4.1 Findings of the research The process of landscape formation is intertwined with the process of life. A character is associated with a location, and the activities of the inhabitants determine it. Each place has its significance related to the context of people’s engagement. Meanings are attached to the world and gathered from the landscape when associated with a space. Objects in the landscape are said to be clues to meanings, and the perspective of dwelling is derived from them.

After recognizing its temporality, the process of dwelling can be said to be fundamentally temporal, and its apprehension of the landscape from the dwelling perspective can be derived. Change is an inherent experience of landscape. The landscape is composed of unpredictable processes or measures, such as drift and tectonic plate collisions in relation to the human span; these systems last for a short time, giving the impression of transience on stable forms. The other basis for deriving the correlation between landscape and dwelling is understanding the degree of permanence. Some phases transform and are observed in the environment. This association of permanence is either physical or else perceived. The research started by questioning that the land of water will be more temporal in nature than the forest, and there are interrelationships between landscape and culture.

Fisherman and coastal landscape: As extracted from the study of timeline maps, the coastal landscape is inferred that the state is in constant flux. The nature of the landscape is reflected as patches of temporary landscape systems that are engulfed by some permanent traits. The transient layer found in this region is resilient, as re-occurrence of it due to seasonal variations leaves a strong impact than even the permanent thing. The changes in this region are more systematic and visual and can be traced over the years. The coastal ecology is fragile and features undergoing transformation include coastal ecosystems, traditional livelihoods, work patterns, kinship structures, community dynamics, activities, customs, conventions, rituals, belief systems, values, way of life, culture and living conditions.

Chapter four Findings 4.1 Conclusion 4.2 Way forward

112

The mosaic observed in the landscape at some intervals through the aspect of change has remained constant. Coastal erosion, mangrove systems, casuarina plantations, creek edges, salt marshes, a settlement on the dune, and patterns of vegetation are classified by their nature of resilience into temporary, transient, and permanent systems. It is seen in the terrain that the patterns of vegetation are transient and most resilient as it occurs between permanent and temporary. These layers are correlated with acts of culture and traditional knowledge systems. The transient layers are associated with how the community celebrates culture and festivals as it is periodical. The lifecycle of the fisherman is proportional to the cycle of the ocean. Their daily activities correlate with the rise and decrease in the sea’s 113

water level. The community is closely knitted on the dune and has a relationship with traditional belief systems, rituals and their spatial manifestation. They worship the sea and perform pooja before the fishing season. Traditionally fishing activity stopped from the beginning of June until mid-August to allow the fish to mature. The rapport technique was used earlier when many fishermen were involved in the catch. The settlement is densely packed and the interior of the house is dark and resembles their living in caves in the past.

This association to their occupation and lifecycle is ephemeral even though there is constant shift in the terrain. This reflects an identity of a community which can sustain towards change, and their acts are fundamentally temporal.

transition, and these shifts allow the liberty to connect with the remnants of the past.

The dichotomy of temporality and permanence in the landscape is closely affiliated, and repetitions and dependencies are observed in their occurrence. In relation to the culture of the tribe, their perception of nature is what holds them tightly to their roots. Within the transect of the site, the landscape grain completely shifts from the coastal landscape, which reflects the nature of a constant change, and the community is associated to that change, while in the forest landscape, the connection to the land is deeply rooted and the community even after going through some changes retraces back to the original with a permanent trait.

Warlis and forest landscape:

4.2 Way Forward

The study of imprints with respect to timescale suggests strong interdependencies between what is permanently anchored in relation to the one which revolves around it. The nature of the landscape is constant, and when things are acted upon, there is a slight change in systems. In this terrain, it is observed that permanent is most prominent, transient layers are overlapped between permanent and temporary, and it is not separated, whereas temporary layers are minimal and primarily reflected in the last scale where acts of dwelling are performed. The landscape is solid, correlated to forest resources, traditional knowledge systems, place-based narratives, culture, sense of community, and occupational strategies.

The study of imprints through the layers of temporality and permanence is based on dependencies and associations with nature. The journey along the paths that connect to the people who live in the landscape is a complex interweaving of many concurrent cycles. The community is adaptable to its surroundings and has established a network of interrelationships between various rhythms. This different interpretation of the cross section of landscape and culture addresses that the settlements are closely knitted to their surroundings and perform different acts of inhabitation to sustain the environment.

The pattern observed in this region is that certain temporary elements appear and disappear in relation to time within the act of permanence. Forest core, water sources, riparian edges, ravines, orchard plantations, settlements, and paddy fields are classified as different acts and studied in relation to different layers. The association with the land is deeply reflected in the community. The anchors, which are permanent, are the aspect of depth and holding a larger system together. As defined through their culture and paintings, Warli art shows a never-ending life cycle; it depicts the community’s lifestyle and daily activities that are closely knitted to their environment. The tribal house is an action, a process. In the dark interior of the abode, warlis has a sense of returning to the womb. Warli painting, toddy tapping, paddy cultivation, tying bamboo fences, and collecting things from nature to build are of solid association with the place they belong. These roots in mother nature and a solid relationship and dependencies with the land justify that the tribe is closely interlinked. The landscape and the culture associated with it are more seasonal, yearly, and have a longer duration of shift; hence, it is slow-paced and cannot be perceived.

A cultural landscape combines nature and humanity, as evidenced by a long and intimate relationship between people and their natural surroundings. As a result, it is critical to recognise that the landscape’s character reflects the values of the people who have shaped it and continue to live in it. Understanding the nuances of this landscape process in the context of a unique cultural setting and adopting different inhabitation results in a way of life that serves as a key in deciphering land and its patterns. This is an attempt to comprehend the interconnections between humans and the landscape in order to reveal the sensitivities that must be developed prior to settling in.

Are coastal landscapes temporal? Are forest landscapes permanent?

Comparing the larger landscape systems and cultures associated with each region derived that specific processes are interlinked with time. The objects in the landscape encounter 114

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References: Ingold, T. (2011). The Perception of Environment: Essays on livelihood, Dwelling and Skill. New york: Routledge.

Ingold, T. (2011). The temporality of the landscape. In The Perception of Environment: Essays on livelihood, Dwelling and Skill (pp. 189–208). London ; New York : Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.

List of figures and Image credits: Fig.1: Key plan with 11km section marled and different landscapes of the region Fig.2: Photo documentation of different landscape and dwelling conditions of fishing village. Courtesy of: Master in Landscape Architecture, C. U. (2022). Photograph.

Fig.3: Site section and specific condition sections of the settlement and landscape

Bibliography: Davidson-Arnott, R. (2009). An Introduction to Coastal Processes and Geomorphology.

Cambridge University Press.

Gorle, J. (2019). Intersection of ecology and culture in Pastoral landscape. Ahmedabad.

Fig.4: Photo documentation of foothills and paddy fields along with the settlements.

Courtesy of: Master in Landscape Architecture, C. U. (2022). Photograph.

Fig.5: Plans of different conditions with detail spot sections extracted from the settlement study Fig.6: Mosaic of geomorphic layers like land, water, flora and fauna annotated as the natural layer in circle and cultivated layer in square, the section line marked with different

Ingold, T. (2010). Footprints through the weather world : walking, breathing , knowing.

Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, S121-S139.

Waldheim, J. D. (2016). Cartographic Grounds - projecting the landscape imaginary. New york : Princeton architectral press.

altitudes and spot section for the study Fig.7: Section through the estuary which includes marshes, creek and coastal common area and vegetation on the dune and casuarina plantation on other side Fig.8: Section through the Mangelvad settlement with mangrove ecosystem on side holding tightly to the creek and macchi settlement near to the coast with one story

Deshpande, J., & Paul, A. (Eds.). (2015). The rural studio project. National Institute of Advanced Studies in Architecture.

Shoreline Change Atlas of India (Volume – 2 Maharashtra and Goa). (2014). https://vedas. sac.gov.in/vedas/downloads/atlas/Seashore/Vol-2-Full.pdf

kachha houses.

Fig.9: Section through Macchivada settlement which is near to the coast on primary dune which forms a wetland surrounded by mangroves crossing the creek full of mudflats till the lake edge Fig.10: Section through Plantations of vegetables on different levels surrounded by

Environmental Movement in Dahanu: Competing Pulls. (2011). Economic & Political Weekly. https://www.epw.in/journal/2011/49/commentary/ environmental-movement-dahanu-competing-pulls.html?0=ip_login_no_ cache%3Db09c640a7323db852191f26919d01ccb

palms and cactus marking the territory of the fields with houses on side

Lustig, L. K. , Ritter, . Dale F. , Dury, . George Harry and Schumm, . Stanley A. (2020, November 11). river. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/ river

cultivation lands till gram panchayat and rice fields to settlements

Manning, L. (2011). Scenario Journal. Visualizing Information.

Fig.11: Section through Checkdam near to Pada (settlement) used for washing clothes and bathing with steep edges on side Fig.12: Section perpendicular and parellel to river showing settlements, chowks, Fig.13: Section perpendicular to river showing scattered karvi houses, orchards and rice fields Fig.14: Section through the steep terrain of the foothills which includes teak forest, patches of cultivated land and scattered settlements

Touw, K. (2006). Firmitas re-visited: Permanence in Contemporary Architecture.

University of Waterloo. Canada.

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Fig.15: Framework for the case study

Fig.39: Acts of landscape on the coastline and vegetation

Fig.16: Different landscape and dwelling conditions of coastal village Zai

Fig.40: Acts of dwelling around the activity nodes

Fig.17: Base map with all the layers of contours, watershed boundary, rivers and other

Fig.41: Bridge and embankment as a study area

settlements, roads and cultivated land.

Fig.42: Acts of landscape around the creek edges forming levee

Retrieved from: Team, Q. D. (2022). QGIS Geographic Information System. Retrieved from

Fig.43: Acts of dwelling on the deck near the retaining area

QGIS_software: https://qgis.org/en/site/#

Fig.44: Khazans and riverbed as a study area

Master in Landscape Architecture, C. U. (2022). Base map of the region.

Fig.45: Acts of landscape in the seasonal wetlands and river edges

Fig.18: Region of study marked from the base map consist of dune and river edges

Fig.46: Acts of dwelling through paddy cultivation around settlements

Fig.19: View of the estuary, salt marsh and the coastal common area

Fig.47: Temporary shelters as a study area

Fig.20: Annotation of temporary, permanent and transient layers in acts of landscape

Fig.48: Acts of landscape on the coastline and groves

Fig.21: Annotation of temporary, permanent and transient layers in acts of dwelling

Fig.49: Acts of dwelling around the temporary settlements and ground

Fig.22: Aquatic ponds for fish farming surrounded by bunds

Fig.50: Transition in water systems and vegetation

Fig.23: Key plan with section line

Fig.51: Patterns expanding and contracting

Fig.24: Study region marked from previous scale to study the dune and settlements

Fig.52: Dense patterns observed in orchards and dune

Fig.25: Aerial view of the dune edge with settlements, vegetation layer and coastline.

Fig.53: Less built structure expansion of landscape systems

Zai Beach 2019. (2022, April 14). [Image]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/

Fig.54: Landscape setting changes as built structures

watch?v=Z4NSTSdpuOY

Fig.55: Modified landscape features get controlled by the surrounding

Fig.26: Annotation of temporary, permanent and transient layers in acts of landscape at

Fig.56: Imprint of estuarine zone over the years revolved around cycles of water shaping

the scale of dune

the terrain

Fig.27: Annotation of temporary, permanent and transient layers in acts of dwelling at the

Fig.57: Mangrove forest and its relationship with the settlements and the pattern of

scale of dune

occupying

Fig.28: Key plan with section line

Fig.58: Change in the coastline conditions after a permanent trait to the landscape

Fig.29: Key plan with section line

Fig.59: Transition of the creek edge modified by the hard edge and activities are

Fig.30: Location of imprints marked on the larger base map of the village

transformed

Fig.31: Photographic documentation of the imprints shows different terrain and activities

Fig.60: The khazan systems surrounded by bunds and evolution of mangroves

Fig.32: Estuary zone marked as a study area

Fig.61: Expansion and contraction between the settlements and surroundings

Fig.33: Acts of landscape in the estuarian zone and creek

Fig.62: Different landscape and dwelling conditions of forest village in Aswali

Fig.34: Acts of dwelling in the estuarian zone and coastal common

Fig.63: Base map with the reservoir between the ranges, seasonal rivers, streams, riparian

Fig.35: Mangrove systems marked as a study area

edges, orchards, paddy fields and settlements in a scattered manner

Fig.36: Acts of landscape around mangroves and swamps

Retrieved from: Team, Q. D. (2022). QGIS Geographic Information System. Retrieved from

Fig.37: Acts of dwelling around the older settlement

QGIS_software: https://qgis.org/en/site/#

Fig.38: Coastline and market marked as a study area

Master in Landscape Architecture, C. U. (2022). Base map of the region.

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119

Fig.64: Region for the study from the larger base map of the foothills

Fig.95: Core forest cover, water retention and patterns of occupying on the fringes of the

Fig.65: Photographic plates of foothills, Aswali dam and typical tribal house

foothills

Fig.66: Annotation of temporary, permanent and transient layers in acts of landscape

Fig.96: Water catchment area expands while patterns on the fringes remains constant

Fig.67: Annotation of temporary, permanent and transient layers in acts of dwelling

Fig.97: Dam is built for water collection, tributaries and valleys formed in the landscape

Fig.68: Key plan with section line

Fig.98: Origination of orchards, teak forest expanding towards foothills

Fig.69: Study region comprises of the riperian belt and different arrangement of the

Fig.99: Patterns of orchards increases, paddy fields forms a close pattern near to the

settlement

settlement

Fig.70: Flora and fauna near the riperian edge and surroundings of tribal house

Fig.100: Forest cover expands till the uplands, retaining elements build to protect

Fig.71: Annotation of temporary, permanent and transient layers in acts of landscape

orchards, bridges span across for smooth transit

Fig.72: Annotation of temporary, permanent and transient layers in acts of dwelling

Fig.101: The pattern of expanding and closely knitted dense cluster formed by the tribe

Fig.73: Key plan with section line

Fig.102: The change observed through orchard plantation while the settlement pattern

Fig.74: Key plan with section line

remains constant

Fig.75: Location of imprints marked on the larger base map of the village

Fig.103: The riparian edge shapes the terrain while in the foothills it is held tightly

Fig.76: Photographic plates of different conditions of surroundings

Fig.104: The evolving centres surrounded by different seasonal and daily activities

Fig.77: Dense cluster marked as a study area

Fig.105: The terrain of the foothills and patterns of settling in the rolling landscape

Fig.78: Acts of landscape around the river edge and vegetation

Fig.106: Expansion and contraction of certain temporal events in between the permanent

Fig.79: Acts of dwelling surrounding the settlements

trait

Fig.80: Scatter settlement marked as a study area Fig.81: Acts of landscape around earth bund and riperian edge Fig.82: Acts of dwelling around orchards and scatter settlements Fig.83: Raised terrain marked as a study area Fig.84: Acts of landscape around earth bund and riperian edge Fig.85: Acts of dwelling around river edges and foothills Fig.86: Raised terrain marked as a study area Fig.87: Acts of landscape through vegetative cover and terrain change Fig.88: Acts of dwelling around central area and hay farming Fig.89: Stepped terraces marked as a study area Fig.90: Acts of landscape through dense vegetation on the slopes Fig.91: Acts of dwelling on steppes terraces of paddy fields Fig.92: Orchards and houses marked as a study area Fig.93: Acts of landscape through dense vegetation near the fields Fig.94: Acts of dwelling near orchards and fields 120

121

Glossary: Khazans - Reclaimed lands from the river or the sea. A created network of bunds protects the agricultural fields and adjoining villages from tidal flows.

Estuary - An estuary is a partially enclosed, coastal water body where freshwater from rivers and streams mixes with salt water from the ocean.

Appendix 5.1 Site Observations Documenting coastal village - Zai

Mudflats - Sedimentary intertidal habitats found in estuaries and other sheltered areas.

The sediments generally consist of silts and clays with a high organic content. Mudflats frequently occur as part of the natural sequence of habitats between the sub- littoral zone and vegetated saltmarshes.

Dune - A dune is a mound of sand formed by the wind, usually along the beach or in a desert.

Creek - A natural stream of water normally smaller than and often tributary to a river.

Also defined as a small inlet or bay narrower and extending farther inland than a cove Oxbow lake - An oxbow lake is a U-shaped lake or pool that forms when a wide meander of a river is cut off, creating a free-standing body of water.

Brackish water - A natural water body which is the mixture of salt water and freshwater Riparian - A riparian zone or riparian area is the interface between land and a river or stream.

Flood Plains - A floodplain or flood plain or bottomlands is an area of land adjacent to a river which stretches from the banks of its channel to the base of the enclosing valley walls, and which experiences flooding during periods of high discharge.

Fringes - Out edge of the Forests Littoral Forests - Littoral forests are forests along the coast and cayes featuring salt-tolerant vegetation.

Local names: Pada - a piece of cultivable land Varal - a piece of land Karvi - A localy available plant used as building material by Warlis Toddy - Date palms Chowk - A square where 3 or more roads open up Khadi - Creek Kachha House- Temporary shelters Tarpa - a musical instrument Waghoba - Tiger Diety Matsyagandha - Community Boat Adivasi - Tribal Otta - Verandah Kinara - Coast 122

123

Documenting forest village - Aswali

124

125

5.1 Picture essay - Reflections from the site

clothes and surrounded with chaos. The Zai village is divided from the main street into two communities – Mangelvad and Macchivada. The division is based on occupation hierarchy,

MOSAIC OF RURAL LANDSCAPES MOSAIC OF RURAL LANDSCAPES The in the Dahanu region of Maharashtra whichwhich has unique characteristics observed Thestudy studylies lies in the Dahanu region of Maharashtra has unique characteristics inobserved the stretch of 14km from the Arabian SeaArabian to the Western Ghats.

Tracing andTracing observing in the stretch of 14km from the Sea to the Western Ghats. andthe observing the life and culture of fisher and from Warliscoastline residingtofrom coastline To to record the life and culture of fisher folks and Warlisfolks residing the foothills. foothills.

To instincts record some initial instincts of the place throughfrom simply from thethe shore some initial of the place through simply walking thewalking shore towards creek

the men from Macchivada go fishing and the people from Mangelvad are involved in export. The village is on an elevated level and protected by a sand bar on the coast side.

Walking through the lanes of Macchivada, the houses are low line and all the daily activities are concentrated in the verandahs. Moving towards the creek the change in landform is quite evident, we encountered a large open area with moist soil, mangroves growing, dense vegetation and bunds in the periphery, and they refer to this as Khazan. The area

towards the creek – where streams flow, people are at work, the paths accompanied by

near Mangelvad has some double-story houses; the unique feature about it is the cluster of

palms, bamboo, and orchards with ranges of hills marking its presence in the background

mangroves holding tightly to the land, where resides a lot of species and it protects the older

graciously invites my eyesight to reside within.

settlements near to it.

– where streams flow, people are at work, the paths accompanied by palms, bamboo, and orchards with ranges of hills marking its presence in the background graciously invites my eyesight to reside within.

There is a cultural transit moving from Zai, the coastal area passing through the Padas of chickoo orchards where check dams are built on the river at intervals. Life slowly changes as Figure 1 Grasslands near river edge surrounded by vegetation

one crosses the railway line, moving towards the foothills resides a hamlet named Aswali.

The presence of the place was a different sort of experience as the river was meeting the

As we experienced the daily movement of the Warli people, we realized that they were

sea, a mesmerizing view with the mark of coastline, tree canopies, marshes, and expanse of

deeply rooted in their traditions, and have a strong relationship with land and forest. The

flatlands. We commence our journey by walking near the creek which was occupied by

trails in the forest between the steep slopes with an arrangement of blunt stones define

The presence of the place was a different sort of experience as the river was meeting the sea, a mesmerizing view with the mark of coastline, tree canopies, marshes, and expanse ofrows flatlands.

We commence our journey by walking near the creek which was occupied by of wooden boats full of men arranging fishing nets, ice boxes, weights and thermocol. rows of wooden boats full ofwhich men arranging fishing ice boxes, thermocol.

The boats had colorful flags were marking the nets, ownership.

Thenweights movingand through the The boats colorful which marking ownership.

Thenverandahs moving through main lane,had followed byflags a series of were houses built onthe a high plinth with openingthe towards the street followed by women tying the on nets, washing clothes the wellopening and main lane, followed by a series of houses built a high plinth withnear verandahs lot of people gathered at theby chowk.

Thetying market dailyclothes in the near evening, towards the street followed women thetakes nets, place washing the where well and

the movement of water and people. The indigenous Warli tribes had knitted themselves to this landscape through their traditional knowledge systems. Through the vastness of rice fields, where palms and cactus mark the individual territory reside small clusters of traditional Warli hut. The houses are entwined with bamboo, karvi sticks and wattle and

the women of Zai village are the vendors selling fish and vegetables. Walking into the

the daub technique is used to apply mud to it. On the foothills is large reservoir and dam

internal lanes, the character of the place is denser and lot of shaded spaces is formed.

surrounded by teak forest. Walking along the river edges with hard terrain of boulders, I

Availability of water is quite less, so the chowks were filled with people drawing water from

experienced varied sounds of ripples, ducks quaking in between the submerged plants and

lot of people gathered at the chowk. The market takes place daily in the evening, where the women of Zai village are the vendors selling fish and vegetables. Walking into the internal lanes, the character of the place is denser and lot of shaded spaces is formed. Availability of water is quite less, so the chowks were filled with people drawing water from well, washing 126

goats climbing up from the river edge.

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The daily life patterns of Warlis are vividly described

In the journey of moving through the landscape of parallels to the landscape of clusters, we

in their art form through simple forms. At different

engaged in different acts of dwelling; follow certain rhythmic patterns in daily activities,

stages of the landscape, we traced there movement

associated with dependency on natural sources these layers are closely knitted with time and

right from foothills fetching firewood from the forest,

space. The seen to unseen features of landscape like natural depression, changing canopies,

knitting the bamboo fences, to the men working in hay

proximity to resources, patterns of movement altered through the process of time. The

farms are the task that keeps them engaged. We came

dependencies and sources are either momentary or else closely weaved into permanence.

across two patterns of inhabiting, one where the cluster

The pattern of resonances that comprises temporality which is bounded in time is the chores

was closely organized near to the source of water

performed by both the communities to nestle in the landscape. The clear distinction visible

like river edge, well and bore which generates small

between both is the dependency on the natural resources. In a predominantly changing

gathering spaces around it. This type of organization

landscape like Zai, the community is dependent on the nature of water which directly affects

is also referred as padas, which accommodate certain

the settlement that is closely knitted which is temporary in nature. Whereas in Aswali the

government blocks. The other pattern is observed near

Warli community is dependent on land and due to this their movement is quite stable, they

the stepping terrain molded either naturally or a part

are distributed across the landscape and change in the cycle is a part of a slow process which

of cultivated land where the houses are arranged in

results in more of permanence.

scattered formations. Their lifestyle and dependencies are clearly associated with land for cultivation and forest for shelter.

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5.1 Base maps of Google earth Coastal study: Base map, Scale -1,2 of larger region and imprints with timescale of three years ( 2003, 2013, 2021 )

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5.1 Base maps of Google earth Forest study: Scale -1,2 of larger region and imprints with timescale of three years ( 2003, 2013, 2021 )

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