Spectrum Magazine: Change

SPECTRUM MAGAZINE: CHANGE OCTOBER 2023

ISSUE NUMBER: 1

HOW IS SCIENCE CHANGING THE WORLD, FROM PEOPLE, TO SPACE? HOW HAVE IDEAS OF THE TRUTH CHANGED? HOW SPACE EXPLORATION WILL CHANGE IN THE FUTURE AND ITS EFFECTS ON HUMANITY.?

Change Pure Science Society

FROM THE EDITORS Change is the only real constant in this world. And in a world filled with change, it is often hard to know where to look.

The sciences are a perfect example of the constant evolution of new ideas and theories that shape our beliefs about the world, and throughout this magazine, we hope to take you on a journey of change. Starting with change in its relation to people, the first articles look at both changes within humans, as well as how we have changed science. The following articles then explore science in healthcare, and finally, the later articles will talk about changes in space in energy.

After reading the wonderful articles, we noticed a common theme of technology in the scientific field arose. The creation of new technologies has not only driven forward the scientific and healthcare fields but has also changed the way we experience the world. A particular area of science driven by technology, is the creation of mRNA vaccines. During the Covid-19 Pandemic, companies such as Moderna, were able to design a new vaccine in just 2 days, with the technology they had already developed. These vaccines further have the potential, with more research, to become a cancer treatment.

This discovery is what inspired the design of the front cover, which, if you hadn’t noticed, was actually generated by an AI tool, another example of a technology which has the potential to revolutionise the scientific field (although I am cautiously optimistic of the effect of AI in science).

To someone unaware, would you think that the image was distinguishable from any other image online? What does this say about how AI can change our perception, and deceive us? I’ll leave those questions with you.

This edition was written by fabulous writers across the senior school who have given their time to learn a new concept above their course level and share their knowledge with you.

Please enjoy the edition, and feel free to let us know what you think!

Shreya and Sara CO-EDITORS

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TABLE OF CONTENTS THE CHANGING IDEAS OF TRUTH Giorgietta THE EVOLUTIONARY DEVELOPMENT OF CONSCIOUSNESS Sonia

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THE REMARKABLE CONNECTION BETWEEN THE CHANGE IN OUR MOOD AND BRAIN CHEMISTRY

Misha REVOLVER: THE CHANGE IN THE CANCER INDUSTRY WE’VE BEEN LOOKING FOR?

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Mahi

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THE ETHICS OF GENETIC TECHNOLOGIES IN HEALTHCARE Tara

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THE LONG-TERM CHANGES NOISE CAN MAKE TO OUR CARDIOVASCULAR HEALTH

Margaret

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SCNT – HOW WILL IT CHANGE OUR FUTURE?

Camilla

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THE INCREASING IMPORTANCE OF SPORTS SCIENCE IN MEDICINE

Deeshaya

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NUCLEAR FUSION – A SOLUTION TO THE ENERGY CONUNDRUM OF THE CENTURY

Amelia

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HOW SPACE EXPLORATION AND TECHNOLOGY WILL CHANGE IN THE FUTURE AND THE EFFECTS IT WILL HAVE ON HUMANITY

Sophia

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REFERENCES

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The Changing Ideas of Truth The discovery of new ideas has changed the way we use and view the world, but we also must remember how quickly ideas can be changed and discredited, and how even the greatest minds can be led astray and make mistakes.

One discovery that changed our world view dramatically was Galileo’s discovery that the Earth revolved around the Sun. He made other discoveries, some that were later proved incorrect, but he still made a huge impact on us understanding the world we live in. Galileo Galilei was an Italian astronomer, physicist, and engineer. He was born in the city of Pisa but then later became a part of the Duchy of Florence. He was born in 1564 and died in 1642. He was the inventor of the spyglass, which could make objects that were far appear close. He was the first person to observe the Moon through it. Some of his other discoveries that were found in the wake of this newfound invention, was the fact that the Moon was mountainous and had craters like Earth.

He discovered four of the moons of Jupiter, he also observed the phases of Venus. All of these and others strengthened a belief that he had in the Copernicus Theory, which stated that instead of the Sun revolving around the Earth, the Earth revolved around the Sun. This theory was first put to light by Nicholas Copernicus, who suggested the system in which the planets revolve around the Sun. The belief that the Sun revolved around the Earth at the time was a core Catholic belief because the Catholics thought that G-d would want to put his most important creation in the centre of the Universe. At the time the Catholic church played a significant role in the legal system so when Galileo began to publish papers stating his support for the Copernicus theory, he was called to Rome to answer charges being brought against him by the inquisition (this was the legal body of the Catholic church). They were infuriated by his opinions and Galileo was charged for being Heretic (this was a term for those who went against the teachings of the church). Heresy was a crime that you could be sentenced to death for. He was cleared of the charge but was forbidden to continue publishing such statements. He ignored this warning and was later brought back to court where he was charged and spent the rest of his days under house arrest.

In conclusion it was many years before his theory was believed, but this part of history asks the question, can we justify the church? Obviously, it is wrong to imprison someone for life because they have a different opinion than you, but we can also imagine that to have somebody tell you that a fundamental view you have had for your whole life is wrong and then provide concrete evidence to support this would inevitably be daunting and scary. This demonstrates how easy it is for indisputable ideas to change and how one person can change how we view the universe entirely. Obviously, this happened a long time ago, but to put it in a modern scope, if suddenly a scientist turned around and declared that they had non-debatable proof about ideas people had never been able to imagine could be possible. Depending on the situation this could lead to mass hysteria as people retaliate against changing ideas.

Heading to a more recent example, the mistake of Albert Einstein. Until 1931 Einstein believed that the Universe was static. This means that the universe never changes, never expands and that the stars in the sky are never changing. This might have stemmed from the teachings of Aristotle who believed, “the sky is immutable unlike Earth which is perishable.” In 1054 there was a new light spotted in the sky in China, this light was the result of a Supernova, clearly this could have not been known to the population at the time. The remains of the supernova can be spotted in the Crab Nebula. 1054 was the first known sighting of the star, in 1054 the star was visible all through the night and day. The controlling thought that the universe was static barred most of Europe from accepting this phenomenon. Einstein also stood by this belief for a very long time. To remain within this, he added a cosmological constant to his equation which froze the state of the Universe. Later this

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was proved incorrect, it was proved false by the Hubble Telescope which demonstrated that the universe was expanding. The Hubble Telescope was an extraordinary astronomical advance which shaped and evolved our view of the cosmos. The telescope was invented by Edwin Powell Hubble, he studied the light being emitted from varying galaxies. He realized that the red light was displaced near the end of the spectrum. From this discovery it became clear that the universe is expanding and that galaxies are moving away from each other.

Einstein later admitted that it was his biggest mistake.

In conclusion, should we believe everything we get told by the media? Although we do have to put these examples in a modern context and realize that nowadays we have much better technology and masses of proof to back most discoveries being made in the present time. Despite this, is it the right decision to completely trust everything we are told when one of the greatest minds in history was proved wrong? These examples beg the question, should we trust the facts that are given to us by scientists, and place hope in some of the most trusted minds of the centuries or question that someday a new mastermind is going to turn around and prove everything we know to be false.

Giorgietta

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The Evolutionary Development of Consciousness The modern concept of human consciousness in society, as defined by philosopher John Locke in his Essay Concerning Human Understanding, is “Perception of what passes in a man’s own mind.” [1] Being aware of our own existence and of our own awareness of stimuli is a level of consciousness which many assume only humans possess. Another criterion of consciousness is being able to act in accordance with internal plans, instead of relying on unconscious reflexes, which requires developments such as memory. [2] Locke’s definition and the development of awareness An early precursor to consciousness is selective signal enhancement – one of the most primitive systems that allowed organisms to selectively process information from specific stimuli. This first type of awareness evolved approximately 700 to 600 million years ago. The hydra, whose ancestors split from those of other animals around 700 million years ago, does not show selective signal enhancement. Its primitive nervous system, called a nerve net, has no centralised controller, causing it to react the same way to stimuli from any direction.

However, arthropods, which evolved about 600 million years ago, demonstrate selective signal enhancement by focusing on visual signals corresponding to edges, thus creating an outline of its environment. Therefore, selective signal enhancement is likely to have evolved after the hydra and before arthropods. [3] Psychiatrist and neurologist Todd Feinberg and evolutionary biologist Jon Mallatt theorise that primary consciousness developed in the first vertebrates, cephalopods, and arthropods. Primary consciousness is the most primitive form of consciousness – an awareness of stimuli which constitutes the ability to have experiences. [4] Feinberg and Mallatt claim that primary consciousness requires a brain that can produce an isomorphic map (an internal image of the environment) based on sensory inputs. [5] This provides ‘exteroceptive awareness’, or awareness of the external environment, which is one of Feinberg and Mallatt’s “three domains” of consciousness. [4] Exteroceptive awareness was first enabled by the tectum, a brain structure that most likely evolved between 541 and 530 million years ago during the Cambrian explosion, an event characterised by the appearance of many of the major groups of animals. [3][6] In this period, the development of predation drove natural selection, with the ability to form mental images of the environment allowing organisms to process information more efficiently, thus giving them a selective advantage. [4] Possessed only by vertebrates, the tectum controls overt attention, which is the focusing of the senses on a specific location for processing. For example, in primates such as humans, if neurons fire in a location in the isomorphic map, the tectum directs the eyes to that location. The tectum also provides the second of Feinberg and Mallatt’s domains of consciousness – interoceptive awareness. This, for example by creating an internal simulation of the position of body parts. [3][4]

While the tectum is the largest and most advanced part of the brain in fish and amphibians, another sophisticated brain structure, the wulst, evolved in reptiles 350 to 300 million years ago. [3] The wulst is also called the dorsal cortex, or the hyperpallium in birds, and is located in the pallium in the brain.

[7] The reptilian wulst was passed on to birds and mammals, evolving into the cerebral cortex in mammals. [3] In the frontal

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lobe of the cerebral cortex is found the prefrontal cortex, which controls covert attention, thoughts, and actions based on internal plans. [8] Covert attention involves the ability to shift attention to more abstract things, such as when thinking about a memory. According to the Attention Schema Theory (AST), developed by Michael Graziano, the cortex creates an ‘attention schema’ – an internal representation of what the organism’s covert attention is focused on. [3] The AST says that the brain’s attention schema contains the subject of attention, a representation of the self, and a representation of its attention being on the subject. [9] This satisfies Locke’s definition of consciousness, that self-awareness is constituted of what one’s internal thoughts are focused on. Additionally, Graziano theorises that the attention schema of animals such as humans developed to also recognise the consciousness of others. Therefore, it aids social cognition – the ability to process information about others and predict their behaviour in social situations. Graziano claims that cortical networks in the brain which recognise the consciousness of others often coincide with networks that recognise our own consciousness. This shows that social cognition develops our own sense of consciousness. [3] The development of memory Another criterion of human-like consciousness, acting on internal plans, also requires memory. Remembering the past helps enable conscious organisms to predict the consequences of an action, which is needed for planning and decision-making. The main areas of the brain responsible for memory are: The amygdala – responsible for ‘fear memories’, the amygdala regulates emotions such as fear and stores memories in response to stress hormones The cerebellum – responsible for procedural memory, which is long-term memory for how to carry out actions such as riding a bike The prefrontal cortex – responsible for remembering semantic tasks, which means classifying stimuli based on their meaning in language The hippocampus – responsible for recognition memory, and for spatial memory, which includes remembering the location of an object, therefore needing to create an isomorphic map [10] The hippocampus evolved to enable spatial memory in early vertebrates. In fish, the lateral pallium has been shown to control spatial memory as damaging it affects the fish’s ability to create internal maps of its surroundings. In birds and reptiles, the medial or central pallium evolved to allow spatial memory instead of the lateral pallium, as the forebrain in fish is almost everted or ‘inside-out’ in structure compared to other vertebrates. Despite having different shapes, the medial pallium of birds and reptiles and the mammalian hippocampus have similar chemical and functional features, [11] leading us to conclude that the hippocampus evolved from the common ancestor of amniotes (reptiles, birds and mammals). For example, the medial pallium of birds, also called the avian hippocampal formation, contains similar cell types to those in the mammalian hippocampus, suggesting that both originated from the shared ancestor of amniotes. [12] In conclusion, the evolution of primary consciousness would have begun 541 to 530 million years ago with the development of the tectum in vertebrates, allowing the brain to create an isomorphic map of the organism’s surroundings. Consciousness developed further due to the emergence of the reptilian wulst around 350 to 300 million years ago, eventually becoming the cerebral cortex in mammals. According to the Attention Schema Theory, the cortex provides awareness of what we are thinking, which satisfies Locke’s definition of consciousness. Additionally, the hippocampus contributes to mammals’ ability to produce an isomorphic map by enabling spatial memory and seems to have arisen from the common ancestor of reptiles, birds and mammals.

Sonia 7

The Remarkable Connection Between the Change in our Mood and Brain Chemistry Have you ever wondered why our mood can influence how we go about our daily lives? How our mood changes the way we experience things? Whether we wake up cheery and optimistic, or melancholy and grumpy, our mood plays a key role in the way we think, feel, and perceive the world around us. But what is going on exactly inside our brains when our mood shifts?

Our emotions are a series of chemical reactions within our brains, controlled by the complex cooperation of neurotransmitters and hormones. There are four main chemicals in our brains that play a significant role in our positive moods, which are serotonin, dopamine, endorphins, and oxytocin. These chemicals collectively regulate our emotions, thoughts, and behaviors.

1. Serotonin: the feel-good neurotransmitter Serotonin is responsible for our feelings of happiness, wellbeing and the stability of our mood and is commonly referred to as the ‘feel-good neurotransmitter’. It is made from the essential amino acid tryptophan and is produced when you feel satisfaction or importance, and helps regulate healthy sleep patterns and appetite. This neurotransmitter is found in several parts of the body, including your digestive system, blood platelets, and throughout the central nervous system. Levels of serotonin can be increased by eating nutritious meals, getting more sunlight, taking certain supplements, getting more exercise, and lowering your stress level. High or low levels of serotonin can lead to health problems; therefore, it is important to have the right amount of serotonin in our bodies.

2. Dopamine: the pleasure and reward molecule Dopamine is produced by a part of the brain called the hypothalamus, that helps you feel pleasure. Our nervous system uses dopamine to send messages between nerve cells, therefore it is a neurotransmitter. When you experience something enjoyable, such as eating a nice meal or achieving a goal, your brain releases dopamine. This reward mechanism reinforces positive behaviors and emotions. It is an important part of our reward system as it is responsible for allowing you to feel pleasure, satisfaction and motivation. Some easy, natural ways to release dopamine include meditation, listening to music, eating protein, exercising, going out in the sun and getting enough sleep.

What are the differences between dopamine and serotonin?

One of the differences between dopamine and serotonin are that dopamine is mainly found in your brain, whereas serotonin is predominantly found in your gut. Additionally, dopamine affects motivation and pleasure and makes you feel more alert, whereas serotonin stabilizes mood and anxiety, and helps to regulate sleep.

3. Endorphins: the body’s natural painkillers Endorphins are opioid peptides produced by the hypothalamus and pituitary glands that act as neurotransmitters. They are often referred to as the body’s natural painkillers as they are released when your body feels pain or stress. When you feel pain, nerves in your body send pain signals to your brain. Your brain releases the neurotransmitter endorphins to block the nerve cells that receive the pain signals. This essentially turns off your pain. Endorphins are important as they help you to function even in painful or stressful situations.

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Endorphins are often related to exercise, as the more you exercise, the more endorphins are released in your body. Therefore, the most effective way to emit endorphins is any form of exercise from powerwalking to hiking up a mountain. Some other methods you can use to release endorphins include eating dark chocolate, acupuncture, meditation, listening to music, watching television, laughing, and meditation.

What are the differences between endorphins and dopamine?

Endorphins and dopamine are both chemicals in the body that are responsible for making you feel happy, however they function in different ways. Endorphins relieve pain naturally. In the process of doing so, they attach to your brain’s reward centers (opiate receptors), causing dopamine to be released. For instance, when an athlete is running, endorphins will help to soothe the runner’s aching muscles. Dopamine will then be released, generating a runner’s high to keep the athlete motivated, as dopamine motivates you to do something repeatedly. Endorphins and dopamine work together and are closely linked with high endorphin levels boosting dopamine production.

4. Oxytocin: the love hormone Oxytocin is a hormone that is, similarly to dopamine, produced in the hypothalamus and released into the bloodstream by the pituitary gland. Its main function is to facilitate childbirth, which is one of the reasons it is called the ‘love drug’ or ‘love hormone’. It plays a crucial role after childbirth as it promotes lactation by causing contractions of the myoepithelial cells in the alveolar ducts of your breasts. These contractions move milk through your breast tissue.

It also acts as a chemical messenger in your brain and has an important role in many human behaviors and social interactions such as recognition and trust. Oxytocin is one of the only hormones that has a positive feedback loop. This means that the release of oxytocin causes actions that stimulate your pituitary gland to release even more of it.

Our brains are remarkable chemical factories, constantly producing neurotransmitters that influence our mood and emotions. The complex interactions between serotonin, dopamine, endorphins, and other neurotransmitters shape and change our emotional experiences. Recognizing this connection allows us to develop effective strategies for managing and improving our mood, whether through medication, therapy, or lifestyle adjustments. By understanding the relationship between brain chemistry and mood, we can take proactive steps towards better mental and emotional health.

Misha

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REVOLVER: The Change In The Cancer Industry We’ve Been Looking For? Over the years, we have all heard of the endless attempts to help beat cancer and with the growth of technology, comes the growth of opportunity, such as the introduction of REVOLVER. REVOLVER is a machine based on repeated evolution technology (RET) and is designed to apply certain algorithms to cancer treatment. It uses a machine learning approach (transfer learning) to find patterns in DNA mutations within cancer and uses the information to forecast genetic changes. The study leader, Dr. Andrea Sottoriva, said “we’ve developed a powerful artificial intelligence tool which can make predictions about the future steps in the evolution of tumours based on certain patterns of mutation that have so far remained hidden within complex data sets. With this tool we hope to remove one of cancer’s trump cards – the fact that it evolves unpredictably, without us knowing what is going to happen next. By giving us a peek into the future, we could potentially use this AI tool to intervene at an earlier stage, predicting cancer’s next move.”

The machine strives to solve the biggest challenge in oncology: how tumours progress from benign (noncancerous) to malignant (cancerous), become metastatic and spread across the body through the bloodstream and lymph nodes, and unpredictably develop resistance to certain therapies (e.g. chemotherapy, radiation therapy, stem cell transplant, and targeted therapy). This occurs through a process of clonal evolution that involves cancer cells and their microenvironment, and results in intratumor heterogeneity (ITH), which is the presence of distinct tumour populations within the same tumour specimen. The phenotypic variation in the development and growth of tumours due to ITH leads to the presence of some tumour cells that survive treatment, which can potentially result in death of the patient.

But how exactly does REVOLVER work? The machine uses the help of multi-region sampling genomic ITH to share evolutionary trajectories with common somatic drivers. Cancer is genetically inherited and can be triggered by ‘driver cells’, which cause the mutation and development of tumours. There are currently 460 identified driver cells, and by identifying each one, REVOLVER can group tumour developments caused by the same driver genes together (known as trees) and predict patterns of future tumour growth. An evolutionary model for every patient is then inferred and compared to the n trees, which results in the trees being independently inferred. REVOLVER then uses transfer learning to gather the n models jointly and increase their structural correlation. These n trees explain the data in each patient while highlighting repeated

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evolutionary trajectories in the subgroup, allowing for the prediction of the tumour’s growth, and providing personalised treatment for each patient which would combat the tumour growth effectively without subjecting the body to multiple possibly ineffective treatments.

REVOLVER aims to help advance cancer treatment, combining the current knowledge and already identified patterns to predict the future trajectory of tumour development. Furthermore, doctors can use this to help prevent the drastic stages of tumour growth, by treating the patients for future symptoms at an earlier stage.

Using REVOLVER, doctors can also predict which treatments a patient might develop resistance to and therefore find a more effective treatment path.

REVOLVER represents hope for those combatting cancer. It can significantly increase the chance of survival for people with this disease and has the potential to revolutionise modern medicine and bring positive change with it. Its programming is helping oncology to become a more developed and factual study, rather than a new and experimental one, and the REVOLVER AI system shows promise for the future of cancer treatment.

Mahi

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The Ethics of Genetic Technologies in Healthcare Gene technologies are defined as activities in relation to understanding gene expression, changing genes, transferring them to new hosts, and using the benefits of natural genetic variations. Genetic engineering refers to altering the genome of an organism by introducing a gene from another organism in order for a specific trait to be exhibited.

Genetic engineering first began in 1973, when Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen inserted DNA from one bacterium into another. However, genetic engineering was not used in healthcare until 1982, when insulin was produced to treat diabetes. Since then, many new gene-based technologies have been developed to screen, diagnose, prevent, and treat diseases such as cancer and heart disease. Now, all newborns are offered testing for rare genetic, hormone and metabolic conditions, of which the benefits can be huge for those who do have a health problem. Adults can also be screened for genetic conditions such as early onset Alzheimer’s, which can provide valuable time for preventative measures to be taken.

However, although the benefits of the extra time and reassurance of negative test results are immeasurable, positive tests results can also have an adverse effect. For example, Hollywood actor Chris Hemsworth recently discovered that he had two copies of the APO E4 gene, raising the likelihood of him developing Alzheimer’s disease by 10 times. While this sounds drastic, this does not mean that he will definitely develop the condition, as the chance of developing Alzheimer’s is roughly 2% for those over 65. Here, the benefits are limited, as not much can be done, and the results of this genetic test often lead to increased anxiety. This then poses the question of whether it was worth doing the test, as even though the positive result means a higher possibility of Hemsworth developing the condition, the odds still suggest he will not.

When it comes to children, there are mixed arguments both for and against the use of genetic technologies. For children living with conditions where they require a bone marrow transplant,such as leukaemia, the safest option is a donation from a sibling. However, not all these children have siblings, which can lead to the birth of siblings purely for the use of a donation, known as ‘saviour children’. One such patient, Molly Nash, required a matched sibling bone marrow donation, but she had no siblings. Her parents then made the decision to have another child. To have the best chance of the child being a match for Molly, her doctor offered embryo selection to her parents, so that the embryo would be able to serve as an HLA donor for Molly. However, the process of embryo selection raises many ethical questions, as to select the embryo, single cells were rapidly tested for potential genetic conditions. Because of this, Dr Wagner received both praise and threats from the public, as many questioned the decision to give parents the option to choose which embryo was developed based on its genetic data.

Molly Nash’s case also raises the issues that come with ‘saviour children’. These children could be unwanted by their parents, aside from the donation they make to their older sibling, which can lead to resentment later in life. The child may also be neglected if the treatment is unsuccessful. Furthermore, these children typically do not consent to making these donations, as all medical decisions are made by their parents. This is exemplified in the novel My Sister’s Keeper in which the thirteen-year-old main character sues her parents for medical emancipation after being told to donate her kidney to her sister. Here, the main character is an example of a saviour child not consenting to donate and fighting to have autonomy over her own body.

Genetic technology has revolutionised modern-day healthcare, with both patients and doctors being able to learn so much more about the conditions they suffer from. However, these technologies also come with a variety of ethical concerns as they can bring up unnecessary or unwarranted anxiety and can raise questions about saviour children and at what point the use of genetic technologies is morally reprehensible.

Tara

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The Long-Term Changes Noise Can Make To Our Cardiovascular Health We are exposed to noise in almost all parts of daily life - whether it is self-inflicted, such as by listening to music or by working in an environment where noise is guaranteed, or because of constant background noise over which we have no say. The effects of several types of noise on our mental health are well known. Classical music, for example, has been shown to have a positive impact, while loud and continuous background noise from a jack hammer, for example, can stimulate our fight-orflight response. However, in 2018, the World Health Organization (WHO) published an alarming statistic. Western Europeans collectively lose one million years of healthy life every year due to noiserelated health complications.

It is therefore expected that, in the past 20 years, noise in relation to cardiovascular health has made frequent appearances in research papers and magazine articles. In particular, the research carried out by Wolfgang Babisch and Thomas Münzel on this topic has helped shape our understanding of this complex and unexpected relationship. One such theory, published by Babisch in 2002, suggests the existence of two different ways of processing sound: the indirect and direct pathways. The direct pathway refers to the physical damage caused by high-sound pressure levels. This includes the disruption of sleep, which is considered a risk factor for cardiovascular disease (CVD). The indirect pathway is the opposite. It considers the emotional response to repeated noise exposure, owing to the activation of the limbic system (this system includes the amygdala and the hypothalamus – one of their main functions is the processing and regulation of emotions). When the limbic system is stimulated by stress, the amygdala activates the fight-or-flight response. This can alter metabolic state, resulting in abnormal biological rhythms, such as changes in glucose metabolism, lipid dysregulation and hemodynamic change. It can also cause uncontrolled emotional responses, such as annoyance and other forms of stress. But how exactly does noise, something we are all familiar with, lead to something as serious as CVD? Noise and the heart – oxidative stress When we are exposed to loud, repetitive noises, our stress stimulates the release of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) in the hypothalamus. When CRH is taken into the pituitary gland, adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) is released. This stimulates the adrenal gland, which in turn encourages the release of glucocorticoid hormones, such as cortisol, from the adrenal cortex and catecholamines (adrenaline and noradrenaline) from the medulla. This system is known as the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis.

Adrenaline and noradrenaline stimulate the fight-or-flight response. Noradrenaline typically operates as a neurotransmitter in the sympathetic nervous system. It causes the narrowing of blood vessels to increase blood pressure. Adrenaline is responsible for increasing blood sugar levels, breathing rate (for increased cellular respiration) and heart rate to supply more blood to the muscles.

Unfortunately, when the rate of cellular respiration increases, more ATP is synthesised, which increases the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). ROS are, as indicated by their name, highly reactive chemicals produced from diatomic oxygen, and they can accumulate in cells when there is an imbalance of free radicals and antioxidants. Free radicals are very reactive, unstable molecules, capable of reacting with other substances in the body. By doing so, they may damage cells or form abnormal ones – antioxidants play a crucial role in repairing this damage. Although ROS, and free radicals in general, play a part in the immune system as a line of defence against pathogens, they will cause oxidative stress in cells if in excess. Oxidative stress can lead to endothelial dysfunction, a condition that is related to CVD.

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Noise and the heart – endothelial dysfunction Endothelium cells line the entire circulatory system and provide the space for blood and tissues to interact. The endothelium controls vasoconstriction and dilation (therefore managing blood pressure), how much fluid diffuses from blood to tissues and prevents thrombosis (blood clots). Therefore, the endothelium is directly responsible for the maintenance of cardiovascular health.

The endothelium generates prostacyclin, a type of lipid molecule. Prostacyclin prevents platelet activation (as having too high a platelet count increases the risk of blood clots) and is an effective vasodilator.

Nitric oxide (NO•), a free radical, is released by the enzyme endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) in the vascular endothelium. ENOS is one of the most important signalling molecules for vasorelaxation - and consequently maintains vascular homeostasis. eNOS also produces superoxide (O2·−), a highly reactive oxidative species. If produced in too-high quantities, O2·− is known to cause oxidative stress in endothelial cells.

Linking back to the release of catecholamines, adrenaline and noradrenaline activate secondary systems, including the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS). This system produces the enzyme renin, which stimulates the release of angiotensin II from the kidneys. Angiotensin II then stimulates the production of aldosterone from the adrenal gland. Altogether, the RAAS regulates blood pressure and fluid balance in the body – but, when activated, it will increase oxidative stress and inflammation.

As well as angiotensin II causing inflammation and vasoconstriction, it also activates endothelial NADPH oxidase. The enzyme generates the superoxide free radical, causing NADPH-mediated oxidative stress when activated. NADPH-mediated oxidative stress consequently leads to the oxidation of tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4), an essential cofactor (i.e., a chemical that is required for enzymatic function) of eNOS, to the BH3 radical, decreasing the concentration of BH4.

BH4 deficiency causes the production of NO• from eNOS to dwindle, subsequently resulting in eNOS uncoupling (the phenomenon in which eNOS is converted into a superoxide-producing enzyme). Superoxide reacts with nitric oxide to form peroxynitrite (ONOO −)– superoxide and peroxynitrite cause increased oxidative stress, therefore causing cellular damage and eventually leading to endothelial cell death. eNOS uncoupling can also occur because of increased endothelial nitric oxide synthase S-glutathionylation and overproduction of glucocorticoids (e.g., cortisol).

Reduced NO• production through the uncoupling of eNOS contributes to disrupted vascular homeostasis, giving rise to proinflammatory (causing vasoconstriction) and prothrombotic (increased risk of blood clots) blood vessel walls. Endothelium dysfunction can therefore be defined as the endothelium having a reduced capacity for nitric oxide production and reduced NO• sensitivity.

Noise and the heart – cardiovascular disease Endothelial dysfunction increases the risk of inflammation and thrombosis, both of which contribute to increased blood pressure. This is because, when the blood vessels are narrowed, the volume of blood that can travel to and from the heart, and around the body, at one time decreases. This increases the pressure put on the heart, as the stroke volume (volume of blood pumped out of the heart at once) and heart rate (number of beats per minute) must rise to maintain adequate blood circulation.

As a result, the chance of developing cardiovascular disease increases, showing the extent to which cardiovascular health is impacted by repeated exposure to disruptive noise.

Margaret 14

SCNT – How Will it Change Our Future?

Introduction: Somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT), a method used for genetic cloning, has seen huge advancements in the past years. This has led to the ability of mammalian cloning evidenced by Dolly the Sheep on the 5th of July 1996. Subsequently there have been several other incidences where mammals have been cloned from adult cells such as mice, rabbits, horses, donkeys, pigs, goats and cattle. Alongside this arises the possibility of the derivation of pluripotent stem cells which would be a valuable addition to the arsenal of bio technological tools. This revolutionary technology will have significant impacts in future breeding and production of farm animals. However, it’s low efficiency, at around 1-10% caused by the high rates of foetal abortion, developmental defects and foetal death at birth, limits its capability to be implemented as a reliable tool at the moment. The following details the solution to this problem alongside the potential this technology holds to heavily change the future.

What is somatic cell nuclear transfer?

Somatic cell nuclear transfer is the process by which a nucleus from an adult cell is transplanted into oocytes or blastocysts (early stages of an embryo), allowing them to undergo growth and differentiation to produce pluripotent cells. In the case of Dolly, she was cloned from a cell taken from the mammary gland of a six-yearold Finn Dorset sheep, and an egg cell from a Scottish Blackface sheep. However, successful SCNT cloning requires dramatic epigenetic reprogramming to erase the gene expression profile of a differentiated cell and restore the embryo specific expression profile to drive healthy growth of the cloned embryo. This is what is referred to as epigenetic reprogramming which scientists believe is imperative to allow somatic cell nuclear transfer to be a viable method of cloning in the future.

Epigenetic reprogramming: It is understood that through epigenetic modification such as DNA methylation, histone modification, genomic imprinting and X chromosome inactivation that scientists can activate some genes while suppressing other genes determining cell fate. These alterations in gene expression play a crucial role in the natural progression of a fertilised oocyte to a differentiated embryo alongside embryo development following SCNT. When looking at DNA methylation in greater depth we can evidently see the need for epigenetic reprogramming.

DNA methylation is when a methyl group (CH3) binds to a cytosine base of DNA to produce 5-methylcytosine by enzymes referred to as methyltransferase (DNMT1). During the life cycle of a cell, the genome (the whole of an organism's DNA) undergoes DNA methylation maintenance through DNA demethylation and DNA remethylation which allows organisms to activate or silence specific genes according to the requirements of the organisms growth and development. In comparison within a cloned embryo the genomic DNA of donor somatic cells is highly methylated and DNA methylation reprogramming is required for development to proceed normally. If these changes to the genomic DNA of the cloned organism prove to be successful, then there are several areas in which somatic cell nuclear transfer has the potential to impact our future.

How can it change the future?

Firstly, SCNT can prove useful in the case of maintaining genetic diversity. This is because it enables the production of cloned endangered species. A prominent example of this is the birth of the Sardinian Mouflons carried out by Pasqualino Loi and his colleagues at the University of Teramo in Italy. His team managed to recover somatic cells from the ovaries of two female mouflons found dead in a Sardinian pasture and injected their nuclei into domestic sheep enucleated egg cells. The resulting embryos were then implanted in four domestic ewes from which one cloned baby mouflon was delivered after 155 days. This is an incredible example of how SCNT can drastically change the future.

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Furthermore, perhaps the most valuable change that SCNT will bring is the potential it has in contributing to create transgenic animals because it is an advantageous method over the previous micro injection technology.

The production of these animals will be beneficial in xenotransplantation. The great success of human organ transplantation has led to an acute shortage of appropriate human organs. This is because cadavers and live human organ donation fall short of the high demand in western society. This large gap between supply and demand has prompted greater research into the possibility of xenografts from domesticated pigs in human organ transplantation. Additionally, SCNT to produce transgenic animals provides farm animals which can be used as a model for human disease. Pigs, sheep or even cattle will be a more appropriate model for studying human diseases such as cystic fibrosis, cancer and neurodegenerative disorders which require a longer observation period than is possible in mice.

Conclusion: I hope this article has shed light on the incredible technology that is somatic cell nuclear transfer cloning, and that you are more familiar with its benefits and the complexity of the science involved in creating healthy clones. There is more research required in this field before it can be released as a reliable biomedical weapon however, initial research into epigenetic reprogramming shows promise. I have no doubt that SCNT will change our future for the better.

Camilla

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The Increasing Importance of Sports Science in Medicine Sports science is the study of how the human body reacts during exercise as well as the application of scientific principles to sport and exercise. This includes physiology, psychology, biomechanics and nutrition. It is becoming an increasingly important discipline, not only for athletic performance but also in the medical field.

Medicine and sports science in the past Ancient physicians recognised the importance of diet and exercise regarding a person’s health and a major part of their duties was focused toward preserving health and preventing disease. However, at the beginning of the 20th century western medicine and healthcare became more focused on treating the ailment rather than preventing it. The traditional approach previously used to treat patients was phased out in favour of newer therapeutic approaches (1). More recently, past practices which focused on preventative measures are being utilised more frequently. Encouraging a healthy lifestyle and exercising more regularly has shown to have numerous health benefits including decreasing the incidence of many diseases.

Impact of exercise on physical health Obesity is linked to many diseases for example type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and stroke (2). Data shows worldwide obesity more than tripled from the years 1975 and 2016 and this figure is on the incline (3).

Obesity is related to several health issues and research in sports science has become a vitally important discipline to understand how we most effectively prevent this increase through physical activity. Exercise is seen to be one of the most important activities an individual can incorporate into their lifestyle to stay healthy. The mortality rate is some parts of the world is as high as 50% (4). A large proportion of this can be attributed to obesity caused by physical inactivity and hence it makes sense that exercise can aid to reduce this risk and further research in sport science is immensely important to inform future practices.

Previously, the link between physical inactivity and cardiovascular diseases was less recognised. Research by Paffenbarger in the 1970’s showed individuals that were physically active had a lower risk of heart disease and vice versa (5). It is now widely recognised that exercise has numerous benefits and is an important preventative measure to prevent such diseases. Energy expenditure in the region of 1600 kcal (6720 kJ) per week has shown to be effective in halting the progression of coronary artery disease, and an energy expenditure of about 2200 kcal (9240 kJ) per week has been shown to be associated with plaque reduction in patients with heart disease (6); the latter is extremely important to reduce the risk as it prevents the narrowing of arteries in the heart which may lead to patients experiencing a cardiac event.

These are only two of the many conditions that can be improved by physical activity. Other conditions such as depression, osteoarthritis, hypertension, cancer, and diabetes mellitus have shown to have positive outcomes with increased physical activity.

COVID-19: During the recent COVID-19 pandemic, it became increasingly difficult for people to exercise, due to social distancing measures and closing of gyms. A study in Italy compared data of 41 children and adolescents with obesity 3 weeks into lockdown versus data collected in 2019. Participants reported less time exercising and increased consumption of ‘unhealthy’ foods (7). This behaviour naturally would lead to increase in obesity and the ailments that are linked to it. During this time, it became even more pertinent that people undertake their

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daily walk to attain the recommended amount of exercise per week. This was supported by a study conducted in Sweden which concluded that high cardiorespiratory fitness reduced the risk of severe COVID-19 as it reduced the risk associated with obesity and hypertension (8). The integration of sports science and the benefits of preventing long term effects of COVID-19 were hypothesised during this period.

The pandemic brought about a widespread decrease in the public’s mental wellbeing as well as a reduction in physical health. A direct correlation and hence the principles of sports science would aid to improve this. It was reported that globally adolescents experienced higher levels of anxiety and depression due to a combination of stress experienced by individuals as well as social isolation. In addition to this there was an increased use of alcohol and cannabis products (9).

Assessment of adolescents’ mental health in accordance with their activity levels over an extended period in 2019 showed a strong positive correlation between the mental health of an adolescent and the amount of time participating in a sport (10). Physical activity leads to a release in chemicals such as endorphins, which interact with receptors in the brain and relieve pain. In addition, during exercise there is an increase in endocannabinoids which are chemicals like cannabis but are naturally produced by the body. As well as this the neurotransmitter dopamine is released which is often referred to as the ’happy hormone’ and triggers an improvement in mood. The positive effects of exercise on mental health have been recognised in sports science.

During the pandemic, the knowledge of these effects was vital to helping to combat the mental health crisis that ensued during the pandemic.

Sports science in becoming increasingly important in researching and understanding how important exercise is for our general health, both physical and mental. There are increasing numbers of people who believe in the future, the biggest public health issue will be a lack of exercise and the diseases related to an inactive lifestyle.

Deeshaya

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Nuclear Fusion – A Solution To The Energy Conundrum Of The Century Our generation is defined by growth, whether it be figuratively as a society or literally, as the Earth’s population is predicted to increase to 9.7 billion in 2050 . Well-established economies continue to boom, and emerging economies tend to grow ever bigger, resulting in a continual increase in demand for energy; in 2021 global energy demand increased by 5.4% . The means by which this demand will be satisfied is a matter of contention - our policy makers face the conflict between economic gain and environmental protection.

Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary & Thesaurus defines ‘sustainable’ as “causing, or made in a way that causes, little or no damage to the environment and therefore able to continue for a long time”. To date, the drive for economic benefit has held the upper hand, but with the societal-wide realisation that continuation of such attitudes and behaviour endangers our species and Earth, the balance has shifted, and sustainability is on the agenda.

Historically, increased energy demand and production has almost always been synonymous with negative environmental consequences. The IPCC reports that the anthropogenic rise in global surface temperature from 1900 to 2019 was 1.07C , resulting in devastating losses of species, on both local and global levels. This is only the beginning; our survival as a species now relies on an immediate and drastic change in human conduct. Thus far, according to the IEA, the increased demand for energy has been largely fulfilled with coal, resulting in a jump in emissions of CO2 of 1.9 Gigatonnes2, which is completely unsustainable.

In this essay, I will explore the outlined issue of supplying increased energy demand by the most ‘sustainable’ means possible. I believe the solution resides with science and the outstanding promise of nuclear fusion as a commercial energy source.

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In order to understand the conflict between economic gain and the environment, we must reflect on the current situation regarding energy sources. Taking electricity generation to be indicative of the power source distribution as a whole, the graph above illustrates the shares of electricity generation in the EU in 2022.

Nuclear (fission) energy, categorised here with hydro power, takes the greatest share of 32.04%. Although fission releases no harmful gases, it has a great potential for devastating ecological harm, primarily by nuclear disasters (e.g., Chernobyl), difficulties around managing the significant amounts of radioactive waste, and raises concerns around nuclear weapon proliferation.

The renewable energy sources (wind and solar) follow with a 22.28% share, although wind energy in particular poses other environmental concerns, primarily due to the impact on birds and bats, as many are killed in the blades, and also causes noise pollution, displacement and habitat loss.

Natural gas is the third most common source (19.91%), however, is constituted predominantly of methane, which is 86 times more potent at trapping heat than CO2 over a period of 20 years, and is therefore counterproductive to our environmental efforts.

As mentioned above, coal remains a vital energy source, and is often used to cope with demand increases.

Worldwide coal consumption increased by over 6% in 2021 ; the highest ever increase, and as of 2017, the greatest industrial source of pollution in Europe remains coal-fired power plants . The EU’s European Green Deal aims for them to have net-zero emissions of greenhouse gases by 2050 - how exactly this could be achieved using the current energy sources is uncertain and challenging. Herein arises the said conflict: how to satisfy increasing demand, without perpetuating damage to our Earth.

The solution for this complex dilemma may be just on the horizon in the form of nuclear fusion.

Nuclear fusion is the process by which two smaller nuclei ‘fuse’ together to form a larger nucleus. This is achieved via the fusion of two isotopes of hydrogen, Deuterium (2H) and Tritium (3H), resulting in the reaction: (n is a neutron that is emitted as a product) This reaction releases energy as the products have a smaller mass than the reactants; the difference between them is called the mass defect. Einstein’s 1905 mass-energy equivalence theory(∆E=∆mc2) means that this mass defect is essentially released as energy, called the binding energy. This specific DT (Deuterium-Tritium) reaction releases approximately 17.6 MeV (megaelectron volts) of energy per nucleon. In contrast, the commonly used fission reaction of Uranium-235 releases just 0.8 MeV per nucleon. Moreover, fusion promises to be a virtually infinite energy source, due to the great abundance of Deuterium (derived from water) and Tritium (produced from lithium, of which there is approximately 89 million tonnes available on Earth ). No greenhouse gases are produced in nuclear fusion and little land is used, meaning it has very little environmental detriment, especially in comparison to other common energy sources. Nuclear fusion also poses minimal radioactive threat; the product helium is completely inert, and although tritium is radioactive, it has a very short half-life (it decays and renders itself nonradioactive very quickly) and is used in very small amounts, making it eminently manageable. Additionally, most renewable energy sources are reliant on fractious natural factors (e.g., wind turbines), and as a result must be permanently backed up by a non-renewable ‘base load’ (often hydrocarbon derived) to ensure a constant supply of energy. Fusion power, however, requires no backup due to its controllable, predictable nature, permitting zero reliance on hydrocarbons. Therefore, holistically, energy production by fusion is the only known method which fulfils the criteria of a high consistent yield and negligible environmental impact.

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Achieving nuclear fusion on Earth is, however, hardly simple. The process requires extraordinarily high temperatures of approximately 108 °C so that the positively charged D & T nuclei have sufficient kinetic energy to overcome the electrostatic repulsion (the Coulomb interaction) between them. The nuclei must then move close enough for the strong nuclear interaction to act on them, and consequently fuse them together to form the larger helium nucleus. This requires a large input of energy, and so an even greater amount of energy must be produced via fusion to create a net energy output and achieve the aim of the process. A plasma (a very hot fourth state-of-matter, akin to a completely ionised gas) is used as the base of the reaction to ensure sustainable, long-term fusion reactions occur. For both main branches of fusion: magnetic confinement and inertial confinement, it is essential that the plasma is controlled and does not touch the sides of the container, as it will instantly melt due to the extreme temperature of the reaction. Magnetic confinement is often achieved using a tokamak, a magnetic toroidal chamber in which a current is induced in the fusion fuel by coils around the chamber, creating a circular magnetic structure that prevents the electrically conductive plasma fuel from touching the wall. Inertial confinement involves a small pellet containing the fuel and ‘shooting’ it with high energy lasers/particle beams to cause shock waves in the pellet that heat the fuel so that fusion can occur.

Scientifically, fusion is challenging to achieve, but the first controlled fusion reaction was achieved in 1958 at Los Alamos Laboratory. Since then, thanks to the work of many scientists, the process has advanced immensely to the point where it is ready for large-scale implementation. Now, what remains necessary is further investment and founding of more, bigger, successful reactors in order to reach complete commercial viability.

The location of the UK’s first fusion power plant has been designated in Nottinghamshire and will be built by 2040 , which shows that fusion has been embraced by policy makers as a potential way forward for energy. The level of commercial potential is reflected by the value of private investments in fusion energy nearly tripling from 2020 to 2021, leaping from $1.50 billion to $4.44 billion, according to a report by McKinsey and Co. An analysis by Bloomberg paints a similarly positive flightpath, suggesting that the nuclear fusion market may well value at $40 trillion due to its greater productivity than alternative renewables. Its economic potential, and therefore value, will naturally only soar further with the regular progressions and achievements as we approach the exordium of the era of nuclear fusion.

Therefore, it seems that nuclear fusion is the key to solving the environmental concern and energy demand conundrum, primarily on account of its great economic potential and ability to produce much energy efficiently, without further environmental damage. It will be a substantial period of time before fusion is integrated as a commercial energy source into power supply systems, however this is already in motion, with countries, including our own, clambering to build the infrastructure needed to effectively implement it as a primary power source, and scientists working to increase its efficiency and commercial viability. Thus, I believe that the only way to build a sustainable future, with regard to energy supply, is through nuclear fusion, which has unprecedented potential for us as a progressive society striving for economic advancement and environmental harmony.

Amelia

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How Space Exploration And Technology Will Change In The Future And The Effects It Will Have On Humanity Though space exploration is a relatively new field, not even a century old, its technology has advanced and improved at astonishing rates. 96% of matter in the universe is invisible to us, being dark matter and energy, and we have physically explored an infinitesimal amount of the remaining 4%. However, given the astounding rate at which space technology is advancing, we hope to be landing humans on other planets very soon, including our neighbouring Red Planet as early as the 2030’s.

Humans have gazed and wondered at the night sky for millions of years, utilising the distant stars and constellations for agricultural use, religious rituals, and navigation. Jules Verne and H.G. Wells wrote novels incorporating descriptions of journeys to space consistent with knowledge at the time, inspiring some aspiring pioneers to explore this new field. In 1903, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky wrote his article, the “Exploration of Cosmic Space by Means of Reaction Devices”, which detailed many theoretical principles of spaceflight and greatly influenced later rocket research in the Soviet Union and in Europe. However, it wasn’t until October 4th, 1957, when the Soviets launched astronaut Yuri Gagarin into space that the idea of human space exploration became reality. Today, satellites and rockets are launched regularly to explore space and to discover and understand the many objects and phenomena that are better observed from a space perspective, and for us humans to use the resources and attributes of the space environment for our benefit.

So, how can space benefit humanity? We have only recently started harnessing the powers of space and using them for our benefit. In fact, current issues such as climate change, rising pollution levels and oil spills would be significantly more problematic without satellites. Not only did they discover the thinning of the ozone layer, but they are also able to precisely spot and locate oil spills and areas contaminated by mining activities. The advancements which space exploration has made results in our ability to attenuate and contain the damage.

Furthermore, looking into the near future, one of the biggest issues we will be facing is overpopulation of Earth. In approximately 100 years' time, Earth will hold 2 billion more people than its maximum capacity. This issue, along with the possibility of nuclear war, catastrophic asteroid collision, climate change causing boiling oceans due to the sun’s expansion, all point to one solution which could save humankind: moving to another planet.

Mars, the fourth terrestrial planet in our solar system, is the closest one which could potentially harbour human life in the future. NASA plans to send humans there in the 2030s, but without changing technology, this would be impossibly difficult.

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Technology is advancing faster than ever in the space industry, and NASA is adopting multiple recently developed options, including nuclear electric and nuclear thermal propulsion. Nuclear fission is at the core of both technologies, but they are very different from each other.

Compared to a nuclear electric rocket, a rocket that utilises nuclear thermal propulsion generates much more thrust, allowing the rocket a better chance of reaching escape velocity (the speed needed to push an object outside of Earth’s gravity).

Another recent advancement NASA has made is in their spacesuits. Their latest high-tech model is so advanced that it can be engineered to be used in any part of space. These suits allow moonwalkers to make more natural, Earth-like movements, enabling them to carry out experiments and tasks that were previously impossible in the Apollo missions. Aside from this, it will include technology to support life in the carbon dioxide-rich atmosphere and boasts outer garments to keep astronauts warm during the winter and to prevent overheating in the summer.

Like us on Earth, astronauts will require a 24/7, uninterrupted and reliable power supply on Mars, without which they would be unable to work, set foot outside or, most importantly, return to Earth. Due to Mars’ dust storms, NASA created a power source which uses nuclear fission, which will be tested on the moon. It has proven to be safe, efficient, and provide more than enough energy. NASA plans to demonstrate the use of a nuclear fission power system first on the Moon, then Mars.

Perhaps most exciting of all, the astronauts sent to Mars may use laser communications to stay in touch with mission control back home in NASA. Currently, radio antennas are used by spacecraft to send information, pictures, and videos back to Earth using the Deep Space Network (DSN). Laser communication will speed up this process substantially, taking as little as 9 weeks to send a map of Mars compared to 9 years with current radio systems.

The effect this will have on humanity is profound. Evidence has shown that billions of years ago, Mars was potentially earth-like, and would have had a warm climate similar to earth, with a thicker atmosphere and oceans of liquid water. This would have been the perfect breeding ground for simple life forms to evolve, which may have fossilised, or miraculously still be alive today, surviving in fluid in Mars’ subsurface, protected from harmful radiation.

Understanding whether life has existed elsewhere in our solar system is a fundamental question we have been trying to solve for centuries, and Mars is the perfect planet to investigate this. The search for life reveals key details of our own planet - where we came from, how life came about, and, if a civilisation older than ours is discovered, perhaps where we are headed in the future too.

Sophia

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The increasing importance of sports science in medicine (Deeshaya) Berryman, J.W. (2010) Exercise is medicine. Current Sports Medicine Reports, 9(4), 195-201. https://doi.org/10.1249/jsr.0b013e3181e7d86d National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Issues. (2023, May). Health Risks of Overweight & Obesity. https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/weight-management/adult-overweight-obesity/healthrisks World Health Organization. (2021, June 09). Obesity and overweight. https://www.who.int/en/news-room/factsheets/detail/obesity-and-overweight Pujalte, G.G.A., & Maynard, J.R. (2020). The increasing importance of sports science and medicine. Journal of International Medical Research, 48(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/0300060519827694 Warburton, D.E.R. (2006). Health benefits of physical activity: The evidence. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 174(6), 801-809. https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.051351 Hambrecht, R., Neibauer, J., Marburger, C., Grunze. M., Kalberer, B., Hauer, K., Schlierf, G., Kubler, W., & Schuler, G. (1993). Various intensities of leisure time physical activity in patients with coronary artery disease: Effects on cardiorespiratory fitness and progression of coronary atherosclerotic lesions. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 22(2), 468–477. https://doi.org/10.1016/0735-1097(93)90051-2 Robinson, E., Boyland, E., Chisholm, A., Harrold, J., Maloney, N.G., Marty, L., Mead, B.R., Noonan, R., & Hardman, C.A. (2021). Obesity, eating behavior and physical activity during COVID-19 lockdown: A study of UK adults. Appetite, 156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2020.104853

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Ekblom-Bak, E., Vaisanen, D., Ekblom, B., Blom, V., Kallings, L.V., Hemmingsson, E., Andersson, G., Wallin, P., Eriksson, J.E., Holmlund, T., Lindwall, M., Stenling, A., & Lonn, A. (2021). Cardiorespiratory fitness and lifestyle on severe COVID-19 risk in 279,455 adults: A case control study. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 18(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-021-01198-5 Jones, E.A., Mitra, A.K., & Bhuiyan, A.R. (2021). Impact of covid-19 on Mental Health in Adolescents: A systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(5), 2470. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052470 Doré, I., Sabiston, C.M., Sylvestre, M., Nader, P.A., Gallant, F., Dore, I., Brunet, J., O’Loughlin, J., & Belanger, M. (2019). Years participating in sports during childhood predicts mental health in adolescence: A 5year longitudinal study. Journal of Adolescent Health, 64(6), 790-796. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2018.11.024 Nuclear Fusion – A solution to the energy conundrum of the century (Amelia) [1] Smith, C. L., & Cowley, S. (2010). The path to fusion power. Philosophical Transactions: Mathematical, Physical, and Engineering Sciences, 368(1914), 1091-1108. https://www.jstor.org/stable/25663304 [2] IEA. (2022, October). World Energy Outlook 2022. https://www.iea.org/reports/world-energy-outlook-2022 [3] ‘Sustainable’ Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary & Thesaurus.

[4] Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (2023). CLIMATE CHANGE 2023 Synthesis Report. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/syr/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_SYR_SPM.pdf [5] Jones, D. (2023, January 31). European Electricity Review 2023. https://emberclimate.org/insights/research/european-electricity-review-2023/#supporting-material [6] IEA. (2022, July 28). Global coal demand is set to return to its all-time high in 2022. https://www.iea.org/news/global-coal-demand-is-set-to-return-to-its-all-time-high-in-2022 [7] European Environment Agency. (2017, July 07). Coal-fired power plants remain top industrial polluters in Europe. https://www.eea.europa.eu/highlights/coal-fired-power-plants-remain/folder_contents [8] Einstein, A. (1905). Ist die Trägheit eines Körpers von seinem Energieinhalt ?. Ann. Phys., 323, 639-641. https://doi.org/10.1002/andp.19053231314 [9] United States Geological Survey. (2022). Mineral Commodity Summaries 2022 – Lithium. https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2022/mcs2022-lithium.pdf [10] Energy Encyclopaedia. (n.d.). Pinch. https://www.energyencyclopedia.com/en/nuclear-fusion/history/pinch [11] GOV.UK. (2022, October 03). Site of UK’s first fusion energy plant selected. https://www.gov.uk/government/news/site-of-uks-first-fusion-energy-plant-selected [12] Dietz, M., & Lacivita, B. (2022, October 12). Will fusion energy help decarbonize the power system?. https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/electric-power-and-natural-gas/our-insights/will-fusion-energy-helpdecarbonize-the-power-system [13] Dennis, M. (2021, December 28). Nuclear fusion market could achieve a $40 trillion valuation. https://www.bloomberg.com/professional/blog/nuclear-fusion-market-could-achieve-a-40-trillion-valuation/

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How space exploration and technology will change in the future and the effects it will have on humanity (Sophia) Nasa Science. (2022, January 24). How does NASA communicate with spacecraft? https://spaceplace.nasa.gov/dsnantennas/en/#:~:text=The%20Short%20Answer%3A,collection%20of%20big%20radio%20antennas.

Nasa. (2020, July 17). 6 Technologies NASA is Advancing to Send Humans to Mars. https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/6_Technologies_NASA_is_Advancing_to_Send_Humans_to_Mar s Britannica. (n.d.). History of space exploration. https://www.britannica.com/science/space-exploration/Historyof-space-exploration Government of Canada. (2020, December 11). Protecting our planet and our environment. https://www.asccsa.gc.ca/eng/about/everyday-benefits-of-space-exploration/protecting-our-planet-and-our-environment.asp Ben-Itzhak, S. (2022). The Future of Space Technology and How It May Benefit Humanity. https://global.upenn.edu/sites/default/files/perry-world-house/space-ben-itzhakthoughtpiece.pdf The European Space Agency. (n.d.). Why go to Mars? https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/Exploration/Why_go_to_Mars

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