Issue 16 Future of History Jan 2012 by Noviscape Consulting Group

16 ISSUE

Future of History REWRITING SOUTHEAST ASIAN HISTORY

CAPITALIZING ON HISTORY

THE SOUTHEAST ASIAN COLONIALISM HANGOVER EFFECT INTERVIEW WITH DR. CHARNVIT KASETSIRI INFOGRAPHIC: CITY SCENARIOS - LAMPHUN 2027

EDITORIAL

BY DR. SORAJ HONGLADAROM Associate Professor of Philosophy Chulalongkorn University

BY DR. PUN-ARJ CHAIRATANA Managing Director, Noviscape Consulting Group

In the beginning of the movie “The DaVinci Code”, Professor Robert Langdon, a fictional role played by Tom Hanks, starts his lecture by saying that “Understanding our past determines actively our ability to understand the present. How do we write our own histories, personally or culturally and thereby define ourselves? How do we penetrate years, centuries, of historical distortion to find original truth?” History plays a crucial role in how we shape our society and ideas more than we could imagine. In this issue of TRENDNOVATION SOUTHEAST, we touch upon emerging signals for change regarding history and Southeast Asia. Southeast Asia is one of the world hubs of culturally rich ancient ethnic groups with diverse social structures. The region embraces three important global religions: Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam, apart from being the sea-silk road for spices. Because of the high demand for its natural resources, most of the countries in the region were occupied by the Western Powers and Japan. For almost five centuries, the impact of non-indigenous actors in the past has left the legacy of colonial successors and reached a contemporary tipping point when it became the center of gravity in the Pacific theater of World War II. Decolonization through nation-building and reframing national history were among priorities for the countries in the early post-colonial period. The recent financial crisis in 1997 gave birth to the modern-day Southeast Asia, as all elements and institutions in the region were challenged and shaken by this grand eruption – Southeast Asia history is going to change! We start our journey into the future of the region with the first article, which features the role of history in shifting Southeast Asia into a more equitable society, when history has not always been written by the victor. The changing equation is a combination of a juggling between the old and new versions of history, more diverse and complex interpretation of existing history, increasing degree of new media and ICT in historical content, and rising demand for a meaningful history for people at the middle-of-the-Pyramid. These trends may define the coming of an era of “People’s history”. The second article explores the unique relationship between city development and history. As cities in Southeast Asia continue to expand their functional role as the nodes for modernization, people are becoming nostalgic and yearning for their local past, and old urban corners and quaint rural towns are being revitalized to serve this nostalgic desire. This trend has implications for the poor, as old and rustic areas are being gentrified without adequate support for the displaced. The third article talks about the struggle of countries within Southeast Asia with paradigm shifting between their colonial legacy, post-colonial reality, and the ambition for ASEAN solidarity. Bringing itself out of the colonial mindset will need to deal with new risk, new imagination, and new vision. An on-going juggling between the forces of courage and anxiety will produce various phenomena in these respective countries. TrendNovation this month interviews Dr. Charnvit Kasetsiri, a renowned Southeast Asia historian, Rockefeller Scholar, and a former Rector of Thammasat University, about his vision for the future of Southeast Asian studies and history. Our Infographic of the month revisits the results of scenario buildings from the first city foresight exercise in Thailand. It was conducted between 2006 and 2007 as part of the “Thailand reform project” in Lamphun, an ancient province in the north of Thailand. It features the city in the nutshell and the key drivers for change, with an intensive description of four scenarios and city innovations. Disclaimer : The opinions expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official positions of Noviscape Consulting Group or the Rockefeller Foundation. Copyright © Trendsoutheast 2009 - 2012. All Rights Reserved.

DR. PUN-ARJ CHAIRATANA Managing Director, Noviscape Consulting Group

Rewriting Southeast Asian History KEYWORDS:

History; context; equitable society; middle-of-the-Pyramid; metaphor; content

IDEAS For history, old history moves in cycles, while new history moves in a straight line. We can experience how both types of history have changed, and we can talk about such changes in the meta-narrative. The future is always unknown; this is what is so fascinating about its nature. Knowing the future can be a very powerful thing to accomplish. If we knew for certain what will happen, then we could arrange things in the present to anticipate what will happen and reap big rewards. The world would be a very different place if the latter is known. However, not being able to know the future does not exactly mean that we should not talk about it at all. It has only been within the last few years that Southeast Asia has begun to debate what the role of history should be in the post-colonial, post-cold war, post-communist, hyper globalized and cyber world of the early 21st century. More precisely, what is the role of a new version of regional history in the world of iPhones, iPads, Blackberries, Facebook and Twitter?

SCENARIOS AND EARLY INDICATORS Having resulted from a shift in the regional and international demand-supply equation, contemporary history in Southeast Asia is moving forward. It has recently branched from the current wave of national and monotonous analogy, into a wave of local and interdisciplinary interpretation of the existing historical fabrics, both in context and content.

The beginning of history on equitable society After the millennium, it has slowly been extended to the majority of people in the countryside. After the cold war era the Soviet Union is no more, and China has all but renounced their Maoist ideology and embraced neo-liberalist consumerism in full. A dramatic increase in regional economic growth from around the mid-1970s until the 2000s appeared to be concentrated only in the main urban areas and with the middle class and elites there. The region has been dominated by a nationalistic version of the post-colonial and post-cold war versions. Both globalization of industry and democratization have accelerated a new demand for answers for a number of histories that have been left unclear among ordinary Southeast Asians. This can be seen from on-going campaigns for historical reforms and changing social structure in several countries:

• In Malaysia, a group of parents and scholars, the socalled “reclaiming our truly Malaysian history” movement, has demanded that the national government review and reform the history curriculum and textbooks which are being used as a political tool by the governing regime (CPI, 2011). • In Indonesia, there has been an attempt to rationalize the present, and redefine a “golden era” (1945-1998) in order to rewrite history for Indonesia’s future, particularly on its political history, local history, role of the armed forces and the dominant religion, Islam (Guan, 2006). • In Thailand, the foresight on an ageing society indicates that the country is shifting into “a Mature Society,” with a social structure that requires answers for complex and controversial questions (See Issue 7 for details). The region is moving toward to a more equitable society. This is of course not a prediction. However, we should not be too complacent in our analysis. We are not saying that all of the countries in Southeast Asia will really become equitable in the same way as there will be a solar eclipse on such and such a date. Many conditions have to be there in order for this region to become more equitable. Furthermore, we would like to say that many of these conditions are already happening. One of these conditions is that the old orders are dying down. The trends right now are that some countries in the region – especially Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand — appear to be leading to a more equitable society where the middle class is becoming dominant and the old and privilege-laden ruling class is becoming less powerful. The powerful elites are not disappearing altogether, but they will be transformed to just another group within the urbanite middle class.

Disclaimer : The opinions expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official positions of Noviscape Consulting Group or the Rockefeller Foundation. Copyright © Trendsoutheast 2009 - 2012. All Rights Reserved.

4 New historical metaphor in the Middle-of-Pyramid Even though the world is mired in conflict between the West, led by the US on the one hand, and Islam, neither Huntington’s culture clash nor Fukuyama’s league of democracy could single out the historical metaphor in the region. The majority of the people in Southeast Asia’s Megacities are from the countryside and they have contributed a great deal to their cities’ economy. With expanding education and opportunities they have begun earning more, and thus it is natural that they are demanding their fair share as well. What is happening that has not taken place before is that the so-called ‘grass-root’ people are becoming middle class themselves, which means that there will be no perceptible difference between them and the urban elites. This means that the gap between the urban centers like Bangkok, Kuala Lumpur, and Manila and the countryside will narrow dramatically. The space for people in the-middle-of-the-Pyramid is widening, particularly from the-bottom-of-the-Pyramid. This is a big trend that is going on. Many of the written histories from the post occidentaldominated Southeast Asia have been studied, reviewed, and reinterpreted, because of the question of authenticity, both in a cross border level (ancient and contemporary conflicts, socio-anthropology, arts and trades), and national level (particularly on national legends and politics). 1 For example, the roles of indigenous people in World War II, as well as overseas Chinese and Indians’ contribution to economic and social changes in Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, and Thailand; the history of food and consumption in urban Southeast Asia; or even, the history of the fight to eliminate poverty by community groups, e.g. a history of the assembly of the poor (in Thailand), a history of irrigation and farming in the Sub-Mekong region, and etc.

The Malaysia’s history textbooks (Source: http://malaysiansmustknowthetruth.blogspot.com/2010/12/ malaysian-history-are-we-condemned-to_18.html)

Wollweber, 2007

5 With the “new middle class order,” history does not go in cycles, especially on the complicated subjectivities. A shift of focus from the nationalized and conservative historical interpretation will lead to an emergence of the middle-of-the-Pyramid metaphor, especially for revitalizing sub-national histories (regional, city, community level), while national history will face with more challenges in contemporary interpretation. History for them goes in one direction and there is no turning back – the constituted historical version that serves the past and the present while serving them both truthfully, the “disruptive history” in the middle-of-the-Pyramid (Steinberg, 1996). And this is the big shift in history that we now experiencing in and around the region.

A new and diverse historical content Emergence of new and diverse historical content is a result from the above evolving regional socio-economic context. Innovations in content of TV programs and the tourism industry create a new demand in the wide range of freshly decoded regional and local histories. From an unseen secret and taboo, new frontier on socioethnography, indigenous invention, regional political economy, and human welfare, the demand comes from within ordinary people to enjoy the edutainment materials on local and regional histories in their free time, or consider experiencing and exploring the surrounding mystery on site. In other words, these interactions have been transforming the historical content that glorifies the past into a more realistic and pragmatic version for everybody. The increasing demand for a quest into the past among the Southeast Asian audiences can been seen from the current popular cable TV program, “Hidden Cities”, which on-airs at the History Channel (Asia). It exploits local experts, including writers, historians, archaeologists, and scientists to investigate and reveal the tales by featuring different episodes on the history of Southeast Asia cities’ and countries’ unseen and untold stories, e.g. Penang, Ipoh, Kedang, and Sarawak in Malaysia, Java in Indonesia, Luzon in the Philippines, the City of Singapore, the lost Kingdoms of Thailand, and Vietnam. Boosting up a rural ecotourism industry by reviving and restoring the dried-down traditional cultures and stories — particularly on organic farming, traditional medicine and the culinary arts – has proven to be not only an alternative source of income for small farmers, but also a channel for the communities to harvest social profit through lessons learnt from a maintenance and preservation of their local heritages, including a will to understand their historical route, and so on. A project supported by Alliance France to combine concepts of responsible tourism and community based tourism

(CBT) with homestay for cultural and historical learning along the Mekong region (Cambodia, China, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam) is a good example of such development.

IMPLICATIONS • Supporting the local historian: History, the nineteenth century discipline, is the root of political science, anthropology, and sociology. Making different sets of history, especially biographies of local thinkers, philosophers, sages, and inventors, will enhance and encourage the poor and indigenous groups to understand. Supporting the “local historian” to study, review, and diffuse his/ her findings to the local community and onto the web will accelerate the involvement of ordinary people into this very academic and closed society. • Innovation in historical content: At this moment, there are limited and insufficient historical contents and discussion on local healthcare, community resilience, environmental preservation, and natural disasters in Southeast Asia. Innovation in content development and narration into local languages and other means of communication will leverage individual life skills and understanding on the surrounding areas. • History of Southeast Asia invention: Encouraging a group of local scientists, technologists, and historians to have more reviews of their histories of local inventors and everyday technology utilization will allow diffusion of technological innovation and knowledge from the past to leverage dignity, and provide a will to change and cope with problems caused by climate change and consumerism.

DRIVERS & INHIBITORS • Increased opportunities for the formerly grassroots historians and local sages on promoting local histories. • Increased penetration of information and communication technologies into society-at-large, and expansion of history lovers’ communities. • Increased educational opportunities, new historical contents, and discussion on an interpretation of the existing facts in history. • Increased feelings of solidarity among the urban and non-urban population.

REFERENCES Centre for Policy Initiatives (2011).“Reclaiming Our Truly Malaysia History”, 19 May 2011. Retrieved from http://english.cpiasia.net/index. php?option=com_content&view=article&id=2179:reclaiming-our-truly malaysian-history&catid=141:lim-teck-ghees-contribution&Itemid=93 Fukuyama, F. (1992). The End of History and the Last Man, New York: Free Press. Guan, K. C. (2006). Rewriting Indonesian History: The Future in Indonesia’s Past, Working Paper, No. 113, Institute of Defense and Strategic Studies, Singapore. Retrieved from http://www.rsis.edu.sg/publications/WorkingPa pers/WP113.pdf Huntington, S. P. (1993).The Clash of Civilizations?Foreign Affairs, Vol. 72, no. 3, Summer 1993, pp. 22–49. Kurtz, S. (2002). “The Future of ‘History’”,Policy Review, No. 113, June and July 2002. Retrieved from http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/bush/ kurtz.htm Lasco, R. D., C. M. D. Habito, R. J. P. Delﬁno, F. B. Pulhin, and R. N. Concepcion (2011). Climate Change: Adaptation for Smallholder Farmers in Southeast Asia. Mekong Responsible Tourism, Hands-on history and homestay on the Jasmine rice plateau. Prasenjit, D. (ed.) (2003). Decolonization: Perspectives from Now and Then. Routledge. Steinberg, M. P. (1996). “Cultural History and Cultural Studies”, in Nelson, C., and D. P. Gaonkar (eds.), Disciplinarity and dissent in cultural studies, Routledge. Wollweber, L. T. (2007).“Thai cinematic war with Burma”, New Mandala, 22 May 2007. Retrieved from http://asiapacific.anu.edu.au/newman dala/2007/05/22/thai-cinematic-war-with-burma/ http://hiddencities.historyasia.com

ABOUT THE AUTHORS Soraj Hongladarom is an associate professor of philosophy at Chulalongkorn University in Bangkok, Thailand. He has published books and articles on such diverse issues as bioethics, computer ethics, and the roles that science and technology play in the culture of developing countries. His concern is mainly on how science and technology can be integrated into the life-world of the people in the so-called Third World countries, and what kind of ethical considerations can be obtained from such relations. A large part of this question concerns how information technology is integrated in the life-world of the Thai people, and especially how such integration is expressed in the use of information technology in education. He has organized the International Conference on Information Technology and Universities in Asia (ITUA 2002) at Chulalongkorn University. His works have appeared in The Information Society, AI & Society, Philosophy in the Contemporary World, and Social Epistemology, among others. Dr. Pun-Arj Chairatana is the Managing Director of NOVISCAPE CONSULTING GROUP and the Principal Investigator of TRENDNOVATION SOUTHEAST NEWSLETTER. He has involved with various regional scenario buildings and future exercises since 2000. As a policymaker, he was Director of the Policy Entrepreneur and Foreign Affairs Department at the Public Policy Development Office (PPDO), the Office of Cabinet Secretariat. He has a background in economics of technological change, innovation management, health, and nuclear physics. His expertise is in the areas of strategic foresight, technology and innovation management, public policy, trend analysis, and political economy.

6 6

Capitalizing on History

DR. APIWAT RATANAWARAHA Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Chulalongkorn University

7 old structures, and adaptive reuse initiatives, in which old buildings are restored and converted for new functions. For instance, in Singapore’s Boat Quay, Malaysia’s Georgetown, and Thailand’s Chiang Mai, old shophouses have been restored and adapted for restaurants, souvenir shops and other businesses.

Quaint old towns: the new frontier KEYWORDS:

Historic preservation; urban revitalization; gentrification; cultural mapping

IDEA As Southeast Asian cities continue to grow and become further integrated into the global economy, old urban artifacts and fabrics are being replaced with larger, modern structures. Glass skyscrapers continue to define urban skylines, and shopping malls and supermarkets expand their functional role as the central nodes for resource consumption. Among this macro-trend, a micro-trend has become noticeable. People are becoming nostalgic and yearn for their local past, and old urban corners and quaint rural towns are being revitalized to serve such this nostalgic desire. This trend has implications for the poor, as old and rustic areas are being gentrified without adequate support for the displaced. Capitalizing on history has its costs.

dozed physical remnants of the past but also have altered old community lifestyles and livelihoods. They usually displace the previous dwellers, many of whom are illegal squatters who are likely to become illegal settlers elsewhere. These negative consequences of large-scale projects are increasingly recognized by planners. But in Southeast Asia where the power of economic forces trumps social, aesthetic and other non-monetary values, the dual drivers of land-value maximization and architectural modernization seem irresistible and irreversible.

Modernizing and “monotorizing” inner cities

Many redevelopment projects have not only bull-

The Master Plan to develop and preserve the Rattanakosin area of Bangkok focused primarily on physical aspects, and paid little attention to the livelihoods of existing communities, especially those without land tenure. The plan was greatly resisted by the existing communities, which led the planners to reconsider their approach. Similarly, according to a study by Indonesia’s Urban and Regional Development Institute, the Jakarta Old Town’s spatial master plan had overlooked basic problems such as housing.3 Historic preservation initiatives that consider only historical value without the context of development and poverty have often resulted in restoration of functionless, isolated artifacts. Alternative pictures of older districts are being considered, as well as better methods to preserve and renew them.

Expanded lists of methods: From point to line to plane

Planners now consider wider areas for urban revitalization initiatives, including not only individual structures (the “point”), but also groups of buildings (the “line”) and the whole neighborhood (the “plane”). They also attempt to widen the scope of intervention, The nostalgic desire for old lifestyles and places including not just physical aspects, but also social and among the urban middle-class has captured the economic issues in urban revitalization and regenerainterest of capitalists. Plernwan, a shopping mall in tion. Housing issues for the displaced remain a key the resort town of Hua Hin in Southern Thailand, was built with the theme of “play and learn in the past”, concern for a revitalization plan. There are still limited bringing old town feelings back to its modern shop- cases in Southeast Asia where the implementation of historic preservation plans is well integrated with ping district. It has become a popular destination for affordable housing and other development issues. weekend trips among middle-class Thais.

SCENARIOS Modern urban planning and development practices in the context of globalization of trade, investment, and tourism have drastically changed the Southeast Asian urban fabric. Even though a wealth of historic structures with religious and governmental connections still remain, “ordinary” urban artifacts, such as shophouses, have been demolished and replaced by modern structures for commercial and residential purposes. Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City’s heritage areas are gradually being replaced by shopping malls and modern buildings; so are Jakarta’s Kota Tua and Sunda Kelapa, and Manila’s Intramuros. In Bangkok’s older parts, through which transit lines are constructed, land prices have increased substantially and old shophouses are being torn down for higher-density development. This phenomenon is also happening in fast growing secondary cities. In Bandung, Indonesia the once vibrant and dynamic area of Braga Street has been replaced by modern shopping malls.1

Nostalgia-driven revitalization occurs not only in older areas of big cities, but also in small rustic towns. As transportation and communication networks expand and travel costs become more affordable, not only foreign backpackers but also local yuppies are flocking to these towns for short visits. They desire the experience of the old lifestyle no longer found in modern cities. The revitalization initiative in Amphawa, a water-based community in Thailand, has been boosted by its floating market and shophouses that cater to weekend visitors from Bangkok. Chiang Khan in Northeastern Thailand has become popular among tourists because of its wooden houses along the Mekong River, as has Van Vieng in Laos for its rustic atmosphere. Ironically, many of the goods and souvenirs sold in these places are not made locally, but brought in from wholesale markets in Bangkok or other big cities. Old shophouses have also been bought and gentrified by outsiders, who see investment opportunities in these old towns.

Town covers 1.73 percent of the city, but its population represents 2.64 percent of the total.2 Likewise, Bangkok’s inner districts remain highly dense. Many of these residents are poor, without secure land tenure, and live in sub-standard housing units.

Nostalgia-driven, tourism-oriented historical reinvention There is however a growing interest among planners and concerned citizens to preserve historical districts. Several reasons may explain this trend, including romanticism for the past, recognition of unique cultural identity and architectural value, and economic opportunities for the tourism industry that demand unique cultural products. Many cities now have historic preservation plans, which include restoration of

References:

1 Martokusumo, W. (2002). Urban heritage conservation: Experiences in Bandung and Jakarta. In Peter J.M. Nas (ed.):

The Indonesian Town Revisited, pp. 374-389, LIT Verlag-Institute of Asian Studies, Münster/Singapore.

History and poverty continue to be intertwined

Preservation and restoration of historic structures is nothing new to this region. But the past initiatives usually stop short at conserving individual buildings, or at best, groups of buildings. They pay less attention to the non-physical aspects of history, such as community livelihoods and well-being. Many plans ignore basic problems faced by residents in the old areas, where urban problems are usually pronounced. In older, inner-city areas of Jakarta, Bangkok and other big cities in Southeast Asia, population densities are high compared to newer, outer areas. Jakarta’s Old 2 The Jakarta Post, “Old Town revitalization overlooks the residents.” 06 June 2007. 3 The Jakarta Post, “Old Town revitalization overlooks the residents.” 06 June 2007.

Walking in Intramuros History Town, Manila, Philippines. Some rights reserved by Caryl Joan Estrosas.

8 An attempt is being made by Thailand’s Community Organizations Development Institute (CODI) and a network of community savings groups in the UNESCO World Heritage city of Ayutthaya to develop a city-wide community reconstruction project in which historical monuments and poor people can cohabit in mutually beneficial ways.4

Participatory, cultural mapping Among many tools currently being explored in preservation and revitalization in Southeast Asia, cultural mapping is gaining popularity in areas where historical and cultural assets have potential as the entry point for intervention. Recognized by the United Nations Education, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the tool utilizes community-based participatory data collection and management and mapping techniques, possibly including sophisticated Geographic Information Systems (GIS). There are several examples in this region. As part of the Malaysia Urban Conservation Initiatives, a team of planners and students in Taiping have conducted cultural mapping workshops with city residents and school children to raise awareness about preservation issues. A similar project, led by the Department of Urban and Regional Planning at Chulalongkorn University, has used the method to start revitalization initiatives in the Kudeejeen and Klongsan areas in Bangkok. In Vietnam, the “Cham Heritage Mapping Project,” which was led by the local and national governments of Vietnam and facilitated by UNESCO, adopted the participatory mapping method that utilizes GIS. The project “Our Heritage Our Future” in Chompet, Laos enhanced the linkages between a community-based cultural mapping activity and the development of a tourism management plan.

The Southeast Asian Colonialism Hangover Effect

• Regardless of redevelopment approaches, gentrification will likely continue, unless the government implements affordable housing and other compensation programs for the poor. • Cultural tourism will increase the demand for revitalization and reinvention of historical artifacts and lifestyles in actual community settings. Without active participation of community residents, however, a well-intentioned revitalization plan may end up creating only a cultural zoo for tourists. • Historic preservation and community revitalization will not be financially sustainable, unless public-private partnerships are institutionalized between the local government, private property owners, and the residents. Examples include the Penang Heritage Trust in Malaysia and Old Phuket Foundation in Thailand, and the Sumatra Heritage Trust in Indonesia. Indonesia and Malaysia have national-level trust funds for heritage preservation, although they do not usually cover other related issues.

DRIVERS/INHIBITORS • If the concepts of Smart Growth, Compact City, Low-Carbon Society and other similar ideas are seriously pursued, densities of population and economic activities will increase in inner areas, and land will become even more expensive. More old shophouses will continue being replaced by high-rise condominiums and offices, and only some of them may survive and be adapted for new uses. • Advancement in wireless technologies has reduced the cost of rewiring telecommunication infrastructure in old buildings. This may allow for adaptive reuse of old buildings, and increase their value without having to replace them with new buildings. 4 http://www.achr.net/Countries/Thailand/Ban%20Mankong/Baan%20Mankong%20Cities%20Part%203.pdf

ABOUT THE AUTHOR Apiwat Ratanawarah a is an Assistant Professor at the Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Chulalongkorn University in Bangkok, Thailand, where he teaches infrastructure planning and finance, urban management, and economic development. His current research includes projects on city innovations in Southeast Asian megacities, infrastructure justice, and inequality in access to basic services in Thailand. He has been a Visiting Assistant Professor at the Department of Urban Studies and Planning at MIT, teaching infrastructure finance and energy security. He was a Doctoral Fellow at the Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs, Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University, conducting research on infrastructure, technological development and innovation policy.

BY MR. KAN YUENYONG Founder, Siam Intelligence Unit

IDEA Southeast Asia did not face a threat from European colonialism on a grand scale until the 18th century. This Western colonization brought about a radical change into most of the ancient kingdoms in the region. During World War II, aggression by the Empire of Japan replaced an era of white superiority, and the region gradually nurtured its own version of nationalism, which later ignited independence movements and led to the birth of contemporary Southeast Asian nations. The Special Committee on Decolonization was set up by the UN in 1962, and the birth of the Cold War era drew a watershed line between the colonial and post-colonial eras. But after that, the Cold War had a strong influence on the development of each country in Southeast Asia.Some countries selected to join with the free world under the leadership of the United States, and some countries decided to follow the Soviet-Sino pact. Nowadays, without the influence from the Cold War period, Southeast Asia can make its own socio-political development. Surprisingly, these young ex-colonial countries still exercise colonial codes of conduct to maintain their supremacy, freeze their citizens’ mindset inside the colonial era, and preserve their order. Among the Southeast Asian elites, they cannot recover from the colonial hangover. Struggling out of the hangover will help promote human rights for the minorities and thus will lead to not only improving their basic needs but to improving poverty in the long run.

SCENARIOS

KEYWORDS:

Colonialism, post-colonialism, imperialism, nationalism, ASEAN, history in Vietnam. There will be both political machinery and legal measures employed to bar citizens in the country from criticizing these topics. Because of an incompatibility with universal freedom of expression, they will censor outside criticism by creating internet firewalls like in China. If any citizen violates these rules, they will be imprisoned. Conservative force dominatessocial policy. There will be more imposition of strict censorship, political mechanisms, and public humiliation. This will lead to more violence both inside each country and between the countries.

Soft Colonial This is a scenario with a strong sense of the current sociopolitical dilemma. It represents a juggling between conservative and progressive forces, and illustrates symptoms that have resulted from a colonial mindset in spite of an adaptation to the modern political structure. Not only is there internal pressure onthe issue of universal freedom of expression, but also a fight and debate for more open policy from within the elite group. Some progressive factions can identify the critical problem on maintaining such an incompatible stance on universal human rights order, and are suggesting a peaceful transition process. Nevertheless, the conservative factions still exert strongresistance to change. This scenario reflects the currently unpredictable outcome between the progressive and conservative forces in each country. They are decorated with modern institutional structures such as democratic parliaments, newspaper councils, and human rights commissionsas examples. But there will continue to be elements of pre-modern characteristics, too. Both coercion and consent control mechanisms will be imposed on some areas of these countries that have different minority peoples.

Because of their limited influence in world politics, Southeast Asian countries will continue to abide by and subscribe to various global institutions and international systems, e.g. UN Security Council (UNSC), UN Human Right Commission (UNHRC), World Trade Organization (WTO), etc. It is unlikely that full development of imperialism in this region would lead tofull scale conflict among neighboring countries. The final outcome of the recovery from the colonial hangover effect will designate Southeast Asia’s fate to one of three scenarios. There are two negative scenarios and a positive one. We will start by illustrating the two unpromising pictures.

Southeast Asian Imperialism This scenario reflects a situation in which nations will adopt a conservative ideologythat leads to more and more repression and conflict. To preserve the benefits of an elite club and maintain social order, the superclass will maintainthe existing taboosthey have protecting them from public criticism and debate, especially on the issues like lèsemajesté in Thailand, racial policy in Malaysia, and communist party hegemony

The original Merlion statue at Merlion Park in Singapore. Some rights reserved by kun0me.

11 • Racial issue: Malaysia’s brain drain is a good example of one of the consequences of unresolved racial issues. Currently, Malaysia is facing a serious brain drain problem. 305,000 Malaysians migrated overseas between March 2008 and August 2009, compared to only 140,000 in 2007. One of the top three reasons for the brain drain is social injustice such as unequal access to scholarships and higher education especially among the younger generation within the non-Bumiputera community. This statistic conforms to the history of the bureaucracy during the colonial era. Malaysia maintains the structure of the MAS (Malay administrative service) with the similar MCS (Malayan civil service) system. The MAS was junior to the MCS, which was practically reserved for British officers. After declaring its independence, Malaysia introduced a quota system of one nonMalay to every four Malays in the MCS. In 2005, the composition turned out to be 77.3% Malay, 9.37% Chinese, 5.12% Indian, and 7.77% others.

The Presidential Palace in Jakarta. Some rights reserved by ShutterMonKey™

ASEAN solidarity The last scenario touches upon a bright future for ASEAN solidarity, in which Southeast Asia transcends from the colonial mind into the modern mindset. Most of the leading Southeast Asian countries will adopt true universal human rights concepts. They will accept more pluralism and multicultural concepts. People will realize their full rights and turn themselves into a citizenship comfortable with self-governance and public responsibility. This internal dynamic, with a need to cooperate both on economics and international relations issues, will thus increase ASEAN integration. The latest movement from ASEAN seems more active than passive, such as the announcement on Myanmar internal politics that led to the country’s political reform and a certain deadline to create an ASEAN community. In this scenario we should expect the government to regard the rights and provide social welfare to the minority. This political infrastructure will help promote equality for the people, both political and economic rights.

EARLY INDICATORS • Indo-China border dispute: There have been centuries-old conflicts between Indo-China and Thailand. The roots of the continuous dispute between Thailand and Cambodia on the Preah Vihear Temple issue results from the pre-modern or colonial age relationship which generated a long term dispute between Siam and France ever since 1892. A movement from The People’s Alliance for Democracy (PAD)in Thailand to reclaim a dispute area reflects a similar feeling. Intense nationalist feelings in both nations have blossomed, and more conflict happens. This includes conflict between Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia. A border conflict between Laos and Thailand in 1988 is good example, because it caused more than 500 dead, and the disputed area remains a no man land up till now.

• Stateless/Nationality-less/ and Ethnic minorities: A recent incidence on Burma Rohingya people reflects another historical problem in the region. Rohingya people of Arakan (Rakhine) State of Burma face heavy discrimination because of Burma’s ruler beliefs about Burmese nationalism and Theravada Buddhism. They treat theRohingya people as a stateless people. However, recent positive democratic reform in Burma, which led to a cease fire agreement with minority peoples such as the Shan people, may lead to positive treatment for Rohingya people, too. • Identity and Religion: There is an ongoing research study of new Thai identity sponsored by Thai security sections to resolve the problem in deep Southern Thailand regarding Muslim minorities. “New Thai Imagination” will be based on pluralism and multiculturalism, which is differentiating, openminded, and flexible enough for people in the nation to self-identify themselves and be proud of their own identity. They can live their lives following their own cultural beliefs without being frustrated or estranged. This can lead to a reconciliation process in deep Southern Thailand. Thai authorities may accept some degree of self-governance, but not separation.

Thai nationalists were colored by anti-Chinese sentiment. Furthermore, during the 1930s and through the 1950s, the Chinese in Thailand faced a strong control and anti-Chinese program under the military dictatorship of Prime Minister Plaek Pibunsongkhram. Plaek’s government ordered campaigns, such as promoting Thai as a single national language and trying to close down many Chinese schools. A country may need a certain period of time to integrate minorities in their society with the employment of violence and suppression mechanisms. Thailand is trying to integrate the Muslim minorities like they did the Chinese in deep Southern provinces. Malaysia is also trying to run a single Bahasar Malay language campaign to integrate the Chinese and Indian minorities. However, in the 21st century, such abuse of human rights policy will no longer be accepted by the international community. Southeast Asia countries therefore need to apply the pluralism concept to accept differences in ethnicity, language and religion. • ASEAN promotion: The 600-million ASEAN population and a closer trade relationship among members will finally make ASEAN more important, and will be getting more action in resolving the conflict. In the future we shall see how ASEAN can evolve themselves into more than simply a governmentto-government space, but a real ASEAN citizen’s community. ASEAN study, with learning from the EU experience both good and bad, and ASEAN citizen network building will lead to the true peaceful cooperation among Southeast Asian countries, and will eventually build a true ASEAN solidarity.

DRIVERS & INHIBITORS Drivers: • Popularity of post-modernism studies: Nationalism might be very important in the beginning of national establishment, but the nation is just an invented political instrument (Anderson, 2006).

IMPLICATIONS Promoting understanding on Southeast Asia pluralism and ASEAN from a historical perspective is a useful development mechanism. Through supporting active forums and media, especially social media and web-based content for the younger generation, will boost up awareness among the people. However, a creative dialogue and fact-based content is also important.

• Internet and Social media: Internet and Social media bring people from different nations closer without travelling. These tools facilitate people to understand differences between their histories in culture, beliefs, lifestyles, etc. It also makes people understand the true meaning of multiculturalism and pluralism. • Open debate on Ideology: Normally, people in Southeast Asia exchange information via non-public discussion. This kind of mechanism releases social pressure on taboo topics. But, now open debate on ideology is flourishing much more, and this encourages the society in the practice of tolerance and more acceptances of differences in ideology.

Inhibitors: • Conservative idea: Conservative thinking in some of the elite factions may delay the transitioning progress.

REFERENCES

Anderson, B. (2006). Imagined Communities.Verso Books, England. Charoensinolarn, C. (2006). Development Discourse: Power, Knowledge, Truth, Identity, and Otherness.Vibhasa, Bangkok. Chin, J. (2011). History and Context of Public Administration in Malaysia. In Berman, E. M., Public Administration in Southeast Asia: Thailand, Philippines, Malaysia, Hong Kong, and Macao (pp. 141-154). CRC Press, United States of America. Conner, S. (1995).Racial definitions `hangover from days of colonialism’. Retrieved from http://www.independent.co.uk/news/racial-definitions hangover-from-days-of-colonialism-1574096.html Downing, L. (2008/0). The Cambridge introduction to Michael Foucault. Cambridge University Press, New York. Fukuyama, F. (2011).The origins of political order: From prehuman times to the French revolution. Profile Books Ltd., England. Nkrumah-Boateng, R. (2007). Ghana Goes For Gold: Dealing With Our Colonial Hangover. Retrieved from http://www.ghanaweb.com/ GhanaHomePage/features/artikel.php?ID=124765 Parsons, T. H. (2010). The rule of empires: Those who built them,those who endured them, and why they always fall. Oxford University Press, New York. Winichakul, T. (2004).Siam mapped: A history of the geo-body of a nation. SilkwormsBooks, Thailand. The World Bank (2011). Malaysia Economic Monitor, April 2011 Brain Drain. Retrieved from http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/ EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/EASTASIAPACIFICEXT/MALAYSIAEXTN/ 0,,contentMDK:22900721~pagePK:1497618~piPK:217854~theSite PK:324488,00.html

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Supporting two of the most important issues will lead to better understanding among nations in Southeast Asia, less intense racial conflict, and the greater acceptance of Stateless people and Ethnic minorities. • Pluralism study and promotion: Thailand has been accepted as having the best-integrated overseas Chinese community in the World, and any type of racial conflict is close to non-existent. But back in the 19th century, for various reasons,

It has both positive and negative effects. An increased popularity in post-modern research has uncovered a limitation to nationalism in the region.

Stateless and starving Rohingya children doing daily exercise in the Nayapara refugee camp, Bangladesh. Some rights reserved by Austcare - World Humanitarian Aid

Kan Yuenyong is a co-founder and executive director of Siam Intelligence Unit (SIU) http://www.siu.co.th, an alternative think tank and research service on various social, environment, business and economic issues. He is now studying in the advanced certificate course on Promotion of Peaceful Society (class 3) at King Prajadhipok’s Institute. He was selected by The Friedrich Naumann Foundation to represent Thailand in seminars on Strategic Planning and New Public Management in 2009, held at the International Academy for Leadership, Germany. He formerly worked at Internet Thailand Public Company Limited.

INTERVIEW BY DR. PUN-ARJ CHAIRATANA Managing Director, Noviscape Consulting Group

What is your perception of the evolution of Southeast Asia’s history regarding a change in contemporary social and economic structure? “Practically, ‘Southeast Asia’ is quite a new terminology coming from the West. Considering that the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) has been in existence for some decades, I think the perception of people in this region who relate to being “ASEANites” or Southeast Asian people is still not there yet. We have no shared history as a people. Many books written about Southeast Asia history, by D. G. E. Hall, David K. Wyatt or a French scholar like Georges Coedes, are all from the ‘outside’, while those written by ‘insiders’ are almost nowhere to be found.” “Frankly speaking, there is no shared history nor from within the region, so it is not easy to foresee what the future of this region will be. There is not much hope for a shared future. But in terms of each individual country there might be some. Siam/Thailand avoided colonial rule, but the way our history has been written is similar to those former colonies of UK, France, and the Netherlands. Former colonial nations have been in the process of throwing away colonial histories.”

Recently, there have been more people elaborating on the existing history at various levels with new approaches and interpretations. What is your scenario on how the history of the region will come out? “The trend is more towards popular mass. People in general--people like factory workers coming from the countryside and going back and forth between urban and rural—had no interest. They have nothing to do with the nationalistic story. They probably want something more interesting and that they could relate to. I think if they want history, it should be local, possibly, history of ordinary people. It should be more like them, they can relate to. It should not

“Among the 10 ASEAN countries, Singapore was quick to make its move on this. They founded research units and institutions before anyone else. The Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, where we are conducting this interview now, is the oldest of this kind in the region. At the National University of Singapore (NUS), they also have a Department of Southeast Asian Studies. They have put a lot of attention on this. Malaysia has the same kind of institution at the University of Malaya. As for Thailand, we are lagging behind. A Southeast Asian Studies Program for B.A. was first realized at Thammasat University in 2000. It was set up as a ‘special project’ meaning with no budget. The Program has to ‘make money’ (from tuition fee) to support itself and its academic staff. The University does not support it like regular departments.”

We are experiencing socio-environmental change, especially on a grand-scale migration, emerging diseases, climate change, and other non-traditional security issues; what will be the role of history regarding these trends?

Dr. Charnvit Kasetsiri be grand history of heroes and heroines. Therefore, it needs to be rewritten or reinterpreted to include common people, and allow them to have connections with history.” “In ASEAN we have varieties, an absolute monarchy – Brunei for instance; countries which are republics, a country with a unique system for taking turn of enthronements – Malaysia. We are more or less the same but still different; some have gone through violent changes. Vietnam, Cambodia and Indonesia have been through revolution. Thailand did not have intense revolutionary struggle. Though the 1932 coup left some scars but cannot be compared to what happened in Indonesia, Vietnam, Cambodia or even Laos. There is still highly conservative force in our society. But it is something we need to address to when the middle and lower classes have changed significantly. How will the ruling class adapt to the changes? This is a big problem. Some have dragged on for so long. Some factions have changed but others have not. If we cannot adapt to new environment, then conflicts arise.”

At this moment, there are not so many debates or discussions on the history of Southeast Asia at a regional level. How do you respond to this?

“The ASEAN body has not done well enough on this. Ministers of ASEAN countries have a lot of meetings, but we have not seen what we want in terms of academics, education. Everybody still focuses on oneself and relies on European or American texts. We often close our doors to the neighbors. We are near but we are far from one another. We do not seem to have any interest in our neighbors. We probably feel good for looking to London, Paris, New York, or Tokyo. We pay little attention to the happenings in Vientiane, Phnom Penh, Hanoi, or Kuala Lumpur, etc. This is our weakness and our under-developed education.”

How about how each country places emphasis on the future of ASEAN studies? How do they mobilize the knowledge?

“History should not be narrow, covering only stories about aristocrats, elite, and small groups of people. It should include more. Take a look at the 9-10 millions of Overseas Filipino workers (OFW) who go to work abroad and send a lot of remittances back to their home country. They are admired by their fellows back home, and I believe they even have a ministry to look after them. Meanwhile, Thai workers abroad are not getting that attention. They are not treated honorably because there are still lots of different class prejudice in the eyes of metropolitans like us. History in the future should provide spaces to more people, those who play roles in society such as history of labor or of migration to find workplaces somewhere else.” “History at the moment needs to respond to issues that our society currently faces, responding to the changes and needs of people. History of just small groups is not enough, and no one wants to study it. Many of our universities have no history department. And for some with such department, if they could have their way, they would dissolve it. Most rectors, deans, professors do not care for history; it is just cosmetics. As for the young people, they see little benefit for studying history. It is not only boring but one cannot find job. But I still believe that if there is history reform, new interpretation, more concern

with more people, history may have new life. No matter where we come from, it is necessary to understand ourselves, our identities. In the meantime, I believe, we need to learn about our neighbors next doors. ASEAN is a good framework to start with. We need to break through our boundaries and learn about Burma, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam and even Timor-Leste, etc.”

ABOUT DR. CHARNVIT KASETSIRI Dr. Charnvit Kasetsiri is a Thai historian. He was a former Rector of Thammasat University (1994–95) prior to his retirement. He is among Southeast Asia’s most renowned historians. He studied diplomacy and history at Thammasat University, Bangkok and graduated with Honours and the King Bhumibol Prize, a B.A. in Diplomacy. He then pursued a Master’s degree at Occidental College, Los Angeles, California. He obtained his Ph.D. in Southeast Asian History at Cornell University in 1972. He received a Rockefeller Scholarship from 1965 to 1970 during his studies in the United States. Among the overseas appointments he has held during his academic career are Visiting Fellow at the Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Kyoto University, Japan; Visiting Lecturer (Southeast Asian History) at University of California, Berkeley and Santa Cruz, U.S.A.; Visiting Lecturer (Thailand History), University of Hawaii, U.S.A.; and Visiting Lecturer, Asian Studies, University of Hawaii in 2004. He is now Visiting Fellow at the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies (ISEAS), Singapore.

INFOGRAPHIC

THE

MONTH

Dr. Pun-Arj Chairatana Dr. Apiwat Ratanawaraha Mr. Kan Yuenyong

Co- Principal Investigator

Dr. Donald Arthur Johnson

Editor

Mr. Preeda Chaiyanajit

Project Co-ordinator

Mr. Passapong Boonlueng

Graphic Designer

Regional Horizon / Environment Scanning (HS/ES) and trend monitoring for issues relevant to people. life, and regional transformation across the Sotheast Asian region. Dr. Pun-Arj Chairatana Dr. Soraj Hongladarom Mr. Kan Yuenyong Dr. Apiwat Ratanawaraha

Author

Dr. Charnvit Kasetsiri

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