CommitteeonSecurityandDefenceI(SEDEI

2021:ASpaceOdyssey?Spaceexplorationhasbeenreceivingincreasingattentionduringthepast fewyearsfrombothprivateinvestorsandstateactors,withinternationalpowerssuchastheUSand Chinaexpressinginterestinitsmilitarisationanditsresources.Havingdesignated2021-2027asan importanttimeframeforEuropeʼsactivitiesinouterspace,whatstrategyshouldtheEUadopttowards spacesecurityanddefence?

byRaphaelTsiamis(GR)

1. Backgroundandrelevance

In the past, outer space seemed faraway and unapproachable,

ʻthe final frontier, ʼ with public perception and government action focusing on pioneer exploration missions such as the Moon landing and the deployment of unmanned vehicles on Mars. However, the rapid technological advances of recent decades have made space increasingly important for human activity, as multiple key services that are essential in our daily lives such as telecommunication and weather forecasting rely on space-based systemsandtechnologies,particularlysatellites. 35 Suchtoolsarealsoconsidered critical for militaries worldwide, with advanced military satellites serving as tactical outposts while increasing the operational capabilities of armies through high-level communications and navigationalsystems.

The importance of outer space is not only military: 2021 saw private actors and companies become active in space travel and build up infrastructure for space mining, 36 eager to extract valuable resources from newly-discovered planets and asteroids. This increased activity is paving the way for the commercialisation of space, 37 highlighting its importance as a steadily-emerging economic sector. Acknowledging the importance of space in all regards, the European Union (EU) considers it critical notonlyintermsofsecurityanddefence,butalsointhecontextoftheEUʼssocial,economic, and strategic needs. That said, the EUhashistoricallysoughtlimitedmilitaryactivityinspaceitself, seeking to establish its strategic autonomy38 over spacethroughprimarilypeacefulmeans.However, lawmakers and experts have been calling for a shi towards a more active defensive stance as

35 A satellite is, in the general sense of celestial mechanics, an object orbiting a planet. In the context of space flight, this refers specifically toartificialsatellites,i.e.,objectsintentionallyplacedinorbit,distinguishingthem fromnaturalsatellitessuchastheEarth'sMoon. 36 Space mining, also known asasteroidmining,referstotheexploitationofmaterialsfromasteroidsandother minorplanets,includingnear-Earthobjects. 37 The commercialisation (or commercial use) of space is the extraction of value throughprovidinggoodsand services related to outer space. These include, for example, the use of equipment in orbit, the privatisation of spacetravel,andthemarketutilisationofresourcesdiscoveredduringtheexplorationofspace. 38 Strategic autonomy,inthecontextofEUSecurityandDefence,referstotheEUʼsabilitytorespondtoexternal threatswithoutbeingdependentonNATOand,particularly,itslargestandstrongestmilitarymember,theUS.

various international superpowers compete for an increasingly dominant position in space. Having designated 2021-2027 as a key period for Europeʼs empowerment in outer space, how can the EU workactivelytowardssustainedstrategicautonomyinspace?

ImageSource:ʻThespace shuttleColumbialisoffonthe firstspaceshuttlemissionever, ʼ 1981.

Image Description: A space shuttlelisoff.

While the legislation and military activity surrounding space explorationmayseemremovedfromour everyday lives, their widespreadimpactisonlysettobecomeincreasinglyrelevant,thusaffectingthe young generation exceptionally. From the opportunity of space travel to the likely dependence on asteroid mining for rare resources, young people will experience first-hand many imminent implications of space travel that may currently be viewedasabstract,thusbeingdirectlyimpactedby spacepolicy.

2. Keystakeholders

The EUʼs space policy is defined in the Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP), a significant component of the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), which frames parallel competences39 outside of the main EU ones. Subject to intergovernmental decision-making, these enable the EU to pursue activities towards a common approach while allowing Member States to exercisetheirindividualpolicythroughcomplementary,reinforcingactions.

39 EU competences refer to the EUʼs jurisdiction to pass legislation in a certain policy area; they are defined in Articles2-6oftheTreatyontheFunctioningoftheEuropeanUnion(TFEU).

Member States retain a high degreeofsovereigntyinpolicy-makingandfundingdecisions,especially those with strong national space programmes, for example, France, Germany, and Italy. On the other hand, the European Commission is responsible, through the Directorate-General for Defence Industry and Space (DG DEFIS), for space-related projects in defence and industry, for example, the CopernicusProgramme. 40

The European Space Agency (ESA) is an intergovernmental organisation dedicated to space exploration, affiliated but not operating under the EU, 41 with 22 Member States as its members. It launchesEuropeanspaceresearchmissionsthroughtheEuropeanSpaceportinFrenchGuyana.

The EU High Representative (HR/VP) for the CFSP is responsible for the EUʼs external action and defence policy with support from the European Defence Agency (EDA). The latter works to foster cooperation within the CSDP and collaborates with the ESA on improving European space defence capabilitiesthroughprojectssuchastheʻSpaceSituationalAwareness(SSA)programme. ʼ42

40 Copernicus, or Global Monitoring for Environment and Security (GMES), is the European Commissionʼs Earth Observation Programme in collaboration with the ESA, gathering information through space- and earth-basedmonitoringforenvironmentalandsecurityapplications. 41 The ESA is affiliated with the EU under the 2004 EU–ESA Framework Agreement, a part of the European Space Policy, which establishes a mutual framework for the execution of missions and research activities. Following the 2021 EU Space Regulation, the ESA collaborates with the EU under a Financial Framework PartnershipAgreement(FFPA)thatdefinestheircooperationandpledgesEUR9billiontoESA. 42 The Space Situational Awareness programme is an observation programmebytheESAthatmonitorsspace data such as space debris andweatheraimstoassessthepotentialrisksassociatedtonaturalandhuman-made factors in outer space, as well as develop response mechanisms to protect in-space and on-earth lives, infrastructure,andequipment.

ClickheretoviewthisStakeholderMaponMiro.

3. Challengesandmeasuresinplace

European policy in this area originally took flight with the 2007 Space Policy, motivated by the EUʼs fear of being outmatched by Russia and China and losing its technological lead in space to rapidly-developing countries. Aer building up and updating various space-related projectsforovera decade, in April 2021 the European Parliament together with the Council of the EU adopted theEU Space Programme Regulation, which frames the EU space programme 2021-2027, with almost EUR 15 billion allocated to EU space activities, and creates the EU Agency for the Space Programme (EUSPA) responsible for their management. EUSPA will thus lead flagship EU space programmes Copernicus, Galileo, 43 and European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service (EGNOS), 44 as well as the newly-created EU Governmental Satellite Communications (GOVSATCOM) programme that facilitates communications capabilities with a focus on security operations. Under EUSPA, these existingsatellitesystemsareretooledtowardshighermilitaryandsecurityfunctionality.

MilitarisationofspaceandtheEUʼsposition

Historically, the EU has pursued a dual approach in space policy, structuring its strategy aroundthe interconnected, dual use of key infrastructure, primarily satellites, for both military and civil purposes. 45 However, the ESAʼs mission is primarily peaceful, with a specific focus on civil society benefits and openly available data collection. Thus, theEUmaybefallingbehinditscompetitionas Russia and China are reportedly developing anti-satellite weapons, advanced jamming systems, and offensivemilitarysatelliteswiththeintentionoflimitingorobstructingaccesstospace.

In response, Member States France, Germany, and Italy have established national military space commands, following the recent creation of the DG DEFIS to complement theNorthAtlanticTreaty Organisation (NATO)46 in matters of European defence and, particularly, space security. Themilitary integration of Member States in space matters is also advanced by the 2019 defence technology

43 Galileo is Europeʼs Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS/EGNSS), providing accurate and reliable informationonpositioningandtimingtoaninterconnectednetworkofcivilandgovernmentdevices. 44 European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service (EGNOS) is the first pan-European satellite navigation system, led jointly with the ESA, that augments the US General Positioning System (GPS) for navigation and tailoringittocivilandmilitaryneedssuchasaircranavigationandmissileaiming. 45 Military satellites are the main focus of militaryspaceactivities,supportingactivitiesrelatedtosecuritysuch as verifying compliance with arms control treaties. Moreover, many of their civil uses, such as imagery, navigation,andtelecommunicationscanbeusedforearlymissilewarningaswellasforguidingmissilestrikes. 46 The North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) is an intergovernmental military alliance, comprising 28 European countries, 21 of which are Member States, together with the United States (US) and Canada. It implements the North Atlantic Treaty that was signed in 1949, operating through joint security projects and mutualdefensivesupport.

initiative of the EUʼs Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO), 47 which seeks to develop collaborative military space projects across Member States. Still, the EU remains dependent on outer space leaderUSforsoware,equipment,andsecuritycapabilities,whichhampersitsgoalofstrategic autonomy.

Budgetlimitationsforspacepolicy

Despite the EUʼs mission of strategic autonomy and leadership in space, in practice many of its projects havebeenhinderedbyeconomicdifficultiesandmisalignmentofprioritiesacrossMember States, especially following the economic impact of COVID-19, with some Member States such as Poland and Hungary not considering space security a political oreconomicpriority.Atthesametime, competitors the US and China are already investing over six times the EU space budget in both the governmentandtheprivatesector.

While Member States remain free to pursue individual projects, collective EU action on this area has also been hampered due to contrasting views on the EUʼs strategic autonomy and the ESAʼs increasing security involvement. For example, the approval of the current Space Programme was greatly delayed due to budget cut demands among Member States, with the final funding of EUR 14.88billionfortheEUSpaceProgrammerepresentingonlyafractionoftheoriginalproposal.

Still, European leaders hope to convincereluctantspenderstocontributemoretotheEuropeanspace budget, expecting the Space Programme to holistically benefit the EUʼs digital, economic, and security capabilities. For example, the new budget includes EUR 1billionSpaceInvestmentFundfor start-ups and entrepreneurship, 48 with which the EU hopes to generate employment in technological sectors and foster sustainable growth whilemakingobservationaldatafromEuropean satellitesystemsopenlyavailableforpublicuse.

Theroleoftheprivatesector

In line with the increased international interest in space, many private companies are eager to profit from the commercialisation of space through activities such as asteroid mining and commercial space travel, as well as from becoming specialised inthedevelopmentofnecessaryequipmentand soware for space projects. In February 2021, the European CommissionpresentedtheActionPlan on Synergies between civil, defence, and space industries to promote collaboration in space-related projects and offer opportunities for technological research and innovation to the

47 The EUʼs Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) in the area of security and defence is a part of the CSDPfacilitatingthestructuralintegrationofMemberStatesmilitaries,withoperationalsupportfromtheEDA. 48 The Space Investment Fund, also known as Space Entrepreneurship Initiative CASSINI, is a new Commission initiative aiming to support innovative entrepreneurs, start-ups, and small and medium-sized enterprises(SMEs)inthespaceindustry.

European industry. This action plan also facilitates the collaboration of Member States with space companiesthroughPublic-PrivatePartnerships(PPPs). 49

Mirroring the EU action, in October 2021 the ESA established a Directorate of Commercialisation, IndustryandProcurementaimedatfosteringinnovation,growth,andpost-COVIDeconomicrecovery among European space companies towards competitiveness in global space exploration. Analysts consider this a natural step towards limiting expenses for conventional space projects, such as low-Earth orbits50 currently occupied by the International Space Station (ISS), 51 by outsourcing them to private enterprises, thus freeing up budgetary capacities for more ambitious deep space missions,suchastheexplorationofMars.

Despite the EUʼs expressed support for the commercialisation of space, economists worldwide are voicing growing concerns about the risk of domination of space by private companies,whichcould deepen social inequality while rendering the benefits of space resourcesinaccessibletothebroader public. With the US already draing legislative frameworks for economic activity inspace,theEUhas yet to take a stance that endorses its strategicautonomywhileguaranteeingtheeffectiveallocation ofspaceresources.

4. Furtherquestions

● In light of the limited resources of many Member States, how can the EUfurtherstimulateEU integrationandinternationalcooperationwhenimplementingitsSpaceStrategy? ● With the increased private-party activity in space complicating the politics of space exploration,howshouldtheEUapproachtheprivatesectorʼsinterestinspaceexploration? ● To what extent can the EU relyoncollaborationwithprivateactorsinspaceprojectstobypass thebudgetaryconstraintsofMemberStatesandstimulateinnovationinspacetechnology? ● Considering the expresslypeacefulmissionoftheEuropeanSpaceAgency,howwouldmilitary aspects of the Space Policy fit into existing European frameworks in case the EU decides to expanditsmilitarypresenceinspace? ● Given the multiple opportunitiesforeconomicandgeostrategicdevelopmentthatouterspace provides, which goals should the EU prioritise for its strategic autonomy over space in the shortandinthelongterm?

49 A public–private partnership (PPP) is a long-term cooperative arrangement between stakeholders from the public and the private sector,involvinggovernmentsandbusinessesworkingtogetheroninfrastructureprojects andservicesthatwillbenefitthegeneralpublic. 50 A low-Earth orbit (LEO) is anEarth-centredorbitveryneartheplanet,oenspecifiednumericallyashavinga period of rotation of 128 minutes, with altitude less than one-third of theEarthʼsradius.Mostartificialsatellites areinLEO,asthisrequirestheleastamountofenergyforsatelliteplacement. 51 The International Space Station (ISS) is a habitable artificial satellite in LEO, established collaboratively by fivespaceagencies:NASA(UnitedStates),Roscosmos(Russia),JAXA(Japan),ESA(Europe),andCSA(Canada).

5. Oneforall,allforone

When one first conceives the subject of space exploration, it may likely appear inaccessible to local initiatives due to both its distant, futuristic natureaswellasitsgrand,internationalscale.However,in practice, much of the action in terms of space exploration is stilldrivenbynationalinitiatives,inthe case of the EU, and individual or local initiatives in the case of the private sector. The value of regional development contributing to space readiness as a whole is highlighted by the operation of the ISS, which boasts state-of-the-art space capabilities thanks to combining functional parts and soware from a range of highly specialised, space-specific labs across the world. For the future development of the EU in space, this example can be particularly motivating considering the possibility of PPPs and collaborative projects that guarantee thecontinuedfunctioningofEuropean space operations while enabling the EU to further its strategic autonomy with more ambitious projectswithintheEuropeanvisionofexploration.

6. Materialforfurtherresearch

EssentialEngagement

- ReadthisBBCarticleabouttheEUSpaceProgramme,itscomparisonwiththespace programmesofinternationalcompetitors,andpotentialfuturestepsfortheEU. - WatchthisYouTubevideothatpresentsabriefbutcomprehensiveoverviewofthestateand futuredirectionsofEuropeanspaceexploration. - ExplorethisinfographicbytheEuropeanCommissionthatpresentskeydataabouttheEUʼs

SpaceProgrammeanditsactivitiesofspaceexploration. - ReadthispressreleasebytheCounciloftheEUregardingtheadoptionoftheEUSpace

Programme,togetherwithstatementsfromrelevantEuropeanOfficials. - ConsiderthepolicyimplicationsofthisEurActivarticlehighlightingthebudgetarychallenges andinternaloppositionthattheEUSpaceProgrammehasfaced.

AdditionalEngagement

- HereisacuratedYouTubePlaylistwithvideoscoveringvariousaspectsofEuropeanspace explorationandsecurity,comingfromofficialsourcesaswellasindependentcontentcreators. - EngagewiththisopinionpiecebySenjutiMallickabouttheethicalaspectsofeconomicactivity inouterspaceandaboutthelegalframeworksaccompanyingit. - ConsiderthisexecutivesummarybytheEuropeanSpacePolicyInstituteexplainingtheEuropean policyapproachonspace. - ReadthissummarybytheEuropeanCommissionpresentingthelegislativehistoryleadingupto theEUʼsadoptionofthecurrentEUSpaceProgramme2021-2027. - ThinkaboutthepolicyimplicationsofthisopinionpiecebytheHarvardBusinessReviewabout thecommercialisationofspaceandtheupcomingeconomysector.

- CheckoutthisbriefpresentationofEuropeʼshistoryofspaceexplorationupuntilthenewEU

SpacePolicyof2010. - ConsiderthisexpertanalysisbySpaceNewsdiscussinganearlydraoftheEUSpacePolicy.