NUPR Fall 2020

northeastern university political review The Struggle for Black Lives

A Letter to My Brother: What It Means to Be Black in America NOAH COLBERT

GABRIEL GARCĂ?A KAMRAN PARSA

How Police Officers Are Shielded from Accountability MIA VUCKOVICH

Letter from the Editor and the Co-Presidents Dear Reader,

This year was like no other. The start of the decade was marked by the emergence of a pandemic which has claimed over a million lives around the world. One of the longest presidential campaigns in modern history was plagued with reckless misinformation about every issue, from the pandemic to the election itself.

Everyone is sitting alone in dorm rooms and makeshift home offices, trying anything to make sense of these trying times—from baking bread to crafting articles. They are also trying to grasp what this “new normal” looks like and how their actions can make society more just.

The country’s response to a police-perpetrated lynching in late May permeated the pandemic fatigue. The trauma of systemic racism has been a lightning rod for social activism that has awoken young, diverse people like never before. Our writers responded too, keying the most productive six-month period in our eleven-year history. Their perspectives on policing, accountability, diversity, and advocacy form the foundation of this issue.

We unequivocally reaffirm that Black Lives Matter. Our publication is an open platform for people of all backgrounds and perspectives, especially those whose voices have long been excluded from mainstream narratives.

Like other forms of digital media, it is a space for young people to connect, learn, and advocate for the issues they’re passionate about.

We have come of political age during a time of fatigue and isolation, but also one of resilience and community. This magazine celebrates our growth and looks forward to a future that is ours to build.

Thank you for reading,

Gabriel García Co-President

Kamran Parsa Co-President

Milton Posner Editor-in-Chief

Meet the Team Executive Board

Mission Statement

Gabriel GarcĂ­a Co-President

The Northeastern University Political Review seeks to be a non-affiliated platform for students to publish essays and articles of the highest possible caliber on contemporary domestic and international politics, as well as critical reviews of political books, films, and events. The Political Review aspires to foster a culture of intelligent political discourse among interested individuals while promoting awareness of political issues in the campus community. The organization envisions itself as a place where students with a common interest in politics and world affairs may come together to discuss and develop their views and refine their opinions. The Political Review hopes to reflect the diversity of thought and spirit at Northeastern, including the dual ethic of academic and experiential education our school embodies.

Kamran Parsa Co-President Milton Posner Editor-in-Chief Aileen Farrell Creative Director Mia Vuckovich Communications Director Chantal Cheung Digital Director Maxwell Huber Podcast Director Rowdie McDonald Treasurer

Editorial Board Rintaro Nishimura Co-Managing Editor Beza Zenebe Co-Managing Editor Alex Jacobs Columns Editor Taraneh Azar Magazine Editor Chantal Cheung Magazine Editor Akshat Dhankher Magazine Editor Julian Fuchsberg Magazine Editor Alex Jarecki Magazine Editor Stephanie Luiz Magazine Editor

Podcast NUPR-spectives features conversations with NUPR contributors on domestic issues, social justice, foreign policy, and more. It is hosted by Maxwell Huber and produced by Bryan Grady and Ariana Bennett.

To get involved, email nuprpodcast@gmail.com.

To listen, scan this code:

Isabel Present Magazine Editor

Design Evelyn Hou Designer

For More Information Check out our website at nupoliticalreview.com.

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Table of Contents Perspectives

Featured

6

Returning to Pride's Intersectional Roots Alex Jacobs

18

A Letter to My Brother: What It Means to Be Black in America Noah Colbert

9

Diversity and Inclusion Are Too Important to Be Trivialized Chantal Cheung

20

The Struggle for Black Lives Gabriel García and Kamran Parsa

23

How Police Officers Are Shielded from Accountability Mia Vuckovich

National

12

No Justice for Black Women: The Memeification of Breonna Taylor Taraneh Azar

15

The Politicization of Science Is Going to Kill Us Alex Jarecki

Global

26

A New START for Arms Control Rintaro Nishimura

29

All Is Fair in Love Island and War Stephanie Luiz

Columns

31

Live Art in a Pandemic: The Federal Government’s Responsibility to Theatre Allegra D’Virgilio

33

The Ugly Side of Fashion: How the Industry Harms People of Color Grace Horne

Perspectives

Returning to Pride's Intersectional Roots Alex Jacobs / International Affairs and History 2022

T

he 1969 Stonewall Riots, one of the major kickoff points for the gay liberation and modern LGBTQ+ rights movements, was a multi-night rebellion against the police.[1][2][3] Black trans women of color, namely Marsha P. Johnson and Miss Major GriffinGracy, were central figures at Stonewall and in the movement it sparked.[4][5] The Christopher Street Gay Liberation Day March in 1970, which commemorated the first anniversary of the Stonewall Riots, inspired similar marches around the US, eventually leading to our present-day Pride parades.[6] The original protests were led by some of the most marginalized community members, including people of color, trans women, homeless people, and sex workers. But today

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it is increasingly corporatized.[7][8] This commercialization has created problems—such as organizers’ involvement with military contractors, a focus on brands rather than community organizations, and expensive parade fees—that marginalize vulnerable community members.

[9] Increased police presence also makes some people of color feel less safe at Pride parades.[10] Mainstream Pride events do not reflect the intersectionality of the community, its history, or its members. However, in the unique circumstances of 2020, Black LGBTQ+ people made sure their voices were heard and began to shift Pride back toward intersectionality.

Lawyer, civil rights advocate, and professor Kimberlé Crenshaw describes intersectionality as the “interactive effects

of discrimination.”[11][12] People at an intersection of marginalized identities—race, gender, class, sexuality—are affected differently by politics and systemic oppression, often excluded from discrimination discussions that focus on “otherwise-privileged” members of any particular identity. [13][14] In the LGBTQ+ community, an awareness of intersectionality means that we do not think everyone’s experiences are the same as those of White, wealthy, able-bodied, cisgender, gay men.

Awareness of intersectionality helps us to acknowledge, understand, and ground our differences in identity and experiences.

[15] Thus, we can make space for these differences in our construction of group politics

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and make sure that we meet the different needs of diverse groups within our community.[16] Mainstream Pride has failed to do so.[17][18] Pride’s lack of intersectionality is not new. Since 1988, there has been an annual Los Angeles Black Pride due to widespread racism in Pride organizations and the gay community, including racist admission policies at a popular gay nightclub, negative comments about Black men’s clothing, and the reluctance of gay bars and clubs to hire Black men.[19][20][21][22] “It was clear Pride was never for us,” noted Jeffrey King, a sixty-one-year-old Black organizer and founder of the In the Meantime Men’s Group.[23] When discussing his past Pride experiences, he noted getting drinks poured on him, being inappropriately touched, and having difficulty entering events and venues.

[24] Miss Major has long discussed the broader LGBTQ+ movement’s exclusion of people like her, along with the need for those directly affected to lead their own movements.[25][26] Racism within major Pride organizations and the vastly different experiences of Black LGBTQ+ people were even more apparent this year.[27] On June 14, organizers in Los Angeles held an All Black Lives Matter march, aiming to amplify Black queer voices and unite in solidarity while also supporting Black Lives Matter (BLM) demands regarding policing reform.[28] While the All Black Lives Matter march drew at least thirty thousand people, the march’s origins demonstrate the ignorance of White-led LGBTQ+ organizations regarding Black queer experiences.[29] Christopher Street West (CSW), the organization which produces the annual LA Pride parade and festival, has been frequently criticized for being too White and corporate.[30] At the beginning of June, CSW announced the All Black Lives Matter march as a solidarity march with BLM. But Black Lives Matter Los Angeles never endorsed the event and CSW did not reach out to any other Black LGBTQ+ organizers.[31][32] CSW’s special event permit application to the Los Angeles Police Department further demonstrates a lack of awareness. Amid protests against police racism and brutality—including in the LAPD—CSW’s application cited “strong

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and unified partnership with law enforcement” and that LAPD’s “support of this peaceful gathering is key to its success.”[33][34] In the end, a fairly new group, Black LGBTQ+ Activists for Change, took over organizing the march while CSW apologized and withdrew.[35] CSW’s actions demonstrate how far from intersectional many Pride organizations are and how much work is needed to make Pride a meaningful experience for the entire community.

These issues are widespread in Pride organizations around the country. According to former committee chair Casey Dooley, when drafting an initial statement regarding the anti-racism protests, Boston Pride did not even consult its own Black and Latinx Pride committee.[36] In response to Boston Pride’s lack of

Awareness of intersectionality helps us acknowledge, understand, and ground our differences in identity and experiences. explicit support for BLM, committee member Athena Vaughn organized a Black-activist-led Trans Resistance Vigil and March on June 13.

While Boston Pride apologized and released a revised statement, this is a much larger, systemic issue that cannot be solved that easily.[37]

Reverend Irene Monroe, an African American lesbian activist who was at Stonewall in 1969, noted, “Because of the tension that has gone on in Boston for fifty years . . . groups like Black Pride and Latinx Pride . . . come about [because] the larger Pride organizational committee did not consider those voices. We weren’t at the table.”[38] Boston Pride 4 The People is a new organization composed of former volunteer members of Boston Pride, including Dooley, who resigned due to Boston Pride’s response to the protests.[39] The new organization’s June 30 statement called for the resignation of Boston Pride’s entire board.

Despite such long-term, systemic issues in Pride organizations around the country, this year seemed to be a turning point. Pride started to look different as soon as major cities

began canceling parades due to COVID-19. San Francisco Pride canceled its parade on April 14, New York City Mayor Bill de Blasio canceled NYC Pride on April 20, and CSW canceled LA Pride on May 7.[40][41][42] By the end of April, organizers had canceled or postponed about 280 Pride events globally.[43] However, the country experienced a seismic shift after the murder of George Floyd by Minnesota police on May 25 and the start of nationwide BLM protests.[44] Pride also shifted in tone. At the LA All Black Lives Matter march, Black lesbian protester Eyvonne Leach discussed the role of the pandemic in attracting national attention to Floyd's murder by forcing us to “put [our] lives on pause.”[45] The country could no longer ignore racism and the harm it has caused.[46] People began paying more attention to the importance of intersectionality in the Pride and BLM movements after the May and June killings of Black trans man Tony McDade and Black trans women Nina Pop, Dominique “Rem’mie” Fells, and Riah Milton.[47][48] Though trans women of color have been integral to the LGBTQ+ rights and BLM movements from the start, they have never shared fully in the gains of either one.[49] Transgender women of color, particularly Black trans women, are disproportionately killed.[50] But during an intersection of LGBTQ+ activism and BLM in a time of extraordinary circumstances, Black LGBTQ+ people made sure their voices were—and will continue to be—heard.[51] In addition to the LA All Black Lives Matter March, the June 14 Brooklyn Liberation March drew fifteen thousand people to the area surrounding the Brooklyn Museum.[52] It was a rally and silent march meant to evoke the NAACP’s 1917 Silent Parade, at which ten thousand people wearing white demanded an end to

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violence against Black people.[53] The overarching mission of Brooklyn Liberation was to bring Black transgender and gender-nonconforming people into the global conversation about Black lives.[54] In one of the few concrete wins this year, the Supreme Court ruled in June that the Civil Rights Act of 1964 protects LGBTQ+ people from workplace discrimination.[55] However, in her speech at Brooklyn Liberation, Black trans activist Raquel Willis pointed out a glaring disparity, one that explicitly demonstrates the need to examine, critique, and improve Pride through an intersectional lens.[56] “Yes, the legislation matters,” she said. “But White queer folk get to worry about legislation while Black queer folk [worry] about our lives.”[57] Organizers held smaller marches focusing similarly on Black LGBTQ+ people and their experiences. Thousands joined Athena Vaughn’s Boston Trans Resistance Vigil and March on June 13.[58] In Washington, DC, members of the LGBTQ+ community and BLM marched toward the White House and the mayor’s house.[59] Marches in Denver and Chicago also drew hundreds and thousands of people, respectively, on June 14.[60][61] This year, as Athena Vaughn discussed, Black trans people decided to “fight for [themselves] and to remind people what Pride was all about,” returning to the idea of Pride as a “resilience and a resistance.”[62] In New York City, the Reclaim Pride Coalition is doing similar work. It hosted its first Queer Liberation March in June 2019 to contrast with New York’s commercial World Pride.[63][64] Last year, the march aimed to honor the history

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and legacy of queer liberation struggles, resist oppression, and celebrate the gains made through queer resistance.[65] This year’s march was originally canceled due to COVID-19, but protests against police brutality reminded the organizers why the Queer Liberation March formed and why fighting for justice is necessary even during a pandemic.[66] Thus, Reclaim Pride organized a march on June 28, renaming it the “Queer Liberation March for Black Lives and Against Police Brutality” and committing to focus on marginalized voices.

It drew thousands of demonstrators, in great contrast to the more symbolic gesture of NYC Pride’s procession that same day.[67]

Though trans women of color have been integral to the LGBTQ+ rights and BLM movements from the start, they have never shared fully in the gains of either one.

“We did this march to center Black and brown trans people,” said Francesca Barjon, one of the march’s organizers.[68] “We need to listen to Black people, Black trans people, and Black LGBTQ people who have been speaking up for decades and haven’t been listened to.”

Due to this decades-long lack of attention, some LGBTQ+ people of color, people who have worked for years to address the intersection

of racial and gender injustice, thought others would never care.[69] But protesters made this year’s Pride different.

“If you have an organization that has no Black trans leadership, if you have an organization that has no specific Black trans programming or funding, you are obsolete,” Willis remarked at Brooklyn Liberation.[70] The larger Pride organizations like CSW, Boston Pride, and NYC Pride have a long way to go and many changes to make. The work and efforts of LGBTQ+ people this year demonstrated that Pride can and must be better.

Though the prospect of Pride parades in the post-pandemic world is exciting, the LGBTQ+ community must continue what its Black members emphasized this year: awareness of intersectionality and centering the voices of the most marginalized. And we must pressure large Pride organizations to be more aware of the diverse identities and experiences within our community, while supporting smaller organizations like the Reclaim Pride Coalition that work to make Pride better.

This year, people are finally listening and the fight is picking up steam.[71] Pride brought a long-overdue focus on intersectionality and listening to Black LGBTQ+ people. But to ensure Pride becomes intersectional and meaningful for everyone, this kind of organizing must continue in the long-term—we simply cannot go back to “normal” Pride when the pandemic is over.

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[1] Solomon, Andrew. “The First New York Pride March Was an Act of 'Desperate Courage'.” The New York Times. The New York Times, June 27, 2019. [2] Barron, James. “Pride Parade: 50 Years After Stonewall, a Joyous and Resolute Celebration.” The New York Times. The New York Times, June 30, 2019. [3] Solomon, Andrew. “The First New York Pride March Was an Act of 'Desperate Courage'.” The New York Times. The New York Times, June 27, 2019. [4] Chan, Sewell. “Marsha P. Johnson, a Transgender Pioneer and Activist.” The New York Times. The New York Times, 2018. [5] Stern, Jessica. “This Is What Pride Looks Like: Miss Major and the Violence, Poverty, and Incarceration of Low-Income Transgender Women.” S&F Online. Barnard Center for Research on Women, n.d. [6] Zaveri, Mihir, and Michael Gold. “How the Virus and Protests Changed a 50-Year Celebration of Pride.” The New York Times. The New York Times, June 28, 2020. [7] Evans, Dain. “Pride 2020: How LGBTQ Pride Month Went from Movement to Marketing.” NBCNews.com. NBCUniversal News Group, June 9, 2020. [8] Thompson, Hunter C. Queer’Ing Corporate Pride: Memory, Intersectionality, And Corporeality In Activist Assemblies Of Resistance. Thesis, Syracuse University, 2018. [9] Queer’Ing Corporate Pride: Memory, Intersectionality, And Corporeality In Activist Assemblies Of Resistance.

[10] Zaveri, Mihir, and Michael Gold. “How the Virus and Protests Changed a 50-Year Celebration of Pride.” The New York Times. The New York Times, June 28, 2020. [11] “Kimberlé Crenshaw.” TED. TED Conferences, n.d. [12] Marshall, Grace Berit. “Can We Be Proud Of Pride? A Discussion on Intersectionality in Current Canadian Pride Events.” Canadian Journal of Undergraduate Research 2, no. 2 (2017). [13] The Michigan Daily Editorial Board. “From The Daily: Understanding Intersectional Pride.” The Michigan Daily. University of Michigan, July 1, 2020. [14] Crenshaw, Kimberle. “Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Antidiscrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory and Antiracist Politics.” University of Chicago Legal Forum, no. 1 (1989): 139–67. [15] Crenshaw, Kimberle Williams. “Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence Against Women of Color.” Essay. In The Public Nature of Private Violence, edited by Martha Albertson Fineman and Rixanne Mykitiuk, 1st ed., 93–118. New York: Routledge, 1994. [16] “Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence Against Women of Color.” [17] Marshall, Grace Berit. “Can We Be Proud Of Pride? A Discussion on Intersectionality in Current Canadian Pride Events.” Canadian Journal of Undergraduate Research 2, no. 2 (2017). [18] Stern, Jessica. “This Is What Pride Looks Like: Miss Major and the Violence, Poverty, and Incarceration of Low-Income Transgender Women.” S&F Online. Barnard Center for Research on Women, n.d. [19] Branson-Potts, Hailey, and Matt Stiles. “All Black Lives Matter March Calls for LGBTQ Rights and Racial Justice.” Los Angeles Times. Los Angeles Times, June 15, 2020. [20] Scott, Henry E. “Black LGBTQ Leaders Call Out LA Pride and WeHo for History of Discrimination.” WEHOville. WHMC, June 10, 2020. [21] Kilhefner, Don. “Jim Crow Visits West Hollywood: Studio One and Gay Liberation.” WEHOville. WHMC, August 5, 2016. [22] Scott, Henry E. “Black LGBTQ Leaders Call Out LA Pride and WeHo for History of Discrimination.” WEHOville. WHMC, June 10, 2020. [23] Branson-Potts, Hailey, and Matt Stiles. “All Black Lives Matter March Calls for LGBTQ Rights and Racial Justice.” Los Angeles Times. Los Angeles Times, June 15, 2020. [24] “All Black Lives Matter March Calls for LGBTQ Rights and Racial Justice.” [25] Stern, Jessica. “This Is What Pride Looks Like: Miss Major and the Violence, Poverty, and Incarceration of Low-Income Transgender Women.” S&F Online. Barnard Center for Research on Women, n.d. [26] Grullón Paz, Isabella, and Maggie Astor. “Black Trans Women Seek More Space in the Movement They Helped Start.” The New York Times. The New York Times, June 28, 2020. [27] Stern, Jessica. “This Is What Pride Looks Like: Miss Major and the Violence, Poverty, and Incarceration of Low-Income Transgender Women.” S&F Online. Barnard Center for Research on Women, n.d.

[28] Gomez, Elena. “Thousands Gather in Hollywood for All Black Lives Matter Solidarity March Led by Black LGBTQ+ Community.” ABC7 Los Angeles. KABC-TV, June 15, 2020. [29] City News Service. “Tens of Thousands March in Hollywood and West Hollywood for All Black Lives Matter Protest.” NBC Los Angeles. NBC Southern California, June 15, 2020. [30] Branson-Potts, Hailey, and Matt Stiles. “All Black Lives Matter March Calls for LGBTQ Rights and Racial Justice.” Los Angeles Times. Los Angeles Times, June 15, 2020. [31] “All Black Lives Matter March Calls for LGBTQ Rights and Racial Justice.” [32] City News Service. “Tens of Thousands March in Hollywood and West Hollywood for All Black Lives Matter Protest.” NBC Los Angeles. NBC Southern California, June 15, 2020. [33] Bates, Karen Grigsby. “'It's Not Your Grandfather's LAPD' - And That's A Good Thing.” NPR. NPR, April 26, 2017. [34] Tirado, Fran. Twitter, June 5, 2020. [35] LA Pride (@lapride). 2020. Instagram photo, June 9, 2020. [36] Kearnan, Scott. “Boston Pride's Response to the Black Lives Matter Protests Is a Shame.” Boston Magazine. Boston Magazine, June 12, 2020. [37] “#BlackLivesMatter.” Boston Pride. Boston Pride Committee, June 4, 2020. [38] Kearnan, Scott. “Boston Pride's Response to the Black Lives Matter Protests Is a Shame.” Boston Magazine. Boston Magazine, June 12, 2020.

[39] Gray, Arielle. “LGBTQ+ Activists Clash With Boston Pride, Demand Board Resignation.” The ARTery. WBUR, July 1, 2020. [40] “San Francisco Pride Announces Cancellation of 2020 Parade And Celebration.” San Francisco Pride.

San Francisco Pride Celebration Committee, April 14, 2020. [41] Fitzsimons, Tim. “NYC LGBTQ Pride March Canceled for First Time in Half-Century.” NBCNews.com. NBCUniversal News Group, April 21, 2020. [42] Vega, Priscella.

“Coronavirus Torpedoes 50th L.A. Pride Parade; Online Celebration Planned.” Los Angeles Times. Los Angeles Times, May 7, 2020. [43] Burns, Katelyn. “What Will Pride Mean This Year?” Vox. Vox, April 29, 2020. [44] Hill, Evan, Ainara Tiefenthäler, Christiaan Triebert, Drew Jordan, Haley Willis, and Robin Stein. “How George Floyd Was Killed in Police Custody.” The New York Times. The New York Times, May 31, 2020. [45] Branson-Potts, Hailey, and Matt Stiles. “All Black Lives Matter March Calls for LGBTQ Rights and Racial Justice.” Los Angeles Times. Los Angeles Times, June 15, 2020. [46] Chughtai, Alia. “Know Their Names: Black People Killed by the Police in the US.” Al Jazeera Interactives. Al Jazeera, 2020. [47] Allen, Joshua. “Why Organizers Are Fighting to Center Black Trans Lives Right Now.” Vox. Vox, June 18, 2020. [48] Carlisle, Madeleine. “Two Black Trans Women Were Killed in the Past Week.”

Time. Time, June 13, 2020. [49] Grullón Paz, Isabella, and Maggie Astor. “Black Trans Women Seek More Space in the Movement They Helped Start.” The New York Times. The New York Times, June 28, 2020. [50] “Violence Against the Transgender Community in 2020.” HRC. The Human Rights Campaign, 2020. [51] Grullón Paz, Isabella, and Maggie Astor. “Black Trans Women Seek More Space in the Movement They Helped Start.” The New York Times. The New York Times, June 28, 2020. [52] Willis, Raquel (@raquel_willis). 2020. Instagram photo, June 15, 2020. [53] Allen, Joshua. “Why Organizers Are Fighting to Center Black Trans Lives Right Now.” Vox. Vox, June 18, 2020. [54] “Why Organizers Are Fighting to Center Black Trans Lives Right Now.” [55] Bostock v. Clayton County, 590 U.S. (2019). [56] Willis, Raquel (@raquel_willis). 2020. Instagram video, June 17, 2020. [57] Willis, Raquel (@raquel_willis). 2020.

Instagram video, June 17, 2020. [58] Walters, Quincy. “Thousands March In Boston For Black Transgender Lives.” WBUR News. WBUR, June 14, 2020. [59] Heim, Joe, Rachel Chason, Laura Vozzella, and Hannah Natanson. “D.C. Protesters Dance Outside Mayor's Home, Demanding She Defund Police.” The Washington Post. WP Company, June 14, 2020. [60] Allen, Taylor. “Pride Meets Black Lives Matter In Sunday March In Denver And Draws Hundreds.”

Colorado Public Radio. Colorado Public Radio, June 14, 2020. [61] Pope, Ben. “Drag March For Change Protests against Racial Injustice in America, Chicago, Boystown.” Times. Chicago Sun-Times, June 14, 2020. [62] “This Pride Month, The Focus Was On Black Lives Matter.” Radio Boston. WBUR, June 30, 2020. [63] “History Statement.” Reclaim Pride Coalition, n.d. [64] Kilgannon, Corey. “'Clash of Values': Why a Boycott Is Brewing Over Pride Celebrations.”

The New York Times. The New York Times, June 20, 2019. [65] “History Statement.” Reclaim Pride Coalition, n.d. [66] Lang, Nico. “Queer Pride Is Going Back to Its Protest Roots.” Rolling Stone. Rolling Stone, June 9, 2020. [67] Zaveri, Mihir, and Michael Gold. “How the Virus and Protests Changed a 50-Year Celebration of Pride.” The New York Times. The New York Times, June 28, 2020. [68] Lang, Nico. “Queer Pride Is Going Back to Its Protest Roots.” Rolling Stone. Rolling Stone, June 9, 2020. [69] Allen, Joshua. “Why Organizers Are Fighting to Center Black Trans Lives Right Now.” Vox. Vox, June 18, 2020. [70] Willis, Raquel (@raquel_willis). 2020. Instagram video, June 17, 2020. [71] Allen, Joshua. “Why Organizers Are Fighting to Center Black Trans Lives Right Now.” Vox. Vox, June 18, 2020.

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Diversity and Inclusion Are Too Important to Be Trivialized Chantal Cheung / Political Science and Economics 2021

O

n August 20, University of Southern California (USC) business professor Greg Patton lectured to his Communication for Management class on presenting information effectively.[1] He explained that filler words are culturally specific and based on one’s native language, saying, "In China, the common word was ‘that, that that that that,’ so in China it might be ‘那个, 那个 那个 那个.’”[2] The next day, a group of students who identified themselves as “Black MBA Candidates c/o 2020” emailed the USC administration stating that Patton offended the class’s Black members through his use of “that” in Mandarin Chinese.

[3] Pronounced “nàh-guh” or “nàe-guh” depending on one’s accent, the term can sound like the English n-word. In response, USC removed Patton from the course.

USC’s response was inappropriate, especially given the complaint’s flaws. National Review and CNN claim to have a copy of the email, though neither could verify who wrote it.[4][5] The students claimed that their Chinese classmates confirmed that Patton

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mispronounced the phrase and that the word commonly has a pause between its syllables. The students added that they lived in China and have taken Chinese at several colleges.[6] To them, the phrase is “always identified as a phonetic homonym and a racial derogatory term” and thus should be used carefully. The students also claimed that Patton would stop the Zoom recording before saying 那个 and resume it afterward, an allegation later disproved by a video of the incident.[7][8] It’s understandable why these students were taken aback. While Patton explained beforehand that the phrase was a common Chinese filler word, he did not specify that it may sound like the n-word, especially to those unfamiliar with the language.[9] Perhaps he could have avoided the backlash by doing so.

Patton included the Chinese word—mentioned to him by several international students throughout the years—to be more inclusive.[10][11] He aimed to showcase many diverse leadership examples to “enhance communication and interpersonal skill in our global workplace.” He

was also partially inspired by his own experience working in Shanghai.[12] This isn’t the first time that this sort of misunderstanding has happened. In 2016, a Black man slapped a Chinese man in Guangzhou after mistaking 那个 for the n-word in passing.[13] This April, two men in Taiwan nearly fought outside of a restaurant due to this misunderstanding.

[14] Chinese basketball star Yao Ming noted that the phrase nearly got his interpreter in trouble with Yao’s American teammates when the interpreter uttered it to him in the locker room.[15] That said, there is no pause between the syllables for “that.” As a Mandarin Chinese speaker, I can confirm that accent greatly determines the phrase’s pronunciation. Because I learned Mandarin from my studies in Shanghai and from conversing with my mother—a Shanghai native—I pronounce the phrase as “nàh-guh,” as do many Mandarin speakers from Southern China. Those in Northern China often pronounce it “nàe-guh,” which is closer to Patton’s pronunciation. Yale professor Taisu Zhang confirmed that Patton pronounced it correctly, as did nearly one hundred alumni of

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USC Marshall School of Business, most of whom hail from Chinese-speaking regions.[16][17] Student outrage against Patton assumes that speakers of Mandarin Chinese or any other language should watch what they say, lest they accidentally insult someone who speaks only English. This assumption wrongly asserts the superiority of English.

Patton is not the only person condemned for speaking a different language. US radio stations censored Korean boy band BTS’s 2018 song “Fake Love” because the pronunciation of “I” (내가) and informal “you” (니가) is “ne-ga” and “niga,” respectively.[18][19] They censored Korean girl group 2NE1’s 2014 song “I Am the Best” for the same reason.

While it’s understandable that US radio stations feared backlash—which could endanger their licenses—this censorship misleads the public into believing that Korean pop groups feature racial slurs in their songs.[20] This conflation is also present in the allegations against Patton. The students irrationally claim that because there are over ten thousand characters in written Chinese, using 那个—“a clear synonym with this derogatory N-Word term”—is hurtful and intolerable to the USC Marshall community.[21] To them, Patton’s use of the word indicated his negligence and disregard for his Black students. 那个 is not synonymous with the n-word; different languages do not share the same slurs. Furthermore, words or phrases in a language are not always interchangeable. Patton was correct when he stated that filler words are culturally specific—people who speak English tend to use “um” or “like,” while those who speak Spanish may use “como” or “este.”

It just so happens that Mandarin speakers use “that.”

One would think that business students— who may deal with business partners who speak different languages—would be more understanding of foreign languages and their differences. As UCLA professor Eugene Volokh argues, students must control their impulses to censor if they wish to shape this diverse world.[22] Universities must encourage this maturation.

USC’s response was even more excessive than the student outrage. In an email to students, Dean Geoff Garrett stated, “Professor Greg Patton repeated several times a Chinese word that sounds very similar to a vile racial slur in English . . . It is simply unacceptable for faculty to use words in class that can marginalize, hurt, and harm the psychological safety of our students. We must and we will do

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better.”[23] Garrett reassured the students that Patton had been removed from the course, effectively suspending him.

A month later, Garrett confirmed that Patton did not violate university policy, further illuminating how rash and ill-judged the suspension was.[24] The university condemned and punished Patton without investigating his actions.

It treated him as though he had attacked his

At best, USC’s response is performative. At worst, it’s downright racist. The university singled out Mandarin as an inappropriate language to use on campus. This reaction can legitimize the Sinophobia that has already increased on campuses due to COVID-19.[28] USC’s response does not resolve any actual complaint about racism on campus. Instead, it actively drives a wedge between two minority groups—akin to how the model minority myth pits Asians against other racial minorities.[29] This wedge allows White Americans to avoid responsibility for the damage that institutionalized racism inflicts. USC is pitting Chinese students against Black students by implying that something is inherently racist about Mandarin; through this “us versus them” mentality, it absolves itself of responsibility.

Instead of cherry-picking complaints that are easy to resolve and feigning solidarity, USC and other universities need to create concrete plans on how to address racism and free speech issues.[30][31] Without clear policies on what is and isn’t appropriate behavior, universities have a hard time remaining firm on their positions. They need to determine how they want to balance the fine line between “freedom from” and “freedom to” by determining how much freedom of speech is allowed on campus.

If foreign phrases that sound like English slurs are banned on campus, does the same apply to English phrases that sound offensive in other languages?

Actual slurs are racist; foreign words that sound like slurs are not. USC should address other complaints of racism on campus instead.

Multiple students have used the n-word to describe their Black peers with no repercussions.[32][33][34] Black students have complained that academic advisors, who enthusiastically advise White students on law school and scholarships, discourage Black students with similar specifications from applying to these programs.

[35][36] They have also complained about racial profiling, as USC’s Department of Public Safety often assumes Black students do not attend the school; as such, Black students must show ID more often than non-Black students.[37][38] And these are just the tip of the iceberg regarding Black students’ grievances against USC. USC professor Ruben Davila argues that there are two conflicting principles in Patton’s case: academic freedom versus diversity and inclusion.[39] And “in this particular circumstance, there is no academic principle at stake important enough to suppress the importance of diversity and inclusion.”

But I disagree.

Censoring languages marginalizes the people who speak them. USC has made its position clear—the feelings of English speakers matter more than the feelings of Mandarin speakers.

students with the n-word when all he did was speak another language.

There is nothing inherently hurtful about the Chinese language, but USC’s statement implies otherwise. The Chinese language exists on its own, independent of English—it’s illogical to judge Mandarin by English rules. Unlike the n-word, 那个 does not exist to oppress Black people. Censoring languages marginalizes the people who speak them. USC has made its position clear—the feelings of English speakers matter more than the feelings of Mandarin speakers.

After this incident, USC also stated its commitment to “a culture of respect and dignity where all members of our community can feel safe, supported and can thrive.”[25] But that contradicts the university’s disregard for Mandarin and its community members who speak it.

Suspension should be used only for serious threats, and Patton’s actions did not present any danger to students.

Removing a professor from a course—effectively suspending them, though some universities argue otherwise—implies severe negative judgment and harms their standing.[26] It can create a disproportionately prejudicial atmosphere, one that is undeserved given the professor’s record. USC’s hasty decision resulted in an unfair punishment and could negatively impact anyone who speaks a foreign language, as it shows that they cannot be safe and supported.

USC’s reaction also cheapens the discussion around real challenges to diversity and inclusion on college campuses. USC faces numerous complaints about racism on campus, many of which are institutional problems that require meaningful work to dismantle.[27] But rather than investigate those, USC chose to suspend Patton, using him as a symbol of its commitment toward anti-racism.

“

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This isn’t a matter of academic freedom versus diversity and inclusion. It’s about who universities choose to include in their mission for diversity. When Patton was suspended, whose concerns were included? Whose were excluded?

Davila states that we must acknowledge everyone in the community, give them a voice, hear their opinions, and value their thoughts.[40] He’s right, but USC’s response did not follow this principle; it showed that the administration does not value everyone in the community. It’s not diversity and inclusion if universities actively exclude one minority— and their language and culture—for the sake of another.

I don’t know how to solve racism on college campuses, but I do know that USC went too far in Patton’s case. Patton should

In a poor attempt to protect and include one minority population on campus, USC excluded another.

USC should have used this opportunity to open a dialogue between students and professors.

Instead, it stifled the discussion by showing that even imagined slights will result in harsh consequences. Chinese students—and by extension any student who speaks a foreign language—now know that their language is at the mercy of the administration.

This hasn’t improved the lives of Black students; it will only hinder the acceptance of foreign languages and the people who speak them, challenging any progress toward diversity and inclusion.

This isn’t a matter of academic freedom versus diversity and inclusion. It’s about who universities choose to include in their mission for diversity. never have been removed from the classroom and his actions should not have been denounced in an email to the student body.

[1] Grzeszczak, Jocelyn. “Alum, Peers Question Whether USC Professor Deserves Pressure over Chinese Word That Sounds like Racial Slur.” Newsweek. Newsweek, September 8, 2020. https://www.newsweek.com/usc-professors-dismissal-over-chinese-word-that-sounds-like-racial-slur-questioned-alum-peers-1529887. [2] Phillips, Cabot. Twitter, September 3, 2020. https://twitter.com/cabot_phillips/status/1301516424276578305. [3] Bernstein, Brittany. “USC Professor Placed on Leave after Black Students Complained His Pronunciation of a Chinese Word Affected Their Mental Health.” National Review. National Review, September 3, 2020. https://www.nationalreview.com/news/usc-professor-placedon-leave-after-black-students-complained-his-pronunciation-of-a-chinese-word-affected-their-mental-health/. [4] “USC Professor Placed on Leave after Black Students Complained His Pronunciation of a Chinese Word Affected Their Mental Health.” [5] Yeung, Jessie. “USC Professor under Fire after Using Chinese Expression Students Allege Sounds like English Slur.” CNN. Cable News Network, September 10, 2020. https://www.cnn.com/2020/09/10/us/usc-chinese-professor-racism-intl-hnk-scli/index.html. [6] Bernstein, Brittany. “USC Professor Placed on Leave after Black Students Complained His Pronunciation of a Chinese Word Affected Their Mental Health.” National Review. National Review, September 3, 2020. https://www.nationalreview.com/news/usc-professor-placed-on-leave-after-black-students-complained-his-pronunciation-of-a-chinese-word-affected-their-mental-health/. [7] Friedersdorf, Conor. “The Fight Against Words That Sound Like, but Are Not, Slurs.” The Atlantic. Atlantic Media Company, September 21, 2020. https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2020/09/fight-against-words-sound-like-are-not-slurs/616404/. [8] Posner, Milton. “Greg Patton Video.” Posted on October 25, 2020. YouTube video, 0:38. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VE6H8LtQmi8. [9] Ivy-Wavy Academy. “EXTENDED VIDEO: USC Greg Patton used the Chinese word "nage" (那 個) + OFFICIAL school email responses.” Posted on September 7, 2020. YouTube video, 1:42. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=24JhHLpgjXI. [10] Flaherty, Colleen. “Professor suspended for saying Chinese word that sounds like an English slur.” Inside Higher Ed, September 8, 2020. https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2020/09/08/professor-suspended-saying-chinese-word-sounds-english-slur. [11] Yeung, Jessie. “USC Professor under Fire after Using Chinese Expression Students Allege Sounds like English Slur.” CNN. Cable News Network, September 10, 2020. https://www.cnn.com/2020/09/10/us/usc-chinese-professor-racism-intl-hnk-scli/index.html. [12] Flaherty, Colleen. “Professor suspended for saying Chinese word that sounds like an English slur.” Inside Higher Ed, September 8, 2020. https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2020/09/08/professor-suspended-saying-chinese-word-sounds-english-slur. [13] Li, Xueying, and Zheng Ai. “网传广州男子地铁侮辱黑人遭掌掴 警方介入调查 [Internet Reports That Guangzhou Man Was Slapped for Insulting Blacks on Subway].” Beijing News, July 27, 2016. http://www.bjnews.com.cn/news/2016/07/27/411429. html. [14] “台人在餐廳口頭禪連發 被黑人誤會歧視差點挨揍 [Taiwanese people in the restaurant make repeated mantras, and they were misunderstood by blacks and almost beaten].” United News Network, April 11, 2020. https://udn.com/ news/story/7320/4484233. [15] Bensinger, Graham. “Yao Ming: Racial slur locker room mix up.” Posted on October 5, 2016. YouTube video, 3:24. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lXJ3d53MeKs. [16] Zhang, Taisu. Twitter, September 5, 2020.https://twitter.com/ZhangTaisu/status/1301939146676744193. [17] Yeung, Jessie. “USC Professor under Fire after Using Chinese Expression Students Allege Sounds like English Slur.” CNN. Cable News Network, September 10, 2020. https://www.cnn.com/2020/09/10/us/usc-chinese-professor-racism-intl-hnk-scli/index.html. [18] Kelly, Emma. “Here's Why BTS's Fake Love Is Being Censored on US Radio.” Metro. Metro.co.uk, May 22, 2018. https://metro.co. uk/2018/05/22/btss-fake-love-censored-us-radio-7568200/. [19] Talk To Me In Korean. “Korean Q&A - 니가 [ni-ga] vs. 네가 [ne-ga] - How are they different?” Posted on July 17, 2017. YouTube video, 9:23. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=4UKD_JGk04w. [20] Kelly, Emma. “Here's Why BTS's Fake Love Is Being Censored on US Radio.” Metro. Metro.co.uk, May 22, 2018. https://metro.co.uk/2018/05/22/btss-fake-love-censored-us-radio-7568200/. [21] Flaherty, Colleen. “Professor suspended for saying Chinese word that sounds like an English slur.” Inside Higher Ed, September 8, 2020. https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2020/09/08/professor-suspended-saying-chinese-word-sounds-english-slur. [22] Volokh, Eugene. “USC Communications Professor ‘on a Short-Term Break’ for Giving Chinese Word ‘Neige’ as Example ...” Reason.com. Reason, September 3, 2020. https://reason.com/volokh/2020/09/03/usc-communications-professor-on-a-short-term-break-for-giving-chinese-word-neige-as-example/. [23] Yeung, Jessie. “USC Professor under Fire after Using Chinese Expression Students Allege Sounds like English Slur.” CNN. Cable News Network, September 10, 2020. https://www.cnn.com/2020/09/10/us/usc-chinese-professor-racism-intl-hnk-scli/index.html. [24] Volokh, Eugene. “USC Communications Professor ‘on a Short-Term Break’ for Giving Chinese Word ‘Neige’ as Example ...” Reason.com. Reason, September 3, 2020. https://reason.com/volokh/2020/09/03/usc-communications-professor-on-a-short-term-break-for-giving-chinese-word-neige-as-example/. [25] Flaherty, Colleen. “Professor suspended for saying Chinese word that sounds like an English slur.” Inside Higher Ed, September 8, 2020. https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2020/09/08/professor-suspended-saying-chinese-word-sounds-english-slur. [26] “The Use and Abuse of Faculty Suspensions.” American Association of University Professors. AAUP, August 2008. https://www.aaup.org/report/use-and-abuse-faculty-suspensions. [27] Black at USC (@black_at_usc). Instagram. https://www.instagram.com/black_at_usc/. [28] Balingit, Moriah, and Nick Anderson. “On America's College Campuses, the Coronavirus Delivers a Chill.” The Washington Post. WP Company, February 9, 2020. https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/ education/on-americas-college-campuses-the-coronavirus-delivers-a-chill/2020/02/08/c90a1c50-49e4-11ea-9164-d3154ad8a5cd_story.html. [29] Kuran, Elena. “Anti-Blackness in Asian and Asian-American Communities.” Northeastern University Political Review, March 24, 2018. https://www.nupoliticalreview.com/2018/03/24/anti-blackness-in-asian-and-asian-american-communities/. [30] Speier, Mia. “382 Faculty Draft Letter Demanding USC's Commitment to Concrete Plans Addressing Racial Inequality.” Daily Trojan, July 9, 2020. https://dailytrojan.com/2020/07/09/382-faculty-draft-letter-demanding-uscs-commitment-to-concrete-plans-addressing-racial-inequality/. [31] Collymore, Kevin V. “Colleges Must Confront Structural Racism.” The Chronicle, July 1, 2020. https://www.chronicle.com/article/colleges-must-confront-structural-racism?bc_nonce=g94cxtp0sir4nt4t6osiik. [32] Black at USC (@black_at_usc). 2020. Instagram photo, July 12, 2020. https://www.instagram.com/p/CCg5andlOix. [33] Black at USC (@black_at_usc). 2020. Instagram photo, July 15, 2020. https://www.instagram.com/p/CCo-RqTFbgq. [34] Black at USC (@black_at_usc). 2020.

Instagram photo, July 16, 2020. https://www.instagram.com/p/CCr3obYj_bP. [35] Black at USC (@black_at_usc). 2020. Instagram photo, July 20, 2020. https://www.instagram.com/p/CC2N8VTlE99. [36] Black at USC (@black_at_usc). 2020.

Instagram photo, July 21, 2020. https://www.instagram.com/p/CC4NxxbFqla. [37] Black at USC (@black_at_usc). 2020. Instagram photo, July 18, 2020. https://www.instagram.com/p/CCwvt3rjG1I. [38] Black at USC (@black_at_usc). 2020.

Instagram photo, July 18, 2020. https://www.instagram.com/p/CCwvM7iDtiR. [39] Friedersdorf, Conor. “The Fight Against Words That Sound Like, but Are Not, Slurs.” The Atlantic. Atlantic Media Company, September 21, 2020. https:// www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2020/09/fight-against-words-sound-like-are-not-slurs/616404/. [40] “The Fight Against Words That Sound Like, but Are Not, Slurs.”

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No Justice for Black Women: The Memeification of Breonna Taylor Taraneh Azar / Journalism and Political Science 2022

N

o justice, no peace. All too often, Black women are excluded from the narrative of police brutality and systemic racism.[1][2] All too often, the names of Black women are excluded from the fight for justice—a reality that is highlighted on social media.

Social media’s powers in mobilizing change are innumerable.[3] Information can spread instantly, allowing facts and testimonials to cut through hoards of misinformation and flow freely to the front of public awareness. Boosted by teenagers and veteran activists, social media can spark action in the streets and, ultimately, indictments to murderous law enforcement officials in a step away from systemic racism and toward a perfect world.

But viral content can also wreak significant damage. Activism that spreads awareness and boosts resources can quickly morph into content that trivializes and commodifies the narratives of injustice and systemic violence—all under the guise of social advocacy. The goal is traction, but desensitization is an unfortunate side-effect.

In reality, charging police officers for the crimes they commit against Black, Indigenous, and people of color (BIPOC) would be a feeble attempt at retribution.

[4] These officers have the blood of a twentysix-year-old EMT on their hands, who they murdered out of carelessness and disregard for her life.[5] And the blood of a forty-six-year-old father.[6] And a twelve-year-old boy who was playing with a toy.[7] And an eighteen-year-old college-bound high school graduate.[8] And a forty-three-year-old father of six.[9] These murders were not isolated incidents.

There is an epidemic of systemic violence against Black communities.[10] In September, a grand jury in Louisville did not charge police officers for murdering Breonna Taylor—the twenty-six-year-old EMT—during a raid on her home in March.[11][12] The officers involved are Jonathan Mattingly, Brett Hankison, and Myles Cosgrove.[13] Taylor was asleep in her apartment when three plainclothes officers with a no-knock

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warrant punched down her door in the early hours of March 13.[14] They fired thirty rounds into Taylor’s residence, shooting her six times within a matter of minutes. She was pronounced dead on the scene.[15] Now-former officer Hankison was indicted for the shots he missed as he fired through Taylor’s window into other homes; he pled not guilty to the three counts of first-degree wanton endangerment.[16][17] Kentucky Attorney General Daniel Cameron implied that the

After protesting for months against police brutality and state-sanctioned violence in the names of Taylor, George Floyd, and countless other victims, we watch as Black women are again left without justice in a country designed to break them.

grand jury could consider other charges, so as to absolve himself from responsibility.

[18] But two anonymous jurors alleged, and Cameron eventually admitted, that no homicide charges were recommended.[19][20] Instead, jurors were told to consider only first-degree wanton endangerment, since no other charges would “stick.”[21] The decision came after the city of Louisville reached a civil settlement with Taylor’s family for her wrongful death.[22] In the months that followed Taylor’s murder, the internet exploded with viral content tied to her name and death.[23] Tweets, memes, and TikToks pushing the phrase “Arrest the cops who killed Breonna Taylor” went from powerful calls to action to feeble jokes within a matter of shares.

But as time passes and justice for Taylor feels increasingly unreachable, we ask ourselves what went wrong. Did we not go hard

enough for her, or was the response to her murder different somehow? We know that we have ultimately failed Taylor, as the officers who murdered her walk free.

After protesting for months against police brutality and state-sanctioned violence in the names of Taylor, George Floyd, and countless other victims, we watch as Black women are again left without justice in a country designed to break them.[24][25][26] This outcome is familiar for many Black Americans; in the epidemic of police brutality and systemic racism, justice is scarce. But it’s almost nonexistent for BIPOC women.[27] The swift response of social media users to turn Taylor’s name from a rallying cry to a meme exemplifies the public’s role in objectifying Black women and remaining complacent in the face of systemic injustice.[28] The memeification of Taylor shows that Black women are more likely to be commodified—even after death and during justice-seeking—than viewed as parties in social movements.

The grand jury’s decision was much of the same. And it was similarly unsurprising to hear that prosecutors didn't present homicide charges to the jury. Law enforcement has killed 1,345 Black Americans since 2015; while forty-eight cases involved Black female victims, only two led to murder or manslaughter charges.[29] One resulted in an acquittal, while the other remains pending.

We must also recognize transgender and gender-nonconforming BIPOC, particularly trans women of color, within the larger narrative of police brutality. Systemic racism and sexism compound with transphobia, leaving Black trans women disproportionately targeted by hate crimes and police violence.[30] [31] More often than not, they are overlooked, denying Black trans women justice and erasing them from the fight for justice. Based on known and reported murders, trans women of color account for four out of five anti-trans homicides.[32] Twenty-seven of the thirty-three

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reported trans people murdered thus far in 2020 were Black and Latinx trans women.[33] Although Black women account for only one percent of post-2015 fatal shootings where race was known, they make up 20 percent of women shot and killed by law enforcement.

[34] Black women also account for 28 percent of unarmed killings, despite comprising only 13 percent of the female population. It’s unclear whether trans women are accounted for in these statistics, as police and media reports often misgender them.[35][36] The experiences of Black women are ignored and censored, ultimately erasing their victimization from the larger conversation on police brutality.[37] This erasure began within the confines of slavery through dehumanization and the creation of cultural stereotypes.

[38] This legacy informs how law enforcement officials and legislators view and treat Black women with stereotypes used to justify violence.

Violence created the relationship between Black women and the state, but the public barely notices this relationship when addressing slavery’s legacy and its inextricable ties to this nation.[39] This legacy of sidelining persists, even though the founders of Black Lives Matter (BLM) are three Black women, two of whom are queer.[40] The reason for this erasure is complex, incorporating historically informed narratives on the state-sanctioned violence Black people face and the nuanced, deadly intersections of racism and misogyny.

[41] The historical narrative of racism often only highlights Black men. Women are still excluded, as the public lacks the historical context to conceptualize violence toward them.

This exclusion—coupled with the historical and persistent objectification of BIPOC women—further perpetuates sexual and physical violence against them at the hands of the state.[42][43] The public does not have the wherewithal to see this reality, let alone name it, but that's no excuse for inaction. We must create a new structure, a new framework to name and address this epidemic, starting with personal education on the legacy of racism in this country.

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Misogynoir, coined by queer Black feminist Moya Bailey, describes the intersection between sexism and systemic racism that contributes to how Black women are socially and culturally framed.[44] As a result, Black women are disregarded for the central role they often play as leaders in the fight for justice and civil rights.[45] Misogynoir describes the type of sexism that BIPOC women face, which is deeply rooted in anti-Blackness.[46] The term inherently highlights the strength and power of Black women in navigating these seemingly insurmountable barriers.

The prompt memeification of Breonna Taylor suggests that regardless of intention, the lives and deaths of Black women are trivialized and overlooked in the larger conversation.

Here, “memeification” refers to the transfor-

widely known as the “George Floyd protests,” erasing Taylor’s name from the narrative although her murder was at the hands of the state, the same as Floyd’s.[50] As her name stopped trending and the push for reforms and accountability faltered, this memetic phrase sustained her name in the sphere of public attention. But people did not respond to Taylor’s murder with the same level of online outrage or on-theground action, making the memeification of her death all the more upsetting. She was briefly honored, but ultimately overlooked and commodified.

Some claim that using the phrase with unrelated content tricks Instagram and Twitter algorithms into boosting awareness of Taylor’s story, keeping the message in front of users who would otherwise ignore it.[51] But others have called the tactic out as performative activism, a parallel to the widespread posting of black squares on Instagram in June to signal support for BLM.[52]

Regardless of intention, all Taylor memes and viral content spread her name, story, and message—forcing Taylor into headlines and trending hashtags on social media.[53] This constant reminder about the injustice that transpired in the early hours of March 13 will affect how people view the unchecked powers of law enforcement, what they teach their families, and how they vote.[54] But while some memes urge people to call Louisville police or state representatives to demand justice, structural gimmicks that start with a grits recipe and end with “Arrest the cops who killed Breonna Taylor” don’t lead to action.

Sure they put a bug in your ear and trick the people who may otherwise scroll past a BLM post into reading on, but it also trivializes and even disrespects Taylor’s story.

It isn’t all bad, though. Social media made Taylor a household name, bringing her case to the forefront of mainstream awareness and keeping her name ringing on and offline.[55] Social media streamlined resources, including GoFundMe accounts for her family and others, rent and survival funds, and other valuable

When algorithm-tricking becomes attention-seeking, the focus shifts from a Black woman’s brutal murder by the state to a game of likes, attention, and personal social capital.

mation of Taylor’s name, murder, and story into a phrase—“Arrest the cops who killed Breonna Taylor”—to gain viral engagement and boost awareness of her case. The phrase originally stood as a powerful slogan demanding justice—direct, angry, to the point.[47] But it quickly turned into a recognizable meme format in the form of a structural gimmick. It has been used as a slogan on t-shirts and as a caption for unrelated posts, including selfies and beach photos.[48][49] It has turned into an inappropriate and disrespectful punchline, generally unrelated to its corresponding content.

Taylor’s case went without widespread coverage for three months, emerging only in the wake of Floyd’s murder. Still, the flurries of BLM protests that took place this summer are

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initiatives.[56] Social media facilitated celebration; art, music, and remembrance flooded online channels.

Memes can play a valuable role in spreading information, boosting awareness, and ensuring the longevity of social issues within public consciousness long past mainstream news cycles.

[57] Easily digestible, accessible, and shareable memes can help keep topics relevant and act as powerful calls to action as internet ephemera and units of modern activism.

Memes incorporating the phrase “Arrest the cops who killed Breonna Taylor” attempt to do just that. But again, there’s a fine line between trivialization and calling attention in the name of justice. When algorithm-tricking becomes attention-seeking, the focus shifts from a Black woman’s brutal murder by the state to a game of likes, attention, and personal social capital. And attempts to keep her name and story in the spotlight as months pass without charges or tangible action have quickly proved misplaced and void of meaning.

The previous argument was that what some see as trivialization, others see as modern activism.[58] But as we bear witness to Louisville’s decision not to charge Officers Mattingly, Hankison,

and Cosgrove for murdering Taylor, it’s clear that we failed. Our actions weren't enough.

Despite that failure, Louisville has agreed to several police reforms in a settlement with Taylor’s family.[59] One such measure mandates that a commanding officer approve all warrants and affidavits that support property searches. Another implements an early warning system that tracks all useof-force incidents, citizen complaints, and investigations to identify “any police officer in need of additional assistance or training.”

Community-related plans such as integrating social workers to support officers are also listed. The department is “researching best practices and social worker qualifications to create an effective program.”

These measures are quite frankly common sense and should not be considered reforms, but rather standards that should already be in place nationwide.

While the time has passed for a grand jury to indict officers for murdering Taylor, a federal investigation is underway.[60] The FBI is looking into the legitimacy of the search warrant for Taylor’s apartment and whether her civil liberties were violated.

So what would justice for Taylor entail?

Charging the officers involved for the murder of an innocent bystander would have been an appropriate first step in addressing her particular case. Still, tangible, substantial, and sweeping reform is necessary to begin to address the epidemic of American police brutality.

Many cite the historic settlement between Louisville and Taylor’s family as retribution enough.[61] But money does not bring Taylor back or take officers who play fast and loose with BIPOC lives off the street. Money is just a bandage; we must establish criminal charges as the norm in cases of police brutality. But most importantly, no community or family should ever again have to deal with a murder at the hands of the state.

As Taylor’s mother, Tamika Palmer, noted, reform is essential to justice: "Justice for Breonna means that we will continue to save lives in her honor. No amount of money accomplishes that, but the police reform measures that we were able to get passed as a part of this settlement mean so much more to my family, our community, and to Breonna's legacy."[62]

[1] Bennett, Kanya. “Say Her Name: Recognizing Police Brutality Against Black Women.” American Civil Liberties Union. American Civil Liberties Union, June 14, 2018. https://www.aclu.org/blog/criminal-law-reform/reforming-police/ say-her-name-recognizing-police-brutality-against-black. [2] “#SHN Report.” AAPF. Accessed November 8, 2020. https://aapf.org/shnreport. [3] Azar, Taraneh. “In The Fight to Defund, Social Media Is the Mobilizer.” Northeastern University Political Review, June 11, 2020. https://www.nupoliticalreview.com/2020/06/11/in-the-fight-to-defund-social-media-is-the-mobilizer/. [4] Edwards, Frank, Hedwig Lee, and Michael Esposito. “Risk of Being Killed by Police Use of Force in the United States by Age, Race–Ethnicity, and Sex.” PNAS. PNAS, August 20, 2019. https://www.pnas.org/content/116/34/16793. [5] Oppel, Richard A., Derrick Bryson Taylor, and Nicholas Bogel-burroughs. “What to Know About Breonna Taylor's Death.” The New York Times. The New York Times, October 30, 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/article/breonna-taylor-police.html. [6] Hill, Evan, Ainara Tiefenthäler, Christiaan Triebert, Drew Jordan, Haley Willis, and Robin Stein. “How George Floyd Was Killed in Police Custody.” The New York Times. The New York Times, May 31, 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/31/us/george-floyd-investigation.html. [7] Rice, Samaria. “My 12-Year-Old Son, Tamir Rice, Was Killed by Police. I’m Not Allowed to Be Normal.” ABC News. ABC News Network, July 13, 2020. https://abcnews.go.com/GMA/News/12-year-son-tamir-rice-killed-police-im/story?id=71654873. [8] Alston, Joshua. “Actually, It Does Matter That Michael Brown Was Going to College.” The Washington Post. WP Company, August 25, 2014. https://www.washingtonpost.com/posteverything/wp/2014/08/25/actually-it-does-matter-if-michael-brown-was-going-to-college/.

[9] Carrega, Christina. “5 Years after Eric Garner's Death, a Look Back at the Case and the Movement It Sparked.” ABC News. ABC News Network, July 16, 2019. https://abcnews.go.com/US/years-eric-garners-death-back-case-movementsparked/story?id=63847094. [10] Edwards, Frank, Hedwig Lee, and Michael Esposito. “Risk of Being Killed by Police Use of Force in the United States by Age, Race–Ethnicity, and Sex.” PNAS. PNAS, August 20, 2019. https://www.pnas.org/ content/116/34/16793. [11] Press, Associated. “No Police Officers Charged in Breonna Taylor Shooting Death.” The Washington Post. WP Company, September 23, 2020. https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/kidspost/no-police-officerscharged-in-breonna-taylor-shooting-death/2020/09/23/6cc83ebc-fdc2-11ea-9ceb-061d646d9c67_story.html. [12] Oppel, Richard A., Derrick Bryson Taylor, and Nicholas Bogel-burroughs. “What to Know About Breonna Taylor's Death.” The New York Times. The New York Times, October 30, 2020. [13] Costello, Darcy, and Tessa Duvall. “Who Are the Louisville Officers Involved in the Breonna Taylor Shooting? What We Know.” Courier Journal. Courier Journal, May 16, 2020. https://www.courier-journal.com/story/news/politics/metro-government/2020/05/16/breonna-taylor-shooting-what-we-know-louisville-police-officers-involved/5200879002/. [14] The New York Times. “2 Officers Shot in Louisville Protests Over Breonna Taylor Charging Decision.” The New York Times. The New York Times, September 23, 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/09/23/us/breonna-taylor-decision-verdict.html. [15] Ferdman, Roberto, Belle Cushing, and Ani Ucar. New Body-Cam Footage Raises Questions About Breonna Taylor Death Investigation. VICE, September 26, 2020. https://www.vice.com/en/article/v7gwyy/new-body-cam-footage-raises-questions-about-breonna-taylor-death-investigation. [16] Press, Associated. “No Police Officers Charged in Breonna Taylor Shooting Death.” The Washington Post. WP Company, September 23, 2020. https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/kidspost/no-police-officers-chargedin-breonna-taylor-shooting-death/2020/09/23/6cc83ebc-fdc2-11ea-9ceb-061d646d9c67_story.html. [17] Austin, Emma. “Louisville Officer Pleads Not Guilty to Charges Related to Fatal Breonna Taylor Shooting.” USA Today. Gannett Satellite Information Network, September 28, 2020. https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2020/09/28/brett-hankison-pleads-not-guilty-charges-breonna-taylor-case/3566200001/. [18] Shapiro, Emily. “AG Cameron Defends Decision to Not Advise Breonna Taylor Grand Jury of More Charges.” ABC News. ABC News Network, October 31, 2020. AG Cameron defends decision to not advise Breonna Taylor grand jury of more charges. [19] CBS News. “Breonna Taylor Grand Juror Says Louisville Police Actions before Her Death Were ‘Criminal.’” CBS News. CBS Interactive, October 27, 2020. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/breonna-taylor-grand-juror-louisville-police-criminal/. [20] Hutchinson, Bill. “AG Never Asked Grand Jury to Consider Homicide Charges in Breonna Taylor's Killing.” ABC News. ABC News Network, September 29, 2020. https://abcnews.go.com/US/judge-orders-release-breonna-taylor-grand-jury-recordings/ story?id=73308596. [21] CBS News. “Breonna Taylor Grand Juror Says Louisville Police Actions before Her Death Were ‘Criminal.’” CBS News. CBS Interactive, October 27, 2020. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/breonna-taylor-grand-juror-louisville-police-criminal/. [22] Callimachi, Rukmini. “Breonna Taylor's Family to Receive $12 Million Settlement From City of Louisville.” The New York Times. The New York Times, September 15, 2020. https://www.nytimes. com/2020/09/15/us/breonna-taylor-settlement-louisville.html. [23] Mahdawi, Arwa. “Breonna Taylor's Name Is Known around the World but She Still Can't Get Justice at Home | Arwa Mahdawi.” The Guardian. Guardian News and Media, September 26, 2020. https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2020/sep/26/breonna-taylors-name-is-known-around-the-world-but-she-still-cant-get-justice-at-home. [24] O'Kane, Caitlin. “‘Say Their Names’: The List of People Injured or Killed in Officer-Involved Incidents Is Still Growing.” CBS News. CBS Interactive, June 8, 2020. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/say-their-names-list-people-injured-killed-police-officer-involved-incidents/. [25] Elassar, Alaa.

“Black Women Are Often Overlooked by Social Justice Movements, a New Study Finds.” CNN. Cable News Network, July 18, 2020. https://www.cnn.com/2020/07/18/us/black-women-overlooked-social-justice-movements-trnd/index.html.

[26] Nasheed, Jameelah. “The Predictable Heartbreak of What Happened to Breonna Taylor.” Teen Vogue. Teen Vogue, September 24, 2020. https://www.teenvogue.com/story/breonna-taylor-no-justice-police. [27] Elassar, Alaa. “Black Women Are Often Overlooked by Social Justice Movements, a New Study Finds.” CNN. Cable News Network, July 18, 2020. https://www.cnn.com/2020/07/18/us/black-women-overlooked-social-justice-movements-trnd/index.html. [28] All Things Considered. “Why Memes Around Breonna Taylor's Death Are Not Doing Her Story Any Justice.” NPR. NPR, July 10, 2020. https://www.npr.org/2020/07/10/889842746/why-memes-around-breonna-taylors-death-are-not-doing-herstory-any-justice. [29] Gupta, Alisha Haridasani. “Since 2015: 48 Black Women Killed by the Police. And Only 2 Charges.” The New York Times. The New York Times, September 24, 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/09/24/us/breonnataylor-grand-jury-black-women.html. [30] Jefferson, Kevin, Torsten B. Neilands, and Jae Sevelius. “Transgender Women of Color: Discrimination and Depression Symptoms.” Ethnicity and Inequalities in Health and Social Care 6, no. 4 (November 29, 2013): 121–36. https://doi.org/10.1108/eihsc-08-2013-0013. [31] Burns, Katelyn. “Why Police Often Single out Trans People for Violence.” Vox. Vox, June 23, 2020. https://www.vox.com/identities/2020/6/23/21295432/policeblack-trans-people-violence. [32] Lee, Mark. “Dismantling A Culture of Violence Understanding Anti-Transgender Violence and Ending the Crisis.” Human Rights Watch Foundation, 2018. https://assets2.hrc.org/files/assets/ resources/2018AntiTransViolenceReportSHORTENED.pdf?_ga=2.60474021.924583465.1604889035-1650067298.1604889035. [33] “Violence Against the Transgender Community in 2020.” Human Rights Campaign. Human Rights Campaign, 2020. https://www.hrc.org/resources/violence-against-the-trans-and-gender-non-conforming-community-in-2020. [34] Iati, Marisa, Jennifer Jenkins, and Sommer Brugal. “Nearly 250 Women Have Been Fatally Shot by Police since 2015.” The Washington Post. WP Company, September 4, 2020. https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2020/investigations/police-shootings-women/. [35] Stotzer, Rebecca L. “Data Sources Hinder Our Understanding of Transgender Murders.” American Journal of Public Health 107, no. 9 (September 2017): 1362–63. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2017.303973. [36] Lee, Mark. “Dismantling A Culture of Violence Understanding Anti-Transgender Violence and Ending the Crisis.” Human Rights Watch Foundation, 2018. https://assets2.hrc.org/files/assets/resources/2018AntiTransViolenceReportSHORTENED.pdf?_ga=2.60474021.924583465.1604889035-1650067298.1604889035. [37] “#SHN Report.”

AAPF. Accessed November 8, 2020. https://aapf.org/shnreport. [38] Cross, Taylor. “Why The Memeification of Breonna Taylor Is Misogynoir at Its Finest.” The Mary Sue. The Mary Sue, August 20, 2020. https://www.themarysue.com/ why-the-memeification-of-breonna-taylor-is-misogynoir-at-its-finest/. [39] Michelle S. Jacobs, The Violent State: Black Women's Invisible Struggle Against Police Violence, 24 Wm. & Mary J. Women & L. 39 (2017), https://scholarship.law. wm.edu/wmjowl/vol24/iss1/4 [40] Salzman, Sony. “From the Start, Black Lives Matter Has Been about LGBTQ Lives.” ABC News. ABC News Network, June 21, 2020. https://abcnews.go.com/US/start-black-lives-matter-lgbtq-lives/ story?id=71320450. [41] Young, Robin, and Serena McMahon. #SayHerName Puts Spotlight On Black Women Killed By Police. WBUR, June 16, 2020. https://www.wbur.org/hereandnow/2020/06/16/black-women-deaths-protests. [42] Anderson, Joel R., Elise Holland, Courtney Heldreth, and Scott P. Johnson. “Revisiting the Jezebel Stereotype: The Impact of Target Race on Sexual Objectification.” Psychology of Women Quarterly 42, no. 4 (August 22, 2018): 461–76. https:// doi.org/10.1177/0361684318791543. [43] Ritchie, Andrea J. “Invisible No More.” NPR. NPR. Accessed November 9, 2020. https://www.npr.org/books/titles/561961940/invisible-no-more-police-violence-against-black-women-and-women-ofcolor. [44] Bailey, Moya. “Contesting Misogynoir: Black Women's Digital Resistance in American Culture with Moya Bailey.” NULab for texts, maps and networks. Northeastern University. Accessed November 9, 2020. https://web.northeastern.edu/nulab/contesting-misogynoir-black-womens-digital-resistance-in-american-culture-with-moya-bailey/. [45] Dastagir, Alia E. “The Unsung Heroes of the Civil Rights Movement Are Black Women You've Never Heard Of.” USA Today. Gannett Satellite Information Network, February 16, 2018. https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2018/02/16/unsung-heroes-civil-rights-movement-black-women-youve-never-heard/905157001/. [46] Scott, Brianna. “Author: Black Women's Experiences With Police Brutality Must Be 'Invisible No More'.” NPR. NPR, July 16, 2020. https://www.npr.org/sections/live-updates-protests-for-racial-justice/2020/07/16/892015743/author-black-womens-experiences-with-police-brutality-must-be-invisible-no-more. [47] Romano, Aja. “‘Arrest the Cops Who Killed Breonna Taylor’: The Power and the Peril of a Catchphrase.” Vox. Vox, August 10, 2020. https://www.vox.com/21327268/breonna-taylorsay-her-name-meme-hashtag. [48] Cent, 50. Twitter Post. June 25, 2020, 8:12 p.m., https://twitter.com/50cent/status/1276307261942575104. [49] SpeakToMeTees. “Breonna Taylor Shirt. Arrest the Cops That Killed Breonna.” Etsy. Etsy.

Accessed November 9, 2020. https://www.etsy.com/listing/825098602/breonna-taylor-shirt-arrest-the-cops?utm_custom1=Vox.com. [50] Gupta, Alisha Haridasani. “Why Aren't We All Talking About Breonna Taylor?” The New York Times.

The New York Times, June 4, 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/04/us/breonna-taylor-black-lives-matter-women.html. [51] Andrews, Travis M. “The Debate around Breonna Taylor Memes: Do They Bring Attention to the Cause or Trivialize Her Death?” The Washington Post. WP Company, July 3, 2020. https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2020/07/03/breonna-taylor-memes/. [52] Jennings, Rebecca. “Who Are the Black Squares and Cutesy Illustrations Really for?” Vox. Vox, June 3, 2020. https://www.vox.com/the-goods/2020/6/3/21279336/blackout-tuesday-black-lives-matter-instagram-performative-allyship. [53] Rosenblatt, Kalhan. “Twitter Memeified Justice for Breonna Taylor. But Can a Joke Make Change?” NBCNews.com. NBCUniversal News Group, June 19, 2020. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/twitter-memeified-justice-breonna-taylor-can-joke-make-change-n1231443. [54] Andrews, Travis M. “The Debate around Breonna Taylor Memes: Do They Bring Attention to the Cause or Trivialize Her Death?” The Washington Post. WP Company, July 3, 2020. https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2020/07/03/breonna-taylor-memes/.

[55] Shapiro, Ari, Jason Fuller, and Becky Sullivan. “As The Nation Chants Her Name, Breonna Taylor's Family Grieves A Life 'Robbed'.” NPR. NPR, June 4, 2020. https://www.npr.org/2020/06/04/869930040/as-the-nation-chants-her-namebreonna-taylors-family-grieves-a-life-robbed. [56] Kim, Whizy. “We Are Now The United States Of GoFundMe.” REFINERY29. REFINERY29, October 23, 2020. https://www.refinery29.com/en-us/2020/10/10122737/gofundme-rent-food-billcategory. [57] Azar, Taraneh. “Context Collapse: The Fluidity of Memes and Evolution of Social Commentary.” Northeastern University Political Review, June 15, 2020. https://www.nupoliticalreview.com/2020/06/15/ context-collapse-the-fluidity-of-memes-and-evolution-of-social-commentary/. [58] Rosenblatt, Kalhan. “Twitter Memeified Justice for Breonna Taylor. But Can a Joke Make Change?” NBCNews.com. NBCUniversal News Group, June 19, 2020. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/twitter-memeified-justice-breonna-taylor-can-joke-make-change-n1231443. [59] “Mayor Fischer Announces Settlement in Civil Lawsuit Filed by Breonna Taylor's Estate.” LouisvilleKy.gov.

Louisville-Jefferson County Metro Government, September 15, 2020. https://louisvilleky.gov/news/mayor-fischer-announces-settlement-civil-lawsuit-filed-breonna-taylor%E2%80%99s-estate. [60] Mencarini, Matt. “FBI Investigation into Breonna Taylor Case Continues Even after Grand Jury Indicts Officer.” Courier Journal. Courier Journal, September 23, 2020. https://www.courier-journal.com/story/news/local/breonna-taylor/2020/09/23/fbi-investigation-into-breonna-taylor-case-still-open-after-indictment/5865796002/. [61] Fung, Katherine. “Breonna Taylor's Family to Receive Largest Settlement in Louisville History Following Wrongful Death Suit.” Newsweek. Newsweek, September 15, 2020. https://www.newsweek.com/breonna-taylors-family-receiving-largest-settlement-louisville-history-following-wrongful-death-1531951. [62] “Mayor Fischer Announces Settlement in Civil Lawsuit Filed by Breonna Taylor's Estate.” LouisvilleKy.gov. Louisville-Jefferson County Metro Government, September 15, 2020. https://louisvilleky.gov/news/mayor-fischer-announces-settlement-civil-lawsuit-filed-breonna-taylor%E2%80%99s-estate.

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National

The Politicization of Science Is Going to Kill Us Alex Jarecki / Biology and Political Science 2023

T

he COVID-19 pandemic is one of the deadliest outbreaks of the last century.[1] As of November 8, it had killed over one million people (more than 230,000 in the US alone) and infected more than fifty million.[2][3] The US is home to less than five percent of the world’s population but accounts for nearly twenty percent of global deaths.[4] The federal government’s abysmal response to the pandemic has largely contributed to the country’s high case numbers and deaths.[5] President Trump knew about the severity of COVID-19 back in February but downplayed the virus to avoid “a panic.”[6] But Trump didn’t just downplay the virus—he actively opposed measures that would have slowed its spread. While other countries mobilized a federal response to the disease, the Trump administration took little action, leaving the response to states.[7] Lockdowns, mask mandates, social distancing guidelines, restaurant and bar closures, suspension of large gatherings, and other safety measures varied by state.

[8] It wasn’t until mid-March that Trump declared a nationwide state of emergency.

By then, a number of states had declared one themselves.

Trump denounced criticism as a Democratic “hoax” to disrupt his presidency.

[9] In April, when Michigan, Minnesota, and

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Virginia imposed stay-at-home orders, Trump tweeted: “LIBERATE MINNESOTA!” and added “LIBERATE MICHIGAN!” a moment later.[10] He then tweeted: “LIBERATE VIRGINIA, and save your great 2nd Amendment. It is under siege!”

A few weeks after these tweets, maskless armed demonstrators entered the Michigan State Capitol to protest the stay-at-home order.[11] Trump and COVID-19 deniers weren’t just angry about stay-at-home orders; they also criticized mask mandates implemented to slow the

But the politicization of science doesn’t just apply to actions like wearing a mask or getting a vaccine. It’s also a threat on a much larger, more existential scale. spread of the virus.[12] While scientists initially did not recommend that people wear masks, that guidance stemmed from uncertainty on how effective face coverings would be at preventing the virus’s spread. Once these experts reached a consensus that masks are effective, they adjusted guidelines to encourage their use.[13] The Director of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention noted that universal mask-wearing alone could inhibit COVID-19 more effectively than a vaccine.[14]

Following scientific advice, many states enforced mask mandates in public spaces.

But these mandates varied—one study found that Republican-led states delayed mask mandates by an average of nearly a month.[15] As of November 2, thirty-three states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico required people to wear face coverings in public.[16] Only nine of the twenty-six states with Republican governors had mask mandates, but every state with a Democratic governor did.[17] Republican state officials’ reluctance to enforce mask-wearing is likely a result of conservatives’ broader dislike for what they view as an encroachment of civil liberties.[18] For months, Republican politicians and conservative media outlets mocked mask use. Back in March, Representative Matt Gaetz donned a gas mask on the House floor to ridicule face coverings.

[19] Even after more than 200,000 people died, Tucker Carlson still referred to mask-wearing as “cult” activity.[20] Trump didn’t wear a mask publicly until July 12—several months after many states imposed mask mandates.[21] Trump has since adjusted his position—at the first presidential debate, he said “masks are okay” and that he will wear one when he thinks it’s necessary.[22] He then mocked Joe Biden for wearing “the biggest mask” he had ever seen.

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Trump has personal experience with COVID-19.[23] He, the First Lady, members of Congress, and several others tested positive after a superspreader event in the Rose Garden where maskless guests crowded together.[24][25] Even after three days of treatment at Walter Reed Medical Center for reportedly severe symptoms, Trump told the American people that they shouldn’t fear the virus.[26][27][28] Much of Trump’s campaign strategy hinged on having a COVID-19 vaccine ready for distribution by the end of the year, but this development timeline was faster than that of any vaccine ever.[29][30] And American distrust in the vaccine is growing.[31] Only fifty percent of Americans said that they would take a COVID-19 vaccine if it were available now. In August, a majority—72 percent of Republicans and 82 percent of Democrats— said that they believe politics, not science, is driving vaccine development.[32] At the 2020 vice presidential debate, Kamala Harris said that she would trust a vaccine if it were approved by public health professionals.[33] Mike Pence told her to “stop playing politics with people’s lives.”

The politicization of vaccine development—specifically Trump’s claim about its readiness—has led Americans to distrust the very idea of a vaccine. And the politicization of COVID-19 has resulted in thousands of deaths that likely would have been prevented if Trump and Republicans had simply advocated for masks earlier in the year.[34] But the politicization of science doesn’t just apply to actions like wearing a mask or getting a vaccine. It’s also a threat on a much larger, more existential scale.

Scientific belief is now another partisan talking point.

At the vice presidential debate, moderator Susan Page didn’t ask Pence what the Trump administration’s plans were to tackle climate change. Instead, she asked whether he believed in science: Page: Do you believe, as the scientific community has concluded, that man-made climate change has made wildfires bigger, hotter, and more deadly and have made hurricanes wetter, slower, and more damaging?

Pence: . . . the climate is changing, but the issue is what’s the cause and what do we do about it?[35] Page told Pence what climate change’s cause is; scientists around the world agree that humans are at fault for more frequent weather disasters, rising global temperatures, and melting sea ice.[36] A similar

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exchange occurred at the first presidential debate when moderator Chris Wallace pivoted to the topic:

Wallace: What do you believe about the science of climate change, sir?

Trump: I believe that we have to do everything we can to have immaculate air, immaculate water, and do whatever else we can that’s good. We’re planting a billion trees, the Billion Tree Project, and it’s very exciting for a lot of people.

Wallace: You believe that human pollution, gas, greenhouse gas emissions contributes to the global warming of this planet?

Trump: I think a lot of things do, but I think to an extent, yes. I think to an extent, yes, but I also think we have to do better management of our forest . . .[37] The issue is not “what’s the cause.” Science has told us that climate change is real and that we are at fault. But the Trump administration and Republican Party still treat the issue as if we don’t know the cause.[38] Page’s debate question allowed Pence to continue this narrative without challenge. Wallace’s line of questioning allowed Trump to pivot the argument from climate change to the economy.

The Democratic Party, in contrast, dedicated an entire town hall to the climate crisis, recognizing it as an immediate existential threat.[39] More hurricanes have made landfall in the US this year than ever before.[40] Hurricanes

By asking Republicans whether they “believe” in climate change rather than what their plans are to address it, debate moderators, politicians, and pundits allow Republicans to direct the conversation rather than scientists.

Laura and Delta hit Louisiana within six weeks of each other, and the images bear a striking similarity to Hurricane Katrina’s devastation fifteen years ago.

[41] The entire West Coast was on fire— this year’s California fire season was the hottest on record.[42] Even when the

fires are contained, the environmental damage and smoke pollution will take much longer to recover from. Scientists predict that, in a worst-case scenario, New York City could be underwater by the year 2100.[43] Climate change science isn’t in question. So why are the solutions so controversial?

For one, politicians benefit from prioritizing the fossil fuel industry over combating climate change.[44] Oil and gas companies have a financial interest in stalling climate change legislation, and they’re willing to pay to grow their fortunes. The Trump administration has reversed many Obama-era regulations that reduced carbon emissions and maintained clear air and water.[45] Republicans have commonly attacked the Green New Deal, a nonbinding progressive climate plan that aims to eventually eliminate fossil fuels and create millions of clean-energy jobs.[46] During the debate, Pence brought up the Green New Deal multiple times—mostly criticizing the cost and arguing that Biden’s slightly less progressive climate plan is not very different. Pence referred to an incorrect $2 trillion price tag; in the presidential debate a week earlier, Trump falsely claimed it would be $100 trillion.[47][48] The Green New Deal doesn’t have a price tag.[49] It’s simply an outline of principles and goals. Because the proposals aren’t detailed enough to have an exact price, the plan’s cost is difficult to estimate. And the plan’s supporters argue that calculating the “cost” doesn’t consider the benefits of a clean energy economy.[50] Republicans politicize climate change because they do not want to spend money tackling the issue. They would prefer to invest in fossil fuels even though this will irreversibly damage our environment.

[51] By painting Democrats as conspiracy theorists who prematurely blame humans for climate change, Republicans pivot the conversation back to cost, asserting that it’s cheaper to depend on fossil fuels than transition to clean energy.[52] The partisan nature of climate change science even affects supposedly nonpartisan institutions.

During her Senate confirmation hearings, Judge Amy Coney Barrett refused to answer questions about it:

“

Sen. Kamala Harris: Do you believe that climate change is happening and threatening the air we breathe and the water that we drink?

Barrett: . . . I will not express a view on a matter of public policy, especially one that is politically controversial.[53]

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new conclusions. When it comes to public policy, we need politicians to trust science and encourage their constituents to do the same.

The cause of climate change and the efficacy of masks are no longer disputable.

We desperately need politicians to adjust

their positions and policies as scientists discover new information. We can no longer allow Republicans to center the conversation around whether the climate is changing or whether masks slow COVID-19.

We need actual solutions to these very real, existential threats.

National

If we don’t address climate change soon, millions of people will die or lose their homes due to rising sea levels, increasing temperatures, more extreme weather events, and harsher droughts.[54][55][56][57] Climate refugees will become a bigger and bigger issue, and we are far past the point of ignoring it.[58] We have failed to act on climate change for far too long because of the polarization of science.[59] By asking Republicans whether they “believe” in climate change rather than what their plans are to address it, debate moderators, politicians, and pundits allow Republicans to direct the conversation rather than scientists. This will have devastating consequences for the health and safety of the world and its citizens. In fact, it already has.

Science is constantly changing. It’s difficult to find a definitive answer to most scientific questions. But that doesn’t mean that science is wrong. It can confidently tell us that COVID-19 is airborne and that humans are largely at fault for climate change.[60][61] It can confidently tell us that masks do work, and that they could save hundreds of thousands of lives.[62][63] That doesn’t mean that scientists were lying before; it simply means that they didn’t yet have enough facts to determine an answer.

The point of scientific discovery is just that: discovery. Progress is the name of the game—we are constantly asking new questions, evaluating new evidence, and drawing

[1] Lovelace, Berkeley. “Scientists Say the Coronavirus Is at Least as Deadly as the 1918 Flu Pandemic.” CNBC. CNBC, August 13, 2020. https://www.cnbc.com/2020/08/13/scientists-say-the-coronavirus-is-at-least-as-deadly-as-the-1918-flu-pandemic.html.

[2] The New York Times. “Covid World Map: Tracking the Global Outbreak.” The New York Times. The New York Times, November 9, 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/world/coronavirus-maps.html. [3] The New York Times. “Covid in the U.S.: Latest Map and Case Count.” The New York Times. The New York Times, November 9, 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/us/coronavirus-us-cases.html. [4] “United States Population (LIVE).” Worldometer. Accessed November 9, 2020. https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/us-population/. [5] Posner, Milton. “Four Non-Biden Reasons for Progressives to Vote for Biden.” Northeastern University Political Review, October 23, 2020. https://www.nupoliticalreview. com/2020/10/23/four-non-biden-reasons-for-progressives-to-vote-for-biden/. [6] Gangel, Jamie, and Michael Warren. “'I'm Just Not': Trump Told Woodward He Wasn't Concerned about Catching Covid in Newly Released Audio.” CNN. Cable News Network, October 2, 2020. https://www.cnn.com/2020/10/02/politics/trump-woodward-interview-covid/index.html. [7] Bremmer, Ian. “The Best Global Responses to COVID-19 Pandemic.” Time. Time, June 12, 2020. https://time.com/5851633/best-global-responses-covid-19/. [8] “State Data and Policy Actions to Address Coronavirus.” KFF, November 6, 2020. https://www.kff.org/coronavirus-covid-19/issue-brief/state-data-and-policy-actions-to-address-coronavirus/. [9] Palma, Bethania. “Did President Trump Refer to the Coronavirus as a 'Hoax'?” Snopes. Snopes Media Group, March 2, 2020. https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/trump-coronavirus-rally-remark/. [10] Mauger, Craig, and Beth LeBlanc. “Trump Tweets 'Liberate' Michigan, Two Other States with Dem Governors.” The Detroit News. The Detroit News, April 17, 2020. https://www.detroitnews.com/story/news/politics/2020/04/17/trump-tweets-liberate-michigan-other-states-democratic-governors/5152037002/. [11] “Coronavirus: Armed Protesters Enter Michigan Statehouse.” BBC News. BBC, May 1, 2020. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-52496514. [12] McCaskill, Nolan D. “Trump, Governors Diverge on Mask Mandates.” POLITICO. POLITICO, July 19, 2020. https:// www.politico.com/news/2020/07/19/trump-governors-masks-371304. [13] “COVID-19: Considerations for Wearing Masks.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, November 14, 2020. https://www.cdc.gov/ coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/cloth-face-cover-guidance.html. [14] O'Kane, Caitlin. “CDC Director Says Face Masks May Offer More Protection against COVID than a Vaccine. Here's What Other Experts Say.” CBS News. CBS Interactive, September 18, 2020. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/covid-face-mask-protection-vaccine-cdc-director/. [15] Eckart, Kim. “Mask Mandates Delayed by Nearly a Month in Republican-Led States, UW Study Finds.” UW News. University of Washington, September 4, 2020. https://www.washington.edu/news/2020/09/04/mask-mandates-delayed-by-nearly-a-month-in-republican-led-states-uw-study-finds/. [16] Markowitz, Andy. “Does Your State Have a Mask Mandate Due to Coronavirus?” AARP. AARP, November 6, 2020. https://www.aarp.org/health/healthy-living/info-2020/states-mask-mandates-coronavirus.html. [17] “2020 Gubernatorial Elections Interactive Map.” 270toWin. Electoral Ventures, November 2, 2020. https://www.270towin. com/2020-governor-election/. [18] Parsa, Kamran. “Coronavirus in America: Obsession and Oppression.” Northeastern University Political Review, May 30, 2020. https://www.nupoliticalreview.com/2020/05/30/coronavirus-in-america-obsession-and-oppression/. [19] Kelly, Caroline. “Rep. Matt Gaetz Wore a Gas Mask on House Floor during Vote on Coronavirus Response Package.” CNN. Cable News Network, March 9, 2020. https://www.cnn.com/2020/03/04/politics/gaetz-coronavirus-gas-mask/index.html. [20] Carlson, Tucker. “Tucker Carlson: The Cult of Mask-Wearing Grows, with No Evidence They Work.” Fox News. FOX News Network, October 13, 2020. https://www.foxnews.com/opinion/ tucker-carlson-cult-of-mask-wearing. [21] “Coronavirus: Donald Trump Wears Face Mask for the First Time.” BBC News. BBC, July 12, 2020. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-53378439. [22] “Presidential Debate at Case Western Reserve University in Cleveland, Ohio.” The American Presidency Project. The American Presidency Project, September 29, 2020. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/presidential-debate-case-western-reserve-university-cleveland-ohio. [23] Baker, Peter, and Maggie Haberman. “Trump Tests Positive for the Coronavirus.” The New York Times. The New York Times, October 2, 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/02/us/politics/trump-covid.html. [24] Buchanan, Larry, Lazaro Gamio, Lauren Leatherby, John Keefe, Christoph Koettl, and Amy Schoenfeld Walker. “Tracking the White House Coronavirus Outbreak.” The New York Times. The New York Times, October 2, 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/10/02/us/politics/trump-contact-tracing-covid.html. [25] “White House Hosted Covid 'Superspreader' Event, Says Dr Fauci.” BBC News. BBC, October 10, 2020. https://www.bbc.com/news/election-us-2020-54487154. [26] Keshner, Andrew. “Trump Was Discharged from Hospital after Three Days - How That Compares to the Average COVID-19 Hospitalization.” MarketWatch. MarketWatch, October 6, 2020. https://www.marketwatch.com/story/trump-says-he-expects-to-be-discharged-from-the-hospital-mondaynight-how-long-his-stay-compares-to-other-hospitalized-coronavirus-patients-2020-10-05. [27] Kolata, Gina, and Apoorva Mandavilli. “Trump's Covid Treatments Are Aimed at Preventing Severe Illness.” The New York Times. The New York Times, October 3, 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/03/health/Covid-trump-treatments.html. [28] Trump, J. Donald. Twitter Post. October 5, 2020, 2:37p.m., https://twitter.com/realDonaldTrump/status/1313186529058136070. [29] “Fact Sheet: Explaining Operation Warp Speed.” HHS.gov. US Department of Health and Human Services. Accessed November 9, 2020. https://www.hhs.gov/coronavirus/explaining-operation-warp-speed/index.html. [30] “It's Rare A Vaccine Is Developed In Five Years.

Can The World Really Pull It Off In One?” Kaiser Health News. Kaiser Family Foundation, June 10, 2020. https://khn.org/morning-breakout/its-rare-a-vaccine-is-developed-in-five-years-can-the-world-really-pull-it-off-in-one/. [31] Saad, Lydia. “Americans' Readiness to Get COVID-19 Vaccine Falls to 50%.” Gallup.com. Gallup, October 12, 2020. https://news.gallup.com/poll/321839/readiness-covid-vaccine-falls-past-month.aspx. [32] Silverman, Ed. “Most Americans See Politics Driving Covid-19 Vaccine Approval Process.” STAT, August 31, 2020. https://www.statnews.com/pharmalot/2020/08/31/most-americans-believe-the-covid-19-vaccine-approval-process-is-driven-by-politics-not-science/. [33] “Kamala Harris & Mike Pence 2020 Vice Presidential Debate Transcript.” Rev, October 7, 2020. https://www.rev.com/blog/transcripts/kamala-harris-mike-pence-2020-vice-presidential-debate-transcript. [34] Roos, Meghan. “Nationwide Mask Mandate in April Would Likely Have Saved Nearly 40,000 American Lives, Study Finds.” Newsweek. Newsweek, August 5, 2020. https://www.newsweek.com/nationwide-mask-mandate-april-would-likely-have-saved-nearly-40000-american-lives-study-finds-1523039. [35] Kamala Harris & Mike Pence 2020 Vice Presidential Debate Transcript. [36] “Scientific Consensus: Earth's Climate Is Warming.” NASA. NASA. Accessed November 9, 2020. https://climate.nasa.gov/scientific-consensus/. [37] “Donald Trump & Joe Biden 1st Presidential Debate Transcript 2020.” Rev, September 29, 2020. https://www.rev.com/blog/transcripts/donald-trump-joe-biden-1st-presidential-debate-transcript-2020. [38] Lavelle, Marianne. “With Wild and Dangerous Weather All Around, Republicans Stay Silent on Climate Change.” InsideClimate News, August 28, 2020. https://insideclimatenews.org/news/28082020/republican-national-convention-trump-climate-change. [39] Friedman, Lisa, and Maggie Astor. “2020 Democrats at Climate Town Hall.” The New York Times. The New York Times, June 9, 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/live/2019/democrats-climate-town-hall. [40] Martin-Barton, Richard. “Record Number of Hurricanes Make Landfall in US in 2020.” The Guardian. Guardian News and Media, October 14, 2020. https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2020/oct/14/record-number-hurricanes-make-landfall-united-states-2020. [41] CNN Editorial Research. “Hurricane Katrina Statistics Fast Facts.” CNN. Cable News Network, August 12, 2020. https://www.cnn.com/2013/08/23/us/hurricane-katrina-statistics-fast-facts/index.html. [42] Shaw, Al, and Elizabeth Weil. “New Maps Show How Climate Change Is Making California's ‘Fire Weather’ Worse.” ProPublica. Pro Publica Inc., October 14, 2020. https://projects.propublica.org/california-fire-weather/. [43] Lampen, Claire. “New Climate Report Suggests NYC Could Be Under Water Sooner Than Predicted.” Gothamist. Gothamist, May 21, 2019. https://gothamist.com/news/new-climate-reportsuggests-nyc-could-be-under-water-sooner-than-predicted. [44] Jarecki, Alex. “Green for Green: Big-Money Donations and Climate Policy.” Northeastern University Political Review, March 7, 2020. https://www.nupoliticalreview.com/2020/03/07/greenfor-green-big-money-donations-and-climate-policy/. [45] Popovich, Nadja, Livia Albeck-ripka, and Kendra Pierre-louis. “The Trump Administration Is Reversing Nearly 100 Environmental Rules. Here's the Full List.” The New York Times. The New York Times, October 15, 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/climate/trump-environment-rollbacks-list.html. [46] Friedman, Lisa. “What Is the Green New Deal? A Climate Proposal, Explained.” The New York Times. The New York Times, February 21, 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/21/climate/green-new-deal-questions-answers.html. [47] “Kamala Harris & Mike Pence 2020 Vice Presidential Debate Transcript.” Rev, October 7, 2020. https://www.rev.com/blog/transcripts/kamala-harris-mike-pence-2020-vice-presidential-debate-transcript. [48] “Presidential Debate at Case Western Reserve University in Cleveland, Ohio.” The American Presidency Project. The American Presidency Project, September 29, 2020. https://www. presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/presidential-debate-case-western-reserve-university-cleveland-ohio. [49] McDonald, Jessica. “How Much Will the 'Green New Deal' Cost?” FactCheck.org, March 14, 2019. https://www.factcheck.org/2019/03/ how-much-will-the-green-new-deal-cost/. [50] Nguyen, Janet. “Why It's Hard to Put a Price Tag on Plans like the Green New Deal.” Marketplace, October 8, 2020. https://www.marketplace.org/2020/10/08/why-its-hard-to-put-a-price-tag-on-plans-likethe-green-new-deal/. [51] “Senate Republicans Bail Out Major Fossil Fuel Polluters.” Center for Biological Diversity. Center for Biological Diversity, March 26, 2020. Center for Biological Diversity. https://biologicaldiversity.org/w/news/press-releases/ senate-republicans-bail-out-major-fossil-fuel-polluters-2020-03-25/. [52] Roberts, David. “Why Conservatives Keep Gaslighting the Nation about Climate Change.” Vox. Vox, October 31, 2018. https://www.vox.com/energy-and-environment/2018/10/22/18007922/climate-change-republicans-denial-marco-rubio-trump. [53] Schwartz, John, and Hiroko Tabuchi. “By Calling Climate Change 'Controversial,' Barrett Created Controversy.” The New York Times. The New York Times, October 15, 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/15/climate/amy-coney-barrett-climate-change.html. [54] “Sea Level.” NASA. NASA. Accessed November 9, 2020. https://climate.nasa.gov/vital-signs/sea-level/. [55] “SVS: National Climate Assessment: 21st Century Temperature Scenarios.” National Climate Assessment and NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center Scientific Visualization Studio . NASA, March 7, 2013. https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/details.cgi?aid=4029. [56] “Mapped: How Climate Change Affects Extreme Weather around the World.” Carbon Brief, April 15, 2020. https://www.carbonbrief.org/mapped-how-climate-change-affects-extreme-weather-around-the-world. [57] “SVS: Megadroughts in U.S. West Projected to Be Worst of the Millennium.” NASA's Scientific Visualization Studio . NASA, February 12, 2015. https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/details.cgi?aid=4270. [58] Lustgarten, Abrahm. “Where Will Everyone Go?” ProPublica. Pro Publica Inc., July 23, 2020. https://features. propublica.org/climate-migration/model-how-climate-refugees-move-across-continents/. [59] Voo, Lee Van Der. “The Political Theater of Climate Change: a 62-Year History of Inaction.” Salon. Salon.com, October 4, 2020. https://www.salon. com/2020/10/04/the-political-theater-of-climate-change-a-62-year-history-of-inaction/. [60] “How COVID-19 Spreads.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, October 28, 2020. https://www.cdc.gov/ coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/how-covid-spreads.html. [61] “The Causes of Climate Change.” NASA. NASA. Accessed November 9, 2020. https://climate.nasa.gov/causes/. [62] “Considerations for Wearing Masks.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, November 4, 2020. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/cloth-face-cover-guidance.html. [63] Weixel, Nathaniel. “Study: Universal Mask-Wearing Could Save 130,000 Lives by Spring.” The Hill. The Hill, October 23, 2020. https://thehill.com/policy/healthcare/522465-universal-mask-wearing-could-save-130000-lives-by-spring-study-shows.

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A Letter to My Brother: What It Means to Be Black in America Noah Colbert / Mathematics and Political Science 2024

I

n 1965, Black author James Baldwin debated William F. Buckley, founder of National Review and staunch opponent of the Civil Rights movement.[1] They discussed whether “the American Dream is at the expense of the American Negro.” I often come back to a rarely quoted line in Baldwin’s speech: "By the time you are thirty, you have been through a certain kind of mill. And the most serious effect of the mill you’ve been through is, again, not the catalog of disaster, the policemen, the taxi drivers, the waiters, the landlady, the landlord, the banks, the insurance companies, the millions of details, twenty-four hours of every day, which spell out to you that you are a worthless human being. It is not that. It’s by that time that you’ve begun to see it happening in your daughter or your son, or your niece or your nephew."

Like most Black Americans, I am not surprised that the grand jury charged Officer Brett Hankison with wanton endangerment instead of the murder of Breonna Taylor, a decision spurred by prosecutors discouraging stronger charges.[2][3] [4][5] It reminds us that Taylor’s life didn’t matter.

Property mattered, and perhaps her neighbors did too, but not her.

I am hurt, but not for myself. As Baldwin describes, my pain stems from coming to terms

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The days are not long until you are stopped for riding a bike in the “wrong” neighborhood, or you are called “boy” when your age no longer warrants it.

And eventually, you will sit in front of a television and witness another Black life taken, another miscarriage of justice.

with the world that you, my brother Markelle, will grow up in. You are seven years old, and the perverse effects of White supremacy in the classroom have already begun to influence your sense of self.[6] I lament your upcoming reckoning with more overt injustices.

The days are not long until you are stopped for riding a bike in the “wrong” neighborhood, or you are called “boy” when your age no longer warrants it. And eventually, you will sit in front of a television and witness another Black life taken, another miscarriage of justice.[7] I do not know how I will conduct myself that day to alleviate a wound that cuts deep into my heart. I know our parents will be equally powerless. We will have no authority to act, and that

is precisely why the crime is so heinous; there is nothing that shatters the family more than a parent’s inability to protect their children. From the instant they enter the White world, Black children are victimized by psychic damage of inferiority, enforced by the daily injustices that speak to their expendability.

Consider the millions of Black girls whose coming-of-age story will include Kentucky Attorney General Daniel Cameron—one of the few faces in power who looks like them—explain that Breonna Taylor’s death was justified.[8] They are Breonna Taylor. They will grow to expect the same fate.

Black children are shown that it’s not Taylor’s murder that’s unacceptable—it’s the sloppiness

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officers displayed in perpetrating it.[9] Black Americans can be murdered, but the country would prefer it be done without property damage. Cameron’s narrative, fraught with halftruths to cast blame on Taylor, places the utmost significance on property, finding a seat next to conservative Black economist Thomas Sowell’s defense of antebellum southern capitalism.

[10][11][12] He argued that capitalism incentivized masters not to maim slaves too severely, lest they permanently damage an asset.

Property damage has always been considered more important than Black lives.

The only time this country has valued Black lives is when taking them infringed upon the property of a White man.

But property damage is permissible under one condition—if it shields police from accountability for the terror they inflict on the Black community.[13] Hours before the grand jury’s ruling, Louisville declared a 9 p.m. curfew and the Kentucky governor called in the National Guard.[14] Police arrested over one hundred people within the first thirty-six hours after the ruling.[15] The city knew this would happen.

Though I reject the conservative condemnation of violence—which is entirely disingenuous—the suffering that comes from this violence truly saddens me.[16] But this only illuminates the city’s adherence to a founding national principle—as N.W.A put it, “the authority to kill a minority.”[17] The right of White Americans to enact violence upon Black people must not be infringed.

I repeat, Louisville anticipated violence but chose to brace for the storm. The city could have prevented this suffering by bringing proper charges. However, it chose to protect Taylor’s murderers, even though businesses would be destroyed and people would get hurt during the ensuing protests. The curfew and lockdown exist to suppress dissent, not to prevent violence; this is why you see nonviolent protesters jailed while armed right-wing gangs rove the streets

unimpeded.[18] The city sees itself as a protector of White America’s fundamental freedom to destroy Black lives.

How does one explain to a child that—should they experience a tragedy—the justice systems they have learned to believe in will not aid them?

There are no words that can soften the discovery that—should you be killed—the country will do everything in its power to discredit you, to assume that your death was warranted, to

How does one explain to a child that—should they experience a tragedy—the justice systems they have learned to believe in will not aid them? dismiss anything that favors you.[19][20] Your skin color will be a stand-in for a guilty plea.

I don’t know how to explain to you, Markelle, the lengths Americans will go to defend the indefensible. You could be protecting your girlfriend from people knocking down your door in the middle of the night, as Kenneth Walker was.

[21] This country will implicate you and sue you for defending her.[22] You could be enjoying ice cream as an off-duty cop bursts into your apartment, as Botham Jean was.[23] This country will believe the officer rightfully feared for her life.[24] You could be playing in a park, as I know you so love to do, with a toy virtually every teenage boy is taught to treasure, as Tamir Rice was.[25] This country will paint you as dangerous.[26] They’ll ascribe to you every bad intention possible and remain ignorant to the inner dispositions that cause them to do so.

At the same time, those who claim to honor your name will become desensitized to your death. People will use it to craft empty gestures that don’t address their prejudice, boosting their moral self-esteem in the process.

This has been Breonna Taylor’s fate. Her name has been so thoroughly cleansed of humanity that it feels hollow.

[27] Those who invoked it grew desensitized to her murder and the suffering Black Americans endure.[28]

Still, I grieve. For Breonna. For those who will inevitably suffer the same fate as her. For you, Markelle. And for the generations to come, whose moral lives will be “destroyed by the plague called color.”[29]

I am certain that the daily slings and arrows that result from “racism,” a word that entails so much I am loath to use it, will continue. Despite my youth, my Black American bildungsroman— which demands a recognition of the terrible truths of this country—has already occurred.

I am not the first to find myself in this situation. Baldwin himself warned his nephew of America’s harsh realities in “My Dungeon Shook.”[30] In Between the World and Me, Ta-Nehisi Coates had no words of comfort for his son after Michael Brown’s murderers went free. Instead, he told him “that this is your country, that this is your world, that this is your body, and you must find some way to live within the all of it.”[31] So Markelle, I’m sorry to write to you like this.

I’m sorry your life is inextricably linked to all the Black boys before you. I am filled with tears thinking of the day you come to see this and the day you’ll see your children come to this revelation. I know that someday, you’ll find your head bowed like mine under the weight of it all.

I cannot tell you to lift it and forget. I can only implore you to carry on regardless.

[1] PBSNewsHour. “Baldwin-Buckley Race Debate Still Resonates 55 Years On.” YouTube. YouTube, February 16, 2020. [2] Aratani, Lauren, Joan E Greve, and Martin Belam. “Breonna Taylor: Family Attorney Says Wanton Endangerment Charge 'Doesn't Make Sense' – as It Happened.” The Guardian. Guardian News and Media, September 24, 2020. [3] “What Is Wanton Endangerment?: Louisville Law Blog.” Ron Aslam Law Office. Ron Aslam Law Office.

Accessed November 9, 2020. [4] Hutchinson, Bill. “AG Never Asked Grand Jury to Consider Homicide Charges in Breonna Taylor's Killing.” ABC News. ABC News Network, September 29, 2020. [5] CBS News. “Breonna Taylor Grand Juror Says Louisville Police Actions before Her Death Were ‘Criminal.’” CBS News. CBS Interactive, October 27, 2020. [6] Kohli, Rita. “Breaking the Cycle of Racism in the Classroom: Critical Race Reflections from Future Teachers of Color.” Teacher Education Quarterly 35, no. 4 (2008): 177–88. [7] Codeswitch/NPR. “A Decade Of Watching Black People Die.” KPBS Public Media. KPBS, June 5, 2020. [8] Ortiz, Erik. “Kentucky AG Daniel Cameron Takes Heat after No Direct Charges Are Filed in Breonna Taylor's Death.” NBCNews.com. NBC Universal News Group, September 23, 2020. [9] Waldrop, Theresa. “Wanton Endangerment Charge: What It Means in the Breonna Taylor Case.” CNN. Cable News Network, September 23, 2020. [10] Weiter, Taylor. “Daniel Cameron: Officers Mattingly, Cosgrove 'Justified' in Their Use of Force the Night Breonna Taylor Died.” whas11.com. WHAS-TV, September 23, 2020. [11] Balko, Radley. “Correcting the Misinformation about Breonna Taylor.” The Washington Post. WP Company, September 24, 2020. [12] Sowell, Thomas. Race and Economics. New York, NY: Longman, 1977. [13] Vuckovich, Mia. “How Police Officers Are Shielded From Accountability.” Northeastern University Political Review, June 9, 2020. [14] “All of Louisville under Curfew Starting at 9 P.m. Wednesday, Mayor Fischer Says.” WDRB. WDRB Media, September 23, 2020.

[15] Paula Vasan. “FOCUS: 127 Arrested in Louisville Protests Following Breonna Taylor Case Decision.” whas11.com. WHAS-TV, September 24, 2020. [16] Jones, Sarah. “Conservatives Are Defending a White Teen Charged With Killing Protesters.” Intelligencer. New York Magazine, August 27, 2020. [17] Crystal, Evan. “Transnational Hip-Hop: A Lens into Social Protest.” Northeastern University Political Review, January 26, 2020. [18] Saint-Vil, Sweenie.

“Right-Wing White Militia March through Louisville Following Breonna Taylor Decision.” REVOLT. REVOLT, September 23, 2020. [19] All Things Considered. “Attempt To Link Breonna Taylor To Alleged Drug Trafficking A Source Of Controversy.” NPR. NPR, September 4, 2020. [20] Owens, Candace. Twitter Post. September 23, 2020, 9:38 p.m. [21] Balko, Radley. “Correcting the Misinformation about Breonna Taylor.” The Washington Post. WP Company, September 24, 2020. [22] Siese, April. “Louisville Police Officer Sues Kenneth Walker, Boyfriend of Breonna Taylor, for Emotional Distress, Assault and Battery.” CBS News. CBS Interactive, October 30, 2020.[23] Hutchinson, Bill.

“Death of an Innocent Man: Timeline of Wrong-Apartment Murder Trial of Amber Guyger.” ABC News. ABC News Network, October 2, 2019. [24] WFAA. “‘I Was Scared': Amber Guyger Breaks down after Defense Attorney Asks Her Why She Fired.” YouTube. YouTube, September 27, 2019. [25] Dewan, Shaila, and Richard A. Oppel. “In Tamir Rice Case, Many Errors by Cleveland Police, Then a Fatal One.” The New York Times. The New York Times, January 22, 2015. [26] Shapiro, Ben. Twitter Post. February 5, 2016, 9:57 a.m. [27] Azar, Taraneh. “No Justice for Black Women: The Memeification of Breonna Taylor.” Northeastern University Political Review, November 3, 2020. [28] All Things Considered. “Why Memes Around Breonna Taylor's Death Are Not Doing Her Story Any Justice.” NPR. NPR, July 10, 2020. [29] Rima. “Transcript: James Baldwin Debates William F. Buckley (1965): Blog#42.” Blog #42, June 7, 2015.

[30] Baldwin, James. “My Dungeon Shook.” Essay. In The Fire Next Time, 3–10. New York City, NY: Dial Press, 1963. [31] Coates, Ta-Nehisi. Between the World and Me. New York City, NY: Random House Publishing Group, 2015.

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The Struggle for Black Lives Gabriel García / Politics, Philosophy, and Economics and Communication Studies 2020 Kamran Parsa / Politics, Philosophy, and Economics 2021 This article discusses physical and emotional violence and trauma against Black, Indigenous, and people of color (BIPOC), LGBTQ+ folx, and immigrants.

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n May 25, George Floyd, a Black Minneapolis resident, was murdered at the hands of the state.[1] Then-officer Derek Chauvin pinned Floyd to the ground by his neck, brutally strangling him while fellow officers Thomas Lane, J. Alexander Kueng, and Tou Thao watched.[2] It was, Floyd’s brother Philonise recounted to Congress, "a modern-day lynching in broad daylight."[3] Chauvin’s knee remained there despite Floyd crying "I can't breathe" and onlookers begging the officer not to kill him. His knee held firm against Floyd’s neck even after Floyd lost consciousness and paramedics arrived.[4] Since then, police violence, systemic racism, sweeping legal reform, and police abolition have been brought to the forefront of American consciousness. There has been a tremendous uptick in resources and visibility on social media as people are increasingly mobilized to take direct action for justice.[5] But with this increased visibility and activism, there has also been an insidious edge—a record-setting number of murders of transgender BIPOC. As of November 7, Human Rights Campaign estimated that at least thirty-four transgender or gender-nonconforming people have been murdered, making 2020 the deadliest year since the organization started tracking in 2013.[6] Twenty-seven were Black and Latinx trans women, pointing to the dangers of hyper-visibility—a paradox that arises when trans lives are simultaneously made spectacle and erased—as discussed in the documentary Disclosure.[7][8]

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The American Medical Association declared the continued murder of trans women an “epidemic” in 2019.[9] Laverne Cox, a Black trans actress and a subject of Disclosure, urges skepticism as a few are elevated while most struggle.

It is also undeniable that there have been great strides for many people with intersectional identities in this reflection of social duality. The socio-political climate has forced corporations, institutions, and people to evaluate who they are, what they stand for, and what they stand behind.[10] However, it is hard to decipher whether this is genuine support or capitalization and monetization of a movement dedicated to the preservation and celebration of BIPOC and LGBTQ+ lives.

WHITE FRAGILITY AND TRAUMA PORN This movement has been a rude awakening for many non-Black people.[11] Those who claim to be “color-blind”—which harmfully enforces the idea that race does not have real-world implications or social power—had the privilege to stay sheltered from the most horrific aspects of the police state and criminal punishment.[12] Those same people are now pushed to confront race and their own prejudice, preconceptions, and attitudes.[13] This movement of personal confrontation has resulted in many episodes of White fragility (read: defensiveness and entitlement) in those who were once comfortable ignoring their own racial biases.[14] But it has also been a time for re-definition and learning, as many have embraced tenets of anti-racism like those popularized by author Ibram Kendi, who argues that institutional change for BIPOC requires deliberate, liberating action. It is complacent to simply be “not racist.”[15]

Beyond changing language and widespread arrests, this stark resurgence of the Black Lives Matter (BLM) movement has been marked in duality by immeasurable mourning. It seems that each news story brings another name added to “in memoriam.” We must remember the names and honor the memories of George Floyd, Tony McDade, Breonna Taylor, Rayshard Brooks—the list is endless.[16][17] But the spreading of police brutality videos on social media can quickly turn into trauma porn, crossing the line between allyship and exploitation.[18][19] Increasingly, this country is confronting the fact that it is not a post-race society. America’s definition, discussion, and teaching of race have sustained racism and inequality since the founding of this country on stolen land.[20] [21] Our “justice” system brutalizes and discards Black and brown lives and serves to punish, not rehabilitate.[22]

WIDESPREAD SUPPORT AND MOBILIZATION

In June, two-thirds of American adults expressed support for the BLM movement.

[23] An estimated fifteen-to-twenty-six million people protested for Black lives on June 6, reported as the peak turnout for on-the-ground engagement this year.[24] This makes BLM the largest protest movement in US history, surpassing the cited engagement numbers in the 1960s Civil Rights Movement.

Widely accessible information on the internet, easier travel, and better reporting boosted engagement, as organizers used tools like Instagram to drive turnout.[25] And while many believe the future is bleak for race relations, the protests’ racial diversity was unprecedented.[26] But support waned in the months since as the public refocused its attention elsewhere.[27]

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It is easy for White liberals in Democraticcontrolled states to ask “How could this happen here?” when presented with police violence and backlash against it. But it isn’t about bad apples and one-off violence. It’s about the appointed law enforcement that has systematically oppressed communities of color for generations.[28] This “how could this happen here” logic took on a different meaning as protesters clashed with the officers they were protesting.

[29] These interactions quickly escalated to violence and brutality, with police using riot gear and crowd-control methods to target and suppress reporters and protesters.[30] Media coverage and social media exposure of the protests was initially widespread, especially early on when some demonstrations were largely characterized by looting or riots.[31] But mainstream attention withered as violent activity waned.

That is, until shocking images and videos from Portland began surfacing on social media.

Demonstrations there had persisted since the BLM protests started in late May, and many reported abusive police tactics, including the use of riot-control agents.[32] Then on June 26, President Trump signed an executive order “to protect statues, monuments, and federal property,” which led to the formation of the Protecting American Communities Task Force under the Department of Homeland Security five days later.

That same day, Trump deployed federal officers to Portland to quell “violence.”[33] Federal agents responded aggressively, firing pepper balls at demonstrators and using tear gas, exploiting a loophole in a new Oregon law banning it.[34] [35] Officers used “less-than-lethal” munitions and chemical irritants which still do plenty of harm, including accelerating the spread of COVID-19.[36] Despite their stated purpose to minimize violence, officers agitated protesters and made a relatively peaceful demonstration much more volatile. Such abuses of authority often prompt law-abiding protesters to adopt more extreme tactics.[37] To top it off, federal officers dressed in full tactical gear and patches that read only “POLICE,” snatched protesters off the streets, and shoved them into unmarked minivans.

[38] The protesters were transported, detained, searched, questioned, and eventually released, leaving most unaware whether they were charged with a crime or why they were stopped at all.[39] Local police arrested nearly one thousand protesters; we don’t know, and may never know, how many were detained by federal officers.[40]

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The official stance of Customs and Border Protection (CBP) is that officers stopped people suspected of crimes such as assaulting officers and destroying property.[41] They used minivans to transport these people to a secure location for proper questioning. This essentially gives federal officers free rein on who they can stop and what they can do, turning arrests into kidnappings.[42] Months of pandemic devastation and a sputtering economy torpedoed Trump’s popularity, and mass protests did not help.[43] He took a page out of the Nixon playbook and campaigned as a “law and order” president.[44][45] But in trying to project strength to his base, Trump only exacerbated violence in Portland and other cities around the country. In a press briefing, Portland Mayor Ted Wheeler explained that the situation on the streets was de-escalating before Trump's troops showed up.[46] Trump’s leadership highlighted his negligent attitude toward the safety and well-being of his citizens.[47] He has criticized the

America’s definition, discussion, and teaching of race have sustained racism and inequality since the founding of this country on stolen land. Our “justice” system brutalizes and discards Black and brown lives and serves to punish, not rehabilitate.

Movement for Black Lives and attempted to silence its participants by any means necessary.[48] Acting Homeland Security chief Chad Wolf has repeatedly referred to demonstrators as “violent anarchists” to justify actions against mainly peaceful protesters, showing the government’s indifference toward brutalizing its own people.[49][50] Aggression from police and federal officers creates a hostile response from those participating on the ground, which police use to justify excessive force.

Many legal scholars and US attorneys are mortified by what happened in Portland— the breaches of authority, violations of the Constitution, and the precedent this response could set.[51] Police who operate in this fashion infringe on more rights than they protect.

Protests in Portland ramped up throughout August, but tension spiked between police and demonstrators after, halfway across the country, police shot another Black

person. On August 23, police in Kenosha, Wisconsin shot Jacob Blake seven times in the back as he attempted to enter his car.[52] Witnesses say Blake was simply breaking up a fight before the incident and wasn’t causing any harm, but a depressingly familiar police response still paralyzed him from the waist down.

By day, Kenosha was flooded with peaceful protesters, denouncing the irresponsible reactions of the police.[53] By night, rioters set the city ablaze in reaction to the shooting.[54] The president deployed federal agents to the city, snatching people into unmarked cars and holding them without charges.[55][56] Activity in Portland shot up in tandem as local police arrested twenty-three people on the day of the shooting and twenty-nine more in the following three days.[57]

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WHAT ABOUT PORTLAND?

ALT-RIGHT MILITIA RECRUITMENT In addition to the presence of militarized police, many right-wing, self-declared militia members brandishing assault weapons attended the protests in an attempt to keep the peace and protect businesses from looters.[58] The “Kenosha Guard” recruited members on Facebook and attempted to mobilize a response to the unrest.

These armed “peacekeepers” only made tensions worse, ultimately leading to the fatal shooting of two BLM protesters and severe wounding of a third. The shooter, Kyle Rittenhouse, a White seventeen-year-old from Illinois, was allowed to leave the protests and was arrested peacefully in his home days later.[59] Rittenhouse’s comments and social media activity show that he thought of himself as a militia member responsible for guarding property and lives.[60] A few days later, a caravan of Trump supporters in pickup trucks drove to the center of downtown Portland, where they almost instantly confronted protesters of police brutality.[61] Amid the chaos, a brief altercation led to a right-wing counter-protester getting shot and killed.

Enter Trump, who visited Kenosha after days of sustained rioting and fires.[62] He praised the National Guard and local police, toured damaged businesses and buildings, and likened the “anti-American” protesters to domestic terrorists. Trump also packaged protest footage into eerie ads depicting “Joe Biden’s America”—even though Biden was not president—to drive his “law and order” narrative.[63]

TRUMP’S AMERICA The intense presence of local police, federal agents, and rifle-wielding counter-protesters could not prevent massive property damage,

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widespread injuries, and deaths during protests.[64][65][66] The flashes of chaos and clashes we see on the news are vignettes of Trump’s America, no matter how much he points the finger away. When Trump says he is a “law and order” president, he really means that he has no intention of ensuring the safety and security of all Americans. His goal is to act swiftly and aggressively toward those who threaten the social, political, and economic hierarchies that harm BIPOC, LGBTQ+, and other minority communities.

Trump is not a “law and order” president because he doesn’t care about public safety.

He ran as a law and order candidate to justify his breaches of executive authority.[67] The kidnappings in Portland and Kenosha are just a glimpse of the steps toward authoritarianism the commander-in-chief is willing to take.

Even when he is gone, we should remain concerned about what federal officers are licensed to do in the streets.[68] Governors, mayors, and other local leaders cannot protect the rights of their citizens against federal forces that show them little regard.

But they can move to rein in the use of force by local police. It has always been commonplace to see police at protests and rallies to maintain the safety and security of those exercising their First Amendment liberties.[69] Law enforcement must protect the civil and constitutional rights of those they serve, regardless of political ideology or the issue being protested.

The fundamental purpose of the First Amendment is to ensure that everyone, including those with grievances and complaints against the government, is equally and sufficiently protected.[70] Police forces have

unconstitutionally trampled these liberties as soon as the scrutiny falls on them. Many people still hold idealist views of law enforcement, believing that it has an essential role in maintaining safety and peace in our communities.

[71] But until the police equally and adequately protect the rights of all Americans—regardless of race, religion, sexuality, gender identity, or political opinions—we must view them as failures.

And without serious rethinking, reform, and possibly abolition, these failures will only worsen.

[1] Hill, Evan, Ainara Tiefenthäler, Christiaan Triebert, Drew Jordan, Haley Willis, and Robin Stein. “How George Floyd Was Killed in Police Custody.” The New York Times. The New York Times, May 31, 2020. https://www.nytimes. com/2020/05/31/us/george-floyd-investigation.html. [2] Barker, Kim. “The Black Officer Who Detained George Floyd Had Pledged to Fix the Police.” The New York Times. The New York Times, June 27, 2020. https://www.nytimes. com/2020/06/27/us/minneapolis-police-officer-kueng.html. [3] Morgan, David, and Richard Cowan. “George Floyd's Brother Decries 'a Modern-Day Lynching' in Testimony to Congress.” Reuters. Thomson Reuters, June 10, 2020. https:// www.reuters.com/article/us-minneapolis-police-protests/george-floyds-brother-decries-a-modern-day-lynching-in-testimony-to-congress-idUSKBN23H1NB. [4] Hill, Evan, Ainara Tiefenthäler, Christiaan Triebert, Drew Jordan, Haley Willis, and Robin Stein. “How George Floyd Was Killed in Police Custody.” The New York Times. The New York Times, May 31, 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/31/us/george-floyd-investigation.html. [5] Azar, Taraneh. “In The Fight to Defund, Social Media Is the Mobilizer.” Northeastern University Political Review, June 11, 2020. https://www.nupoliticalreview.com/2020/06/11/in-the-fight-to-defund-social-media-is-the-mobilizer/. [6] “Violence Against the Transgender Community in 2020.” Resources. Human Rights Campaign, 2020. https://www.hrc.org/resources/violence-against-the-trans-and-gender-non-conforming-community-in-2020. [7] Rodriguez, Harmony. “We Can't Let Increased Transgender Visibility Lead to More Vulnerability | Harmony Rodriguez.” The Guardian. Guardian News and Media, August 21, 2015. https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/aug/21/transgender-visibility-vulnerability. [8] “Disclosure.” Netflix Official Site, n.d. https://www.netflix.com/watch/81284247?trackId=13752289&tctx=0%2C0%2Ca6375db7db27e24ffaec7eddc34e04eaff503379%3A2d33090e57eed67f7e807318db8d25ff9aeb9de1%2Ca6375db7db27e24ffaec7eddc34e04eaff503379%3A2d33090e57eed67f7e807318db8d25ff9aeb9de1%2Cunknown%2C. [9] Michael, Erin. “AMA Adopts Anti-Transgender Violence, Minor Vaccination Consent, Human Trafficking Policies.” Practice Management. Healio, June 12, 2019. https://www.healio.com/news/primary-care/20190612/ama-adopts-antitransgender-violence-minor-vaccination-consent-human-trafficking-policies. [10] Times Insider. “Corporate America Agrees Black Lives Matter. What Comes Next?” The New York Times. The New York Times, August 23, 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/23/insider/business-racism.html. [11] Washington, Jesse. “Why Did Black Lives Matter Protests Attract Unprecedented White Support?” The Undefeated. The Undefeated, June 18, 2020. https://theundefeated.com/features/why-did-black-lives-matter-protests-attract-unprecedented-white-support/. [12] Wingfield, Adia Harvey. “If You Don't See Race, How Can You See Racial Inequality?” The Atlantic. Atlantic Media Company, September 13, 2015. https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2015/09/color-blindness-is-counterproductive/405037/.

[13] Beason, Tyrone. “‘Something Is Not Right.’ George Floyd Protests Push White Americans to Think about Their Privilege.” Politics. Los Angeles Times, June 28, 2020. https://www.latimes.com/politics/story/2020-06-28/white-votersracism-reckoning-george-floyd-killing. [14] Waldman, Katy. “A Sociologist Examines the ‘White Fragility’ That Prevents White Americans from Confronting Racism.” The New Yorker, July 23, 2018. https://www.newyorker.com/books/ page-turner/a-sociologist-examines-the-white-fragility-that-prevents-white-americans-from-confronting-racism. [15] Deggans, Eric, and Audrey Nguyen. “'Racism Is Death, Anti-Racism Is Life' Says Author Ibram Kendi.” NPR. NPR, October 23, 2020. https://www.npr.org/2020/10/23/927100641/racism-is-death-anti-racism-is-life-says-author-ibram-kendi. [16] Chughtai, Alia. “Know Their Names: Black People Killed by the Police in the US.” Al Jazeera Interactives. Al Jazeera, September 20, 2020. https://interactive.aljazeera.com/aje/2020/know-their-names/index.html. [17] “A Decade Of Watching Black People Die.” Code Switch. NPR, May 29, 2020. https://www.npr. org/2020/05/29/865261916/a-decade-of-watching-black-people-die. [18] Longman, Molly. “Sharing Images Of Police Brutality Isn't Allyship. It's Traumatizing.” Mental Health Awareness. Refinery 29, August 29, 2020. https://www.refinery29.com/en-us/2020/08/9994208/trauma-porn-black-lives-matter. [19] Brar, Kiran. “Trauma Porn: Misguided 'Activism' on Social Media Harms More than It Helps.” The Butler Collegian. DW Focus, September 8, 2020. https://thebutlercollegian.com/2020/09/trauma-porn-misguided-activism-on-social-media-harms-more-than-it-helps/. [20] Cocca, Christina. “Trump Calls Education About Racism ‘A Web Of Lies’ And Orders ‘Pro-America Curriculum.’” NowThis News. Group Nine Media, September 19, 2020. https://nowthisnews.com/politics/trump-calls-education-about-racism-a-web-of-lies-and-orders-pro-america-curriculum. [21] Fisher, Max. “16 Maps That Americans Don't like to Talk About.” Vox. Vox, May 27, 2015. https://www.vox.com/2015/5/27/8618261/america-maps-truths. [22] Ghandnoosh, Nazgol. “Black Lives Matter: Eliminating Racial Inequity in the Criminal Justice System.” The Sentencing Project, February 3, 2015. https://www.sentencingproject.org/publications/black-lives-matter-eliminating-racial-inequity-in-the-criminal-justice-system/. [23] Parker, Kim, Juliana Menasce Horowitz, and Monica Anderson. “Majorities Across Racial, Ethnic Groups Express Support for the Black Lives Matter Movement.” Pew Research Center's Social & Demographic Trends Project. Pew Research Center, June 12, 2020. https://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2020/06/12/amid-protests-majorities-across-racial-and-ethnic-groups-express-support-for-the-black-lives-matter-movement/. [24] Buchanan, Larry, Quoctrung Bui, and Jugal K. Patel. “Black Lives Matter May Be the Largest Movement in U.S. History.” The New York Times. The New York Times, July 3, 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/07/03/us/george-floyd-protests-crowd-size.html. [25] “Black Lives Matter May Be the Largest Movement in U.S. History.” [26] Fisher, Dana R. “The Diversity of the Recent Black Lives Matter Protests Is a Good Sign for Racial Equity.” Brookings. Brookings, July 8, 2020. https://www.brookings.edu/blog/how-we-rise/2020/07/08/the-diversity-of-the-recent-black-lives-matterprotests-is-a-good-sign-for-racial-equity/. [27] Tesler, Michael. “Support For Black Lives Matter Surged During Protests, But Is Waning Among White Americans.” FiveThirtyEight. FiveThirtyEight, August 19, 2020. https://fivethirtyeight. com/features/support-for-black-lives-matter-surged-during-protests-but-is-waning-among-white-americans/. [28] Vuckovich, Mia. “How Police Officers Are Shielded From Accountability.” Northeastern University Political Review, June 9, 2020. https://www.nupoliticalreview.com/2020/06/09/how-police-officers-are-shielded-from-accountability/. [29] NBC News. “Police In Riot Gear Clash With Protesters Defying Curfew In Brooklyn.” Posted on June 4, 2020.

YouTube video, 1:30. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MrtIusReSuc&has_verified=1. [30] Saltzman , Joe. “It Can't Happen Here – and Then It Did.” The Conversation. The Conversation Media Group, June 3, 2020. https://theconversation.com/it-cant-happen-here-and-then-it-did-139838. [31] MPR News Staff. “Photos: Looting Hits Twin Cities after Floyd's Death.” MPR News. MPR News, May 28, 2020. https://www.mprnews.org/story/2020/05/28/photos-fires-looting-devastate-minneapolis-after-george-floyds-death. [32] Ward, Alex. “The Unmarked Federal Agents Arresting People in Portland, Explained.” Vox. Vox, July 20, 2020. https://www.vox.com/2020/7/20/21328387/ portland-protests-unmarked-arrest-trump-wold. [33] Berman, Mark, and Katie Shepherd. “'It Was like Being Preyed upon': Portland Protesters Say Federal Officers in Unmarked Vans Are Detaining Them.” The Washington Post. WP Company, July 17, 2020. https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2020/07/17/portland-protests-federal-arrests/. [34] Ward, Alex. “The Unmarked Federal Agents Arresting People in Portland, Explained.” Vox. Vox, July 20, 2020. https:// www.vox.com/2020/7/20/21328387/portland-protests-unmarked-arrest-trump-wold. [35] Riski, Tess, and Rachel Monahan. “In a Quick Special Session, Oregon Lawmakers Did Something Unusual: They Got Along, and Passed Reforms.”

Willamette Week, July 1, 2020. https://www.wweek.com/news/state/2020/07/01/in-a-quick-special-session-oregon-lawmakers-did-something-unusual-they-got-along-and-passed-reforms/. [36] Stone, Will. “Tear-Gassing Protesters During An Infectious Outbreak Called 'A Recipe For Disaster'.” NPR. NPR, June 5, 2020. https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2020/06/05/870144402/tear-gassing-protesters-during-an-infectious-outbreak-called-a-recipe-for-disast. [37] Thomas, Emma. “Why Do Protests Turn Violent? It's Not Just Because People Are Desperate.” The Conversation. The Conversation Media Group, June 5, 2020. https://theconversation.com/why-do-protests-turn-violent-its-notjust-because-people-are-desperate-139968. [38] Berman, Mark, and Katie Shepherd. “'It Was like Being Preyed upon': Portland Protesters Say Federal Officers in Unmarked Vans Are Detaining Them.” The Washington Post. WP Company, July 17, 2020. https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2020/07/17/portland-protests-federal-arrests/. [39] Levinson, Jonathan, Conrad Wilson, James Doubek, and Suzanne Nuyen. “Federal Officers Use Unmarked Vehicles To Grab People In Portland, DHS Confirms.” NPR. NPR, July 17, 2020. https://www.npr.org/2020/07/17/892277592/federal-officers-use-unmarked-vehicles-to-grab-protesters-in-portland. [40] “Protests in Portland - A Timeline: May 29-Nov 3, 2020.” City of Portland, Oregon, 2020. https://www.portlandoregon.gov/police/article/765145. [41] Berman, Mark, and Katie Shepherd. “'It Was like Being Preyed upon': Portland Protesters Say Federal Officers in Unmarked Vans Are Detaining Them.” The Washington Post. WP Company, July 17, 2020. https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2020/07/17/portland-protests-federal-arrests/. [42] “Kidnapping.” Findlaw. Thomson Reuters, March 15, 2019. https://criminal.findlaw.com/criminal-charges/kidnapping.html. [43] “How Popular Is Donald Trump?” FiveThirtyEight. ABC News, November 9, 2020. https://projects.fivethirtyeight.com/trump-approval-ratings/. [44] Zeitz, Josh. “How Trump Is Recycling Nixon's 'Law and Order' Playbook.” POLITICO Magazine. POLITICO, July 18, 2016. https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2016/07/donald-trump-law-and-order-richard-nixon-crime-race-214066. [45] Rascoe, Ayesha. “How Trump's 'Law And Order' Message Has Shifted As He Seeks A 2nd Term.” NPR. NPR, August 27, 2020. https://www.npr.org/2020/08/27/905916276/how-trumps-law-and-order-message-has-shifted-as-he-seeks-a-second-term. [46] Berman, Mark, and Katie Shepherd. “'It Was like Being Preyed upon': Portland Protesters Say Federal Officers in Unmarked Vans Are Detaining Them.” The Washington Post. WP Company, July 17, 2020. https://www.washingtonpost.com/ nation/2020/07/17/portland-protests-federal-arrests/. [47] Feuer, Will. “Trump Says Everyone Knew the Coronavirus Was Airborne in February: It's 'No Big Thing'.” CNBC. CNBC, September 10, 2020. https://www.cnbc.com/2020/09/10/ trump-says-everyone-knew-the-coronavirus-was-airborne-in-february-its-no-big-thing.html. [48] Bump, Philip. “Analysis | Over and over, Trump Has Focused on Black Lives Matter as a Target of Derision or Violence.” The Washington Post. WP Company, September 2, 2020. https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2020/09/01/over-over-trump-has-focused-black-lives-matter-target-derision-or-violence/. [49] Kishi, Roudabeh, and Sam Jones. “Demonstrations & Political Violence in America: New Data for Summer 2020.” ACLED. Bridging Divides Initiative, September 3, 2020. https://acleddata.com/2020/09/03/demonstrations-political-violence-in-america-new-data-for-summer-2020/. [50] Ward, Alex. “The Unmarked Federal Agents Arresting People in Portland, Explained.” Vox. Vox, July 20, 2020. https://www.vox.com/2020/7/20/21328387/portland-protests-unmarked-arrest-trump-wold. [51] Levinson, Jonathan, Conrad Wilson, James Doubek, and Suzanne Nuyen. “Federal Officers Use Unmarked Vehicles To Grab People In Portland, DHS Confirms.” NPR. NPR, July 17, 2020. https://www.npr.org/2020/07/17/892277592/federal-officers-use-unmarked-vehicles-to-grab-protesters-in-portland. [52] Mahbubani, Rhea. “A Timeline of the Police Shooting of Jacob Blake, Which Has Reignited Anti-Racism Protests Nationwide.” Insider. Insider, August 29, 2020. https://www.insider.com/ jacob-blake-police-shooting-timeline-kenosha-wisconsin-2020-8. [53] “Protests in Kenosha over Jacob Blake Shooting Stay Peaceful.” CBS News. CBS Interactive, August 27, 2020. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/kenosha-wisconsin-protest-peaceful-jacob-blake-shooting/. [54] “Officials Responded to 37 Fires in Kenosha on 2nd Night of Protests, 1 'Nearly Leveled Several City Blocks'.” Fox 6 Milwaukee. FOX Television Stations, August 25, 2020. https://www. fox6now.com/news/officials-responded-to-37-fires-in-kenosha-on-2nd-night-of-protests-1-nearly-leveled-several-city-blocks. [55] Choi, Matthew. “Trump Deploys Federal Agents to Kenosha.” POLITICO. POLITICO, August 26, 2020. https://www.politico.com/news/2020/08/26/trump-federal-agents-kenosha-wisconsin-402374. [56] Mahoney, Adam. “Kenosha Marches on as Protesters Describe 'Kidnap' by Federal Agents.” The Guardian. Guardian News and Media, August 29, 2020. https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2020/aug/29/kenosha-jacob-blake-protesters-police. [57] “Protests in Portland - A Timeline: May 29-Nov 3, 2020.” City of Portland, Oregon, 2020. https://www.portlandoregon.gov/ police/article/765145. [58] Rizzo, Patrizia. “The 'Kenosha Guard Militia' Facebook Group Was Shut down for Violating Policy.” The Sun. The Sun, August 27, 2020. https://www.thesun.co.uk/news/12509842/kenosha-guard-militia-kyle-rittenhouse-wisconsin-protests-blm/. [59] Donaghue, Erin. “Teen Accused of Fatal Shooting during Kenosha Protests Arrested in Illinois.” CBS News. CBS Interactive, August 27, 2020. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/kyle-rittenhouse-shooting-kenosha-protest-suspect-arrested/. [60] Barton, Gina, and Bruce Vielmetti. “Kyle Rittenhouse, 17-Year-Old Charged in Kenosha Protest Shootings, Considered Himself Militia, Social Media Posts Show.” USA Today.

Gannett Satellite Information Network, August 27, 2020. https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2020/08/26/kyle-rittenhouse-charged-kenosha-shootings-militia/5636473002/. [61] Linton, Caroline. “Portland Mayor Says Deadly Shooting Could Be a ‘Flashpoint.’” CBS News. CBS Interactive, August 30, 2020. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/portland-protests-1-shot-killed-trump-supporters-protesters-clash/. [62] Shaw, Adam. “Trump Visits Site of Riots in Kenosha, Promises to Help Businesses Rebuild.” Fox News. FOX News Network, September 1, 2020. https://www.foxnews.com/politics/trump-kenosha-riots-businesses-rebuild. [63] “New Trump Campaign Ad: ‘You Won't Be Safe in Joe Biden's America’.” Donald J. Trump for President, July 15, 2020. https://www.donaldjtrump.com/media/new-trump-campaign-ad-you-wont-be-safe-in-joe-bidens-america/. [64] Kingson, Jennifer A. “Exclusive: $1 Billion-plus Riot Damage Is Most Expensive in Insurance History.” Axios. Axios Media, September 16, 2020. https://www.axios.com/riots-cost-property-damage-276c9bcc-a455-4067-b06a-66f9db4cea9c.html. [65] Chan, Melissa. “For Protesters Injured

by Police, There's No Real Recovery.” Time. TIME USA, October 9, 2020. https://time.com/5894356/protesters-injured-police/. [66] Beckett, Lois. “At Least 25 Americans Were Killed during Protests and Political Unrest in 2020.” The Guardian. Guardian News and Media, October 31, 2020. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/oct/31/americans-killed-protests-political-unrest-acled. [67] Graham, David A. “The Strangest Thing About Trump's Approach to Presidential Power.” The Atlantic. Atlantic Media Company, June 7, 2018. https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2018/06/the-strangest-thing-about-trumps-approach-to-presidential-power/562271/. [68] Kanno-Youngs, Zolan. “Were the Actions of Federal Agents in Portland Legal?” The New York Times. The New York Times, July 17, 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/17/us/politics/federal-agents-portland-arrests.html. [69] Sengupta, Somini. “Protesting Climate Change, Young People Take to Streets in a Global Strike.” The New York Times. The New York Times, September 20, 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/09/20/climate/global-climate-strike.html. [70] “U.S. Institutions - Why Is the First Amendment Important?” VOA. Editorials on Voice of America, February 20, 2017. https://editorials.voa.gov/a/the-importance-of-the-first-amendment-/3733070.html. [71] Mosteller, Jeremiah. “Role of Police in America.”

Charles Koch Institute. Charles Koch Institute, n.d. https://www.charleskochinstitute.org/issue-areas/criminal-justice-policing-reform/role-of-police-in-america/.

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Featured

How Police Officers Are Shielded from Accountability Mia Vuckovich / Political Science 2022

I

n the wake of George Floyd’s murder in Minneapolis, widespread news coverage and nationwide protests forced the city to act.[1] The four police officers involved were fired and charged, and the city council promised to dismantle the police department.[2][3][4] In June, 71 percent of White Americans said that racism and discrimination were a “big problem.”[5] But any hopes of meaningful change have since faltered.

The council’s pledge to “end policing as we know it” fell apart.[6] In August, Jacob Blake was shot by police in Wisconsin, and a vigilante killed two protesters in the aftermath.[7] In September, a grand jury failed to indict Breonna Taylor’s killers for murder or manslaughter.[8] This lack of accountability for violent officers is not the result of individual bad actors. Police brutality persists because protections for law enforcement are embedded in legislation, institutions, and the legal system.

These origins show that police have long protected property over human lives.

Although Southern slave patrols were abolished along with slavery, they were replaced by police forces designed to control the newly freed Black population.[12] They enforced poll taxes and other voter suppression methods.

Racist policing and excessive force emerged nationwide to perpetuate White control of political and social systems.[13] American crimefighting is rooted in societal control, and race determines what counts as crime and gets targeted for oversight. As sociologist Alex Vitale writes, “American crime control policy is structured around the use of punishment to manage the ‘dangerous classes,’ masquerading as a system of justice.”[14] White supremacy is embedded in our law enforcement.

Black men are three times more likely than their White counterparts to be killed by police, and Black teens are twenty-one times more likely.[15][16] Our country lacks effective mechanisms to check and balance a profession created to enforce White supremacy.

However, the attack on Black lives is not simply about failed policing. The idea that police exist to protect us is a myth.

The Supreme Court has twice held that the Fourteenth Amendment does not obligate police to protect people from harm.[17][18] Rather, police serve the state to “fabricate social order,” which has always meant

This lack of accountability for violent officers is not the result of individual bad actors. Police brutality persists because protections for law enforcement are embedded in legislation, institutions, and the legal system.

THE MYTH OF PROTECTION Modern policing evolved from systems that promoted the control of Black people and the working class.[9][10] In the South, slave patrols formed to capture slaves attempting to escape. The North wasn’t much better; the first police precincts were established in emerging industrial cities to quell “riots” by exploited factory workers.[11]

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maintaining White supremacy. Given this, it’s no surprise that officers nationwide enjoy codified protections.[19]

LAW ENFORCEMENT OFFICERS’ BILLS OF RIGHTS Many state laws prevent officers from being held responsible for misconduct, including improper use of force. While several of these laws aim to protect officers’ constitutional rights, these affordances are not extended to ordinary citizens. As of 2015, sixteen states have Law Enforcement Officers’ Bills of Rights.[20] While they vary by state, common provisions include:

• Departments must notify an officer and their union before pursuing a complaint.

• Officers get between one and ten days to “cool off” before they have to respond to department questions.

• Officers must be informed of the complainants and any testimony against them before they are questioned. In some states, officers, unlike complainants, can review footage of an incident.[21] • During questioning, investigators cannot harass, threaten, or promise rewards to the officer. Most civilian suspects do not get this privilege.[22] • Departments must continue to pay salaries, benefits, and attorney’s fees to suspended officers.

Rights for law enforcement are not inherently wrong, but these provisions are.

They enable police officers to act above the law. This power imbalance is especially dangerous when civilians accuse officers of misconduct, as victims face concrete disadvantages.

POLICE UNIONS AND CULTURE These provisions and the unions that lobby for them reflect a dangerous policing philosophy. In theory, police unions seem like a good thing; officers should be entitled to organize

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Featured like any other profession. However, these unions embody regressive policing, protecting cops by sacrificing transparency and accountability.[23] Union contracts act as a safety net for officers and establish countless privileges, similar to those provided in bills of rights. Per a 2002 report, departments with union contracts were half as likely to validate an excessive force complaint, even though they receive 50 percent more complaints.[24] Furthermore, departments with more protective union contracts are more likely to kill unarmed civilians.[25] These contracts directly hurt Black Americans, who are more likely to suffer from police brutality but are less likely to have their complaints sustained.[26] Police unions also lobby for legislation that reduces transparency and liability. In New York, officer records are “confidential and not subject to inspection or review” except by court order.[27] Twenty-two other states and Washington, DC, make disciplinary records confidential; fifteen other states severely limit access.[28] Many states wipe records clean after a set period, some as short as six months.[29] Police unions frequently oppose the creation of civilian review boards and move to weaken established ones.[30] Often, review boards simply gather evidence and cannot give recommendations or discipline officers.

Some union contracts mandate internal review boards, which support their own and often allow officers to resign before an investigation.

[31] In 2010, David Cornelius Smith died in Minnesota after an officer kneeled on his neck for four minutes while another straddled his legs; after an internal review, the officers faced no discipline.[32] When an officer is accused of misconduct, unions can help them appeal the decision to an independent arbitrator. In Minnesota, almost half of terminated officers are reinstated on appeal. This rate is similar to that of other unions, but the way in which appeals are handled poses an issue.[33] Rather than assessing the misconduct and reason for termination, arbitrators look at the circumstances, such as the officer’s record and what kind of discipline was imposed in similar situations. They also focus on whether the department had a specific policy or training in place regarding the circumstances. For

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arbitrators, this system ensures due process; however, it goes beyond preserving legal rights.

It excuses and perpetuates misconduct.[34] Although police unions originated with the same desires as other organized labor forces— reasonable hours, better working conditions, fair pay—they are still a part of historically unjust policing. They reinforce White supremacy in criminal justice and have deadly consequences for Black communities. Furthermore, these unions appoint White leaders who “consistently take stances against the safety and rights of Black Americans,” even as law enforcement becomes more racially diverse.[35] Union lobbying encourages the “blue wall of silence”—the informal rules that cause cops to ignore each other's misconduct.[36] This culture prevents police departments from disciplining officers and discourages officers from holding each other accountable.

In Baltimore, after Joe Crystal reported fellow officers for excessive force, he stopped receiving backup and had a dead rat left on his windshield.[37] He was told by his supervisor to “keep a lid on it” and was turned away by his union leader. Crystal’s story reflects the “blood in, blood out” culture that makes it impossible for law enforcement to report misconduct. Even after officers retire, they are still expected to abide by this code.

Ex-officers face backlash for testifying against current ones. This culture reflects the corruption and lack of transparency within policing institutions.[38]

QUALIFIED IMMUNITY Even if a victim overcomes these legislative and institutional challenges, the legal system still poses several obstacles. Long-established Supreme Court precedent makes it difficult to convict an officer of excessive force.

In 1967, the Supreme Court established qualified immunity to protect government officials in cases of minor infractions.[39] It was intended for civil servants acting in good faith who thought they were following the rules.

However, Harlow v. Fitzgerald dismissed the good-faith requirement in 1982, paving the way for the expansion of qualified immunity.[40] Qualified immunity shields police officers from lawsuits unless they violate a “clearly established” right. To win, victims must find another case with the exact circumstances that sets a precedent for wrongdoing.

This standard creates an endless cycle of failed accountability.[41] Traditionally, qualified immunity cases were always two-pronged. The judge would assess whether an officer used excessive force, then determine if they violated a “clearly established” right.[42] However, in the 2009 decision Pearson v. Callahan, the Supreme

Court allowed judges to bypass the question of excessive force. This ruling makes it easier for judges to dismiss suits and further shelters officers from punishment.[43] Qualified immunity also discourages claims from being brought at all. Lawyers typically take excessive force cases on a forfee basis, meaning they are paid only if their client wins.[44] Because so many cases are dismissed on the grounds of qualified immunity, lawyers have less incentive to take on these suits, and victims have a harder time finding representation.

OBJECTIVE REASONABLENESS Excessive force claims are also held to an “objective reasonableness” standard, which the Supreme Court established in 1989 in Graham v. Connor.[45] Graham suffered several injuries after being restrained and thrown against a car by police while experiencing a diabetic insulin reaction. When he asked the officers to look in his wallet for a diabetic decal, an officer replied, “I’ve seen a lot of people with sugar diabetes that never acted like this. Ain’t nothing wrong with the motherfucker but drunk. Lock the son of a bitch up.”[46] Before this case, Johnson v. Glick held that excessive force required an officer to use force “maliciously and sadistically for the very purpose of causing harm.”[47] In contrast, Graham held that the jury should consider excessive force “from the perspective of a reasonable officer on the scene, rather than with the 20/20 vision of hindsight.” When Graham’s case was remanded to the lower court, the jury used this new framework to side with the officer.[48] Graham did little to clarify what “reasonable officer” meant. Furthermore, it caused police departments to create equally vague standards. A 2019 study found that use-offorce policies in the seventy-five largest US cities regularly fail to provide meaningful instruction on when and how to use force. Only 31 percent of policies require officers to exhaust alternatives before using deadly force, and only 17 percent instruct officers to use force that is proportional to a person’s resistance.

Nonetheless, all of these policies cite Graham’s “reasonable officer” standard.[49] Qualified immunity and objective reasonableness are only the beginning of legal protections for cops. Most police officers benefit from an American predisposition to side with law enforcement.[50] Grand juries are often reluctant to indict them.[51] Prosecutors and judges are inclined to dismiss misconduct cases.[52] When cases do go to trial, juries are unlikely to convict. From January 2005 to April 2017, only 35 percent of arrested officers were convicted, about half the civilian conviction rate.[53]

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These issues are only the tip of the iceberg; there are countless other faults within our criminal justice system that protect law enforcement and hurt their victims, especially low-income people and people of color.

Reforms targeting these issues will not undo centuries of enduring, systemic racism.

They are ineffective and fail to improve trust in law enforcement.

[54][55] Modern policing is rooted in racist slave and property control systems. Its focus has always been property, not serving communities. The concept of “procedural justice”—that if police apply the law in an unbiased and procedurally proper way, public trust will increase and fewer violent confrontations will occur—is a fallacy.

Modern law enforcement has failed, and we can no longer afford to fund failure. We must reject intensive over-policing and invest in policies that improve public safety and promote racial justice. Over the past forty years, the scope of policing has vastly expanded to encompass homelessness, untreated mental illness, and youth violence; consequently, policing of these issues has intensified. Policing and criminalization cannot solve social issues.[56] It’s time to reconsider the role of the police and establish new institutions that strengthen communities.

American policing costs around $115 billion annually; in Los Angeles, it costs about one-sixth of the city’s budget.[57] [58] Budgets should be reallocated to economic initiatives that address racial segregation and reduce the need for police. This means investing in affordable housing, training

The concept of “procedural justice” —that if police apply the law in an unbiased and procedurally proper way, public trust will increase and fewer violent confrontations will occur—is a fallacy.

mental health professionals to respond to corresponding 911 calls, and funding educational services so that they no longer depend on property taxes.[59] Most cities already have organizations or programs that attempt to address these issues; they are just drastically underfunded.

[60] Reallocating policing budgets would boost these initiatives. Furthermore, advocacy groups nationwide have developed proposals and strategies for their respective areas.

In Durham, North Carolina, Durham Beyond Policing proposed a Community-Led Safety and Wellness Task Force to maintain public safety and develop “viable structural alternatives to policing and incarceration.”[61] In Eugene, Oregon, the CAHOOTS program provides crisis intervention through 911 dispatchers.[62] In Chicago, the Black Youth Project has developed an “Agenda to Build Black Futures,” which provides economic and social reforms to address structural racism. These organizations provide starting points for any city looking to rethink its approach to public safety.[63] This isn’t a case of “a few bad apples.” This isn’t a case of good cops and bad cops. Policing is broken, racist, and oppressive. It does not hold officers accountable for their actions, and it never will.

Featured

WHERE DO WE GO FROM HERE?

[1] “George Floyd Protests: Peaceful Weekend Across U.S.” Accessed November 9, 2020. https://www.wsj.com/livecoverage/protests-george-floyd-death-2020-06-06. [2] Campbell, Josh, Sara Sidner, and Eric Levenson. “All Four Former Officers Involved in George Floyd's Killing Now Face Charges,” June 4, 2020. https://www.cnn.com/2020/06/03/us/george-floyd-officers-charges/index.html. [3] Brittany Shammas, Kim Bellware. “Murder Charges Filed against All Four Officers in George Floyd's Death as Protests against Biased Policing Continue,” June 4, 2020. https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2020/06/03/george-floyd-police-officers-charges/. [4] Andone, Dakin, and Josh Campbell. “Minneapolis City Council Members Intend to Defund and Dismantle the City's Police Department,” June 8, 2020. https://www.cnn.com/2020/06/07/us/george-floyd-protests-sunday/index.html. [5] Taylor, Keeanga-Yamahtta, and Alexis Okeowo. “We Should Still Defund the Police,” August 14, 2020. https://www.newyorker.com/news/our-columnists/defund-the-police. [6] Herndon, Astead W. “How a Pledge to Dismantle the Minneapolis Police Collapsed,” September 26, 2020. https://www.nytimes. com/2020/09/26/us/politics/minneapolis-defund-police.html. [7] Allam, Hannah. “Vigilante? Militia? Confusion And Politics Shape How Shooting Suspect Is Labeled.” NPR. NPR, August 28, 2020. https://www.npr.org/2020/08/28/907130558/ vigilante-militia-confusion-and-politics-shape-how-shooting-suspect-is-labeled. [8] Packer, ZZ, and Jelani Cobb. “The Empty Facts of the Breonna Taylor Decision.” The New Yorker, September 27, 2020. https://www.newyorker.com/culture/ cultural-comment/the-empty-facts-of-the-breonna-taylor-decision. [9] Fountain, Ben. “Slavery and the Origins of the American Police State.” Medium. GEN, May 29, 2020. https://gen.medium.com/slavery-and-the-origins-of-the-americanpolice-state-ec318f5ff05b. [10] Mitrani , Sam. “The Police Were Created to Control Working Class and Poor People, Not 'Serve and Protect'.” In These Times, January 6, 2016. https://inthesetimes.com/working/entry/17505/police_and_poor_ people. [11] Jabali, Malaika. “If You're Surprised by How the Police Are Acting, You Don't Understand US History.” The Guardian. Guardian News and Media, June 5, 2020. https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2020/jun/05/ police-us-history-reform-violence-oppression. [12] Alexander, Michelle. The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colourblindness. UK: Penguin Books, 2019. [13] Vitale, Alex S. The End of Policing. London: Verso, 2018. [14] The End of Policing. [15] Edwards, Frank, Michael H. Esposito, and Hedwig Lee. “Risk of Police-Involved Death by Race/Ethnicity and Place, United States, 2012–2018.” American Journal of Public Health 108, no. 9 (2018): 1241–48. https://doi. org/10.2105/ajph.2018.304559. [16] Flatow, Nicole. “Report: Black Male Teens Are 21 Times More Likely To Be Killed By Cops Than White Ones.” ThinkProgress, October 10, 2014. https://archive.thinkprogress.org/report-black-male-teens-are21-times-more-likely-to-be-killed-by-cops-than-white-ones-72fb08a1dbda/. [17] “DeShaney v. Winnebago County Department of Social Services.” Oyez. Accessed November 9, 2020. https://www.oyez.org/cases/1988/87-154. [18] “Castle Rock v. Gonzales.” Oyez. Accessed November 9, 2020. https://www.oyez.org/cases/2004/04-278. [19] Neocleous, Mark. The Fabrication of Social Order: A Critical Theory of Police Power. LONDON; STERLING, VIRGINIA: Pluto Press, 2000. Accessed November 9, 2020. doi:10.2307/j.ctt18fs9s7. [20] Hager, Eli. “Blue Shield.” The Marshall Project. The Marshall Project, April 27, 2015. https://www.themarshallproject.org/2015/04/27/blue-shield. [21] Netflix. 2019. “The Broken Policing System | Patriot Act with Hasan Minhaj | Netflix.” Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=km4uCOAzrbM. [22] Najdowski, Cynthia J., and Catherine L. Bonventre. “Deception in the Interrogation Room.” Monitor on Psychology. American Psychological Association, May 2014. https://www.apa.org/monitor/2014/05/jn. [23] Butler, Paul. “Why the Fraternal Order of Police Must Go.” The Marshall Project. The Marshall Project, October 12, 2017. https://www.themarshallproject. org/2017/10/11/why-the-fraternal-order-of-police-must-go. [24] Bureau of Justice Statistics and Matthew J. Hickman. 2006. “Citizen Complaints about Police Use of Force.” Law Enforcement Management and Administrative Statistics, (June).

NCJ 210296. https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/ccpuf.pdf. [25] Rad, Abdul. “Police Institutions and Police Abuse: Evidence from the US.” SSRN Electronic Journal, 2018. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3246419. [26] Friedman, Lawrence M. Fisher, George. Crime Conundrum: Essay on Criminal Justice. S.1.:Routledge, 2020. [27] Henning, A. “A Guide to 50-a, the Most Contentious State Law on the Books.” CSNY, October 18, 2019. https://www.cityandstateny.com/articles/policy/ criminal-justice/reformers-look-to-repeal-or-reform-50a.html. [28] Lopez, German. “How to Reform American Police, According to Experts.” Vox. Vox, June 1, 2020. https://www.vox.com/2020/6/1/21277013/police-reform-policies-systemic-racism-george-floyd. [29] Reports, Special. “Special Report: Police Union Contracts Offer Shield of Protection.” Reuters. Thomson Reuters, January 13, 2017. https://www.reuters.com/investigates/special-report/usa-police-unions/. [30] Dewan, Shaila, and Serge F. Kovaleski. “Thousands of Complaints Do Little to Change Police Ways.” The New York Times. The New York Times, May 30, 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/30/us/derek-chauvin-george-floyd.html. [31] Nolan, Thomas. “Behind the Blue Wall of Silence.” Men and Masculinities 12, no. 2 (2009): 250–57. https://doi.org/10.1177/1097184x09334700. [32] Matos, Alejandra, and Randy Furst. “Minneapolis Cops Rarely Disciplined in Big-Payout Cases.”

Star Tribune. Star Tribune, June 3, 2013. https://www.startribune.com/minneapolis-cops-rarely-disciplined-in-big-payout-cases/209811991/. [33] Gottfried, Mara H., and Sarah Horner. “How Often Do Arbitrators Reinstate Fired Cops? Just under Half the Time.” Twin Cities. Twin Cities, June 22, 2019. https://www.twincities.com/2019/06/23/how-often-do-arbitrators-reinstate-fired-cops-just-under-half-the-time/. [34] “How Often Do Arbitrators Reinstate Fired Cops? Just under Half the Time.” [35] Butler, Paul. “Why the Fraternal Order of Police Must Go.” The Marshall Project. The Marshall Project, October 12, 2017. https://www.themarshallproject.org/2017/10/11/why-the-fraternal-order-of-police-must-go. [36] Johnson, Olivia. Blue Wall of Silence: Perceptions of the Influence of Training on Law. Universal Publishers, 2010. [37] Murdock, Sebastian. “'Rat Cop' Joe Crystal Shunned From Baltimore Police Department After Reporting Officer Brutality.”

HuffPost. HuffPost, December 7, 2017. https://www.huffpost.com/entry/baltimore-joe-crystal_n_7582374. [38] Hayden, Philip. “Why an Ex-FBI Agent Decided to Break through the Blue Wall of Silence.” USA Today. Gannett Satellite Information Network, February 1, 2019. https://www.usatoday.com/story/opinion/policing/2019/01/31/blue-wall-of-silence-policing-the-usa-cops-community/2604929002/. [39] “Pierson v. Ray - 386 U.S. 547, 87 S. Ct. 1213 (1967).” Community.

Accessed November 9, 2020. https://www.lexisnexis.com/community/casebrief/p/casebrief-pierson-v-ray. [40] “Harlow v. Fitzgerald - 457 U.S. 800, 102 S. Ct. 2727 (1982).” Community. Accessed November 9, 2020. https://www.lexisnexis.com/ community/casebrief/p/casebrief-harlow-v-fitzgerald. [41] Finn, Tyler. “Qualified Immunity Formalism: ‘clearly Established Law’ And The Right To Record Police Activity.” Columbia Law Review. Accessed November 9, 2020. https://columbialawreview.org/content/qualified-immunity-formalism-clearly-established-law-and-the-right-to-record-police-activity/. [42] “Qualified Immunity Formalism: ‘clearly Established Law’ And The Right To Record Police Activity.” [43] “Pearson v. Callahan - 555 U.S. 223, 129 S. Ct. 808 (2009).” LexisNexis. Accessed November 9, 2020. https://www.lexisnexis.com/community/casebrief/p/casebrief-pearson-v-callahan. [44] Ali, Amir H., Emily Clark, Kelly Hayes, Gabe Newland, and Matt Henry. “Qualified Immunity: Explained.” The Appeal, June 20, 2019. https://theappeal.org/qualified-immunity-explained/. [45] “Graham v. Connor - 490 U.S. 386, 109 S. Ct. 1865 (1989).” LexisNexis. Accessed November 9, 2020. https:// www.lexisnexis.com/community/casebrief/p/casebrief-graham-v-connor. [46] Daley, Jim, Kiran Misra, Raven Geary, Lucia Geng, Jonathan Ballew, and Mateo Zapata. “Supreme Court of the Youth / Police Project in Graham v. Connor.” South Side Weekly, July 30, 2019. https://southsideweekly.com/supreme-court-youth-police-project-graham-v-connor/. [47] “Johnson v. Glick.” Casetext. June 29, 1973. https://casetext.com/case/johnson-v-glick. [48] Obasogie, Osagie K. “The Bad-Apple Myth of Policing.” The Atlantic. Atlantic Media Company, June 16, 2020. https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2019/08/how-courts-judge-police-use-force/594832/. [49] Obasogie, Osagie K., and Zachary Newman. “The Endogenous Fourth Amendment: An Empirical Assessment Of How Police Understandings Of Excessive Force Become Constitutional Law.” Cornell Law Review 104, no. 1281 (n.d.): 1281–1336. [50] “The Endogenous Fourth Amendment: An Empirical Assessment Of How Police Understandings Of Excessive Force Become Constitutional Law.” [51] Lopez, German. “Grand Juries Usually Don't Indict Police Officers. Should They Be Changed?” Vox. Vox, December 31, 2014. https:// www.vox.com/2014/12/31/7468775/grand-jury. [52] Ross, Janell. “Police Officers Convicted for Fatal Shootings Are the Exception, Not the Rule.” NBCNews.com. NBCUniversal News Group, March 14, 2019. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/ nbcblk/police-officers-convicted-fatal-shootings-are-exception-not-rule-n982741. [53] Park, Madison. “Police Shootings: Trials, Convictions Are Rare for Officers.” CNN. Cable News Network, October 3, 2018. https://www.cnn.com/2017/05/18/ us/police-involved-shooting-cases/index.html. [54] Nesvet, Matthew. “My Year As A New Orleans Consent Decree Insider.” My Year As A New Orleans Consent Decree Insider, July 30, 2019. https://theappeal.org/my-year-as-a-new-orleansconsent-decree-insider/. [55] Jannetta, Jesse, Sino Esthappan, Jocelyn Fontaine, Mathew Lynch, and Nancy La Vigne. “Learning to Build Police-Community Trust.” Urban, August 2019. https://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/publication/100705/learning_to_build_police-community_trust_3.pdf. [56] Donnella, Leah. 2020. “How Much Do We Need The Police?” NPR. https://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2020/06/03/457251670/how-much-do-we-need-the-police. [57] Levin, Sam. “What Does 'Defund the Police' Mean? The Rallying Cry Sweeping the US – Explained.” The Guardian. Guardian News and Media, June 6, 2020. https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2020/jun/05/defunding-the-police-us-whatdoes-it-mean. [58] “LA City Council Slashes LAPD Funding By $150M.” CBS Los Angeles. CBS Los Angeles, July 1, 2020. https://losangeles.cbslocal.com/2020/07/01/la-city-council-could-slash-lapd-funding-by-150m-as-it-finalizes-new-budget-wednesday/. [59] Lopez, Christy. “Opinion | Defund the Police? Here's What That Really Means.” The Washington Post. WP Company, July 6, 2020. https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/2020/06/07/ defund-police-heres-what-that-really-means/. [60] Donnella, Leah. 2020. “How Much Do We Need The Police?” NPR. https://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2020/06/03/457251670/how-much-do-we-need-the-police. [61] Durham Beyond Policing Coalition. N.D. “Proposal For A Community-led Safety And Wellness Task Force.” Accessed November 9, 2020. https://durhambeyondpolicing.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/Durham-Beyond-Policing-Budget-Proposal-2019-2020. pdf. [62] “CAHOOTS.” White Bird Clinic, July 31, 2020. https://whitebirdclinic.org/cahoots/. [63] “SOLUTIONS.” Agendatobuild. Accessed November 9, 2020. https://www.agendatobuildblackfutures.com/solutions.

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Global

A New START for Arms Control Rintaro Nishimura / Political Science 2022

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he New Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (New START)—a bilateral agreement that constrains the US and Russia’s nuclear arsenals—expires in February.

[1] Despite bipartisan support for an extension, President Trump has been adamant that the US will not accept Russia’s unconditional offer for a five-year continuance.[2][3] The administration is choosing instability over stability. Marshall Billingslea, the top US arms envoy, has even threatened to spend Russia “into oblivion” to win a nuclear arms race.[4] This flexing could have worrying spillover effects on the national security strategies of European and Asian countries.

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While the Cold War-era bilateral arms control regime is out of date, that does not warrant a withdrawal from New START. The US should extend the only remaining agreement between the two largest nuclear states to prevent an unchecked arms race.[5] The extension of New START should, as the name suggests, serve as a new start to update the arms control framework.

THE CHANGING SECURITY ENVIRONMENT New START took effect in 2011 after the original START expired in 2009.[6] START proved successful, reducing American and

Russian strategic nuclear arsenals over eighteen years. After several attempts to replace START with a new treaty for further reductions, the Obama administration signed New START. Among other things, the updated agreement restricted both sides to 1,550 deployed strategic warheads (the part that contains explosives), roughly one-fourth of what the original allowed.[7][8] To keep both sides in the agreement, New START loosened conditions on how to reduce warheads; specifically, it adopted a limit on the aggregate number of warheads instead of individual limits for different types of weapons.[9] Through these agreements, the US and Russia can verify each other’s capabilities.

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reports that the country plans to double its stockpile of nuclear warheads in the next decade.[24][25][26] The US has to make this demand as a reaction to the rapid modernization of the Chinese military.

A RASH DECISION Trump’s goals are irrational. New START already allows significant access through on-site inspections and other verification measures. It would be in Washington’s interest to maintain this structure while negotiating for more.

Considering the upcoming expiration deadline—just fifteen days after the new president takes office—the US can’t afford to risk losing a functioning agreement for an infeasible one.[27] Further complicating this process is China’s disinterest in nuclear arms reduction.[28] A 2019 estimate indicates that the US and Russia each possess around six thousand warheads (90 percent of the global total) compared to China’s three hundred.[29] As such, Beijing noted that it would hold arms control talks only if the US and Russia agree to cut their arsenals to China’s level.[30] The onus is on the countries possessing the largest arsenals, not China.[31] China has a restrained, no-first-use nuclear doctrine.[32] Its relatively small number of nuclear warheads has been deliberate, with these weapons serving as a deterrent, precluding preemptive use.[33][34] Including China in the treaty would legalize an expansion of its arsenal to American and Russian levels.

Recent American maneuvers could lead C h i n a to doubt A m e r i c a’s commitment to arms reduction. In 2018, the Defense Department described a need to use smaller nuclear weapons to deter adversaries from limited nuclear escalation.[35] Perhaps as a result, the US deployed a submarine-launched low-yield nuclear weapon last year—its first new nuclear weapon in decades.[36] This mixed messaging isn’t new, and the US will

The extension of New START should, as the name suggests, serve as a new start to update the arms control framework.

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be hard-pressed to convince China to reduce its arsenal while expanding its own.[37] The US hopes that developing new weapons will threaten China into joining an arms control agreement.[38] While that is certainly possible—if it doesn’t lead to an arms race—it won’t happen before New START expires. As such, there is no valid argument against extending the treaty.

The Trump administration’s threat to spend adversaries “into oblivion” is imprudent given the costs. The US cannot spend excessive amounts because COVID-19 will undoubtedly lead to cuts in defense spending.[39] The Navy has already faced trouble balancing modernization and readiness with a budget that doesn’t support upgrade costs.[40] The Congressional Budget Office forecasted that spending on nuclear weapons would peak at about $50 billion per year (eight percent of total defense spending) in the late 2020s and early 2030s.[41] The Government Accountability Office found that these modernization plans “do not align with its budget, raising affordability concerns.”[42] This assumes New START is extended; if the US withdraws, costs would almost certainly skyrocket.

Not only would a world without constraints on the two largest nuclear powers be absurd, but it would affect the decision-making of other states. Nuclear states like North Korea could see US withdrawal as a lack of commitment to arms control and pull out of future negotiations. US allies in Europe and Asia would have to find ways to deal with an unconstrained threat from Russia and China.

[43][44] Whatever policy decisions arise, there will be more instability without arms control.

The better strategy is to keep Russia in check while exploring ways to engage China.

Trump’s fundamental error is believing he can force China to negotiate a deal. Even if that were to happen, it wouldn’t last unless both sides had a vested interest, as was the case during the Cold War. China can’t go from rejecting the agreement to joining it overnight. There are steps it can take—such as increased transparenc y—while the US and Russia extend New START.[45] The US concern that China must be reined in is not unwarranted, but that’s more a reason to keep Russia in than to free it from limitations. The US cannot maintain readiness on two fronts.[46] If China is the main concern, including it in a half-baked deal won’t help.

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[10] The latest data exchange from September 2019 suggests that both parties have limited their warheads, missiles, and launchers as required.[11] Clearly, the current formula is feasible for both sides. If the US were to get rid of New START, there would be no way to assess Russian capabilities. It would also allow Moscow to build its arsenal rapidly and outrun Washington.[12] While acknowledging Russia’s apparent compliance with New START, Assistant Secretary of State for International Security and Nonproliferation Christopher Ford told Congress that Moscow is not complying with other arms control obligations.[13] This is not the first time Trump has threatened to withdraw the US from a “bad deal.” Last year, Trump withdrew the US from the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty, which requires the destruction of ground-based ballistic and cruise missiles with ranges between 500 and 5,500 kilometers, as well as their launchers and support equipment.[14] This came after years of documented Russian violations of the treaty.[15] Regardless, this allowed Russia to continue developing intermediate-range missiles capable of reaching Europe, which it could do without tiptoeing around the treaty.[16] In May, the US announced its intention to withdraw from the Treaty on the Open Skies, which permits signatories to conduct reconnaissance flights over the others’ territory to collect data on military activities.[17][18] The Trump administration cited the same justification it used for leaving the INF Treaty.[19] The US wants to leave New START because it doesn’t cover all of Russia’s nuclear capabilities. The deal excludes INF-covered systems, newer delivery systems, and tactical nuclear weapons—nonstrategic missiles with a typical range of 500–600 kilometers.[20] Moscow rejects any broader mandate and counters with its concerns that Washington possesses non-nuclear-capable launchers and bombers that can easily be converted into nuclear-capable ones, violating the treaty.

[21] The difference is that Russia is willing to resolve it within an existing framework, while the US is weighing a withdrawal.[22] China is the other factor at play. While Joe Biden plans to extend New START with or without China, Trump has demanded Beijing’s inclusion in any extended agreement.[23] Trump’s response stems from the Chinese advantage in INF-range missiles and

Considering the upcoming expiration deadline—just fifteen days after the new president takes office—the US can’t afford to risk losing a functioning agreement for an infeasible one.

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FUTURE CHALLENGES TO ARMS CONTROL As of October, the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (TPNW) had enough ratifications to take effect in January.[47] The UN General Assembly adopted it in 2017, hoping that it would legally mandate states to work toward eliminating their nuclear weapons.[48] This is a significant development for arms control but is insufficient given that most nuclear states and their allies are not party to it.[49] It certainly doesn’t help when the US is urging countries not to ratify the treaty.[50] In a realist world, states operate in a zero-sum game and try to outdo each other.[51] Nuclear states have the last word in such a world.

This distrust of other states ushers in a negative cycle of weapons development and distrust.

In addition, warfare is changing fast enough that Cold War-era arms control may be rendered obsolete. Newer weapons—from

hypersonic glide vehicles that evade radar detection to non-nuclear precision-strike munitions that minimize collateral damage— have blurred the lines between weapon types.

[52][53][54] Significant progress in AI and cyberattacks could also deceive defense systems and swiftly detect enemy missile launch sites previously difficult to locate.[55] These technological advancements will complicate future arms control agreements, especially as it becomes increasingly challenging to decide which weapons fall under which treaties.

But that doesn’t make arms control useless. The world successfully reduced the number of nuclear weapons to around a fifth of its Cold War peak.[56] This would not have been possible without US–Soviet arms control agreements. These must continue and eventually include other nuclear states.

For this to happen, the two largest nuclear states must continue negotiating their own arms control agreements. While those may not cover all weapons or include all countries,

Not only would a world without constraints on the two largest nuclear powers be absurd, but it would affect the decision-making of other states.

significant parity could eventually push other nuclear states to see the destabilizing effect of nuclear weapons.

Non-nuclear states have their role to play too. The ratification of the TPNW is a good start, but it must be followed by work outside these multilateral institutions to keep the ball rolling. Nonproliferation treaties are worthless if nuclear powers won’t engage.

Multilateral institutions and bilateral arms control go hand in hand. A sustained effort by the US and Russia will go a long way to compel other key players like China to join. American retreat, inconsistency, and buck-passing will only give other nuclear states an excuse to disengage.[57] We need time to consider where newer weapons fit in and devise a framework that benefits everyone. We aren’t there yet.[58] Biden should make good on his word and take up Russian President Vladimir Putin’s suggestion to extend the treaty and freeze development for a year to talk things out.

[59][60] New START will provide a lifeline of sorts—badly needed time for the main players to come up with innovative solutions.[61] Until then, it would be in the interest of the US and the world to extend it.

[1] Pifer, Steven. “Washington's Arms Control Delusions and Bluffs.” Defense One. Defense One, September 28, 2020. https://www.defenseone.com/ideas/2020/09/washingtons-arms-control-delusions-and-bluffs/168817/. [2] House Armed Services Committee, Future of Defense Task Force Report 2020, Moulton, Seth et. al. Washington D.C.: Congress, 2020. https://armedservices.house.gov/_cache/files/2/6/26129500-d208-47ba-a9f7-25a8f82828b0/424EB2008281A3C79BA8C7EA71890AE9.future-of-defense-task-force-report.pdf (November 9, 2020) [3] “New START Treaty - United States Department of State.” U.S. Department of State. U.S. Department of State, November 5, 2020. https://www.state.gov/new-start/. [4] Landay, Jonathan, and Arshad Mohammed. “U.S. Prepared to Spend Russia, China 'into Oblivion' to Win Nuclear Arms Race: U.S. Envoy.” Edited by Chris Reese. Reuters. Thomson Reuters, May 21, 2020. https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-usa-armscontrol/u-s-prepared-to-spend-russia-china-into-oblivion-to-win-nuclear-arms-race-u-s-envoy-idUSKBN22X2LS. [5] Quinn, Leanne. “China’s Stance on Nuclear Arms Control and New START.” Arms Control Association. Arms Control Association, August 23, 2019. https://www.armscontrol.org/blog/2019-08-23/chinas-stance-nuclear-arms-control-new-start. [6] Congressional Research Service. “Arms Control and Nonproliferation: A Catalog of Treaties and Agreements,” March 26, 2020. [7] Quinn, Leanne. “China’s Stance on Nuclear Arms Control and New START.” Arms Control Association. Arms Control Association, August 23, 2019. https://www.armscontrol.org/blog/2019-08-23/chinas-stance-nuclear-arms-control-new-start. [8] “Treaty between The United States of America and the Russian Federation on Measures for the Further Reduction and Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms (New START).” Nuclear Threat Initiative - Ten Years of Building a Safer World, October 30, 2020. http://nti.org/3TAR. [9] Congressional Research Service. “Arms Control and Nonproliferation: A Catalog of Treaties and Agreements,” March 26, 2020. [10] “Treaty between The United States of America and the Russian Federation on Measures for the Further Reduction and Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms (New START).”

Nuclear Threat Initiative - Ten Years of Building a Safer World, October 30, 2020. https://www.nti.org/learn/treaties-and-regimes/treaty-between-the-united-states-of-america-and-the-russian-federation-on-measures-for-the-further-reduction-and-limitation-of-strategic-offensive-arms/. [11] “New START Treaty Aggregate Numbers of Strategic Offensive Arms.” U.S. Department of State. U.S. Department of State, October 1, 2020. https://www.state.gov/ new-start-treaty-aggregate-numbers-of-strategic-offensive-arms-12/. [12] Vershbow, Alexander. “The Case for Extending New START.” Atlantic Council. Atlantic Council, February 5, 2020. https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/ new-atlanticist/the-case-for-extending-new-start/. [13] Zengerle, Patricia. “Senior U.S. Official: Russia in Compliance with New START Weapons Treaty.” Edited by Andrea Ricci. Reuters. Thomson Reuters, December 3, 2019. https:// www.reuters.com/article/us-russia-usa-missiles-idUSKBN1Y71Y5. [14] “Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF Treaty).” U.S. Department of State. U.S. Department of State. Accessed November 9, 2020. https://2009-2017. state.gov/t/avc/trty/102360.htm. [15] Kimball, Daryl, and Kingston Reif. “The Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty at a Glance.” Arms Control Association, August 2019. https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/INFtreaty.

[16] Ellehuus, Rachel. “What Comes after a U.S. Withdrawal from the INF Treaty? The Case for a NATO Strategy.” Center for Strategic and International Studies, December 4, 2018. https://www.csis.org/analysis/what-comes-after-uswithdrawal-inf-treaty-case-nato-strategy. [17] “Treaty on Open Skies.” Nuclear Threat Initiative - Ten Years of Building a Safer World, May 27, 2020. http://nti.org/11TAR. [18] Kimball, Daryl. “The Open Skies Treaty at a Glance.” Arms Control Association, May 2020. https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/openskies. [19] “Treaty on Open Skies.” Nuclear Threat Initiative - Ten Years of Building a Safer World, May 27, 2020. http://nti.org/11TAR [20] Sokov, Nikolai.

“Tactical Nuclear Weapons (TNW).” Nuclear Threat Initiative - Ten Years of Building a Safer World, May 1, 2002. http://nti.org/4571A. [21] Pifer, Steven. “Don't Let New START Die.” Brookings. Brookings, February 6, 2020. https:// www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2020/02/06/dont-let-new-start-die/. [22] Congressional Research Service. “Arms Control and Nonproliferation: A Catalog of Treaties and Agreements,” March 26, 2020. [23] “The Power of America's Example: The Biden Plan for Leading the Democratic World to Meet the Challenges of the 21st Century.” Joe Biden for President: Official Campaign Website, July 29, 2020. https://joebiden.com/americanleadership/. [24] Lague, David. “Special Report: U.S. Rearms to Nullify China's Missile Supremacy.” Reuters. Thomson Reuters, May 6, 2020. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-china-missiles-specialreport-us-idUSKBN22I1EQ. [25] Harris, Jr., Harry B. “Statement of Admiral Harry B. Harris JR., US Navy Commander, U.S. Pacific Command Before the House Armed Services Committee on U.S. Pacific Command Posture.” Congress, April 26, 2017. https://www.congress. gov/115/meeting/house/105870/witnesses/HHRG-115-AS00-Wstate-HarrisH-20170426.PDF. [26] Gould, Joe. “China Plans to Double Nuclear Arsenal, Pentagon Says.” Defense News. Defense News, September 1, 2020. https://www. defensenews.com/congress/2020/09/01/china-planning-to-double-nuclear-arsenal-pentagon-says/. [27] Pifer, Steven. “Don't Let New START Die.” Brookings. Brookings, February 6, 2020. https://www.brookings.edu/blog/orderfrom-chaos/2020/02/06/dont-let-new-start-die/. [28] Gaouette, Nicole, and Jennifer Hansler. “China Dismisses US Outreach on Arms Control Talks Saying It Has 'No Interest'.” CNN. Cable News Network, July 9, 2020. https://edition. cnn.com/2020/07/09/politics/state-china-us-arms-control/index.html. [29] Quinn, Leanne. “China’s Stance on Nuclear Arms Control and New START.” Arms Control Association. Arms Control Association, August 23, 2019. [30] Landay, Jonathan. “China Should Meet with U.S. on Arms Control, State Department Says.” Edited by Chizu Nomiyama and Marguerita Choy. Reuters. Thomson Reuters, July 9, 2020. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-china-armscontrol-idUSKBN24A27U. [31] “Arms Control and Disarmament.” Govt. White Papers. Accessed November 9, 2020. http://www.china.org.cn/government/whitepaper/2011-03/31/content_22263885.htm. [32] “China.” Nuclear Threat Initiative - Ten Years of Building a Safer World, April 2015. https://www.nti.org/learn/countries/china/nuclear/. [33] Zhao, Tong. “Modernizing Without Destabilizing: China's Nuclear Posture in a New Era.” Carnegie, August 25, 2020. https://carnegietsinghua.org/2020/08/25/modernizing-without-destabilizing-china-s-nuclear-posture-in-new-era-pub-82454. [34] Heginbotham, Eric, Jacob L. Heim, and Christopher P. Twomey. “Of Bombs and Bureaucrats: Internal Drivers of Nuclear Force Building in China and the United States.” Journal of Contemporary China 28, no. 118 (2018): 538–57. https://doi.org/10.1080/10670564.2018.1557945. [35] Zhao, Tong. “Modernizing Without Destabilizing: China's Nuclear Posture in a New Era.” Carnegie, August 25, 2020. https://carnegietsinghua.org/2020/08/25/modernizing-without-destabilizing-china-s-nuclear-posture-in-new-era-pub-82454. [36] Gaouette, Nicole, and Jennifer Hansler. “China Dismisses US Outreach on Arms Control Talks Saying It Has 'No Interest'.” CNN. Cable News Network, July 9, 2020. https://edition.cnn.com/2020/07/09/politics/state-china-us-arms-control/index.html.

[37] Nishimura, Rintaro. “Denuclearizing the Korean Peninsula Is Still a Distant Dream.” Northeastern University Political Review, October 27, 2020. https://www.nupoliticalreview.com/2020/10/06/denuclearizing-the-korean-peninsula-is-still-a-distant-dream/. [38] Pifer, Steven. “Don't Let New START Die.” Brookings. Brookings, February 6, 2020. https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2020/02/06/dont-let-new-start-die/. [39] Valeriano, Brandon, and Eric Gomez. “The Navy's Plan for 530 Ships Is All Washed Up.” Cato Institute, October 1, 2020. https://www.cato.org/publications/commentary/navys-plan-530-ships-all-washed. [40] Larter, David B. “In a Quest for 355 Ships, US Navy Leaders Are Unwilling to Accept a Hollow Force.” Defense News. Defense News, January 13, 2020. https://www.defensenews.com/digital-show-dailies/surface-navy-association/2020/01/13/in-a-quest-for-355-shipsus-navy-leaders-are-unwilling-to-accept-a-hollow-force/. [41] Gaouette, Nicole, and Jennifer Hansler. “China Dismisses US Outreach on Arms Control Talks Saying It Has 'No Interest'.” CNN. Cable News Network, July 9, 2020. https://edition.cnn.com/2020/07/09/politics/state-china-us-arms-control/index.html. [42] U.S. Government Accountability Office. “Department of Energy: Continued Actions Needed to Modernize Nuclear Infrastructure and Address Management Challenges.” U.S. Government Accountability Office (U.S. GAO), February 6, 2018. https://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-18-374T. [43] Durkalec, Dr. Jacek. “European Security without the INF Treaty.” NATO Review. NATO Review, September 30, 2019. https://www.nato.int/docu/review/articles/2019/09/30/european-security-without-the-inf-treaty/index.html. [44] Manning, Robert A. “Ending Cold War Nuclear Pact Threatens Asia's Security.” Nikkei Asia. Nikkei Asia, October 29, 2018. https://asia.nikkei.com/Opinion/Ending-Cold-War-nuclear-pact-threatens-Asia-s-security. [45] Pifer, Steven. “Don't Let New START Die.” Brookings. Brookings, February 6, 2020. https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2020/02/06/dont-let-new-start-die/. [46] Moore, Alex. “To Deter China, Extend New START.” Defense One. Defense One, September 22, 2020. https://www.defenseone.com/ ideas/2020/09/deter-china-extend-new-start/168681/. [47] Johnston, Eric. “U.N. Nuke Ban Treaty to Enter Effect Jan. 22, Heaping Pressure on Japan to Join.” The Japan Times, October 25, 2020. https://www.japantimes.co.jp/ news/2020/10/25/national/un-nuclear-ban-treaty-japan/. [48] “Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.” United Nations. United Nations, 2017. https://treaties.un.org/doc/Treaties/2017/07/20170707%2003-42%20PM/Ch_ XXVI_9.pdf. [49] “Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.” United Nations. United Nations, July 7, 2017. https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY. [50] Lederer, Edith M. “US Urges Countries to Withdraw from UN Nuke Ban Treaty.” AP NEWS. Associated Press, October 21, 2020. https://apnews.com/article/nuclear-weapons-disarmament-latin-america-united-nations-gun-politics-4f109626a1cdd6db10560550aa1bb491. [51] Sell, T.M. “International Relations.” Essay. In An Introduction to Politics, 9.2.1–9.2.5. Boston, MA: FlatWorld, 2013. https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Political_Science_and_Civics/Book%3A_An_Introduction_to_Politics_ (Sell)/09%3A_International_Relations/9.02%3A_Theories_of_International_Relations. [52] Reif, Kingston, and Shannon Bugos. “Pentagon Tests Hypersonic Glide Body.” Arms Control Association. Arms Control Association, April 2020. https://www.armscontrol.org/act/2020-04/news/pentagon-tests-hypersonic-glide-body. [53] Akiyama, Nobumasa. “Nuclear Weapons: Arms-Control Efforts Need China.” Nature News. Nature Publishing Group, August 4, 2020. https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-02282-9. [54] Watts, Barry. Rep. The Evolution of Precision Strike. CSBA, 2013. https://csbaonline.org/uploads/documents/Evolution-of-Precision-Strike-final-v15.pdf. [55] Loss, Rafael, and Joseph Johnson. “Will Artificial Intelligence Imperil Nuclear Deterrence?” War on the Rocks, September 19, 2019. https://warontherocks.com/2019/09/will-artificial-intelligence-imperil-nuclear-deterrence/. [56] Akiyama, Nobumasa. “Nuclear Weapons: Arms-Control Efforts Need China.” Nature News. Nature Publishing Group, August 4, 2020. https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-02282-9. [57] Xinhua. “China Reiterates Opposition to Multilateralization of INF Treaty.” Xinhua, July 30, 2019. http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019-07/30/c_138270534.htm. [58] Akiyama, Nobumasa. “Nuclear Weapons: Arms-Control Efforts Need China.” Nature News. Nature Publishing Group, August 4, 2020. https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-02282-9. [59] The Associated Press. “Russia's Vladimir Putin Proposes Yearlong Extension of New START Nuclear Treaty with U.S.” NBCNews.com.

NBCUniversal News Group, October 16, 2020. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/russia-s-vladimir-putin-proposes-yearlong-extension-new-start-nuclear-n1243741. [60] Donnella, Leah. 2020. “How Much Do We Need The Police?” NPR. https://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2020/06/03/457251670/how-much-do-we-need-the-police. Accessed November 9, 2020. https://www.mid.ru/foreign_policy/news/-/asset_publisher/cKNonkJE02Bw/content/ id/4395765?p_p_id=101_INSTANCE_cKNonkJE02Bw. [61] Herszenhorn, David M. “US and Russia Poised to Extend New START Arms Treaty.” POLITICO. POLITICO, October 21, 2020. https://www.politico.eu/article/us-and-russiapoised-to-extend-new-start-treaty/.

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All Is Fair in Love Island and War Stephanie Luiz / Political Science and Economics 2022 “Anye impietie may lawfully be committed in love, which is lawlesse.”

–John Lyly, Euphues[1]

L

yly’s adage—commonly uttered as “all is fair in love and war”—implies that conflict is as inherent to human nature as love and that rules don’t apply. The proverb also reflects realist theory, which believes states are rational actors that seek to maximize their relative However, power.[2] the intrinsic connection between state and human behavior can be best exhibited through contestants on competitive dating reality shows.

Love Island is a risqué dating show in which a dozen young people are stranded in a luxury island villa for eight weeks.[3][4] The “Islanders” aim to be in a heterosexual couple at the end of each week; otherwise, they are eliminated. Those who survive the summer can win £50,000 ($100,000 in the American version) if they are the viewers’ favorite couple.

[5][6][7] Participants primarily wear swimsuits, share a bedroom stuffed with six king-sized beds, and engage in debaucherous challenges created to provoke conflict within the budding relationships.[8][9][10][11]

Love Island is known for its cheeky commentator Iain Stirling and its comedic self-awareness.[12][13] Viewers can embed themselves into the island’s reality—as the show airs six nights a week—becoming easily invested in the contestants and their pursuit of “love.”[14] Part of Love Island’s appeal is that attractive people compete to form the most popular couple. That said, since the series premiered in 2015, only thirteen couples have stayed together p o s t- p r o d u c t i o n , five of which are from the most recent season. [15] So "alliance" may be a more appropriate description than “couple.”

While the application of war theory to human behavior may seem outlandish, principles of s e l f- p re s e r va t i o n underlie both human behavior and state action during war.[16] Neorealist political philosophers like Kenneth Waltz believe that “the structure of the international system, not the particular characteristics of individual great powers, causes [states] to think and act offensively and to seek hegemony.”[17][18] Under this philosophy, all states are rational actors that act to maximize their power relative to other states.

Thus, Love Island’s competitive nature results

The intrinsic connection between state and human behavior can be best exhibited through contestants on competitive dating reality shows.

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in Islanders aiming to maximize their power.

John Mearsheimer based his neorealist theory of state behavior on five key assumptions: the international system is anarchic; great powers can destroy one another; a state can never be sure of another state's intentions; the main goal of major powers is survival; and great powers are rational actors who think strategically about how to survive in the external environment.[19][20] On Love Island, contestants engage in similar conduct. When Shaughna confesses her feelings for Luke M. to his partner, her behavior corresponds with Mearsheimer’s theory.

[21] While there are strict behavioral rules for contestants, the competition itself is disorderly due to a lack of higher authority—like the anarchic international system.[22] Couples can form or split at any moment, so being in a relationship doesn’t guarantee safety.

Participants can never be certain of their partner’s intentions and are often unsure of whether their relationship is genuine.

The main goal is to stay on the island and win the prize. Thus, contestants must act strategically to maintain their relationship and become the audience’s favorite match—whether in the name of love or not. To achieve such popularity, contestants behave strategically, not unlike states in crisis.

The tragedy of power politics is that state interaction is typified by fear, self-help, and power maximization, all of which impede international cooperation.[23] States fear one another because they cannot trust one another.[24] They aim to maximize their relative power to ensure their safety and resilience. In the same vein, because states cannot

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An increase in one couple’s popularity comes at the cost of another’s. The Islanders are also at risk of their partner leaving them.

Contestants often enter new relationships with people they are not interested in just to ensure their safety. Not unlike members of the Warsaw Pact or the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Islanders are continually confronted with the possibility of being couple-less. Participants are incentivized to engage in multiple relationships to create self-serving alliances that protect their position.

Relationships are also temporary and fragile because Islanders constantly seek more popular and strategically sound relationships. In season six, Jess and Mike break up after Mike attempts to maximize his standing on the island by forming a relationship with another girl.[25] Despite being in a relationship with Jess, Mike seeks to gain an advantage over his fellow contestants by forming a new relationship.

Mike and Jess’s failed relationship indicates another element of state behavior: selfhelp.[26] States always act in their own interest by looking for opportunities to take advantage of others. This aim explains the final element—power maximization.

States employ calculated aggression; they consider the balance of power and how other states will react to their moves before taking action.[27] When states have a substantial advantage over their rivals, they behave more aggressively. Those who lack this power will not consider offensive action because they are “more concerned with defending the existing balance of power from threats by their more powerful opponents,” according to Mearsheimer.[28] Islanders who are sure of their partners’ attachment to them are more likely to behave aggressively than those who are concerned with maintaining their existing relationships.

Calculated aggression is particularly evident during Love Island’s contentious recouplings, as Islanders are incentivized to couple up with those who will maximize their ability to survive.

For example, Callum describes his relationship with Shaughna as “play[ing] it safe” and instead pursues a relationship with Molly.[29] Shaughna criticizes his behavior, believing that he was aware that she would not partner with a new boy.

Their argument reveals calculated aggression; Callum, knowing Shaughna would not shift the balance of power by entering a new relationship, chose to pursue Molly.

Shaughna and Callum’s argument also represents the security dilemma, which John Herz coined and Mearsheimer applied to war theory.[30][31] Herz asserts that the actions states take to increase their security decrease the security of other states. Thus, a rational actor will not cooperate with another—even if that may be in their best interest—because there’s no trust between parties. The security dilemma also heightens tensions between states in alliances because of the principles of state behavior.

The security dilemma is primarily applicable when Islanders have equal bargaining power; however, the show's producers often add new contestants to create conflict.[32][33] When they introduce a new girl, the other women lose their bargaining power until the next recoupling. When there are more women than men, matching theory suggests that the men will leave their partners for the women they prefer.[34] Love Island is notorious for putting winning couples into a security dilemma. These couples must decide whether to split the prize money.[35] If they agree to split, they each take half the money. If one chooses to keep the money and the other decides to split, the former gets the prize. If both try to keep the money, neither receives the prize. The show is built to stoke conflict until the game is over.

The potential financial gain from the show makes it serious for contestants. On the surface, contestants are compensated £250 a week and the winning couple receives the prize.[36] But their average income grows exponentially, with those who last on the show earning the most.[37] The finalists make an estimated £2.3 million in the five years after they leave the show. These gains lured almost one hundred thousand applicants in 2020—all for only thirty-six spots.[38] Getting on the show is challenging, meaning contestants take the game seriously.

It may be inconceivable that a dating show can juxtapose the complex nature of war theory with that of human interaction in a high-stakes setting. However, Love Island does just that, exemplifying the parallels between human nature and war theory by simulating central elements of social interaction: the desire for safety, power, and wealth.

Mearsheimer and other realist thinkers seek to outline the structure of nation-states within an international system, but inadvertently denote key sociological facets. The game of love is ultimately the game of war.

[1] Apperson, George Latimer. Dictionary of Proverbs. Ware, Hertfordshire: Wordsworth Reference, 2006. [2] Korab-Karpowicz, Włodzimierz Julian. “Political Realism in International Relations.” Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford University, May 24, 2017. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/realism-intl-relations/. [3] Jokic, Natasha, and Hannah Chambers. “Here's How the Rules of 'Love Island' Actually Work (and How You Can Vote!).” Cosmopolitan. Cosmopolitan, July 10, 2019. https://www.cosmopolitan.com/entertainment/tv/a27968539/how-does-love-island-work-rules/. [4] Llewellyn, Liam, and Ezelle Alblas. “When Does Love Island 2020 Finish and How Long Is It on for?” The Sun. The Sun, February 25, 2020. https://www.thesun.co.uk/tvandshowbiz/love-island/10753964/love-island-2020-final-date/. [5] Hughes, David. “Here's How the Love Island £50,000 Prize Money Works.” inews. co.uk. Associated Newspaper Limited, February 23, 2020. https://inews.co.uk/culture/television/love-island-prize-money-2020-split-final-winners-stolen-400567. [6] Blanton, Kayla. “The Winning 'Love Island' Couple Takes Home A Ton Of Cash - But There's A Catch.” Bustle. Bustle, August 25, 2020. https://www.bustle.com/entertainment/whats-the-prize-on-love-island-us-coupling-up-is-more-than-emotional-investment-18180519. [7] Jokic, Natasha, and Hannah Chambers. “Here's How the Rules of 'Love Island' Actually Work (and How You Can Vote!).” Cosmopolitan. Cosmopolitan, July 10, 2019. https://www.cosmopolitan.com/entertainment/tv/a27968539/how-does-love-islandwork-rules/. [8] Broster, Alice. “Are There Clothing Rules On 'Love Island'?” Bustle. Bustle, February 11, 2020. https://www.bustle.com/p/are-there-clothing-rules-on-love-island-21789111. [9] Llewellyn, Liam, and Ezelle Alblas. “When Does Love Island 2020 Finish and How Long Is It on for?” The Sun. The Sun, February 25, 2020. https://www.thesun.co.uk/tvandshowbiz/love-island/10753964/love-island-2020-final-date/. [10] “Challenges | Love Island.” ITV. ITV, n.d. https://www.itv.com/loveisland/tags/challenges. [11] Ferrara, Lamberto, and Lucy Irving. “Love Island's Success: A Tale of Cultural Tension.” Ipsos. Ipsos , 2018. https://www.ipsos.com/sites/default/files/ct/publication/ documents/2018-07/tp_love_island_2018_final_0.pdf. [12] McLaren, Bonnie. “Love Island's Voiceover Guy Iain Stirling Might Just Be The Best Part Of The Whole Show.” Grazia. Grazia, July 2, 2019. https://graziadaily.co.uk/celebrity/ news/love-island-iain-stirling-best-moments/. [13] Richardson, Liz. “15 Funny Tweets That Prove The Narrator On ‘Love Island’ Is The Most Hilarious Part Of The Show.” BuzzFeed. BuzzFeed, August 27, 2020. https://www.buzzfeed. com/lizmrichardson/love-island-narrator-jokes-tweets. [14] Weiss, Norman. “Love Island Expanding to Six Nights a Week When It Returns for Season 2 on May 21.” Primetimer. Snugglefish Media, February 14, 2020. https://www. primetimer.com/item/Love-Island-expanding-to-six-nights-a-week-when-it-returns-for-Season-2-on-May-21-JWSp05. [15] Lewis, Anna, and Sophie Boyden. “Love Island: Which Couples Are Still Together and Which Are Most Definitely Not.” Cosmopolitan. Cosmopolitan, July 17, 2020. https://www.cosmopolitan.com/uk/entertainment/g19718641/love-island-couples-still-together/. [16] Frésard, Jean-Jacques. “The Roots of Behaviour in War - A Survey of the Literature.” International Committee of the Red Cross, October 2004. https://www.icrc.org/en/doc/assets/files/other/icrc_002_0854.pdf. [17] “Neorealism.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, inc., n.d. https://www. britannica.com/topic/neorealism-political-and-social-science. [18] Mearsheimer, John J. “Anarchy and the Struggle for Power .” Essay. In The Tragedy of Great Power Politics, 29–54. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company, 2014. https://bxscience.edu/ourpages/auto/2015/12/17/46553148/Mearsheimer%20-%20Tragedy%20of%20Great%20Power%20Politics.pdf. [19] “Biography.” John Mearsheimer, n.d. https://www.mearsheimer.com/biography/. [20] Mearsheimer, John J. “Anarchy and the Struggle for Power .” Essay. In The Tragedy of Great Power Politics, 29–54. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company, 2014. https://bxscience.edu/ourpages/auto/2015/12/17/46553148/Mearsheimer%20 -%20Tragedy%20of%20Great%20Power%20Politics.pdf. [21] Love Island. “FIRST LOOK: Shaughna comes clean! | Love Island Series 6.” Posted on February 13, 2020. YouTube video, 1:43. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0ufo4Oam9uo. [22] Parry, Mared. “Love Island 2019 Rules - All the Things That Islanders Can Be Kicked out For.” The Sun. The Sun, July 22, 2019. https://www.thesun.co.uk/tvandshowbiz/love-island/6445652/love-island-rules-2019/.

[23] Mearsheimer, John J. “Anarchy and the Struggle for Power.” Essay. In The Tragedy of Great Power Politics, 29–54. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company, 2014. https://bxscience.edu/ourpages/auto/2015/12/17/46553148/Mearsheimer%20-%20Tragedy%20of%20Great%20Power%20Politics.pdf. [24] “Anarchy and the Struggle for Power.” [25] Love Island. “Has Mike been totally honest with Jess? | Love Island Series 6.” Posted on January 15, 2020. YouTube video, 1:45. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-fkjcDDHogo. [26] Mearsheimer, John J. “Anarchy and the Struggle for Power .” Essay. In The Tragedy of Great Power Politics, 29–54. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company, 2014. https://bxscience.edu/ourpages/auto/2015/12/17/46553148/Mearsheimer%20-%20Tragedy%20of%20Great%20Power%20Politics.pdf. [27] “Anarchy and the Struggle for Power.” [28] “Anarchy and the Struggle for Power.” [29] Love Island. “Things get heated between Callum and Shaughna | Love Island Series 6.” Posted on February 9, 2020. YouTube video, 3:05. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0Jn7kq_IDe4. [30] Hertz, John H. “The Security Dilemma in International Relations: Background and Present Problems.” International Relations 17, no. 4 (2003): 411–16. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0047117803174001?journalCode=ireb. [31] Mearsheimer, John J. “Anarchy and the Struggle for Power .” Essay. In The Tragedy of Great Power Politics, 29–54. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company, 2014. https://bxscience.edu/ourpages/auto/2015/12/17/46553148/Mearsheimer%20-%20Tragedy%20of%20 Great%20Power%20Politics.pdf. [32] “Anarchy and the Struggle for Power.” [33] Love Island. “Ched schools the boys on feminism | Love Island Series 6.” Posted on February 20, 2020. Youtube video, 0:57. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=Ak3swRvxpjQ. [34] Teytelboym, Alex. “Economics of Love Island.” Medium. Medium, July 24, 2017. https://medium.com/@t8el/economics-of-love-island-584e648d42ee. [35] Hughes, David. “Here's How the Love Island £50,000 Prize Money Works.” inews.co.uk. Associated Newspaper Limited, February 23, 2020. https://inews.co.uk/culture/television/love-island-prize-money-2020-split-final-winners-stolen-400567. [36] “How Much Do Love Island Stars Get Paid? Contestants Surprising Salaries Revealed.” Heart. Heart, January 16, 2020. https://www.heart.co.uk/showbiz/tv-movies/love-island-wages-earnings/. [37] Dislere, Kristine, and Eli Daniels. “The Good, the Bad and the Muggy - How to Win Love Island?” Frontier Economics, July 2018. https://www.frontier-economics.com/media/1496/201807_the-good-the-bad-and-the-muggy_frontier.pdf. [38] Sansome, Jessica. “Why Only Six of 98,000 People Who Applied for Love Island Appeared on the Show.” Manchester Evening News, July 31, 2019. https://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/news/tv/only-six-98000-people-who-16674980.

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Live Art in a Pandemic: The Federal Government’s Responsibility to Theatre Allegra D’Virgilio / Communication Studies and Theatre 2022

F

or as long as we have existed, humans have created theatre. There is no universal definition, but the word “theatre” comes from the Greek verb “theasthai,” meaning to behold.[1] It’s a place where an audience comes together to watch a live performance. This storytelling tool has been present in every country and culture throughout history.[2] Over time, theatre became more than just a casual art form—it developed into a professional industry. The theatre industry in the US became one of the strongest in the world, always adapting, evolving, and surviving.[3] But the industry now faces unprecedented economic challenges due to the COVID-19 pandemic.[4] Because of physical distancing, audiences cannot come together to “behold” performers. Without its traditional funding, how can the show go on?

Because the industry is so valuable, we must scrutinize the amount of government support given. Theatre is a powerful part of the US economy, contributing substantially to local communities and the country. The most obvious example is commercial Broadway theatres that stimulate income and employment in New York City.[5] However, there are countless cases across the country. Small theatres generate $80 million per year in Chicago; in eastern Kentucky, the Appalshop theatre and art gallery pumps $1.5 million a year into a region with some of the highest poverty rates in the country.[6][7] In 2016, arts and culture contributed $804 billion to the national GDP, significantly more than the entire travel and tourism industry.[8] About $33 billion of that came from admission to performing arts events, with theater, opera, and dance contributing $22 billion.

In 2017, arts and culture employed 5.1 million people; 300,000 of them worked in the performing arts, while millions more worked in production, including marketing,

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publishing, construction, and design services.[9][10] Without theatre, arts and culture would lose one of its biggest drivers for profit and jobs.

Before the pandemic, theatre experienced an economic resurgence after Hamilton’s record-breaking success.[11] Audience growth and box office statistics indicated a sort of golden age.[12] However, even in a thriving Broadway climate, with most productions independently funded by private producers, only about 30 percent of shows were breaking even or turning a profit.[13][14] These shows also stir other notable economic activity by attracting visitors who interact with different industries.[15] Organized theatre tours bring at least twenty thousand visitors every year to New York City. These tourists stay for a week or more and spend an estimated $2.5 million on shopping, hotels, and other expenses. Before the pandemic, theatre attendance was rising at a record pace; as theatre grew, other industries profited too.

These businesses will suffer without theatre driving tourism.[16] Economic models vary, but Playbill describes American theatre as “extremely decentralized and fiercely independent.”[17] The National Endowment for the Arts (NEA)—established by Congress in 1965— strives to create opportunities for people to participate in and experience the arts.

[18] It’s a major source of funding for thousands of nonprofits each year and partners

with philanthropic organizations, state arts agencies, local leaders, and other federal bodies.

While technically independent from the federal government, the NEA does receive an annual stipend from Congress. Still, its grant made up just 0.04 percent of the 2017 federal budget.[19] Meanwhile, the agriculture industry received ninety times more than the arts despite adding four times less to the economy.[20][21] Congress’s appropriations illustrate its disregard for the arts in favor of other industries.

If the government continues dismissing the arts, the industry will undoubtedly suffer. For theatre, the damages are indisputable.

Performers, crews, and audiences are all at risk in a regular “full house.” If theatres reopen with distanced seating, much smaller casts, and lower ticket prices, the budgets won’t add up. There is also no guarantee that people would feel safe enough to return to an enclosed space anytime soon; even if they did, they might not want to spend money on leisure during an economic crisis.[22][23] As such, the industry needs enough financial support to survive a total shutdown.

This is not the first time theatre-makers have asked the government to recognize the value of theatre and invest in it to help the industry through hard times. President Franklin Roosevelt’s Federal Art Project in 1935 boosted the economy by giving people jobs and developing public infrastructure.

Before the pandemic, theatre attendance was rising at a record pace; as theatre grew, other industries profited too.

These businesses will suffer without theatre driving tourism.

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It was part of a collection of New Deal projects created to assist the country’s arts and culture sector. By getting jobless artists to produce works accessible to all, the project contributed to record numbers of employment and high output during crucial Great Depression years. More impressively, it kept theatre alive.

The support needed to overcome the COVID-19 crisis will be more complex than that of the Great Depression.[25] The problems caused by the pandemic are not a singular obstacle that can be compensated for or worked around. It’s nearly impossible to find production methods that are COVID-19 safe in the short-term without reinventing our approaches to theatre.

Time is not on our side. This has been the longest shutdown in Broadway history.[26] As of May 18, Americans for the Arts reported that financial losses to nonprofit arts and cultural organizations were at an estimated $5.5 billion nationally.[27] That means $2 billion in lost government revenue and 348,000 fewer jobs, leaving 62 percent of artists unemployed. Without a bailout, the ongoing shutdown will cripple many institutions beyond repair.[28] Nonprofit organizations are trying to bridge the gap and step up to support artists. Broadway Cares/Equity Fights AIDS, Artist Relief, and Americans for the Arts are researching artists’ needs, providing emergency grants, and advocating in Congress and the workplace on behalf of artists.[29][30][31] More directly, many Broadway producers agreed to pay hundreds of actors, musicians, stagehands, and others for the first few weeks of the industry shutdown.[32] They also covered [24]

their health insurance for at least a month.

However, these producers argue they cannot afford to do more, given that they have no box office revenue for the foreseeable future. The Broadway League, Actors Equity, other trade unions, and hundreds of arts leaders are now uniting to push for government assistance.[33] In March, Congress passed the $2.3 trillion Coronavirus Aid Relief and Economic Security (CARES) Act to provide fast, direct economic assistance to American workers, families, and small businesses.[34] It allocated $75 million to the NEA to preserve jobs and help support organizations that had to close.

[35] The distribution happened noticeably faster than in 2009, when Congress gave $50 million to the NEA as part of its stimulus during the 2008 financial crisis, but still not fast enough.[36][37] By comparison, New Zealand launched four new funds in May to support the arts and music sector in a $175 million arts recovery package.[38] The UK also announced a recent $2 billion bailout to keep its arts sector afloat.

[39] Both nations have provided far more funds than the US despite having much smaller theatre industries.

The CARES Act is not enough to save an industry crippled by an unparalleled emergency. The Broadway League declared that Broadway will remain closed for “at least the rest of this year.”[40] Without urgent and increased federal support, US theatre will never be the same again, permanently losing countless creators, artists, and venues.

The government needs to allocate more emergency relief funds to a broader range of theatre organizations across the country, efficiently and directly.

First, it must become easier for different types of theatres to qualify for and access help. Small independent venues are the first to close, diminishing theatre’s diversity.[41] These nonprofit regional theatres are usually more focused on advancing equity, diversity, and inclusion in the industry.[42] Just as importantly, the portion of money allocated from the CARES Act does not reflect the value of the performing arts economically or culturally. Because theatre contributes so much to our country, the government must provide equivalent financial support.[43] The fight to recognize the value of live art is not new—as seen through the long-standing battles over performing arts programs in public schools—and theatre has proven its worth time and time again.[44][45] The government must make a decision: acknowledge theatre’s importance once and for all and rise to the occasion, or risk losing it forever.

As our world becomes more complex and faces increasing challenges, why eliminate a powerful, reliable economic and cultural tool?

It’s crucial that this cultural tradition—tied to our history and imperative to our society—continues, and that the government finally appreciates theatre’s economic and social benefits.[46] Then, hopefully, a path will emerge for the day theatre can resume.[47]

[1] “Theater (n.).” Online Etymology Dictionary. Douglas Harper. https://www.etymonline.com/word/theater. [2] Shah, Vikas. “Theatre, Performance and Society.” Thought Economics. Thought Economics, May 8, 2016. https://thoughteconomics.com/theatre-performance-and-society/. [3] “How American Theatre Has Prevailed Through History.” Arcadia Publishing. Arcadia Publishing. https://www.arcadiapublishing.com/navigation/community/arcadia-and-thpblog/july-2018/how-american-theatre-has-prevailed-through-history. [4] “COVID-19's Impact on The Arts: Research & Tracking Update May 18, 2020.” Americans for the Arts. Americans for the Arts, May 18, 2020. https://www. americansforthearts.org/news-room/americans-for-the-arts-news/covid-19%E2%80%99s-impact-on-the-arts-research-tracking-update-may-18-2020. [5] Mathtech. “The Impact of the Broadway Theatre on the Economy of New York City.” Americans for the Arts, May 15, 2019. https://www.americansforthearts.org/by-program/reports-and-data/legislation-policy/naappd/the-impact-of-the-broadway-theatre-on-the-economy-of-new-york-city. [6] Tran, Diep. “Studies Show Big Impact of Small Theatres in NY, Chicago.” American Theatre. Theatre Communications Group, November 20, 2019. https://www.americantheatre.org/2019/11/20/studies-in-show-big-impact-of-small-theatres-in-ny-chicago/.

[7] Pattison, Scott D. “The Growing Importance of the Arts to Rural America.” Governing. e.Republic, March 18, 2019. https://www.governing.com/gov-institute/voices/col-growing-economic-importance-arts-rural-america.html. [8] The U.S. Arts and Cultural Production Satellite Account (1998-2016): A National Summary § (2019). https://www.arts.gov/sites/default/files/BEA2019_Final_National_Summary_Report.pdf. [9] “Arts and Cultural Production Satellite Account, U.S. and States 2017.” News Release. Bureau of Economic Analysis, March 17, 2020. https://www.bea.gov/news/2020/arts-and-cultural-production-satellite-account-us-and-states-2017. [10] “Arts and Cultural Production Satellite Account, U.S. and States 2017.” Arts and Culture. Bureau of Economic Analysis, March 17, 2020. https://www.bea.gov/data/special-topics/arts-and-culture. [11] Moore, Deanna. “'Hamilton' Broke All-Time Broadway Box Office Record.” iHeartRadio Broadway. iHeart Media, January 3, 2019. https://www.iheartradiobroadway.com/content/2019-01-03-hamilton-broke-all-time-broadway-box-office-record/. [12] Riedel, Michael. “The Great Green Way: Inside Broadway's Economic Boom.” Variety. Variety, May 22, 2019. https://variety.com/2019/legit/features/economic-boom-on-broadway-1203222804/. [13] Davenport, Ken. “10 FAQ about Broadway Investing.” The Producer's Perspective, January 10, 2016. https:// www.theproducersperspective.com/my_weblog/2016/01/10-faq-about-broadway-investing.html. [14] Riedel, Michael. “The Great Green Way: Inside Broadway's Economic Boom.” Variety. Variety, May 22, 2019. https://variety.com/2019/ legit/features/economic-boom-on-broadway-1203222804/. [15] Hayter, Chris, and Stephanie C Pierce. “Arts & the Economy - Using Arts and Culture to Stimulate State Economic Development.” The National Governors Association Center for Best Practices, n.d. https://austintexas.gov/sites/default/files/files/Redevelopment/0901arts_economy_nga.pdf. [16] Paulson, Michael. “Broadway's Box Office Keeps Booming. Now Attendance Is Surging, Too.” The New York Times.

The New York Times, May 29, 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/29/theater/broadway-box-office.html. [17] Grunfeld, Aaron. “Why America Needs A National Theatre - But It Might Look Different Than You Think.” Playbill, December 21, 2015. https://www.playbill.com/article/why-america-needs-a-national-theatre-u2014-but-it-might-look-different-than-you-think-com-376231. [18] Cowen, Tyler. “How the United States Funds the Arts.” National Endowment for the Arts Office of Research and Analysis, October 2004. https://www.americansforthearts.org/sites/default/files/how_0.pdf. [19] “The Practical Advocate - Fact vs. Fiction: Government Arts Funding.” National Assembly of State Art Agencies, 2017. https://nasaa-arts.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/FactvsFiction.pdf. [20] “Federal Spending: Where Does the Money Go.” National Priorities Project. Institute for Policy Studies, 2015. https://www.nationalpriorities.org/ budget-basics/federal-budget-101/spending/. [21] Hutter, Victoria. “Latest Data Shows Increase to U.S. Economy from Arts and Cultural Sector.” NEA News. National Endowment for the Arts, March 19, 2019. https://www.arts.gov/about/ news/2019/latest-data-shows-increase-us-economy-arts-and-cultural-sector. [22] Lewis, Helen. “When Will We Want to Be in a Room Full of Strangers Again?” The Atlantic. Atlantic Media Company, May 12, 2020. https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2020/05/theater-survive-coronavirus-art-west-end-broadway/611338/. [23] Jordan, Richard. “Richard Jordan: Theatres Need to Test-Run New Performance Models so Audiences Feel Safe to Return.” The Stage. The Stage Media Company, June 4, 2020. https://www.thestage.co.uk/opinion/we-need-to-test-run-new-performance-models-so-audiences-feel-safe-to-return. [24] Richman-Abdou, Kelly. “Learn How the 'Federal Art Project' Gave American Artists Hope During the Great Depression.” My Modern Met, June 8, 2020. https://mymodernmet.com/wpa-federal-art-project/. [25] Tackett, Michael, and Josh Boak. “The Great Depression Inspired the New Deal. After Coronavirus Downturn, What Could It Look like Today?” Chicago Tribune. Chicago Tribune, April 25, 2020. https://www.chicagotribune.com/coronavirus/ct-nw-new-deal-coronavirus-20200425-fuszdjvytnh6jeb7f5x3dw32wq-story.html.

[26] Paulson, Michael. “Broadway Will Remain Closed Through the Rest of the Year.” The New York Times. The New York Times, June 29, 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/29/theater/when-broadway-reopening-coronavirus. html. [27] “COVID-19's Impact on The Arts: Research & Tracking Update May 18, 2020.” Americans for the Arts, May 18, 2020. https://www.americansforthearts.org/news-room/americans-for-the-arts-news/covid-19%E2%80%99s-impacton-the-arts-research-tracking-update-may-18-2020. [28] Lewis, Helen. “When Will We Want to Be in a Room Full of Strangers Again?” The Atlantic. Atlantic Media Company, May 12, 2020. https://www.theatlantic.com/international/ archive/2020/05/theater-survive-coronavirus-art-west-end-broadway/611338/. [29] Gans, Andrew. “Broadway Cares/Equity Fights AIDS Launches Emergency Grants for Pandemic Relief.” Playbill. PLAYBILL INC., May 6, 2020. https:// www.playbill.com/article/broadway-cares-equity-fights-aids-launches-emergency-grants-for-pandemic-relief. [30] Artist Relief. https://www.artistrelief.org/. [31] COVID-19's Impact on The Arts: Research & Tracking Update May 18, 2020.” Americans for the Arts, May 18, 2020. https://www.americansforthearts.org/news-room/americans-for-the-arts-news/covid-19%E2%80%99s-impact-on-the-arts-research-tracking-update-may-18-2020. [32] Paulson, Michael.

“Broadway, Shuttered by Pandemic, Reaches Short-Term Pay Deal.” The New York Times. The New York Times, March 20, 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/20/theater/coronavirus-broadway-unions.html. [33] Erlbach, MatthewLee. “An Open Letter to the Senators of the 116th Congress: Fund the Arts.” American Theatre. Theatre Communications Group, July 25, 2020. https://www.americantheatre.org/2020/07/25/an-open-letter-to-the-senators-of-the-116thcongress-fund-the-arts/. [34] “The CARES Act Works for All Americans.” Policy Issues. U.S. Department of the Treasury, 2020. https://home.treasury.gov/policy-issues/cares. [35] “NEA Releases Guidelines for CARES Act Funding.” News.

Artforum International Magazine, April 13, 2020. https://www.artforum.com/news/nea-releases-guidelines-for-cares-act-funding-82721. [36] “National Endowment for the Arts Awards CARES Act Funding to States.” NEA News. National Endowment for the Arts, April 15, 2020. https://www.arts.gov/about/news/2020/national-endowment-arts-awards-cares-act-funding-states. [37] Jacobs, Julia. “Arts Groups, Facing Their Own Virus Crisis, Get a Piece of the Stimulus.” The New York Times. The New York Times, March 24, 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/24/arts/coronavirus-arts-bailout.html. [38] “Government Launches $175m Arts and Music Recovery Package.” Politics. Radio New Zealand, May 29, 2020. https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/political/417843/government-launches-175m-arts-and-music-recovery-package. [39] Marshall, Alex. “U.K. Announces $2 Billion Bailout to Help Keep the Arts Afloat.” The New York Times. The New York Times, July 6, 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/06/arts/uk-rescue-package.html. [40] Paulson, Michael. “Broadway Will Remain Closed Through the Rest of the Year.” The New York Times. The New York Times, June 29, 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/29/theater/when-broadway-reopening-coronavirus.html. [41] Cooper, Michael. “Curtains for the Pearl, as the Theater Company Files for Bankruptcy.” The New York Times. The New York Times, June 7, 2017. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/07/theater/pearl-theater-closing.html. [42] Heartley, Al, and Jocelyn Prince. “The Empty Space: A Look at How Theaters Have Filled Gaps in Equity, Diversity, and Inclusion.” Equity Issues (Arts), Management of Arts Organizations, Racial Equity. Nonprofit Quarterly, September 15, 2016. https://nonprofitquarterly.org/empty-space-look-theaters-filled-gaps-equity-diversity-inclusion/. [43] Hutter, Victoria. “During Economic Highs and Lows, the Arts Are Key Segment of U.S. Economy.” NEA News. National Endowment of the Arts, March 17, 2020. https://www.arts.gov/about/news/2020/during-economic-highs-and-lows-arts-are-key-segment-useconomy. [44] “Arts Education Policy and Funding.” Legislation & Policy. Americans for the Arts, n.d. https://www.americansforthearts.org/by-program/reports-and-data/legislation-policy/legislative-issue-center/arts-education-policy-and-funding. [45] “How American Theatre Has Prevailed Through History.” Arcadia Publishing. Arcadia Publishing. https://www.arcadiapublishing.com/navigation/community/arcadia-and-thp-blog/july-2018/ how-american-theatre-has-prevailed-through-history. [46] Hutter, Victoria. “During Economic Highs and Lows, the Arts Are Key Segment of U.S. Economy.” NEA News. National Endowment of the Arts, March 17, 2020. https://www.arts. gov/about/news/2020/during-economic-highs-and-lows-arts-are-key-segment-us-economy. [47] “Arts and Culture Planning 2020 Comeback.” TRG Arts. TRG Arts, June 18, 2020. https://trgartsresiliency.com/blog/arts-culture-planning2020-comeback.

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The Ugly Side of Fashion: How the Industry Harms People of Color Grace Horne / Political Science 2023

I

n December 2018, luxury fashion brand Prada released a collection of “fantasy charms” that critics say were inspired by blackface.[1][2] The products, which Prada claimed were “imaginary creatures,” resemble black monkeys with bright red lips—seemingly a callback to nineteenth-century minstrel shows.[3][4] Following immediate social media backlash, most notably from civil rights lawyer Chinyere Ezie, the company apologized: “#Prada Group abhors racist imagery.”[5][6] However, their tweet does not make up for their racism, at least not in the eyes of the law. In February 2020, the New York City Commission on Human Rights settled with Prada, requiring the company to “invest in restorative justice efforts to combat anti-Black racism and promote diversity and inclusion in Prada’s business activities, advertising, and products.”[7] This “fantasy charm” collection and its repercussions are one of the more visible, and thus memorable, instances of racism in the fashion industry. But racism isn’t always identifiable in a storefront. People are discriminated against— again and again—behind the scenes.

In June, Vogue Editor-in-Chief Anna Wintour apologized to staffers and took full responsibility for personal and company-wide failings to fight racial discrimination.[8] She has headed the

magazine since 1988 and is a powerful industry figure, even inspiring Meryl Streep’s performance as the domineering head of a fashion magazine in The Devil Wears Prada.[9] Despite her power, Wintour has done little to diversify the fashion industry. Former Vogue Editor-at-Large André Leon Talley made an

by those of their families. The list includes the daughter of an Oscar-winning screenwriter and the great-great-granddaughter of the chairman of a large bank.

These problems, whether intentional or negligent, do not end with Vogue or Prada.

They exist everywhere in the industry. Racism results not just from the conscious decisions of editors and designers, but also from the industry's framework.

Fashion tries to sell consumers the ideas of wealth, beauty, and luxury—hence the desire to own recognizable clothing and accessories like a Supreme sweatshirt or a Gucci belt.

[14] But in a country where the average White family owns ten times the wealth of the average Black family, these ideas cannot stand on their own.[15] They become euphemisms for “White.”

People first awarded the title of “Sexiest Man Alive” to Mel Gibson in 1985 and has given the title to thirty-one different men since.[16] Only four of these men have been people of color.

Zendaya, the second Black woman to win an Emmy Award, admits that even when a Black woman is given a platform, it is likely that she still conforms to Eurocentric ideals of beauty with paler skin and looser curls.[17][18] “I am Hollywood’s . . . acceptable version of a Black

The industry is willing to bet on young White creatives while holding Black creatives to higher standards, all but requiring them to be household names.

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even stronger statement, asserting that he does not think “she will ever let anything get in the way of her White privilege.”[10] Beverly Johnson, the first Black woman to appear on Vogue’s cover, added to the criticism of Wintour's apology: “Wow—after three decades, fashion’s leading arbiter has finally acknowledged that there may be a problem!”[11] Two years ago—126 years after Vogue’s first issue and thirty years into Wintour’s tenure—Tyler Mitchell became the first Black photographer for a Vogue cover.[12] No Black photographer has shot the cover since.

Even Wintour’s assistants are predominantly privileged White women with Ivy League degrees.[13] Their credentials are outshined only

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Columns girl,” she remarked, “and that has to change.”

Systemic racism was not created by fashion companies, but when they feature White models and designers to sell “Whiteness,” they reinforce racism.

Even when designers steal from or copy Black people, it is White people who sell and purchase these products. It was bad enough that Gucci blatantly stole the work of Black designer Dapper Dan for its 2018 Cruise collection, acknowledging him only in an Instagram post.[19][20] But Dapper Dan’s work wasn’t respected in the 1980s and 1990s either.[21] “He approached designers to collaborate with him, but they told him it wasn’t chic enough,” said Olympic track star Diana Dixon, whose Dapper Dan custom mink jacket was copied by Gucci.

[22] “They looked down on him and thought logos on clothing were only for minorities, even though he was open to anyone coming to his store.”

Following anger on social media and accusations of cultural appropriation, Gucci ultimately partnered with Dapper Dan, supporting his studio’s reopening and collaborating with him on a capsule collection.[23][24] While it is great when a Black person’s work is respected and they’re given an opportunity in fashion, it is normally at the peak of their career in another field.[25] In 1984, Nike signed a deal with twenty-one-year-old Michael Jordan, creating the Air Jordan line that has since earned Nike $3.6 billion.[26][27] In 2019, Rihanna—who on top of being a singer is the creator of Fenty Beauty, Savage x Fenty, and a Puma sportswear Fenty Line— announced a partnership between her brand and luxury conglomerate LVMH.[28] Rihanna is the first woman of color to lead a luxury label

at LVMH, also the home of Givenchy and Dior.

Jordan and Rihanna deserve their high-profile positions, but they are still outliers. The average Black person is not given those opportunities, even though White people often are.

Black-owned businesses are more than twice as likely to be rejected for loans than Whiteowned ones.[29] The industry is willing to bet on young White creatives while holding Black creatives to higher standards, all but requiring them to be household names.[30] Given the financial privileges of White people and their likelihood to come from a family already associated with the industry, the hiring system is tilted against young Black designers.

the brand’s hypocrisy. They described store policies that labelled Black shoppers as “Nicks”—a coded instruction to racially profile a shopper and follow them throughout the store.

With any type of visible progress or diversity—from heartfelt pledges to Instagram posts—look behind the scenes to see the truth.

For example, the number of non-White runway models has increased over the years— from 17 percent for the Spring 2015 season to 41 percent for the Fall 2020 season—but there’s little evidence that this has undone the racism these models face.[34][35] Anok Yai, one of only two Black models to ever open a Prada show, wrote an essay in O, The Oprah Magazine after a friend said she is “not a black woman, she is my friend.”[36] Yai described a childhood marred by racism and her disappointment at finding even more racism and microaggressions in the fashion industry, as she was expected to “teach working professionals how to deal with [her] hair and skin day in and day out.”

The effects of this exclusion and discrimination do not end within the magazine pages or on runways. Fashion shapes our perceptions of ourselves and others by determining our concepts of desirability and beauty.

If haute couture focuses primarily on White people, Whiteness becomes aspirational. Other cultures are viewed as inferior by default, sometimes even by the people from those cultures.

There are many different parts of the fashion industry, from design to production to journalism. Black people and all people of color are excluded at every level.

“Look at the front row during Fashion Week,” influencer Claire Sulmers told The Cut. [37] “There are no Black bloggers there. Like none.” Artist Awol Erizku expressed a similar sentiment in the same series, saying that she

There are many different parts of the fashion industry, from design to production to journalism.

Black people and all people of color are excluded at every level.

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These issues are especially hard to unpack when so many companies try to boast inclusion without actually working toward it.[31] The founder of Reformation recently left the sustainable clothing company after it was revealed that she supported and created a racist corporate culture.[32] This might seem antithetical to Reformation’s efforts toward transparency in fashion, but it fits in well with the industry.

Bohemian brand Anthropologie posted a since-deleted Maya Angelou poem to Instagram on June 1.[33] While people criticized the post for not mentioning Black Lives Matter or the recent protests, former employees honed in on

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was often the only Black person on set.

It doesn’t have to be this way. There are new initiatives fighting for racial justice in the fashion industry, most of which have formed recently in response to Black Lives Matter protests.[38] While it is too soon to gauge their progress, the motivation of fashion professionals to create them inspires cautious optimism.

The Council of Fashion Designers of America pledged in June to support the Black community and Black artists throughout the industry.

[39] The CFDA comprises almost five hundred designers and aims to “strengthen the impact of American fashion in the global economy.”[40] The organization dedicates itself to creating an in-house employment program to form a more diverse industry, organize mentorship and internship programs for Black students and graduates, implement a diversity and inclusion training program, and contribute to organizations fighting for racial justice.[41] The Kelly Initiative immediately demanded stronger action from the CFDA, beginning with actual metrics to measure industry

diversity and company accountability.[42] The initiative, named after Black designer Patrick Kelly, comprises Black designers and other fashion professionals, some of whom are also CFDA members.

Another initiative is the 15 Percent Pledge from Aurora James of fashion company Brother Vellies.[43][44] Its signatories, including Sephora, have agreed to dedicate 15 percent of their shelf space to Black-owned businesses.[45] Each of these programs might achieve progress on its own, but some organizers worry that less gets accomplished as more groups are formed.[46] To combat this concern, Teen Vogue editor Lindsay Peoples Wagner and public relations consultant Sandrine Charles created the Black in Fashion Council.[47] The organization aims to centralize the fight for racial justice in the fashion industry and hold brands accountable.

Diversifying and improving the fashion industry is important, not just for those within it, but for the rest of us whose lives are shaped by it. As Meryl Streep describes in The Devil Wears Prada, the fashion industry is not separate

from ordinary people’s lives—“you’re wearing a sweater that was selected for you by the people in this room.”[48] Every piece of clothing we wear is the result of choices made in rooms far, far away from our closets.

Because of the power of those choices, fashion has a role in politics and social change, as demonstrated by Hillary Clinton donning power suits to fit in with male politicians and Nike making an ad campaign with football player and civil rights activist Colin Kaepernick.[49][50] Even a t-shirt with "PROTECT TRANS KIDS" emblazoned on the front can have an impact.[51] When fashion has the power to spark dialogues and ignite change, when it pushes society to fight for a cause, the industry’s disappointing reluctance to change is, in and of itself, an act of racism. The fashion industry needs to improve its response, not just for the good of companies and their millions of workers, but for us—the people who wear their clothes every day.

[1] Murray, Rheana. “Prada Vows to 'Do Better' after Backlash over 'Racist' Key Chains and Figurines.” USA Today. NBC Universal News Group, December 17, 2018. [2] Hirsch, Afua. Twitter Post. December 14, 2018, 11:19 a.m.

[3] Prada. Twitter Post. December 14, 2018, 11:25 a.m. [4] Clark, Alexis. “How the History of Blackface Is Rooted in Racism.” History. A&E Television Networks, February 15, 2019. [5] Ezie, Chinyere. 2018. “I don’t make a lot of public posts, but right now I’m shaking with anger.” Facebook, December 13, 2020. [6] Prada. Twitter Post. December 14, 2018, 11:25 a.m. [7] “NYC Commission on Human Rights Settles With Prada Over Merchandise Line Containing Racist Imagery in Landmark Case Mandating Comprehensive Programs to Combat Anti-Black Racism.” Nyc.gov. NYC Commission on Human Rights, February 5, 2020. [8] Espinoza, Joshua. “Anna Wintour Admits 'Vogue' Has Failed Black Staffers: 'I Take Full Responsibility for Those Mistakes'.” Complex. Complex, June 10, 2020. [9] Emmanuele, Julia. “The One Thing 'Devil Wears Prada' Got Wrong About Anna Wintour.”

Bustle. Bustle, May 21, 2020. [10] Radio Andy. “André Leon Talley on Anna Wintour’s recent apology.” YouTube. YouTube, June 10, 2020. [11] Johnson, Beverly. “I Was the First Black Model on the Cover of Vogue. The Fashion Industry Still Isn't Fixing Its Racism.” The Washington Post. WP Company, June 16, 2020. [12] Street, Mikelle. “The Story behind Tyler Mitchell's Vogue Cover of Beyoncé.” CNN. Cable News Network, August 13, 2018.

[13] Denardo, Maria. “Your Ultimate Guide to Anna Wintour's Assistants, Past and Present.” theFashionSpot. Evolve Media, March 4, 2015. [14] Mull, Amanda. “Fashion's Racism and Classism Are Finally Out of Style.”

The Atlantic. Atlantic Media Company, July 7, 2020. [15] McIntosh, Kriston, Emily Moss, Ryan Nunn, and Jay Shambaugh. “Examining the Black-White Wealth Gap.” Brookings. Brookings, February 27, 2020. [16] Ahlgrim, Callie. “All 31 Guys Who Have Been Named People's Sexiest Man Alive.” Insider. Insider, November 13, 2019. [17] Turchiano, Danielle. “Regina King, Zendaya Emmy Wins Highlight Historic Year for Black Actors.” Variety.

Variety, September 20, 2020. [18] Vagianos, Alanna. “Zendaya On Colorism: 'I Am Hollywood's Acceptable Version Of A Black Girl'.” HuffPost. HuffPost, April 23, 2018. [19] Cummings, Faith. “Gucci, Dapper Dan, and How the Fashion Industry Fails Black People.” Teen Vogue. Teen Vogue, June 1, 2017. [20] Gucci. [Post on Cruise Collection and Dapper Dan influence] Instagram, May 31, 2017. November 9, 2020. [21] Peoples, Lindsay. “Speaking With the Woman Who Wore the Infamous Dapper Dan Coat.” The Cut. New York Magazine, May 31, 2017. [22] “Speaking With the Woman Who Wore the Infamous Dapper Dan Coat.” [23] Schneier, Matthew. “Thanks, Internet Outrage! Now Dapper Dan and Gucci Are Buds.” The New York Times. The New York Times, September 10, 2017. [24] “Dapper Dan: a Special Collaboration between the House and the Harlem Designer.” Gucci. Gucci.

Accessed November 9, 2020. [25] Mull, Amanda. “Fashion's Racism and Classism Are Finally Out of Style.” The Atlantic. Atlantic Media Company, July 7, 2020. [26] Holmes, Sally. “The Story Behind Michael Jordan's Air Jordans.” Marie Claire. Hearst Magazine Media, May 18, 2020. [27] Badenhausen, Kurt. “China And 'The Last Dance' Propel Nike's Jordan Brand To Record $3.6 Billion In Revenue.” Forbes. Forbes Magazine, June 26, 2020.

[28] Davies, Wilder. “Why Rihanna's New Fenty Brand With LVMH Is Such a Big Deal.” Time. Time, May 10, 2019. [29] Marks, Gene. “Black-Owned Firms Are Twice as Likely to Be Rejected for Loans. Is This Discrimination?”

The Guardian. Guardian News and Media, January 16, 2020. [30] Mull, Amanda. “Fashion's Racism and Classism Are Finally Out of Style.” The Atlantic. Atlantic Media Company, July 7, 2020. [31] Singh, Katherine. “All the Fashion Brands That Have Been Accused of Racism.” FLARE. St. Joseph Communications, June 24, 2020. [32] Whelan, Grace. “Reformation Founder Apologises for Workplace Racism.” Drapers. EMAP Publishing, June 9, 2020. [33] Lampen, Claire. “Anthropologie Accused of Racially Profiling Black Customers.” The Cut. New York Magazine, June 11, 2020. [34] Schimminger, Morgan C. “Report: Racial Diversity Takes a Slight Step Backward, Size and Gender Inclusivity Plummet for Fashion Month Fall 2020.” theFashionSpot. Evolve Media, March 16, 2020. [35] Champlin, Taylor. “Black Models Are Coming Forward Against Racism in Fashion.” PAPER. PAPER, June 11, 2020. [36] Yai, Anok. “Anok Yai on Why Black Models Shouldn't Have to Educate the Fashion Industry.” O, The Oprah Magazine. O, The Oprah Magazine, June 8, 2020. [37] Wagner, Lindsay Peoples. “What It's Really Like to Be Black and Work in Fashion.” The Cut. New York Magazine, August 23, 2018. [38] Tillet, Salamishah, and Vanessa Friedman. “It's Time to End Racism in the Fashion Industry. But How?” The New York Times. The New York Times, June 24, 2020. [39] cdfa. [CDFA’s pledge to support to support Black artists and their communities] Instagram, June 4, 2020. November 9, 2020. [40] “About CFDA.” CFDA. CFDA. Accessed November 9, 2020.

[41] cdfa. [CDFA’s pledge to support to support Black artists and their communities] Instagram, June 4, 2020. November 9, 2020. [42] Letter to CFDA. “Honoring the Legacy of Designer, Patrick Kelly via Forging Equitable Inroads for Black Fashion Talent.” Google Drive, June 15, 2020. [43] 15 Percent Pledge. 15 Percent Pledge. Accessed November 9, 2020. [44] Hess, Liam. “Aurora James on Her 15 Percent Pledge Campaign to Support BlackOwned Businesses.” Edited by Rickie De Sole. Vogue. Condé Nast, June 6, 2020. [45] “Who Has Taken The Pledge?” 15 Percent Pledge. 15 Percent Pledge. Accessed November 9, 2020. [46] Tillet, Salamishah, and Vanessa Friedman. “It's Time to End Racism in the Fashion Industry. But How?” The New York Times. The New York Times, June 24, 2020. [47] “About Us.” Black In Fashion Council. Black In Fashion Council. Accessed November 9, 2020. [48] Movieclips. “The Devil Wears Prada (3/5) Movie CLIP - Stuff (2006) HD.” YouTube. YouTube, June 18, 2015. [49] Mejia, Zameena. “4 Powerful Reasons Hillary Clinton Always Wears Her Famous Pantsuits.” CNBC. CNBC, September 14, 2017. [50] Boren, Cindy. “A Timeline of Colin Kaepernick's Protests against Police Brutality, Four Years after They Began.” The Washington Post. WP Company, August 26, 2020. [51] Jackson, Amanda.

“Don Cheadle Made a Powerful Statement with His Wardrobe Choice on 'SNL'.” CNN. Cable News Network, February 17, 2019.

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