Quantifying Happiness - A Literature Review by Oliver Baldock

QUANTIFYING HAPPINESS LITERATURE REVIEW OLIVER BALDOCK. JUNE 2019. ARCH7043.

The importance of mental health As of 2014, one in six British citizens report having a common mental health disorder, an increase on 2007 figures (McManus et al., 2014). According to the Lancet, 14% of the global burden of disease is attributed to neuropsychiatric disorders, with this considered to be an underestimate due to an inadequate appreciation of the connection between mental health disorders and other health conditions (Prince et al., 2007). Nearly 8% of those surveyed in the UK in 2014 reported a mix of anxiety and depression, with the 25-34 year old age group being the greatest affected.

The urban environments influences on mental health Subsequent surveys and research demonstrate that urban living, among other is associated with an increase in reported anxiety disorders by over 20%, an in mood disorders by nearly 40%, and an increase in schizophrenia by 137% al., 2019). However, it decreases the risk of suicide by 50% (CDC, 2015), by 10% (Russ et al., 2012) and Alzheimers by 50% (Nunes et al., 2010).

factors, increase (Peen et dementia

However, it is difficult to demonstrate a causative relationship between these and the research tends to focus on associative connections between urban living and declining mental health due to a number of confounding factors. These include: socioeconomic differences; the pre-existing risk of a mental health disorder; and reporting biases. For example, the NHS’s psychiatric study concludes that those who were white British, female or middle-age, were more likely to receive treatment (McManus et al., 2014), and that only 19% of men would get report anxiety (Men’s Health Forum, 2019). Having said this, several factors have been directly attributed to declining mental health within urban areas: •

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The decline in community relationships coupled with sociocultural disintegration and increasing social isolation (Wirth, 1938) (Dohrenwend BP, Dohrenwend BS, 1974) (Mueller, 1981). Greater stress related to housing, work, marriage, child rearing, and security, combined with inadequate resources to cope with the stresses of urban life (Bingham, 1972) (Marsella, 2019) and high urban levels of hostility (Field et al., 1965). Higher concentrations of poverty in city centres (Harpham, 1994).

In 2019 nearly 90% of the UK population lives in urban centres, with this predicted to rise to 92% within 11 years. That is 64 million urban dwellers, 10.7 million of whom will experience mental health problems in any given year (not accounting for the increasing number of reported cases).

Happiness as a target Yuval Noah Harari states the ‘right to happiness’ as fundamental to the human agenda in the coming years, citing the 786,000 British children taking ADHD medication as both a way to treat the attention disorder but also to improve baseline performance, and the 55% of British inmates currently incarcerated for the consumption or trading of illegal drugs which Harari considers to be the ‘biochemical pursuit of happiness’ (Harari, 2016). Happiness, or lack of, is a common measurement of mental health. Self-reported happiness surveys are often used to understand what we think affects our quality of life. The alternative to this, Paul Dolan argues, is measuring our experience of life as a relationship between pleasure and purpose with our satisfaction determined by how we ‘spend’ our attention (Dolan, 2015). Aligned with the practice of mindfulness, Dolan suggests our satisfaction comes from what we attend to in the present. Happiness, or lack of, comes from what engages out attention.

Attention as the key This provides a clear message for urban design. The places that engage and retain our attention, where monotony and stagnation are avoided, create ‘happier’ spaces. One of the many tools that designers employ is the inclusion of natural elements within their proposals, be it through landscaping or biomimicry, and whilst studies have confirmed a correlation between the ‘scenicness’ of an environment and the health of its’ occupant (Seresinhe et al., 2015) (Houlden et al, 2017), aesthetics are only part of the story. Natures attraction comes in it’s mutability. It provides a constantly transitional variety of sensory experiences that retains our attention. Similarly, within the built environment, higher levels of social capital (happiness) have been observed in neighbourhoods with a small number of diverse, high quality destinations within a close proximity, rather than one, all-encompassing destination (Frumkin, Frank and Jackson, 2004) (Wood et al, 2004) (Huxley et al., 2004). Charles Montgomery dismisses New York’s Central Park in favour of smaller, and more diverse doses of nature through the city. Furthermore, following a year observing Copenhagen’s Strøget, Jan Gehl concludes that ‘activity in human life is the greatest attraction in cities’ (Montgomery, 2015). People in the street provide an endless variety of life for cities, and are far more dynamic than shopfronts. Gehl deduces that a well positioned bench from where people can discretely observe passersbys can be the most important element in an engaging street.

Over and under stimulation The urban environment creates situations of over-stimulation, both sensorially and socially (Golembiewski, 2016) (Litman, 2019), however, it can also under-stimulate in a similar manner. Just as sensory and social over-stimulation can stress and tire us out, social under-stimulation and loneliness has been proven to be a strong predictor of premature death (ESC, 2018). Sensory under-stimulation affects 3

our mental, rather than physical health. Streets and buildings need to engage our attention (Channon, 2018), keep us present (Smalley and Winston, 2010), and engage all of our senses in order to create experiences and environments that we both enjoy and remember (Pallasmaa, 2014). Having said this, the best thing that the built environment can do for our happiness is to provide us with choice, or at least perceived choice, as to how we engage with the city around us. Spaces of retreat are as important as places of social engagement and the liminal thresholds between them even more so. Measuring happiness Several attempts have been made to quantify happiness in a way that could influence the built environment. The HACT project relates the cost of building repairs to improvements in residents wellbeing providing social housing providers with a cost/ benefit ratio for happiness (Fujiwara, 2013). Similarly, in 2015, Lynette Robertson explored the correlation between natural lighting in social housing in Glasgow and resident’s score on the Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Wellbeing Scale concluding a positive correlation between the two (Robertson et al.,2015). Conclusion Whilst a significant amount of research has been completed on the relationship between mental health and urban design, little has been done to implement change and affect new project designs. Furthermore, little use has come of the more objective well being data that technology allows us to gather and which could potentially help shape our future urban environment. Technology such as eye tracking and cortisol measuring devices are already heavily used in consumer marketing and could be fundamental in quantitatively understanding the impacts of our designs. We know how and why the urban environment affects us mentally, the next logical step is to address by how much it affects us, to be able to quantify urban related stress and architecture related happiness in order to understand how we, as designers and architects, can design better habitats for ourselves. Word Count: 1080

LITERATURE REVIEW Happiness By Design - Paul Dolan 1. Split into two sections, the first explores happiness in detail, with Dolan suggesting that happiness is caused by what we pay attention to. The second part looks at strategies to ‘deliver’ our happiness. 2. The research in the book is based on first and second hand surveys. Dolan has worked with many other ‘happiness’ specialists such as Daniel Kahneman, Daniel Fujiwara, to collate ideas and research. However, no new research was carried out specifically for this book. 3. The notion that both purpose and pleasure constitute happiness is a bold and original thought within the well-being subject. It changes how you measure happiness, focusing on people’s experiences of life rather than their evaluations of life. 4. Attention and designing for it make up a fundamental part of this research into architecture and wellbeing. Dolan provides plenty of references of places that do it well, and places that don’t do it at all.

Happy By Design - Ben Channon 1. A guide to architecture and mental wellbeing designed to be accessible for all, not just designers. 2. A collation of pre-existing design strategies, ideas and tips. No new research was created for the book. Based on Ben Channon’s work as a designer at Assael Architecture 3. A focus on light, comfort, control, nature, aesthetic, activity & psychology as related to architecture and design. 4. A useful list of references and sources for each section leads to more detailed and specific explanations for each section. The book is assumed to be a precursor to further in-depth research. Happy City - Charles Montgomery

1. Explore various urban topics looking at examples of wellbeing within cities. Collates a body of research that looks at relatively simple urban moves and design choices and their impact on both the public and private moods of those involved 2. Montgomery collects anecdotes, opinions and more formal research and surveys from his career to illustrate the benefits of numerous design decisions. The most useful research comes in the form of interviews with various designers and people in a position to make design decisions and how they have influenced their urban areas 3. The book covers a lot of design topics, but the overwhelming outlook is a positive one, Montgomery suggests solutions are available for the problems blighting our urban areas. Includes the benefits of limiting cars within cities, designing for low rise, high density living, and questioning ownership within urban design. As compared to Dolan’s work, the conversation around mental wellbeing is far more qualitatively and focuses on design based solutions rather than personal decisions.

4. Useful section on conviviality and control in urban spaces, specific design solution to high rise developments provides alternative to single core living.

Architecture of Happiness - Alain de Botton 1. De Botton discusses and makes prevalent the emotions that architecture inspires in it’s users, focussing less on specific design characteristics that define a space and more on the psychological consequences of design in the built environment. 2. As per the topic of the book, the research is far more personal, qualititative and subjective, but the importance of the book is far less about De Botton’s opinions and far more about the reader developing their own understanding and appreciation of the spaces surrounding them. 3. Pay more attention to the spaces around you and what makes a good building for you. Pushes the notion that end users, should be involves from the outset of a design. 4. P.73 - notion of buildings that speak, questions how we want to interact with the built environment, they’re not just aesthetic. P.218 - beauty is the child of the coherent relationships between parts.

Walkable City - Jeff Speck 1. Jeff Speck talks at length about how making a city more walkable is the solution to many of its urban issues, principally, wealth, health and sustainability. Specifically though, Speck talks about the physical health benefits of a walkable city. As such, all the elements he discusses, the mental health benefits of trees, reducing the noise of traffic return to the idea that they make cities more walkable, and the more people walk, the healthier they are. 2. Speck references a number of studies, a few of his own, that promote the importance of a walkable city, however, no new research was completed for this book. 3. Develops Jane Jacobs ideas of cars in cities and pushes the benefits of pedestrian centres cities. Although the focus is not on mental health, the connections can be made from all the suggestions and design alterations made in the book. 4. Reference to Andres Duany and Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk, as references to follow up. Interesting ideas on green spaces and how they needn’t be the go-to design element for architects (P.249-251).

The Eyes of the Skin - Juhani Pallasmaa 1. Pallasmaa’s work focuses on the experience of space, that which we perceive before consciously observing. It aims to highlight how architecture, and the study of the subject has become visually focused, negating the importance of the other senses. 2. This work references and describes philosophical writings and readings from various anthropologists, designers, philosophers and Pallasmaa’s own thoughts on the built environment. 3. His writings on the senses, specifically the peripheral senses and overstimulation has proved useful when thinking about the urban environment as an all encompassing experiences rather than a series of objects and designs. It reinforces the idea 6

that our attention is split between senses, and not one of them (specifically visual) should consume the others. 4. Strong references to Alvo Aalto need to be followed up, as buildings of sensory agglomerations.

Might beautiful places have a quantifiable impact on our wellbeing? - Chanuki Illushka Seresinhe 1. This publication aims to quantify the beauty of different environments and how the beauty of these environments affects our mental wellbeing. It aims to provide a new way to quantify beauty moving away from typical measurable aspects such as number of trees or amount of green space 2. Crowdsourced data from the website scenic-or-not, which provided 1.5 million ratings of scenicness from places across Great Britain, was combined with self reported census data on people’s health. 3. The major find from the study was that those people who lived in ‘more scenic’ areas reported having better health than those who didn’t. 4. They are currently completing a similar study using the iPhone App - Mappiness. Would be interesting to follow. The Science of Architecture: How Design Affects the Way We Feel - Interfocus 1. Provides a basic initial overview into how changes in the spaces we inhabit can affect our mood. Aim is to provide more effective work environments. 2. Very little research and sourced information 3. Overview of more obvious design benefits of changing our work environment 4. Would be interesting to find sources and documentation that verifies the claims. Understanding Urban Mental Health Impacts and How to Create Saner, Happier Cities - Todd Litman 1. Aims to examine specific ways that urban living affects mental health and identifies practical strategies that can be used to increase urban mental health and happiness. Specifically Litman recognises the flaws and biases in preceding studies that both promote and demote urban living. 2. Litman provides a summary of previous research and their claims, analysing each to explore whether urban living is an associative or causative affecting factor in mental health. There is little first hand research within this study, but studies referenced help to conglomerate data from around the world in a variety of urban environments. 3. Litman concludes that there is good evidence that city living increases most people’s overall happiness, and most evidence of unhappiness in urban centres is specific to North America where anti-urban policies create cities with severe social problems. He also recognises the nuances that city-living isn’t for certain lifestyles 4. The reference list is extensive and has provided many useful studies and further readings.

Design for Mental Health - Housing Agency (Ireland) 1. Provides a guide to designing housing for those in society with poor mental health. Develops and adds to the work of Ben Channon. 2. Very specific guide that provides an overview of various mental health conditions, and their requirements. Factors were identified from academic literature and from professional experience. 3. Little end user investigation, aside from that occurring in ‘professional experience’ appears to have taken place. However, there is strong recommendation for end user participation within the conclusion and a requirement that this document not be used over-prescriptively. 4. Good base knowledge of the factors that affect various conditions, but too focused on a very particular type of design work where the participation of an expert almost seems mandatory. What about the rest of our urban environment.

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