What is a Compact City and how can the vacant spaces within such be reclaimed?

What is a Compact City and how can the vacant spaces within such be reclaimed in order to promote social sustainability to justify the urban model in future development?

Olivia Hellman Masters of Architecture & Landscape Architecture

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OLIVIA HELLMAN

What is a Compact City and how can the vacant spaces within such be reclaimed in order to promote social sustainability to justify the urban model in future development?

Olivia Hellman 180208313

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Architecture and Landscape Architecture

The University of Sheffield Faculty of Social Sciences Department of Architecture & Landscape Architecture Sheffield School of Architecture

January 2019

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OLIVIA HELLMAN

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my gratitude to Laurence Pattacini for her valuable support and guidance throughout this design research study. I would also like express my thanks to my friends and family for their support and encouragement.

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ABSTRACT An expanding population and the general trend of movement from rural to urban living has resulted in increased international interest in the future sustainability of city development. Previous studies have identified that urban environments are associated with poorer wellbeing1. Further investigation is therefore required to investigate how approaches to design of the urban environment can address this.

Utilising the urban planning model of a compact city identified as a form which promotes a greater percentage of built form versus open space, the purpose of this study is to examine how the open spaces within such cities can be designed in order to provide restorative benefits to their inhabitants. The open spaces considered will focus in particular on effective reclamation of vacant spaces leftover from development through a community-led and bottom-up approach.

1.

Mass, J, Verheij, R A, Spreeuwenberg, P, Schellevis F G & Groenewegen P P (2009). ‘Morbidity is Related to a Green Living Environment’ . Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health . Vol 63 , pgs 967-973.

Review of relevant literature identifies problems associated with vacant urban space, characteristics of socially sutainable places and proposed solutions to reclamation of space. Qualitative and quantitative analysis of case studies identifies different typologies of reclaimed open spaces at a neighbourhood level within several compact cities. The study appraises the successfulness of the reclaimed open spaces and identifies common elements in order to develop a framework of suggestions that could be applied to further reclaim existing vacant open spaces in current compact cities.

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KEYWORDS 2.

Jenks, M (1996). The Compact city : a sustainable urban form?. Routledge.

London

3.

New Economics Foundation (2012) Measuring Wellbeing: A guide for practitioners, New Economics, London 4.

McMillan, D. W., & Chavis, D. M. (1986). ‘Sense of community: A definition and theory’. Journal of Community Psychology, Vol. 14, pg 6.

5.

Woodcraft, S, Bacon, N, Caistor-Arendar, L & Hackett, T (2012). Design for Social Sustainability. Social Life, Accessed: 03.01.19 Available at: http:// www.social-life.co/media/files/DESIGN_FOR_SOCIAL_SUSTAINABILITY_3.pdf

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Compact City:

Urban planning model which promotes higher levels of density, mixed use, and intensified urban form2

Vacant space:

Land that is unused or abandoned for the longer term

Reclaim:

Action or process of taking back/ taking control of a space

Wellbeing:

Can be ‘understood as how people feel and how they function, both on a personal and a social level’3

Sense of community: ‘A feeling that members have of belonging, a feeling that members matter to one another and to the group, and a shared faith that members’ needs will be met through their commitment to be together’4 Socially sustainable place:

Considers design of both the physiscal realm and social realm in order to generate vibrancy, engagement and community inclusivity, leading to enhancement of individual and collective wellbeing5

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CONTENTS Title Page

P.1

Acknowledgements

P.2

Abstract

P.3

Keywords

P.4

Contents

P.5

List of Figures

P.6

Introduction

P.8

Background to Research

P.9

What is a Compact City?

The Urban Environment - Social Sustainability & Wellbeing

Brief History of Open Space Infrastructure within Compact Cities

P.13 Methodology Literature Review

P.14

Case Study Analysis

P.18

Disused Railway Reclamation: La Petite Ceinture, Paris Established Reclamation: Prinzessinnengarten, Berlin Cumulative Reclamation: 596 Acres, New York City Boroughs Temporary/Mobile Reclamation: Skip Garden, London Micro-scale Reclamation: Street Planting & ‘Parklets’

Potentials for Practice: Findings & Discussion

P.25

Typology of Vacant Space

Commonalities to Reclamation Approach

Conclusion

P.33

Bibliography

P.35

Figure References

P.39

Word count: 4993

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LIST OF FIGURES Cover image: Compact Cities and Open Space Figure 1: Diagram of Cumulative Reclamation of Vacant Space Figure 2: Diagram of a Compact City Core Components & Characteristics Figure 3: Diagram of Compact Urban Form Figure 4: Diagram of Sprawling Urban Form Figure 5: Diagram of Re-densification Figure 6: Image of European Communities Green Paper on the Urban Environment,1990 Figure 7: Image of OECD, Compact City Policies: A Comparative Assessment, 2011 Figure 8: Diagram of Urban Sustainability Figure 9: Diagram of Implementation of Open Space Pre Densification Figure 10: Diagram of Implementation of Open Space Post Densification Figure 11: Diagram of 4 Key Attributes of Socially Sustainable Place Figure 12: Diagram of Quality of Public and Link to Social Activities Figure 13: Aerial Image of Disused Railway Figure 14: Aerial Image of Reclaimed Railway Figure 15: Image of Les Jardins du Ruisseau 1 of 3 Figure 16: Image of Les Jardins du Ruisseau 2 of 3 Figure 17: Image of Les Jardins du Ruisseau 3 of 3 Figure 18: Diagram of La Petite Ceinture Wider Space Reclamation Figure 19: Image of La Petite Ceinture Temporary Reclamation 1of 3 Figure 20: Image of La Petite Ceinture Temporary Reclamation 1of 3 Figure 21: Image of La Petite Ceinture Temporary Reclamation 1of 3 Figure 22: Aerial Image of Disused Large Scale Space Figure 23: Aerial Image of Reclaimed Large Scale Space Figure 24: Image of Prinzessinnengarten 1 of 3 Figure 25: Image of Prinzessinnengarten 2 of 3 Figure 26: Image of Prinzessinnengarten 3 of 3 Figure 27: Aerial Image of Mobile Reclamation 1 of 2 Figure 28: Aerial Image of Mobile Reclamation 2 of 2 Figure 29: Image of Skip Gardens 1 of 3 Figure 30: Image of Skip Gardens 2 of 3 Figure 31: Image of Skip Gardens 3 of 3 Figure 32: Image of Cumulative Reclamation Figure 33: Aerial Image of Vacant ‘Lot’ Figure 34: Aerial Image of Reclaimed ‘Lot’ Figure 35: Image of Vacant ‘Lot’ Advocacy Figure 36: Image of Reclaimed ‘Lot’ 1of 2 Figure 37: Image of Reclaimed ‘Lot’ 2 of 2 Figure 38: Image of Microscale Reclamation ‘Parklet’ 1 of 3 Figure 39: Image of Microscale Reclamation ‘Parklet’ 2 of 3 Figure 40: Image of Microscale Reclamation ‘Parklet’ 3 of 3 Figure 41: Image of Microscale Reclamation Végétalisons 1 of 3 Figure 42: Image of Microscale Reclamation Végétalisons 2 of 3 Figure 43: Image of Microscale Reclamation Végétalisons 3 of 3 Figure 44: Diagram of Identification of Vacant Space Typology Figure 45: Diagram of Linear Space Reclamation Figure 46: Diagram of Large Scale Space Reclamation Figure 47: Diagram of Small Scale Space Reclamation Figure 48: Diagram of Microscale Space Reclamation Figure 49: Diagram of Temporal Space Reclamation Figure 50: Diagram of Combination of Social and Material Approaches Figure 51: Diagram of Activation Energy Figure 52: Diagram of Community-Led Approach: Inclusive & Participatory Figure 53: Diagram of Working with the Existing Figure 54: Diagram of Lighter, Quicker & Cheaper: Imaginative Figure 55: Diagram of Lighter, Quicker & Cheaper: Adaptable Figure 56: Diagram of Application of Vegetation Figure 57: Diagram of Facilitating Connections Figure 58: Diagram of Diversity of Users Figure 59: Diagram of Sense of Place: Community Belonging Figure 60: Common Framework of Reclamation Figure 61: Diagram of Cumulative Reclamation

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P.7 P.9

P.10

P.11 P.12 P.14 P.16 P.19

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P.21

P.22

P.23

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P.25 P.26

P.27 P.28 P.29

P.30 P.31 P.32 P.34

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Vacant space

Social requirement

Reclaim

Restorative, socially sustainable space

Application at the Compact City level Accumulation of vacant spaces to collectively promote social sustainable

Compact City promoting lively, socially sustainable spaces

FIG. 1 Diagram demonstrating the potential of the reclamation of vacant spaces to generate lively, social spaces that contribute towards community vitality. Could multiple reclamation promote the compact city as a more socially sustainability model for future development?

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INTRODUCTION 6.

Mass, J, Verheij, R A, Spreeuwenberg, P, Schellevis F G & Groenewegen P P . (2009). ‘Morbidity is Related to a Green Living Environment’ . Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health . Vol 63 , pgs 967-973.

7.

UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs (2018). 68% of the world population projected to live in urban areas by 2050, says UN, Available: https://www.un.org/development/desa/en/news/population/2018-revision-of-world-urbanization-prospects.html, Last accessed: 17/12/2018

8.

Gunwoo, K (2018). ‘An integrated system of urban green infrastructure on different types of vacant land to provide multiple benefits for local communities’, Sustainable Cities and Society. Vol 36. pg 116

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Dense urban environments have previously been associated with poorer mental wellbeing, including higher levels of stress, anxiety and depression when compared with more rural environments6. The UN predicts that by 2050 over two thirds of the World’s population will live in urban areas7. A recent increase in awareness of the impacts of sprawling suburban development on environmental sustainability has led to investigation into the relevance of the compact city for future urban growth.

If a move towards increased compact growth is proposed, it is important to consider how the measured negative effects on quality of urban life can be mitigated.

Focusing investigation on quality and provision of urban open spaces, these have traditionally been implemented through top-down and policy driven approaches to design. However more recently, a new typology and approach is emerging as an alternative to urban open space developmentfig.1.

‘The occurrence of urban voids is now common in contemporary cities and has become part of the urban fabric’8 Exploration of vacant open space reclamation through community-led and bottomup approaches will appraise its appropriateness for improving social sustainability within current and future compact city development.

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BACKGROUND TO RESEARCH The following background to research will discuss in greater depth the context of this study in order to justify the relevance of this investigation.

WHAT IS A COMPACT CITY? Within current literature there lacks clear consensus on a specific definition of the urban planning model, the compact city. Consideration of the word “compactness” defines spatial characteristics as ‘closely packed together’, ‘dense’ and ‘having all the necessary components or features neatly fitted into a small space’9. This definition begins to reflect conceptual approaches underpinning the compact city model.

Several key characteristics can be identified; increased built area and residential population densities, intensified mixed land use including economic, social and cultural activities, pedestrian and public transport orientated and manipulation of urban size, form and structure in the pursuit of environmental and social sustainability10, fig.2 & fig.3. An alternative classification is to distinguish it from urban sprawl, defined as; low density, scattered and leapfrog development11 & fig.4.

Supporters of the model argue that the urban compactness is of a sustainable level, acting with greater efficiency compared to urban sprawl. A concentration of socially mixed uses reduces the need for travel and promotes public transport, walking and cycling as more economically viable and energy efficient. A higher population density increases diversity of people which contributes to a greater richness of urban life12.

In contrast, opponents argue that views of the concept are idyllic, working in theory rather than in practice. It is contended that intensification leads to overcrowding, loss of urban quality and subsequently reduces quality of life. It is also suggested that inhabitants live within compact cities out of necessity rather than choice13.

9.

Oxford English Dictionary (2018). ‘Compact’ Oxford English Dictionary [online] Available: https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/compact#h70113467871740

10.

Jenks, M (2000). Compact cities : sustainable urban forms for developing countries. London : Spon Press . pg. 9 11.

Gordon, P & Richardson, H (1997). Are Compact Cities a Desirable Planning Goal? American Planning Association. Journal of the American Planning Association Vol.63. pg. 95

12.

Jenks, M (1996). The Compact city : a sustainable urban form?. Routledge.

London. pg. 232

13. ibid. pg. 232

Density

Intensification

Compact City Model

Mix of uses Fig. 2 Compact city core components & charateristics

Fig. 3 Compact Urban Form Page 9

Fig. 4 Sprawling Urban Form OLIVIA HELLMAN

14. ibid. pg. 4 15.

Monboit, G (2011). Sustainable Cities must be compact and high densities. Available: https://www.theguardian.com/environment/georgemonbiot/2011/jun/30/sustainable-cities-urban-planning 16.

UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs (2018). 68% of the world population projected to live in urban areas by 2050, says UN, Accessed: 17/12/2018 Available: https://www.un.org/development/desa/en/ news/population/2018-revision-of-world-urbanization-prospects.html 17.

Alvanides, S, Garrod, G & Oueslati, W (2015). ‘Determinants of urban sprawl in European cities’ Urban Studies, Vol. 52(9) pg 1594 18.

Jenks, M (1996). The Compact city : a sustainable urban form?. Routledge.

London. pg. 76 19.

OECD (2011), Compact City Policies: A Comparative Assessment, OECD Green Growth Studies, OECD Publishing.

In 1995 just over 45% of the World’s population lived within urban areas14, by 2007 the balance tipped from rural to urban15 and by 2050 it is predicted that over two thirds will live in urban areas16. Despite this trend it has been noted that the average densities of European cities have declined as a result of rising spatially dispersed urbanisation17. Given an expanding population and the increasingly conscious awareness of the need for future growth to be more environmentally sustainable, the compact city concept has resurfaced within current debate as a potential solutionfig.5.

Initial re-interest can be traced back to the commission of the European Communities Green Paper on the Urban Environment, 199018 & fig.6. More recent investigation includes the OECD’s report on ‘Compact City Policies: A Comparative Assessment’ 2011fig.7, which presents findings and policy recommendations for future development19.

Fig.5 Re-densification

Fig.6 European Communities Green Paper on the Urban Environment, 1990

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Fig.7 OECD, Compact City Policies: A Comparative Assessment, 2011

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THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT - SOCIAL SUSTAINABILITY & WELLBEING Sustainability is commonly defined as the combined and equal strength of economic, environmental and social factorsfig.8. Weakness in any area results in the unsustainability of the whole system. A key criticism of the compact city in practice is its lack of social sustainability in relation to open space quality and provision. A socially sustainable urban environment should promote community participation, interaction and ensure equal quality of life across the city20.

Urban Sustainability

Social

20.

Woodcraft, S, Bacon, N, Caistor-Arendar, L & Hackett, T (2012). Design for Social Sustainability. Social Life, Accessed: 03.01.19 Available at: http:// www.social-life.co/media/files/DESIGN_FOR_SOCIAL_SUSTAINABILITY_3.pdf

Economic

Environmental

Fig.8 Urban Sustainability

Mental health and wellbeing are globally inclusive issues. Presently there are numerous studies that attribute high density urban living to increased levels of poor mental health including; 21% increase in risk of anxiety disorders and 39% increase in mood disorders21. In addition to this, factors of reduced social wellbeing within cities highlight challenges such as high levels of inequality, segregation and social exclusion.

As a result of these negative characteristics attributed to the urban environment, there is an increasing level of international interest regarding preventative measures and promotion of positive mental health and social wellbeing. Defined by WHO, positive mental health is ‘the foundation for wellbeing and effective functioning for both the individual and for a community’22.

Provision of quality open space is intuitively associated with wellbeing. This is supported by previous studies which demonstrate a direct link between the impact of urban planning and the health and wellbeing of inhabitants resulting from several factors23. One of the factors identified is the provision and access to open space. While there is a broad amount of information pertaining to exposure of open space and effects on age, gender and physical health, there is limited structured information that identifies characteristics required.

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21.

Leder, F et al. (2011). ‘City living and urban upbringing affect neural social stress rocessing in humans’. Nature Vol. 474. pg 498-501.

22.

WHO (2004). Promoting Mental Health, Summary Report. WHO. pg 12.

Available: https://www.who.int/mental_health/evidence/en/promoting_mhh.pdf

23.

Wood, L, Hooper, P, Foster,S & Bull, F (2017). Public green spaces and positive mental health - investigating the relationship between access, quantity and types of parks and mental wellbeing. Health & Place. Vol. 48. pg 63-71

OLIVIA HELLMAN

HISTORY OF OPEN SPACES IN COMPACT CITIES & NATURE OF FUTURE DEVELOPMENT To argue for the compact city as a socially sustainable model for future development it is important to reflect briefly on past approaches to urban open space provision.

24.

Gehl, J & Gemzoe, L (2003) New City Spaces (3rd Edition) The Danish Architectural Press, Copenhagen, pg 7

25.

Central Park.com (unknown) Central Park History Overview, Central Park. com, Accessed: 11.01.19 Available: https://www.centralpark.com/visitorinfo/park-history/overview/

Between 1930 and 1970 there was limited development within the field of urban public open space. This has been attributed to modernist’s rejection of the city and public space and the rapid increase in the reliance on vehicles with greater focus on roads and transport infrastructure. Around 1970, these priorities however began to be challenged with the reintroduction of public space and quality of life as significant factors of the urban debate.24 Traditionally delivery of public open space has been in the form of public parks through planning initiatives. An example of this type of approach associated within the compact city of New York is Central Park. Serving as an exceptional example of foresight and provision of quality public open space which was protected as the urban form intensified and increased in density around it25 & fig.9.

In recent years, deindustrialisation, demolition and redevelopment within cities has given rise to a new typology of open space. In some cases these newly vacant spaces have been capitalised upon by planning authorities and organisations through topdown approaches in order to increase open space provision. Examples resulting from this approach could be considered as reclamation and development of the High Line again found in New York.

It is more difficult for future compact city development to implement open space at the scale of New York’s Central Park, therefore the emergence of vacant space as a new typology offers an alternative approachfig.10.

Fig.9 Implementation of Open Space Pre Densification

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Fig.10 Implementation of Open Space Post Densification

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METHODOLOGY Given the multifaceted complexities of the compact city and restricted scale of this study, the research will narrow its focus towards addressing criticisms of social sustainability with regard to open space provision within developed countries. In particular this essay will explore alternative approaches to reclamation of different types of vacant space at the neighbourhood level of the compact city. This essay aims to identify key components of reclaimed open spaces that contribute towards community vitality and a socially sustainable urban environment.

Due to limitations in time frame, information will be collated from secondary sources. Taking a desk-based research approach, the essay will review and analyse previous findings through the combination of a literature review and instrumental case study analysis in order to explore and develop a deeper understanding of the field of inquiry.

LITERATURE REVIEW Initially adopting a systematic literature review approach, the research will utilise resources including; books, academic articles, journals and subject specific websites, in order to identify characteristics of urban spaces which promote social sustainability. Research will focus predominantly towards contemporary articles and journals to identify the most current developments in the chosen area of study. This approach will offer the opportunity to synthesise themes within the chosen area and enable ‘assessment and critique of existing perspectives’26 whilst also offering the potential for new ideas to emerge.

CASE STUDY ANALYSIS

26.

Groat, W & Wang, D (2013) Architectural Research Methodologies (2nd Edition) John Wiley & Sons, New Jersey, pg 142

Multiple case studies, situated within real-life, compact city contexts will provide a greater breadth of information and offer the opportunity for cross examination. The selection of several examples of reclaimed vacant space at the neighbourhood level has been informed by variety in vacant space typology and conscious consideration of the scope for transferability.

ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK Following critical analysis of appropriate literature and case studies, the resulting information aims to inform a subsequent framework. The final output aims to generate practical knowledge which can be taken forward to application in future practice.

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LITERATURE REVIEW Identification of the problems associated with vacant urban spaces, different types of vacant space and innovative and alternative solutions for reclamation of such space will enable development of alternative approaches that could generate greater levels of social sustainability and enhance quality of life within the compact city. The following review of literature approaches vacant urban spaces as a problem and highlights suggested speculative and pragmatic solutions discovered from previous research. The purpose of the review will enable the identification of some key aspects related to the potentials of vacant open spaces.

27.

McCay, L (2018) Designing good mental health into cities: the next frontier for urban design, Design Council Accessed 08.01.19 Available: https:// www.designcouncil.org.uk/news-opinion/designing-good-mentalhealth-cities-next-frontier-urban-design 28.

Project for Public Spaces (2016) Placemaking: What if we built our cities around places? Project for Public Spaces, Accessed 06.01.19 Available: https://issuu.com/projectforpublicspaces/docs/oct_2016_placemaking_ booklet

Prior to investigation into reclamation of vacant urban space, it may be considered useful to establish what constitutes a successful socially sustainable place. The UK Design Council provides recommendations on creating pro-social spaces which should aim to facilitate positive, safe and natural interactions, foster a sense of community, integration and belonging27. To be enticing, spaces should develop strategies for flexible use which include participation and volunteering opportunities. Spaces should also be physically and visually accessible and provide opportunities for engagement. Project for Public Spaces similarly identifies four key attributes of ‘what makes a great place?’28 & fig.11 These include; • • • •

accessibility and spaces well connected to others comfortable and project a good image attractive to encourage participation in activities sociable environments that encourage people to return to continuously

Identified attributes that create a socially sustainable place could be applied to vacant spaces.

FIG. 11 Diagram taken from Project for Public Spaces, Placemaking Booklet, showing combination of 4 elements which combine to make a ‘place’ , these stem from key attributes at the centre to intangible elements and subsequent measurements of these LSC 6046

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IS VACANT LAND A PROBLEM? Several studies have investigated problems associated with vacant space within the urban environment. Researchers Accordina and Johnson29 identified that vacant land within 200 densely populated cities in the US was widely perceived as a negative issue. At the neighbourhood level, Garvin et al.30 identified vacant land as a significant contributor to lower levels of community wellbeing including health and safety of residents. Negative perception of vacant land in both studies suggested this as a contributing factor to neighbourhood vitality. Solutions identified included policy driven and top-down methods, however emerging findings supported the need for ‘community-generated solutions’31 that aligned with community requirements and addressed community concerns.

29.

Accordino, J & Johnson, G T (2000) ‘Addressing the Vacant and Abandoned Property Problem’, Journal of Urban Affairs, Vol. 22 (3) pg.

301-315 30.

Garvin, B, Branas, C, Keddem, S, Sellman, J & Cannuscio, C (2012) ‘More Than Just An Eyesore: Local Insights and Solutions on Vacant Land and Urban Health’, Journal of Urban Health, Vol. 90 (3) pg. 412-426 31. ibid.pg 417

TYPES OF VACANT LAND While the previous studies identified vacant spaces as a problem which acted as barriers to community wellbeing, investigation into different typologies of vacant spaces was not considered. Investigation by Kim, Miller and Nowak32 employs a categorising approach to vacant spaces, dividing land into five categories the intention being to identify potential development opportunities.

• • • • •

post-industrial sites derelict sites unattended with vegetation sites natural sites transportation related sites33

32.

Gunwoo, K, Miller, P A & Nowak, D J (2018) ‘Urban vacant land typology: A tool for managing urban vacant land’, JSustainable Cities and Society, Vol. 36 pg. 144-156

33. ibid, pg 148

This approach could be considered beneficial as it diverts from a homogenous view of vacant land and gives rise to the potential variety of approaches to reclamation.

The size of vacant spaces categorised is towards the larger scale. Further appraisal is required to assess the potential of smaller vacant spaces. A greater range in scale may make it more applicable and transferrable to the compact city.

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POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS TO VACANT SPACE 34.

Nemeth, J & Langhorst, J (2013) ‘Rethinking urban transformation: Temporary uses for vacant land’, Cities, Vol. 40 (2014) pg. 143-150 35. ibid, pg. 143 36. ibid, pg. 148

37.

Gehl, J (2010). Cities for People . Washington DC: Island Press, pg 21

38. ibid, pg 237 39.

Shaftoe, H (2008). Convivial Urban Spaces, Creating Effective Public Places . London : Earthscan.

Temporary reclamation of vacant space is advocated by Nemeth and Langhorst34.

Investigation into temporary, ‘incremental, flexible and experimental responses’35 was formed in response to implementation of long-term, permanent, formal programs and policy driven approaches. Benefits of employing a temporary use approach included ‘fast production of tangible results’36 which altered negative perceptions of vacant land and catalysed communities around common goals.

Subsequent generation of community empowerment may be particularly valuable to those located in marginalised neighbourhoods.

While several studies advocate for community action and temporary use of vacant space, there is limited appraisal on what physical, tangible attributes a space requires to contribute towards its’ vitality. Gehl argues that the quality of space is linked to its use and liveliness37 & fig.12. As previously discussed wellbeing can be influenced by perceptions of isolation and social exclusion within the urban environment.

Gehl highlights physical components which can prevent isolation and promote contact. These components include lack of barriers, walls, short distances, low speeds, acting on one level and orientation towards others38. Similarly, Shaftoe39 identifies common elements of spaces which contribute towards opportunities for engagement and sociability. These include variety of sitting places, opportunities for flexible, adaptable space, robust materials, appropriate surface treatment to ensure accessibility for all and variety of plants, textures and colours. A framework of common elements demonstrates a degree of transferability which could be applied to different spaces within different compact cities. Although the elements identified within these studies are generated predominantly from top-down, policy driven designed public spaces, they have the potential to be applied just as readily to create engaging spaces generated through a bottom-up approach.

Physical Environment High Quality

Physical Environment Low Quality

FIG. 12 Diagram adatpted from Gehl, Cities for People Connection between outdoor quality and outdoor activities. An increase in outdoor quality boosts optional activities. Increased activity level increases social activities

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Necessary Activities

Optional Activities

Social Activities

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Review of literature has highlighted that there is limited, structured information on requirements for successful reclamation of vacant space within compact cities.

Sourcing of information has relied on scattered research in order to define a broader image. Research has identified a community, bottom-up approach as one which may be most appropriate for generating positive, lively space; quickly, cheaply and temporarily, responding better to community requirements and generating vitality.

Although physical attributes of space have been identified from ones created through top-down approaches, further investigation into implementation of these from a bottom-up approach will be more relevant to reclamation of vacant space by communities. Further investigation will be undertaken within the subsequent case studies.

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CASE STUDY ANALYSIS The following review of case studies has been informed by findings generated from the literature review. Identification of key aspects including; typology of vacant land, community lead approaches, flexibility, temporality and physical attributes will be considered and appraised in relation to the chosen examples.

CASE STUDY SELECTION RATIONALE Case studies have been chosen subject to the following criteria; • Location within Compact City – away from dense, gentrified city centres and towards the urban fringe and neighbourhood areas. This offers greater opportunities for community development of vacant space that can generate a greater impact on the surrounding neighbourhood, particularly those in marginalised areas.

• Typology of space should be one which is reclaimed – these could be areas leftover from development, spaces made available as a result of industrial decline, building demolition or poor planning.

• Community led schemes – these offer bottom up approaches which respond to community requirements rather than top-down, policy driven approaches.

• Temporality – this could be either temporary reclamation which offers imaginative approaches and higher levels of activity in spaces awaiting permanent development or it could advocate for reclamation for continued use in the longer term.

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DISUSED RAILWAY RECLAMATION: LA PETITE CEINTURE, PARIS La Petite Ceinture, Paris is a 32km40 disused railway line that encircles the Boulevards des Maréchaux. It serves as an example of a larger, linear area of vacant space to be reclaimed. Unlike reclaimed railways such as the High Line, the current approach to reclamation of this railway is minimal and temporary. Future development is proposed by the City of Paris, which has mandated three design groups to work in collaboration with the existing communities to develop future uses41.

Given the size of the vacant space, several community-led associations and design groups have established themselves along points of access. Examples of these are Les Jardins du Ruisseau, Ceinturama and Collectif Derive.

40.

Unknown (2015). Petite Ceinture : du vert et du calme, nous ne demandons rien d’autre. Le Quartier Bel-Air Sud Accessed: 11.01.19 Available: http:// belairsud.blogspirit.com/archive/2015/12/04/petite-ceinture-du-vertet-du-calme-nous-ne-demandons-rien-d-3061616.html 41.

Unknown (2017). 10 kilomètres de la petite Ceinture ouverts d’ici 2020 Paris, Accessed: 11.01.19 Available: https://www.paris.fr/actualites/10km-de-la-petite-ceinture-ouverts-d-ici-2020-4764#un-plan-programme-pour-preserver-et-renforcer-le-patrimoine-naturel_7

The existing architectural and structural features and diverse vegetation are dynamic and offer the opportunity to be taken advantage of, negating the need to completely clear and redesign the space.

Passive visual access

225m

Linear, narrow space planting to either side of platform and small seating areas between Temporary event space on tracks

La Recyclerie

3m

La Recyclerie outdoor seating on platform opposite

Fig.13 Vacant Disused Railway, 2004

Area = 675m2 Fig.14 Reclaimed: Les Jardins du Ruisseau, 2019

Community gardens such as Les Jardins du Ruisseaufig.13&14, established on one of the neglected station platforms, sits adjacent to the Ornano station, inhabited by La Recyclerie bar and restaurant which activates the platform opposite43. The linear form has resulted in a long, straight space with densely planted vegetation and small areas of seating. Opportunities to grow colourful flowers and vegetables, tend to bees and chickens, captures a wide age range and promotes interactionfig.15. Vibrantly painted walls and varied textural and colourful planting are visually stimulating and make the space invitingfig.16. The railway tracks adjacent to the garden offer spill out space for additional seating, walking and temporary engagement eventsfig.17.

Fig. 15 Intergenerational engagement

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Fig. 16 Vibrant, colourful and creative planting

450+ members Work with: local residents association & schools42

42.

Hossenally, R (2014)The Petite Ceinture: the battle over Paris’s abandoned railway, The Guardian Accessed: 11.01.19 Available: https://www. theguardian.com/cities/2014/sep/26/-sp-petite-ceinture-paris-entrepreneurs-environmentalists-abandoned-railway 43. ibid.

Fig. 17 Accessibility onto tracks allows for places to sit and temporary events

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Les Jardins du Ruisseau

1200m

200m

1300m

FIG. 18 Diagram showing different types of intervention located on La Petite Ceinture

500m Community action

Accessible as public route

Temporary installation

Temporary installations by design groups; Collectif Derive and Ceinturama encourage short-term community participation, learning and empowerment. The temporary nature allows for installations to take place at different locations along the railway, providing greater access and engagement for a variety communitiesfig.18.

In contrast to Les Jardins du Ruisseau, a limited time frame results in a different form of production to planting.

44.

Collectif Derive (2016) PETITE CEINTURE - À QUAI #2, Collectif Derive Accessed: 11.01.19 Available: http://collectifderive.blogspot.com/2016/11/ petite-ceinture-quai-2.html

Collectif Derive44 used simple materials to create a variety of seatingfig.19, vegetation boxes, steps, platforms and games. Existing railway tracks were used for pathsfig.20 and mobile installationsfig.21. This allowed structures to be built quickly and at minimal cost.

A collection of different initiatives creates variety and delivers different programs for different people’s needs. The circular route and scale provides the opportunity for greater accessibility for different communities. While minimal interventions are quick and cheap, a disadvantage to consider is the space’s safety and security which may deter community usage. In order to increase safety areas are fenced off and closed at night.

4 month installation 200+ local participants45 45. ibid.

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Fig. 19 Simple approach to seating, Fig. 20 Minimal intervention creates engagement spaces to create walkable pathways.

Gathering space generates community participation

Fig. 21 Installation of fun elements involves variety of ages

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ESTABLISHED RECLAMATION: PRINZESSINNENGARTEN, BERLIN

48m

48m Buffer to road Community food growing, reuse of containers

50m

Event space Reuse - shipping containers Additional planting and flexible seating area 87.5m 54m

Area =5600m2 Fig. 22 Vacant wasteland, 2006

Fig. 23 Reclaimed - Prinzessinnengarten, 2013

Prinzessinnengarten is a community supported, reclaimed area of wasteland, located at Moritplatz in the Kreuzberg district of Berlin47. Following bombing of the area in WWII the site remained undevelopedfig.22 and squatted on until 2009 when over one hundred community volunteers48 worked towards transforming the site with a vision of creating a green space that enhanced ‘biological, social and cultural diversity in the neighbourhood’49 & fig.23. Reclamation began with clearing the site of debris and retaining the existing established vegetation.

Located on a corner close to several subway stations the area is afforded a higher level of potential footfall and increased visual accessibility. Close proximity to a busy roundabout could lead to a noisy space, however this is overcome with the planting of additional vegetation as a buffer to the road.

The site has been populated with a variety of ecologically-orientated projects and programs, the most predominant being the cultivation of agricultural plants fig.24 which encourage year round community engagement. A bottom up approach with minimal budget results in the imaginative and experimental use of materials.

These include; ‘2700 stackable containers, 400 rice bags and 250 Tetra-Paks in various combinations’50 & fig. 25. Shipping containers used for the kitchen, café and storage and temporary structures for shelter and seatingfig.26. This promotes reuse of materials and the lighter, mobile approach offers flexibility to reconfigure the space when required and if the site is bought by a developer.

Existing vegetation retained 30,000 volunteering hours per season 50,000 visitors per year Work with: local residents, community associations, schools & universities46 46.

Prinzessinnengarten (unknown) Prinzessinnengarten Accessed: 07.01.19 Available:https://prinzessinnengarten.net/let-it-grow/ 47.

Prinzessinnengarten (unknown)About Prinzessinnengarten Accessed: 07.01.19 Available:https://prinzessinnengarten.net/about/ 48.

Weinstock, E (unknown) Prinzessinnengarten, Berlin-Fever.com Accessed: 07.01.19 Available:http://www.berlin-fever.com/en/experience/prinzessinnengarten 49.

Prinzessinnengarten (unknown)About Prinzessinnengarten Accessed: 07.01.19 Available:https://prinzessinnengarten.net/about/

50.

Unknown (unknown) Prinzessinnengarten, Carrot City; Designing for Urban Agriculture, Accessed: 08.01.19 Available:https://www.ryerson.ca/ carrotcity/board_pages/community/prinzessinnengarten.html

A variety of workshops and events are organised within the space, promoting engaged learning, generating activity and collective responsibility of the site management. Although there are high levels of neighbourhood involvement, the success of the space is boosted by casual visitors and tourists. The space has become an attraction and integration of a diverse array of participants contributes to its vitality.

Fig. 24 Retention of existing Fig. 25 Creative use of recycled planting and community growing materials initiative Page 21

Fig. 26Temporary structures and flexible seating

OLIVIA HELLMAN

TEMPORARY RECLAMATION: SKIP GARDEN, KINGS CROSS

Skip Garden Kitchen - imaginative reuse of materials Seating area Lightweight structure Skips, modular, reusable & transportable (1 x shed, 1 x polytunnel & 4 x growing beds) Innovative covered seating area Work with: schools, community groups, local businesses, restaurants & construction site workers51

34.5m 23m

41m

= Skip (3.2 x 1.75m), 5.6m2

Fig. 27 Skip Garden, 2018

51.

Global Generation (unknown) The Skip Garden Accessed: 08.01.19 Available: https://www.globalgeneration.org.uk/about-the-skip-garden/

52. ibid.

53.

KX (unknown) Global Generation: Get involved at Skip Garden Accessed: 08.01.19 Available: https://www.kingscross.co.uk/global-generation 54. ibid.

11m

Area = 680.5m2 Fig. 28 Mobile Skip Garden, 2013

The Skip Garden, London is an example of a mobile community gardenfig.27.

Developed as a temporary installation on a building site in Kings Crossfig.28, it utilised materials found on-site for construction of the garden. The imaginative use of skips form modular units which contain a shed, polytunnel and growing bedsfig.29. These are portable, moving ‘as and when land is sold and built on’52 & fig.30.

Run by the charity Global Generation, it aims to ‘inspire and empower young people’53 to take the lead in generating positive social change in their communities.

The garden is managed and maintained by volunteers. Workshops for schools, youth schemes, engagement of local businesses and construction workers, ‘brings together people of all ages and backgrounds’54.

Similarly to the Prinzessinnengarten continued success and development as a form of attraction has resulted in enterprising elements such as the Skip Garden Kitchenfig.31 which attracts wider audiences. Flexible seating arrangements and provision of shelter allows greater use of the space throughout the year.

Fig. 29 Skip Garden original location Fig. 30 Mobile reclamation methods Fig.31 Skip Garden Kitchen, allows shared space for community engagement

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CUMULATIVE RECLAMATION: 596 ACRES, NEW YORK

Vacant Public Land Public Have Access Community Activated

Fig. 32 596 Acres, New York Neighbourhood Boroughs Vacant Lot Mapping

596 Acres, is a ‘community land access advocacy’55 program. Providing the activation energy, the volunteer run organisation identifies, mapsfig.32 and physically labelsfig.35 publically owned vacant ‘lots’ to empower surrounding communities to reclaim the space. Approaches to reclamation are similarly low cost, imaginative and encourage shared community responsibility. Reclamation of several small neighbourhood spaces generates variety and provides greater accessibility to a type of greenspace, particularly beneficial to dense and marginalised areas. Currently a total of forty spaces have been reclaimed56 and land access advocacy continues to be done.

55.

596 Acres (unknown) About, 596 Acres Accessed: 02.01.19 Available:596acres.org/mission-and-story/

56. ibid.

Signage to front, visual access into space Activity space, close to street front to encourage participation Regular space, enclosed on 3 sides Retention of existing established vegetation

28m

Community growing encourages year round responsibility and visual interest

14m Area = 392m2 Fig. 33 Vacant Lot, 2010

Fig. 34 Reclaimed Lot, 2018

Hasley Community Garden 12-20 Active members each year 100+ Local engagers each week Work with: local residents57

57.

Unknown (2017) 462 Hasley Community Garden Accessed: 12.01.19 Available:www.unfoodgardens.org/feed-your-city/462-halsey-community-farm/

Fig. 35 ‘Lot Labelling’

Page 23

Fig. 36 Electric Ladybug Garden, Harlem

Fig. 37 462 Hasley Community Garden, Brooklyn, event space for Free Black Women’s Library OLIVIA HELLMAN

MICRO RECLAMATION: STREET PLANTING & PARKLETS

58.

Hackney (2018) Parklets Accessed: 15.01.19 Available:https://hackney. gov.uk/article/4614/Parklets

Underutilised parking spaces offer the potential for smaller scale temporary reclamation. A future move away from individual car ownership and development towards a more sustainable urban environment could render existing wide streets as unnecessary. ‘Parklets’ offer user-generated spatial and social interventions that can reanimate a street. Extending from the pavement, they can provide seating, tables, vegetation, games and notice boards58. Increased degree of personal expression generates a diversity of spaces. Transferability has been demonstrated through its use of parking space reclamation worldwide. Although initially a design driven rather than community-led initiative, it serves as an effective example of small scale reclamation of space at a neighbourhood street level.

Fig.38 Lighter approach, addition of Fig.39 Hackney, Space for seating, Fig.40 Cheaper material approach vegetation engagment & bike parking

59.

Paris (2018) Jardiner dans les rues de Paris, c’est permis ! Accessed: 14.01.19 Available:https://www.paris.fr/permisdevegetaliser

Végétalisons, a greening initiative promoted by the City of Paris is an example of micro vacant space reclamation. Although not community instigated, it encourages residents to play an active role in reclaiming underutilised street space. Residents can apply for a three year permit to cultivate a small area59, resulting in a variety of colours, plants and materials, providing stimulation to a homogeneous vegetated streetscape. The intervention is significantly smaller than previous case studies and the approach is more towards individual rather than community reclamation. A criticism is that its reliance on individual rather than collective responsibility means that the interventions are less likely to be maintained for the three year period and potentially do not foster as much community identity and interaction.

Fig.41 Bright, vibrant, planting Fig. 42 Community catalysed Opportunity to allow for individual around common planting goal expression

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Fig.43 Opportunity to enliven street corners

Page 24

POTENTIALS FOR PRACTICE: FINDINGS & DISCUSSION Review of literature and analysis of appropriate case studies has informed subsequent findings and discussion. This has allowed for appraisal of what can be achieved within different types of vacant space found within compact cities and further identification of several common and transferrable processes and tangible elements which promote greater engagement within reclaimed open space, increasing community vitality.

TYPOLOGY OF VACANT SPACE

Linear space

Larger scale space

Smaller scale space

Microscale space

Temporary space

Fig.44 Identification of Vacant Space Typology

Vacant space can be considered as an alternative typology of green space, however as discovered, there exists a wide variety of different types of vacant spaces within compact cities; ranging in size, form and temporality which dictate subsequent approaches to reclamationfig.44.

SIZE & FORM Larger vacant spacesfig.45 & fig.46 such as disused railways and areas of wasteland require a greater proportion of social actors to aid reclamation. They can however be divided into series of smaller, different and more manageable areas, similar to La Petite Ceinture. Larger spaces have potential to accommodate a greater variety of activities. This can attract a greater number and increased diversity of users.

Heightened activity and interest can give rise to greater establishment. For example, increased prominence of the Prinzessinnengarten attracts wider audiences such as tourists.

In contrast, reclamation of smaller spacesfig.47 are more likely to provide one function and cater to a smaller audience of local community members, such as the 462 Hasley Community Garden food growing initiative. Although at a more modest scale, these spaces have the potential to hold small events and workshops which engage with the wider local community.

Microscale spacesfig.48 offer individual opportunities for reclamation and expression.

Examples such as ‘parklets’ and small planting boxes on public streets, increase visual diversity within homogenous areas and spaces lacking vegetation. Arguably however, in comparison to previously mentioned vacant space reclamation, too small a scale does not foster as great a sense of community belonging, engagement and interaction.

Therefore, collective responsibility can be identified as a greater motivator to sustained, successful reclamation and engagement of multiple actors should ideally be sought.

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OLIVIA HELLMAN

LINEAR SPACE

Fig.45 • • •

•

•

•

KEY Proportion of actors Activities: multiple, singular, visual

LARGE SCALE SPACE

Fig.46

SMALL SCALE SPACE

Fig.47

MICROSCALE SPACE

Fig.48

Form: long, linear, narrow Presence of existing structures & vegetation Caters for a variety of interventions and activities ranging in scope & temporality Minimal intervention can easily provide simple access to serve as pedestrian route Attracts and connects a number of different communities Provides established spaces and space for temporary installation

• Form: larger scale, can be regular or irregular • Presence of existing vegetation • Can provide a variety of activities • Can provide multiple event & workshop spaces • Multiple seating areas & opportunities for shelter • Establishment can allow for on-site cafes • Can connect a number of different communities and foster greater integration of people • Attracts wider audiences, including tourists • Temporary intervention can lead to advocacy for established, more permanent space

•

• • •

• • •

Form: smaller scale, more likely to be regular Presence of existing vegetation Often provides 1 function Can provide small community engagement workshops Smaller engagement, seating space Attracts local community Temporary intervention can lead to advocacy for more established, permanent space has ability to adapt with community if required

• Form: micro-scale, often regular • Often implemented due to lack of vegetation • Can offer very small seating area for interaction • Can reanimate homogenous street • Limited opportunity to participate, primarily visual • Temporary, fixed time period

Walkability/ route Cultivation of vegetation Temporality LSC 6046

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TEMPORALITY TEMPORAL SPACE

Fig.49

• •

•

• • •

Form: flexible, not size dependent Mobile, can to move to different communities and different sites Function to engage community in participation Can use vegetation but not always Can annimate a site prior to development Attracts larger audience due to temporal nature

‘Temporary uses can activate unused sites, show initiative and progress, and quickly alter the perception of vacant land as derelict, blighted and neglected’60

60.

Nemeth, J & Langhorst, J (2013) ‘Rethinking urban transformation: Temporary uses for vacant land’, Cities, Vol. 40 (2014) pg. 148

Temporary reclamation can be identified as another form of vacant space. Arguably the majority of approaches to large, small and microscale reclamation are temporal in nature, although some seek greater establishment and recognition as longer term developments.

Temporary reclamation could be considered as one which animates a space within a fixed, short-term periodfig.49 such as the temporary installation events on La Petite Ceinture and the mobile Skip Garden which moves across building sites. This approach does not limit itself to a specific size of vacant space, offering flexibility and adaptability to different forms. Its limited time frame could be considered to encourage greater engagement due to a percieved ease of a shorter term commitment.

COMMONALITIES TO RECLAMATION APPROACH While identification of different types of reclaimed vacant space can give rise to different scales of impact, there are several common processes and tangible elements that are applicable across the range that result from a community-led, bottom-up approach. The combination of both social and material approachesfig.50 contribute towards a successfully engaging reclaimed space. Individual components will be identified and discussed in further detail.

Combination of social and material approach creates engaging space that contributes towards community vitality

Social Approach Advocacy Participatory Coproductive Inclusive Empowering Intergenerational

Material Approach Imaginative Stimulating Productive Reusable Temporary Adaptable/Flexible

Fig.50 Combination of Social and Material Approaches Page 27

OLIVIA HELLMAN

ACTIVATION ENERGY

Fig.51 61.

Pearsall, H (2014) ‘Vacant Land: The new urban green, Cities, Vol. 40 pg.

121

‘neighborhood-level actions may serve to provide residents with a degree of local control’61 Identified as an initial barrier to community reclamation; limited knowledge of vacant space ownership and perceived authority responsibility can deter action.

Prior to reclamation, a form of activation energy is required in order to generate local community empowerment. Within the case studies this was demonstrated as advocacy by activists, charities, volunteer programmes and partnerships with local authorities. In order to promote increased reclamation of vacant space within compact cities, a greater level of advocacy is required.

COMMUNITY-LED: PARTICIPATORY & INCLUSIVE APPROACH

Fig.52 62.

Nemeth, J & Langhorst, J (2013) ‘Rethinking urban transformation: Temporary uses for vacant land’, Cities, Vol. 40 (2014) pg. 148

‘fast production of tangible results can catalyze communities around common goals that serve local needs and not external interests and agendas’62 A community-led approach offers the potential for greater levels of participation, increased engagement and the sharing of ideas and knowledge which is more likely to generate a space that better reflects community desires. Collective responsibility of the space is achieved, contributing towards sustained use and management of the space. Vacant space reclamation should consider this community-led approach as one which is more appropriate and contributes towards a greater sense of community belonging than a space which is top-down implemented.

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WORKING WITH THE EXISTING

Fig.53

Limitations in budget and the perceived temporal nature of reclamation encourages communities to work with what exists within a vacant space. As presented in the case studies, examples include; utilisation of vegetation and existing structures. As a more sustainable approach, retention of these elements can also provide visual and functional interest, contributing towards a sense of place on which community reclamation can add to.

LIGHTER, QUICKER, CHEAPER: IMAGINATIVE & ADAPTABLE

Fig.54

Fig.55

‘The complexity of public spaces is such that you cannot expect to do everything right initially.

The best spaces experiment with short term improvements that can be tested and refined’63 A bottom-up process promotes an alternative approach to development, encouraging a lighter, quicker and cheaper attitude. This approach allows for production of fast tangible results, quickly altering the negative perception of vacant space. As exhibited in the case studies, results are imaginative, dynamic, encourage resourcefulness and sustainable reuse of materials. Recycled modular elements such as skips and packaging containers are mobile, allowing adaptability to a range of different sized spaces and flexibility to change as community desires change.

Page 29

63.

Project for Public Spaces (2016) Placemaking: What if we built our cities around places? Project for Public Spaces, Accessed 06.01.19 Available: https://issuu.com/projectforpublicspaces/docs/oct_2016_placemaking_ booklet

OLIVIA HELLMAN

APPLICATION OF VEGETATION

Fig.56 64.

Gehl, J (2010). Cities for People . Washington DC: Island Press, pg 22

‘Both physical and visual access to green space can have impact on people’s mental wellbeing, and frequency of exposure seems to be important’64 Cultivation of vegetation was a common approach applied to a range of scales.

Vegetation grown for productive reasons allows for community learning and encourages integration of ages, genders and backgrounds. Visually, vegetation can animate a space, adding a variety of colours and textures. This allows observers of the space to benefit as well as active users. Required maintenance of vegetation creates a space which is active year round.

FACILITATING CONNECTION

Fig.57 65.

Gehl, J (2011). Life Between Buildings . London : Island Press. pg.17

‘Being among others, seeing and hearing others, receiving impulses from others, imply positive experiences, alternatives to being alone. One is not necessarily with a specific person, but one is, nevertheless, with others’65 Reclaimed spaces consider both active and passive engagement in order to attract all members of the community, fostering greater interaction. This aids connections and builds community resilience, contributing to individual and collective wellbeing.

Active engagement can be promoted through providing welcoming areas to sit and organisation of events and workshops to reach out to the wider community. Passive communication can be facilitated by visual accessibility and permeability of space, signage and lack of solid barriers allows passers-by to acknowledge the space and see in.

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DIVERSITY OF USERS

Fig.58

‘The benefits from the range of interventions should address the needs of all, and the social impacts should not fall disproportionately on certain groups of the population’66 Successful reclaimed spaces are non-discriminatory, offering opportunities for integration of all generations. Involvement in the process of space cleaning, construction and maintenance actively advocates for participation by all. Integration can be encouraged by either providing a variety of uses or one use that is accessible to all ages, for example planting. A space which enables greater diversity is more inclusive and can be more reflective of the surrounding neighbourhood, enabling generation of community identity.

66.

Colantonio, A, Dixon, T, Ganser, R, Carpenter, J & Ngombe, A (2009) Measuring Socially Sustainable Urban Regeneration in Europe OISD Accessed 07.01.19 Available: http://oisd.brookes.ac.uk/ sustainable_communities/resources/Social_Sustainability_and_Urban_ Regeneration_report.pdf

A SENSE OF PLACE - COMMUNITY BELONGING

Sense of place Fig.59

‘The ‘place to go’ is where people think the action is, and a sense of liveliness is the essence of the successful urban space.’67

67.

Kenneth Spencer, D (1974) Urban Spaces, Graphic Society, New York

Reclaimed spaces allow for individual and community creativity. This allows for spaces to be grounded within the communities. The approach allows for creation of a diversity of spaces, increasing individuality and combating homogenous design.

Spaces are physically and visually representative of the community, generating a sense of place and community belonging.

Page 31

OLIVIA HELLMAN

Activation Energy: vacant space advocacy

Working with the existing

FIG. 60 Framework of common qualities that can be employed to reclaim a vacant space, in order to generate sense of place and community belonging

Sense of place - Community Belonging

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Community-led: participatory and inclusive

Application of vegetation

Lighter, quicker, cheaper

Adatable to change

Facilitates communication

Diversity of users

Page 32

CONCLUSION ‘Historically, scholars and planners have viewed vacant land as a problem that must be ‘‘fixed,’’ but the upsurge in vacant land…has given rise to approaches that consider [it] as a resource, one that can even provide opportunities for transformative social processes.’68

68.

Nemeth, J & Langhorst, J (2013) ‘Rethinking urban transformation: Temporary uses for vacant land’, Cities, Vol. 40 (2014) pg. 148

Arguments against the compact city have previously discussed its limited open space quality and potentially poor social sustainability. Vacant spaces within such cities offer a dynamic open space typology and possible solution. A communityled, bottom-up approach proposes an alternative attitude to reclamation with the advantage of fostering greater individual and community wellbeing. Increased community autonomy and freedom for expression generates spaces that are better suited for local needs; encouraging active participation and interaction which contributes towards a sense of belonging.

Further investigation into vacant spaces at the urban, neighbourhood level identified five different scales of space and subsequent levels of reclamation. These include; • • • • •

Linear spaces Large scale spaces Small scale spaces Microscale spaces Temporal spaces

While different scales of space dictate the degree of reclamation, commonalities in approach demonstrates a transferability to a variety of vacant spaces found within compact cities. These commonalities were identified as; • • • • • • • • •

Activation energy Community-led: participatory and inclusive Working with the existing Imaginative Adaptable Application of vegetation Facilitating connection Diversity of users Sense of place - community belonging

Findings produced resulted from analysis of vacant spaces within compact cities in developed countries. While similar approaches to reclamation may be applicable to compact cities in developing countries, further investigation is required to assess its appropriateness.

Although the multitude of challenges facing development of the compact city and social sustainability goes beyond reclamation of a singular piece of vacant space, the cumulative effect of different types of vacant space reclamation by various groups has the potential to offer a wealth of small, diverse and engaging spaces which could collectively provide comparable or greater fulfilment of social sustainability than a large, authority implemented open space. Greater advocacy of this approach should be considered as it offers potential to generate lively spaces which are more quickly and readily retrofitted within the dense form of the compact city, contributing to increased community vitality, quality of life and towards justification of the urban model for future development.

Page 33

OLIVIA HELLMAN

FIG. 61 Cumulative effect of community reclaimed spaces to generate greater social sustainability within the compact city context

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BIBLIOGRAPHY BOOKS Ashton, J (1992). Healthy Cities . Open University Press. USA Dantzig, G B & Saaty, T L (1973). Compact City: A Plan for a Liveable Urban Environment . W. H. Freeman and Company. San Francisco Gehl, J & Gemzoe, L (2003) New City Spaces (3rd Edition) The Danish Architectural Press, Copenhagen Gehl, J & Svarre, B (2013). How to Study Public Life . Island Press. Washington DC Gehl, J (2010). Cities for People. Island Press, Washington DC Gehl, J (2011). Life Between Buildings. Island Press. London Groat, W & Wang, D (2013) Architectural Research Methodologies (2nd Edition) John Wiley & Sons, New Jersey Jenks, M (1996). The Compact city : a sustainable urban form?. Routledge. London.

Jenks, M (2000). Compact cities : sustainable urban forms for developing countries. Spon Press . London Shaftoe, H (2008). Convivial Urban Spaces, Creating Effective Public Places . Earthscan. London

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JOURNALS & ARTICLES Accordino, J & Johnson, G T (2000) ‘Addressing the Vacant and Abandoned Property Problem’, Journal of Urban Affairs, Vol. 22 (3) pg. 301-315 Alvanides, S, Garrod, G & Oueslati, W (2015). ‘Determinants of urban sprawl in European cities’ Urban Studies, Vol. 52(9) pg. 1594-1614 Colantonio, A, Dixon, T, Ganser, R, Carpenter, J & Ngombe, A (2009) Measuring Socially Sustainable Urban Regeneration in Europe OISD Accessed 07.01.19 Available: http://oisd.brookes.ac.uk/sustainable_ communities/resources/Social_Sustainability_and_Urban_Regeneration_report.pdf Garvin, B, Branas, C, Keddem, S, Sellman, J & Cannuscio, C (2012) ‘More Than Just An Eyesore: Local Insights and Solutions on Vacant Land and Urban Health’, Journal of Urban Health, Vol. 90 (3) pg. 412-426 Gordon, P & Richardson, H (1997). ‘Are Compact Cities a Desirable Planning Goal?’ Journal of the American Planning Association Vol.63. pg. 95-106 Gunwoo, K (2018). ‘An integrated system of urban green infrastructure on different types of vacant land to provide multiple benefits for local communities’, Sustainable Cities and Society. Vol 36. pg. unknown Gunwoo, K, Miller, P A & Nowak, D J (2018) ‘Urban vacant land typology: A tool for managing urban vacant land’, Sustainable Cities and Society, Vol. 36 pg. 144-156 Leder, F et al. (2011). ‘City living and urban upbringing affect neural social stress rocessing in humans’.

Nature Vol. 474. pg 498-501.

Mass, J, Verheij, R A, Spreeuwenberg, P, Schellevis F G & Groenewegen P P . (2009). ‘Morbidity is Related to a Green Living Environment’ . Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health . Vol 63 , pgs 967-973.

McMillan, D. W., & Chavis, D. M. (1986). ‘Sense of community: A definition and theory’. Journal of Community Psychology, Vol. 14, pg 6 - 23 Nemeth, J & Langhorst, J (2013) ‘Rethinking urban transformation: Temporary uses for vacant land’, Cities, Vol. 40 (2014) pg. 143-150 New Economics Foundation (2012) Measuring Wellbeing: A guide for practitioners, London: New Economics. pg unknown OECD (2011), Compact City Policies: A Comparative Assessment, OECD Green Growth Studies, OECD Publishing.

Pearsall, H (2014) ‘Vacant Land: The new urban green’, Cities, Vol. 40 pg. 121-190 Wood, L, Hooper, P, Foster,S & Bull, F (2017). ‘Public green spaces and positive mental health investigating the relationship between access, quantity and types of parks and mental wellbeing’. Health & Place. Vol. 48. pg 63-71 World Health Organisation . (2016). Urban Green Space and Health: Intervention Impacts and Effectiveness.

Accessed: 20.12.18 Available: http://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/environment-and-health/ urban-health/who-european-healthy-cities-network/key-publications.

World Health Organisation . (2017). Cities Urban Planning and Health. Accessed: 20.12.18 Available: http://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/environment-and-health/urban-health/who-europeanhealthy-cities-network/key-publications.

World Health Organisation . (2017). Urban Green Spaces: A Brief for Action . Available: World Health Organisation . (2016). Urban Green Space and Health: Intervention Impacts and Effectiveness. Accessed: 20.12.18 Available: http://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/environment-and-health/urban-health/ who-eu.

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WEBSITES 596 Acres (unknown) About, 596 Acres Accessed: 02.01.19 Available:596acres.org/mission-and-story/ Adli, M . (2011). Urban Stress and Mental Health. Accessed: 20.12.18 Available: https://lsecities.net/media/ objects/articles/urban-stress-and-mental-health/en-gb/.

Central Park.com (unknown) Central Park History Overview, Central Park.com, Accessed: 11.01.19 Available: https://www.centralpark.com/visitor-info/park-history/overview/ Collectif Derive (2016) PETITE CEINTURE - À QUAI #2, Collectif Derive Accessed: 11.01.19 Available: http:// collectifderive.blogspot.com/2016/11/petite-ceinture-quai-2.html Global Generation (unknown) The Skip Garden Accessed: 08.01.19 Available: https://www. globalgeneration.org.uk/about-the-skip-garden/ Hackney (2018) Parklets Accessed: 15.01.19 Available:https://hackney.gov.uk/article/4614/Parklets Hossenally, R (2014) The Petite Ceinture: the battle over Paris’s abandoned railway, The Guardian Accessed: 11.01.19 Available: https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2014/sep/26/-sp-petite-ceinture-parisentrepreneurs-environmentalists-abandoned-railway Kirk, M . (2016 ). How to Support Mental Health Through Urban Planning. Accessed: 20.12.18 Available: https://www.citylab.com/design/2016/12/how-to-support-mental-health-through-urbanplanning/510833/.

KX (unknown) Global Generation: Get involved at Skip Garden Accessed: 08.01.19 Available: https://www. kingscross.co.uk/global-generation McCay, L (2018) Designing good mental health into cities: the next frontier for urban design, Design Council Accessed 08.01.19 Available: https://www.designcouncil.org.uk/news-opinion/designing-good-mentalhealth-cities-next-frontier-urban-design Monboit, G (2011). Sustainable Cities must be compact and high densities. Available: https://www. theguardian.com/environment/georgemonbiot/2011/jun/30/sustainable-cities-urban-planning Paris (2018) Jardiner dans les rues de Paris, c’est permis ! Accessed: 14.01.19 Available:https://www.paris.fr/ permisdevegetaliser Prinzessinnengarten (unknown)About Prinzessinnengarten Accessed: 07.01.19 Available:https:// prinzessinnengarten.net/about/ Project for Public Spaces (2016) Placemaking: What if we built our cities around places? Project for Public Spaces, Accessed 06.01.19 Available: https://issuu.com/projectforpublicspaces/docs/oct_2016_ placemaking_booklet Unknown (2017) 462 Hasley Community Garden Accessed: 12.01.19 Available:www.unfoodgardens.org/ feed-your-city/462-halsey-community-farm/ UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs (2018). 68% of the world population projected to live in urban areas by 2050, says UN, Accessed: 17/12/2018 Available: https://www.un.org/development/desa/ en/news/population/2018-revision-of-world-urbanization-prospects.html Unknown (2015). Petite Ceinture : du vert et du calme, nous ne demandons rien d’autre. Le Quartier Bel-Air Sud Accessed: 11.01.19 Available: http://belairsud.blogspirit.com/archive/2015/12/04/petite-ceinturedu-vert-et-du-calme-nous-ne-demandons-rien-d-3061616.html

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Unknown (2017). 10 kilomètres de la petite Ceinture ouverts d’ici 2020 Paris, Accessed: 11.01.19 Available: https://www.paris.fr/actualites/10-km-de-la-petite-ceinture-ouverts-d-ici-2020-4764#un-planprogramme-pour-preserver-et-renforcer-le-patrimoine-naturel_7 Unknown (unknown) Prinzessinnengarten, Carrot City; Designing for Urban Agriculture, Accessed: 08.01.19 Available:https://www.ryerson.ca/carrotcity/board_pages/community/prinzessinnengarten. html Weinstock, E (unknown) Prinzessinnengarten, Berlin-Fever.com Accessed: 07.01.19 Available:http://www. berlin-fever.com/en/experience/prinzessinnengarten WHO (2004). Promoting Mental Health, Summary Report. WHO. pg 12. Available: https://www.who.int/ mental_health/evidence/en/promoting_mhh.pdf Woodcraft, S, Bacon, N, Caistor-Arendar, L & Hackett, T (2012). Design for Social Sustainability. Social Life, Accessed: 03.01.19 Available at: http://www.social-life.co/media/files/DESIGN_FOR_SOCIAL_ SUSTAINABILITY_3.pdf

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FIGURE REFERENCES Cover: Figure 1: Figure 2: Figure 3: Figure 4: Figure 5: Figure 6:

Author’s own (2018) Compact Cities and Open Space Diagram Author’s own (2019) Diagram of Cumulative Reclamation of Vacant Space Author’s own (2019) Diagram of a Compact City Core Components & Characteristics Author’s own (2019) Diagram of Compact Urban Form Author’s own (2019) Diagram of Sprawling Urban Form Author’s own (2019) Diagram of Re-densification European Commission (1990) Image of European Communities Green Paper on the Urban Environment Accessed 03.01.19 Available: https://publications.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/0e4b169c-91b8-4de0-9fedead286a4efb7/language-en Figure 7: OECD (2011), Image of OECD, Compact City Policies: A Comparative Assessment, OECD Green Growth Studies, OECD Publishing.

Figure 8: Author’s own (2019) Diagram of Urban Sustainability Figure 9: Author’s own (2019) Diagram of Implementation of Open Space Pre Densification Figure 10: Author’s own (2019) Diagram of Implementation of Open Space Post Densification Figure 11: Project for Public Spaces (2016) Diagram of 4 Key Attributes of Socially Sustainable Place,

Placemaking: What if we built our cities around places? Accessed: 06.01.19 Available:https://issuu. com/projectforpublicspaces/docs/oct_2016_placemaking_booklet Figure 12: Gehl, J (2010). Diagram of Quality of Public and Link to Social Activities Cities for People .

Washington DC: Island Press, pg 21 Figure 13: Google Earth (2004) Aerial Image of Disused Railway Google Maps [online] Accessed: 11.01.19 Available: http://www.google.com/earth/index.html Figure 14: Google Earth (2018) Aerial Image of Reclaimed Railway Google Maps [online] Accessed: 11.01.19 Available: http://www.google.com/earth/index.html Figure 15: Samy, G (2014) Image of Les Jardins du Ruisseau 1 of 3 [photograph] Accessed: 09.11.19 Available: https://carnet-aux-petites-choses.fr/un-havre-de-paix-a-paris-les-jardins-du-ruisseau-sur-lapetite-ceinture-paris-18/ Figure 16: Samy, G (2014) Image of Les Jardins du Ruisseau 2 of 3 [photograph] Accessed: 09.11.19 Available: https://carnet-aux-petites-choses.fr/un-havre-de-paix-a-paris-les-jardins-du-ruisseau-sur-la- petite-ceinture-paris-18/ Figure 17: Samy, G (2014) Image of Les Jardins du Ruisseau 3 of 3 [photograph] Accessed: 09.11.19 Available: https://carnet-aux-petites-choses.fr/un-havre-de-paix-a-paris-les-jardins-du-ruisseau-sur-lapetite-ceinture-paris-18/ Figure 18: Author’s own (2019) Diagram of La Petite Ceinture Wider Space Reclamation Figure 19: Collectif Derive (2016) Image of La Petite Ceinture Temporary Reclamation 1of 3 [photograph] PETITE CEINTURE - À QUAI #2, Collectif Derive Accessed: 11.01.19 Available: http://collectifderive. blogspot.com/2016/11/petite-ceinture-quai-2.html Figure 20: Collectif Derive (2016) Image of La Petite Ceinture Temporary Reclamation 2 of 3 [photograph] PETITE CEINTURE - À QUAI #2, Collectif Derive Accessed: 11.01.19 Available: http://collectifderive. blogspot.com/2016/11/petite-ceinture-quai-2.html Figure 21: Collectif Derive (2016) Image of La Petite Ceinture Temporary Reclamation 3of 3 [photograph] PETITE CEINTURE - À QUAI #2, Collectif Derive Accessed: 11.01.19 Available: http://collectifderive. blogspot.com/2016/11/petite-ceinture-quai-2.html Figure 22: Google Earth (2006) Aerial Image of Disused Large Scale Space Google Maps [online] Accessed: 11.01.19 Available: http://www.google.com/earth/index.html Figure 23: Google Earth (2013) Aerial Image of Reclaimed Large Scale Space Google Maps [online] Accessed: 11.01.19 Available: http://www.google.com/earth/index.html Figure 24: Clausen, M (2011) Image of Prinzessinnengarten 1 of 3 [photograph] Accessed: 12.01.19 Available: https://www.flickr.com/photos/39367406@N04/5340898112 Figure 25: Nasr, J (unknown) Image of Prinzessinnengarten 2 of 3 [photograph] Accessed: 12.01.19 Available: https://www.ryerson.ca/carrotcity/board_pages/community/prinzessinnengarten.html Figure 26: Nasr, J (unknown) Image of Prinzessinnengarten 3 of 3 [photograph] Accessed: 12.01.19 Available: https://www.ryerson.ca/carrotcity/board_pages/community/prinzessinnengarten.html Figure 27: Google Earth (2018) Aerial Image of Mobile Reclamation 1 of 2 Google Maps [online] Accessed: 11.01.19 Available: http://www.google.com/earth/index.html Figure 28: Google Earth (2013) Aerial Image of Mobile Reclamation 2 of 2 Google Maps [online] Accessed: 11.01.19 Available: http://www.google.com/earth/index.html

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Figure 29: Sturrock, J (unknown) Image of Skip Gardens 1 of 3 [photograph] Accessed: 09.01.19 Available: https://www.kingscross.co.uk/skip-garden/attachment/kings-cross Figure 30: Unknown (unknown) Image of Skip Gardens 2 of 3 [photograph] Accessed: 09.01.19 Available: https://www.kingscross.co.uk/event/london-festival-architecture-2015 Figure 31: Unknown (unknown) Image of Skip Gardens 3 of 3 [photograph] Accessed: 09.01.19 Available: https://expedition.uk.com/projects/skip-garden-glass-lantern/ Figure 32: Image of Cumulative Reclamation 596 Acres (unknown) Image of Cumulative Reclamation, 596 Acres Accessed: 02.01.19 Available:596acres.org/mission-and-story/ Figure 33: Google Earth (2010) Aerial Image of Vacant ‘Lot’ Google Maps [online] Accessed: 11.01.19 Available: http://www.google.com/earth/index.html Figure 34: Google Earth (2018) Aerial Image of Reclaimed ‘Lot’ Google Maps [online] Accessed: 11.01.19 Available: http://www.google.com/earth/index.html Figure 35: Cox, M (2014) Image of Vacant ‘Lot’ Advocacy [photograph] Accessed: 03.01.19 Available: http://596acres.org/gallery/lot-labeling-in-weeksville-brooklyn/ Figure 36: Cox, M (2016) Image of Reclaimed ‘Lot’ 1of 2 [photograph] Accessed: 03.01.19 Available: http://596acres.org/gallery/electric-ladybug-garden-in-harlem/ Figure 37: Cox, M (2016) Image of Reclaimed ‘Lot’ 2 of 2 [photograph] Accessed: 03.01.19 Available: http:// www.culturepush.org/new-events/2016/5/1/free-black-womens-library-foodie-edition Figure 38: Unknown (unknown) Image of Microscale Reclamation ‘Parklet’ 1 of 3 [photograph] Accessed: 14.01.19 Available: https://www.livingstreets.org.uk/what-we-do/stories/parklets Figure 39: Unknown (2017) Image of Microscale Reclamation ‘Parklet’ 2 of 3 [photograph] Accessed: 14.01.19 Available: https://www.cyclehoop.com/news/our-parklet-in-hammersmith-and-fulham-wins-thehealthy-streets-award-for-best-innovation/ Figure 40: Jensen, S (2017) Image of Microscale Reclamation ‘Parklet’ 3 of 3 [photograp] Accessed: 14.01.19 Available: https://www.charlottestories.com/charlottes-new-parklet-trend/ Figure 41: Kenny, R (2018) Image of Microscale Reclamation Végétalisons 1 of 3 [film still] Accessed 14.01.19 Available: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/stories-46275458/paris-a-city-that-is-turning-streetsinto-gardens Figure 42: Unknown (2015) Image of Microscale Reclamation Végétalisons 2 of 3 [photograph] Accessed: 14.01.19 Available: https://falret.org/article/jardinpartage/ Figure 43: Stimmler-Hall, H (2016) Image of Microscale Reclamation Végétalisons 3 of 3 [photograph] Accessed: 14.01.19 Available: http://www.secretsofparis.com/heathers-secret-blog/vegetalisonsparis-how-to-green-your-neighborhood.html Figure 44: Author’s own (2019) Diagram of Identification of Typology of Vacant Space Figure 45: Author’s own (2019) Diagram of Linear Space Reclamation Figure 46: Author’s own (2019) Diagram of Large Scale Space Reclamation Figure 47: Author’s own (2019) Diagram of Small Scale Space Reclamation Figure 48: Author’s own (2019) Diagram of Microscale Space Reclamation Figure 49: Author’s own (2019) Diagram of Temporal Space Reclamation Figure 50: Author’s own (2019) Diagram of Combination of Social and Material Approaches Figure 51: Author’s own (2019) Diagram of Activation Energy Figure 52: Author’s own (2019) Diagram of Community-Led Approach: Inclusive & Participatory Figure 53: Author’s own (2019) Diagram of Working with the Existing Figure 54: Author’s own (2019) Diagram of Lighter, Quicker & Cheaper: Imaginative Figure 55: Author’s own (2019) Diagram of Lighter, Quicker & Cheaper: Adaptable Figure 56: Author’s own (2019) Diagram of Application of Vegetation Figure 57: Author’s own (2019) Diagram of Facilitating Connections Figure 58: Author’s own (2019) Diagram of Diversity of Users Figure 59: Author’s own (2019) Diagram of Sense of Place: Community Belonging Figure 60: Author’s own (2019) Common Framework of Reclamation Figure 61: Author’s own (2019) Diagram of Cumulative Reclamation

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