PMC Notes No. 20
British Women Artists and Empire Page 7
The Paul Mellon Centre for Studies in British Art is an educational charity committed to promoting original research into the history of British art and architecture. It is a part of Yale University and its activities and resources include research events, public lectures, publications, fellowships, grants programmes, and a library and archival collection. PMC Notes, the Centre’s newsletter, is published three times per year.
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Publishing Art History on the A&AePortal 15
Gilt Leather at Gwydir Castle 21
Director’s Note 3
Public Lecture Course 5
PMC Notes No. 20
Colonialism in the Photographic Archive
A few months ago, on a chilly October evening, I was honoured to host an especially happy event: a tribute to Mark Girouard, one of our most distinguished architectural historians. This celebration, which followed soon after Mark’s 90th birthday, was also organised to coincide with our publication of his magnificent, long-awaited book, A Biographical Dictionary of English Architecture, 1540–1640. This volume, the product of decades of research, is packed with invaluable information and graced by the wit and lucidity for which Mark’s writings are so renowned. Those same qualities were much in evidence at our event, which took the form of an extended and informal conversation in which Mark responded to questions from a small gathering of his scholarly peers. The event was a joyful one not only because it gave us the chance to discuss the career and work of a wonderful author, but because it took place in person in our library at Bedford Square. Across the past twenty months or so, we at the PMC have had to largely forgo this kind of in-person gathering, and turn instead to online programming to deliver our busy events schedule. As I hope those of you who have attended our recent events will agree, we have confidently explored and embraced the possibilities opened up by this accelerated move to online activity, and revelled in the opportunity to extend our reach as a research centre. Yet, alongside the many benefits we have enjoyed, there have been some costs too. At Mark’s celebration, the fact that we all encountered each other not on screen, but in person, gave the entire occasion a sense of communal warmth and interaction that I still feel is impossible to fully replicate on a virtual basis, however hard we might try.
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Mark Hallett Director
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Director’s Note
At the PMC, we continue to think creatively about how best to combine the virtues of in-person and online research events. One obvious and promising way forward lies in organising in-person talks, workshops and conferences that are streamed live to a participating online audience. Another possibility – as was decided upon for the tribute to Mark – is to film the proceedings of our in-person events and release edited versions of these recordings at a later date. In the past, we have pursued variations on both these hybrid approaches, as the ‘Recordings’ page on our website attests. In future, we hope to further streamline our proceedings, to ensure that our lively and varied events programme successfully caters to audiences both at Bedford Square and across the globe. In delivering such hybrid events, we will be benefiting from the ideas and expertise of our newly arrived Head of Research and Learning, Dr Sria Chatterjee. A brilliant and innovative scholar, Sria has recently been a Swiss National Science Foundation Fellow at the Institute for Experimental Design and Media at the FHNW in Basel, and an Associate Scholar at the Max-Planck Kunsthistorisches Institut in Florence. She holds undergraduate degrees from Jadavpur and Oxford universities, and an MA and PhD from Princeton University. She is a prolific and wide-ranging writer and researcher, who founded the remarkable online project Visualizing the Virus. She has also recently played an important role at the PMC itself, as a much-valued contributing editor to our online journal, British Art Studies. We very much look forward to working with Sria at the Centre, as we continue to pursue our mission of supporting and generating the very best research on British art, architecture and visual culture.
Public Lecture Course Medieval Britain Spring 2022
Colonialism in the Photographic Archive
Paris A. Spies-Gans, a Junior Fellow at the Harvard Society of Fellows, specialises in the study of women artists and their work. In this feature, she asks what can be learned from seeking out art created by British women that engages with imperial activities, looking specifically at images recorded in the PMC’s newlydigitised photographic archive. In Calcutta in May 1792, amid British celebrations of the Treaty of Srirangapatam which ended the Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790–92) – to profound British gains and Mysorean losses – two painted tapestries appeared as decorations at the Ord and Knox general store. Each contained a portrait of a man surrounded by the spoils of war: one showed Earl Cornwallis, Britain’s Governor-General of India, accompanied by female allegories of history and fame; the other portrayed General William Medows, the recently appointed Governor of Madras. The Madras Courier speculated as to the paintings’ creator: ‘These pieces, we understand, were from the hands of a female artist, whose reputation in the portrait line increases with every production of her pencil.’ It is thought that this refers to the Norfolkborn painter Sarah Baxter, born Buck (c. 1770–?), who had arrived in India in the first half of 1791 after marrying John Baxter, a widower and former partner at that same general store.
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Sarah Baxter is one of about 320 women represented in the Paul Mellon Centre’s Photographic Archive, a collection of roughly 100,000 recently digitised reference images spanning British art history that was made available for public use in November 2021. In a reflection of the amount of attention they have traditionally received in scholarship, pieces by women form the minority (less than 2 per cent) of this massive resource; an even smaller portion of these works render colonial subject matter. While both statistics are at odds with the historical record – since at least the mid-eighteenth century, women have formed a much larger proportional presence of artistic communities than these numbers suggest, and the effects of Britain’s global imperialism left few populations untouched and unscathed – several works in the archive open rare and significant windows onto the intricate intersection of these two worlds. As historical scholarship has begun to stress, white women – artists and others – have often acted as oppressors, even while they were themselves oppressed. In late eighteenth-century Britain, for instance, men were gradually accruing political and legal rights that women would not gain for more than a century; yet Britons of all stripes were participating in their nation’s rapidly growing imperial complex. This tension – which would grow as the nineteenth century progressed – characterises
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several of the paintings by female artists in the photo archive, works that challenge us to scrutinise women’s places in the colonial project and to consider how their depictions project, reinforce and reflect the various biases of their times. Let us begin with Sarah Baxter. Although her biographical details are hazy and she has not been the subject of study for nearly half a century, it is clear that she was a recognised portraitist in her time. Upon her marriage in January 1791, the Norfolk Chronicle described her as ‘well known in this city for her ingenuity in painting’. That May, she exhibited at London’s Royal Academy of Arts, where her Portrait of a Gentleman was deemed sufficiently skilled to be hung in the Great Room. After departing for India later that year, where her new husband was branching out into the indigo trade while continuing to work with Ord and Knox, she continued to paint, while also giving birth to three sons. In 1792 or 1793, Baxter painted an unusual oil portrait of her second son, which appears in the photo archive. An inscription on the back tells us the child’s name, Nadir, replete with Persian honorifics from the Mughal court: ‘Portrait of Nadir ool Moulk Mahomed al Dowlah Baxter Bahadour Dowlut Rajah’ (translated by Mildred Archer as ‘rare one of the Kingdom, praiseworthy one of the state, Baxter champion of the dynasty’). Emerging from the strokes of his mother’s paintbrush, Nadir appears visually enmeshed in the world of the
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Indian subcontinent. Accompanied by an Indian man and woman, he sits before colourful piles of flowers and fruit, grapes in hand. The woman is presumably an ‘ayah’, a term used at the time for the Indian women who cared for the children of countless British families. Little more is known about the painting’s background, subject matter, or Baxter’s life; it is thought that she died in childbirth a few years later. Baxter’s canvas is both an unambiguous product of colonialism and evidence of its massive complexities. What did it mean for a young woman from Norfolk to portray this Indian man and woman alongside her child, and did they have any say in the matter? Why did she and her husband choose a Persian name for their son? Was the inscription on the canvas’s back a joke (as it has been described by Archer), an act of cultural appropriation, or both? What cruelties and subtleties lie at the intersection of imperial portraiture and gender roles? Numerous paintings in the photo archive pose similarly tortuous questions. At the same time, they provide rare visual clues as to how British women engaged with their increasingly imperial world in markedly different ways. How can we begin to study these wide-ranging works with the seriousness and depth they demand? For now, I would like to focus not on any answers the images can provide, but on some of the questions they invite us to ask. Sarah Stone, later Smith (active
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1770s; died 1844), for one, built a short career as a natural history painter when the London-based collector Sir Ashton Lever hired her to depict the objects in his public collection. In 1781, she exhibited four images of birds and shells at the Royal Academy; she showed one more work in 1786, Perspective View of Sir Ashton Lever’s Museum (1785). Three of her watercolours – maybe among those she exhibited, maybe not – appear in the photo archive: A Parrot and a Butterfly (1779), A Red Parrott (1786) and the undated Scarlet Ibis. It is not known whether Stone ever left the British Isles, yet her artistic career was fuelled by the objects and animals that Lever had accumulated from imperial plundering: the red parrot would have been native to Central and South America or Australia; the scarlet ibis to South America and the Caribbean. What would Stone’s experience of these objects have been – as geographic curiosities, largely visual or, simply, financially transactional? Women’s artistic activity quickly expanded alongside Britain’s empire, which famously covered a quarter of the globe by the mid-nineteenth century. It also soon came to reflect some core tenets of the emerging suffrage movement. By the 1850s, female artists were beginning to push for access to education in formerly closed-off spaces, with growing success. In 1862, Edith Martineau (1842–1909) was one of the first women admitted to the Royal Academy
Schools. She established a professional career from her time as a student, exhibiting and selling extensively. The photo archive has two of her works: an interior portrait of a well-off woman (Mrs John Roget) and Head of a Balkan Tribesman (1867), typical of Martineau’s surviving ethnographically tinged studies. Her attention to detail in these latter pieces—the grizzled beards, the specific turbans—suggests that Martineau encountered these men in person, perhaps in the streets of London, by then the world’s most international city. Or was she painting figures according to popular, ethnically inflected physiognomic rules, now seen as a strong basis for scientific racism? Similar questions arise in response to a work by Jane Hawkins (1841–1904), a portraitist who specialised in political figures and who painted Maharajah Duleep Singh of Elveden Wearing Maharajah’s Robes, replicating an 1854 portrait by Franz Xaver Winterhalter. Singh, the last Maharajah of the Sikh Empire, was exiled to Britain at the age of fifteen; Queen Victoria became godmother to several of his children. In 1984 – we learn from annotations to this image in the photo archive – Hawkins’s canvas was auctioned by Christie’s as part of a large group of works being sold from Elveden Hall. Might her painting have been commissioned by Singh or a member of his family? Or was it acquired by the estate later, and perhaps originally a status symbol for one of Singh’s contemporaries?
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Striking, jarring and often exceedingly detailed, these paintings expand our understanding of the imagery of imperialism in relation to women artists and call on us to reconsider the dominant narratives of the history of art. By building a framework that is both more inclusive and more critical, we can continue to question and advance pressing methods for learning from the intricacies, atrocities and inequalities of a discriminatory past.
Pages 7–8 Sarah Baxter, The Infant Nadir Al-mulk Muhammad Al-daula Baxter Bahadur Daulat Rajah, Seated on a Ledge with a Nurse and a Male Attendant (detail), late eighteenth century, oil on canvas, 92 × 72 cm. Private Collection. Courtesy of Bonhams (all rights reserved). Page 10 Archival record for Sarah Baxter, The Artist’s Son, undated. Courtesy of Paul Mellon Centre Photographic Archive PA-F08217-0003 (CC BYNC 4.0). Page 11 Sarah Stone, A Scarlet Ibis (detail), circa 1786, watercolour with heightened white, 36.8 × 26.4cm. Yale Center for British Art, Paul Mellon Collection (B2006.14.31). Courtesy of Yale Center for British Art, Paul Mellon Collection (public domain). Sarah Stone, A Red Parrot (detail), 1786, watercolour and gouache on card, 45.4 × 35.2 cm. Yale Center for British Art, Paul Mellon Collection (B1986.29.485). Courtesy of Yale Center for British Art, Paul Mellon Collection (public domain). Page 14 Archival record for Janet Hawkins after Winterhalter, Maharajah Duleep Singh Of Elveden Wearing Maharajah’s Robes, undated, oil on canvas, 198.1 × 106.6 cm. Courtesy of Paul Mellon Centre Photographic Archive PA-F048140003 (CC BY-NC 4.0).
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In this interview, Patricia Fidler, Publisher for Art and Architecture at Yale University Press, speaks to Marcia Pointon, Professor Emerita in History of Art, University of Manchester, about transforming her classic book Hanging the Head: Portraiture and Social Formation in Eighteenth-Century England (1993) into an online publication available on the Art & Architecture ePortal (A&AePortal).
In 2019, Yale University Press launched the A&AePortal, an authoritative and innovative eBook resource that features important works of scholarship in the history of art, architecture, decorative arts, photography and design. The site offers many out-of-print and key backlist titles, recent releases and born-digital books from some of the world’s finest academic and museum publishers, including the Paul Mellon Centre (PMC). When presented with the opportunity to interview an author about the platform, I thought immediately of Marcia Pointon, whose book Hanging the Head was uploaded during the first year of our project and has since experienced a high level of usage.
Interview Publishing Art History on the A&AePortal
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Patricia: When the PMC first approached you about adding Hanging the Head to the ePortal, what went through your mind? Marcia: My first thought was what a great honour this was and secondly what a great service it would be to students and to the community of art historians. It has been out of print for more years than I can remember, and it has always seemed grotesque that anyone who wants their own copy has to pay an extortionate amount to secure one second-hand. The Authors’ Licensing and Collecting Society (ALCS) registers extensive photocopying of this text, so it has not been exactly unobtainable, but in terms of accessibility and quality the ePortal is an impressive advance. Patricia: Hanging the Head has been accessed by hundreds of readers since it was uploaded to the site two years ago. I am curious to know if there are parts of your book that you thought would particularly resonate with today’s students? Marcia: Areas of interest and concern to students fluctuate. Certainly, the idea of portraiture as a business (Chapter II) would resonate with the agenda of a social history of art; the chapter on wigs (IV) seems to have been of interest in the context of debates on masculinity; the focus on Orientalism (V) could inform debates on race and representation; while Chapter VII, which addresses the way images of children structure gender and class, is relevant across several disciplines. There have been enormous amounts of work done by others in all these areas since 1993, but I believe my book established a framework for a complete rethink of portraiture. Patricia: In reaching out to authors about putting their book onto the site, I was sometimes told that having it on the platform would make it too easy for students to dip in and out of the text (that is, without having to read the entire book or chapter). Some authors have drawn parallels to ‘data mining’. What do you think about this? Marcia: I have no concern about students dipping in and out of the text. Learning to skim read and identify rapidly what is most relevant to your inquiry is one of the skills students need to learn. The ePortal makes it all much easier as you can word search as well as scroll down the pages. If the book is well-written, students will in any case want to read more than the ‘data’ they mined. Patricia: There is a lack of authoritative digital resources in art and architectural history, which is one of the main reasons we developed the ePortal. Other than the
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complication of securing image files and the rights to reproduce them, why else do you think art history has lagged so far behind other areas of the humanities in digital publishing? Marcia: I think the problem lies with publishers rather than with authors. It is probably true that some older authors are wedded to hard copy books and, indeed, there is no doubt that the pleasure of a bound book cannot be replicated online. However, possibly due to commercial constraints, publishers solicit either textbooks (minimally illustrated and generally poor in production values) or books that they conceive of as appealing not only to art and architectural historians but to that amorphous thing ‘the general public’. Publishers have never jettisoned the idea that any book on visual culture is also a ‘coffee table’ book, or its more recent variant the museum/gallery book. Both are by definition hard copies, and are characterised by intellectually undemanding text and lots of colour plates. Patricia: We selected an ePub format for the ePortal, for various reasons relating to desired functionality, such as searching by text or image, which means that the platform does not retain the original layout and design of a previously published book. What did you think when you first saw your book on the platform? Marcia: I like the fact that you don’t have to turn pages and I prefer the fact that it is a totally different experience from reading a physical book. Some of the illustrations are also an improvement on the original book. So, for example, plate 97 (Adam Viscount Duncan by Henri-Pierre Danloux) is in black-and-white in the book, and in colour on the ePortal. The only downside in comparison to other work I do online is that some of the plates are not sufficiently high-resolution to zoom in and reveal additional details. I understand that high-resolution images are not always made available by museums for use in publications, but we have become accustomed to using the Internet for image searches, so on a digital platform this may come as a surprise. Patricia: Did you know that an individual can search the site by image, with results indicating all the chapters in which that particular image is reproduced and discussed? Marcia: I did not know about that particular facility, but now, having tried it out, I can see that it would be very useful. I was equally very intrigued to see that by searching under my name I was able to see all the other authors who
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had referenced my work. Never having bothered with citation indexes (life is too short!), frankly I was astonished. Patricia: Have you used the ePortal in your own research? Marcia: I have used it in quite a limited way. I tend still to purchase books, largely second-hand, as I love my bookshelves, which are a visible history of my working life; but under pandemic lockdown I have had to learn new ways of getting to my sources and in this respect the ePortal is exemplary. Patricia: In addition to converting previously published books, the ePortal has the ability to publish born-digital books. Could you envision publishing born-digital scholarship? Marcia: I am totally committed to electronic publishing and currently put as much of my work as possible onto open-access platforms such as ResearchGate and academia.org. I provide PDFs to anyone who asks. The ePortal has confirmed my view that this is where we should be. I would certainly consider a born-digital publication and would advise others to do the same. There is no doubt that students read online these days rather than hard copy, and we all want to reach as many readers as possible. Patricia: What might you say to another author who is considering adding a book to the ePortal? Marcia: Go for it!
Page 15 Four webpages in the Art & Architecture ePortal. Three are from the digital edition of Marcia Pointon, Hanging the Head: Portraiture and Social Formation in Eighteenth-Century England. A fourth (top right) shows images related to Anthony van Dyck’s portrait Princess Henrietta of Lorraine (1634) from across ePortal publications. Courtesy of Yale University Press.
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Page 17 Cover of Marcia Pointon, Hanging the Head: Portraiture and Social Formation in Eighteenth-Century England, 1993. Courtesy of Yale University Press. Pages 178–179 from the print edition of Marcia Pointon, Hanging the Head: Portraiture and Social Formation in Eighteenth-Century England, 1993. Courtesy of Yale University Press.
Gilt Leather at Gwydir Castle
Clare Taylor, a Senior Lecturer in Art History at the Open University, is a specialist on historic British interiors and decoration. Drawing on her research into the decorative furnishings at Gwydir Castle in North Wales, she introduces readers to the long-understudied art form of gilt leather wall hangings. This work is part of a larger project, the first full investigation of the people, places and objects associated with gilt leather rooms across the British Isles, which was supported by a PMC mid-career fellowship awarded in spring 2020. In 1908, Country Life featured two articles on the castle and gardens at Gwydir near Llanrwst in Caernarvonshire. Unusually for the time, the magazine devoted considerable space to describing the castle’s decoration and furnishings, noting that at Gwydir a ‘love of antiquity’ had been strong, as demonstrated ‘in the form not of leaving things alone, but of rearranging old material’. Amongst this ‘old material’ were the gilt leather panels hung in several rooms at the castle, described as ‘old Cordoba leather wall-hangings’. Gilt leather has long been a neglected and little understood aspect of elite domestic interiors in Britain, often ignored in favour of other costly wallcoverings such as painted hangings or tapestries. The term ‘gilt leather’ is also something of a misnomer, since the hangings were created not with gold but with silver leaf, to which yellow varnish was applied to simulate the effects of gilding. Hangings were made using individual prepared animal skins, which could be both embossed from the reverse and stamped from the front and decorated with colours as well as metallic finishes. The decorated skins were then usually stitched together to create larger panels known as ‘pieces’, used either for hanging on the wall or to create screens and other decorative furnishings. In the early modern period, the making of gilt leather was widespread, stretching from North Africa to Northern Europe, and by the seventeenth century it had reached the towns of the Dutch Republic as well as across the Channel to England. Dutch artists such as Pieter de Hooch included gilt leather hangings and screens in their still lifes and interior scenses reflecting new tastes for this luxurious household furnishing. In Britain, it was nevertheless often mistakenly
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referred to as ‘Spanish Leather’, and a room hung with gilt leather would be described as ‘The Spanish Room’ or even ‘The Cordoba Room’. This was still the case as late as 1971, when the designer and early historian of leather, J. W. Waterer, published his history of the material in Europe from 800 to 1800, entitled Spanish Leather. Gwydir was unusual not only because of the number of rooms and items of furniture that were decorated with gilt leather, but also because its hangings showed a wide range of designs and manufacturing techniques. H. Avray Tipping, the Country Life correspondent who in all likelihood wrote the two articles in 1908, noted that in the breakfast room the leather had a gold ground pattern with birds, flowers and grapes hung as a frieze above the linen-fold panelling, a design he associated with Spain and with the traditional story that the hangings were acquired by Sir Richard Wynn (c.1588–1649) on a diplomatic mission to Spain in 1623. In fact, early photographs show that the vertical scrolling pattern was produced by embossing, and their design is now associated not with Spain, but with the Dutch Republic. By the time of the 1921 sale of Gwydir’s contents, the room had been renamed the ‘Oak Parlour’ and its gilt leather was described as a ‘rare and handsome Antique Spanish leather frieze, 3ft. deep, which is decorated in multi-coloured flowers and birds on gold ground’. Gilt leather hangings were used in several rooms at the castle as an integral part of the decoration, characterised by colour, pattern and the ability to reflect light, in contrast to wood panelling. Photographs in a late nineteenth-century album show the ‘State’ bedroom and hall hung with formalised floral designs which, like the breakfast room, were used as horizontal friezes above the panelling or the wainscot. In the dining room, a further frieze was hung, stamped in a series of different patterns over small-scale repeating motifs executed in colours, silvering and gilt. The motifs alternate to create stripes, separated by narrow silvered bands. A wide strapwork border that hung below the ceiling was again executed in gilt and silvering, enhancing the material’s reflective qualities. This gilt leather’s origins were English, as evidenced by the repeating floral motifs (including a stylised rose) characteristic of known English makers. In the sixteenth century, the Wynn family had established the family’s power base in the Conwy Valley and rebuilt Gwydir. In the seventeenth century, Sir Richard furthered the family’s connections at court as both groom of the bedchamber to the future Charles I and
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later as treasurer to Queen Henrietta Maria. Sir Richard’s aesthetic tastes were no doubt developed through his associations at court and were reflected in the decoration of his London house on the Strand. According to the inventory taken on Sir Richard’s death, gilt leather formed part of the decorative scheme in the house’s lobby, where twenty-two pieces of canvas were hung, described as ‘ombryded’ with gilt leather, meaning it was perhaps stitched or ‘embroidered’ onto the textile hangings. Gilt leather could also be used for upholstery, and here it was frequently used to carry through a colour-scheme between wall hangings and seat furniture. A second space at the house on the Strand, the studio, which was set apart and perhaps even constituted another building, illustrates this adaptability. It was decorated with seven pieces of blue cloth hanging with a ‘list of guilt leather round about’, evidently forming a border. This colour scheme was designed to work with other furnishings in the room, including a blue tablecloth with a gilt border and two chairs upholstered in blue. Evidence elsewhere suggests that gilt leather, like freestanding pieces of furniture, could be moved between houses, so it is conceivable that the hangings and other gilt leather objects may have been moved between London and North Wales. Although it is difficult to say how far the schemes at Gwydir reflected nineteenth-century or earlier arrangements, they certainly serve to illustrate the skills of gilt leather makers and the sophistication of the craft they pursued.
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Pages 21–22 Gwydir Castle, Wales, 14 October 2015. Photographed by Tom Parnell. Courtesy of Flickr.com (CC–BY-SA 2.0). Page 24 “Gwydir Castle”, Country Life, 27 June 1908, p. 1943. Courtesy of Future Life Publishing Ltd. “Gwydir Castle, Dining Room with gilt leather frieze”, Gwydir Castle sale catalogue, 1895. The National Library of Wales (247). Courtesy of the National Library of Wales (public domain). Page 25 Pieter de Hooch, Leisure Time in an Elegant Setting (detail), circa 1663-65, oil on canvas, 55 × 66 cm. Collection of The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (1975.1.144). Courtesy of The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Robert Lehman Collection, 1975 (public domain). Page 27 Gwydir Castle, dining room gilt leather frieze and strapwork border above wainscot. Courtesy of Clare Taylor. Gwydir Castle, dining room gilt leather frieze and strapwork border above wainscot (detail of stamped repeating striped motif). Courtesy of Clare Taylor.
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