Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration (DDR) - Sample Pages

Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration (DDR): Principles of Intervention and Management in Peacekeeping Operations TABLE OF CONTENTS Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi Format of Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix Method of Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x LESSON 1 – THE UN APPROACH TO DDR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4

Rationale and Objectives of DDR DDR within Multidimensional UN Peacekeeping Key Characteristics of DDR Summary of Key Guidance on the UN Approach to DDR

LESSON 2 – CONTEXT OF UN DDR PROGRAMMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5

DDR within the Transition from Conflict to Peace The Political and Security Environment of DDR Operations The Social and Economic Environment of DDR Operations DDR and Other Humanitarian and Peace-Building Programmes Summary of the UN DDR Context

LESSON 3 – ACTORS OF DDR PROGRAMMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37

3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4

Participants and Beneficiaries Eligibility and Screening Mechanisms National and International Actors Summary of DDR Actors

LESSON 4 – DDR PLANNING AND PROGRAMME DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5

The Five Phases of DDR Planning Institutional Requirements for Planning DDR Programme Design National Institutions for DDR Summary of Key Guidance on DDR Planning

LESSON 5 – DISARMAMENT AND SMALL ARMS CONTROL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83

5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4

Basic Principles of Disarmament The Four Main Phases of Disarmament SALW Control, Security and Development Summary of Key Guidance on Disarmament and SALW Control

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LESSON 6 – DEMOBILIZATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109

6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9

The Two Approaches to Demobilization Planning for Demobilization Activities During Demobilization Choosing and Constructing a Demobilization Site Managing a Demobilization Site Discharge and Reinsertion Special Case: Cross-Border Population Movements Key Actions for DDR Programmes when Dealing with Cross-Border Groups Summary of Key Guidance on Demobilization

LESSON 7 – UN MILITARY AND POLICE ROLES IN DDR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137

7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9

The Military Component The Military Contribution to DDR Cooperation and Coordination between the Military Component and Civilian DDR Unit/Team Pre-Deployment Planning UN Police Roles and Responsibilities UNPOL’s Involvement in DDR Community-Based Policing Police Reform and Restructuring Summary of Key Guidance on UN Military and Police Roles and Responsibilities

LESSON 8 – SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC REINTEGRATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.9

Approaches to Reintegration Specific Planning Considerations Information, Counselling and Referral Economic Reintegration Social Reintegration Public Information and Sensitization Media and DDR Summary of Key Guidance on Social and Economic Reintegration and Public Information

LESSON 9 – WOMEN, GENDER, YOUTH AND CHILDREN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9

Gender and DDR: Obstacles and Eligibility Criteria Gender-Responsive and Female-Specific DDR Planning and Programming Youth and DDR Socioeconomic Reintegration Strategies for Young Ex-Combatants Children and DDR Issues in Developing Child-Specific DDR Programmes Practical Issues in Child-Specific DDR Programmes The Paris Principles (2007) Summary of Key Guidance on Women, Youth, Children and DDR

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LESSON 10 – PROGRAMME SUPPORT, MONITORING AND EVALUATION . . . . . . . . . . .213

10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8

DDR Support Requirements Logistic Support in a Peacekeeping Mission Mission Management Structure Finance and Budgeting Personnel and Staffing Monitoring and Evaluation of DDR Programmes Developing a Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E) Strategy and Framework for DDR Summary of Key Guidance on Programme Support, Finance and M&E of DDR Programmes

LESSON 11 – HEALTH, HIV/AIDS AND FOOD AID ISSUES IN DDR PROGRAMMES . . . . 245

11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 11.8

Health and DDR Health in the DDR Planning Process Health Actions during Demobilization and Reintegration HIV/AIDS and DDR HIV/AIDS Initiatives Food Aid Programmes in Support of DDR Planning and Implementing Food Aid in DDR Summary of Key Guidance on Health, HIV/AIDS, Food Aid Programmes in DDR

APPENDIX A – LIST OF PEACEKEEPING MISSIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270 APPENDIX B – LIST OF ACRONYMS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .272 APPENDIX C – GLOSSARY OF DDR TERMS AND PRINCIPLES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .275 APPENDIX D – UN DOCUMENTS AND LEGAL INSTRUMENTS GUIDING DDR. . . . . . . . . 300 APPENDIX E – GENERIC (TYPICAL) DDR WORK PLAN TEMPLATE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 APPENDIX F – A ‘MIXED’ DDR STRATEGY FOR DEALING WITH ARMED FORCES AND GROUPS IN DRC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .308 APPENDIX G – IMPLEMENTATION TIME-FRAME FOR DDR IN HAITI (2005-6). . . . . . . . . 309 APPENDIX H – FRAMEWORK FOR ASSESSING THE OPERATIONAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DDR. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312

END-OF-COURSE EXAMINATION INSTRUCTIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315

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FOREWORD The UN first became involved in disarmament, demobilization and reintegration (DDR) through the UN Observer Group in Central America (ONUCA), which was deployed in 1989.

Since then, the UN has carried out and supported DDR programmes in more than 20 countries around the world, both within and outside peacekeeping operations.

Although considerable experience has been acquired over these years, the UN continued to lack a common strategic framework to carry out and support DDR programmes. Each new DDR initiative had to be developed almost from scratch, relying mostly on the knowledge and experience of DDR programme staff, who often turned to the several reports, studies and works on DDR issues prepared by the UN, donor agencies, international and national non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and research institutes. However, guidance could be only inferred, was not always clear, and often became difficult to translate into practice.

As a result, DDR was carried out in a fractured way; it lacked adequate coordination among the UN peacekeeping mission, agencies, programmes and funds; and it was compromised by poor planning and support. A consensus has therefore emerged among the UN and DDR stakeholders about the need to improve the Organization’s performance in this area.

The IDDRS - Integrated Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration Standards were developed by the UN Inter-Agency Working Group on Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration (IAWG – DDR) between 2004 and 2006. Fourteen UN departments, agencies, programmes and funds, and the International Organization for Migration are represented in the IAWG – DDR.1 The UN Integrated Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration Standards (IDDRS) provide direction and guidance to those engaged in preparing, implementing and supporting disarmament, demobilization and reintegration (DDR) programmes. Although the IDDRS were developed for DDR programmes taking place in peacekeeping contexts, direction and guidance are also applicable to DDR programmes taking place in non-peacekeeping contexts.

The IDDRS bring together knowledge, lessons and good practice on a wide range of issues from concepts, policies and strategies to programme planning, design, management, monitoring and evaluation.

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Department of Disarmament Affairs, Department of Peacekeeping Operations, Department of Political Affairs, Department of Public Information, International Labour Organization, International Organization for Migration, Joint UN Programme on HIV/AIDS, UN Children’s Fund, UN Development Programme, UN Development Fund for Women, UN Institute for Disarmament Research, UN Population Fund, Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees, World Food Programme, and World Health Organization.

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The IDDRS were designed to provide a set of policies, guidelines and procedures to UNsupported DDR operations in peacekeeping contexts; however, the IDDRS are relevant to all those engaged in DDR, whether as part of a UN programme or not, independent of the establishment of a UN peacekeeping operation.

Staff and consultants associated with the following organizations who work on DDR at the Headquarters and country levels will benefit from the IDDRS (these people are also referred to as ‘DDR practitioners’): •

UN missions, agencies, departments, programmes and funds;

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National commissions on DDR (NCDDR);

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Other national and local authorities;

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International and regional organizations, as well as national and international NGOs developing and carrying out DDR programmes in their own right or acting as implementing partners;

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Multilateral and bilateral agencies and other donors; and

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Other stakeholders interested in DDR.

Apart from being a key document for the formulation of national DDR frameworks, policies, strategies and programmes, the IDDRS are also useful for management, evaluation and staff training. DDR practitioners can use the IDDRS for the following purposes: •

Framework, policy and strategy formulation: The IDDRS consolidate over 15 years of UN lessons and good practices on DDR issues. The document includes all the necessary information for: a) Negotiating and preparing overall DDR frameworks, chapters and sections of peace agreements, as well as national DDR policies and strategies; and b) Defining a common and integrated international approach to support national DDR efforts in a particular country;

•

Programme development: The IDDRS can also be used for making informed decisions and developing a single and coherent national DDR programme, from planning to design and from implementation to monitoring and evaluation;

•

Programme management: The IDDRS bring together the knowledge and guidance needed to manage DDR programmes more efficiently and effectively. The IDDRS also provide guidance on mission and programme support, finance and budgeting, and personnel and staffing;

•

Programme evaluation: The IDDRS lay down DDR standards, and should therefore be widely used and referred to by evaluators when assessing whether programme outcomes have been achieved;

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•

Staff training: The IDDRS are an excellent resource for training and should be widely used and referred to in induction, orientation and training initiatives. At the country level, these initiatives should provide an overview of the IDDRS before introducing DDR staff to specific national DDR policies, strategies and programmes.2

The basis for the composition of this course is the integral text of the IDDRS as well as the Operational Guide to the IDDRS. The Peace Operations Training Institute is proud to associate itself at such an early stage of an important doctrinal move of the United Nations, with the integration and consolidation of DDR principles and managerial approaches.

Yvan Conoir 2007

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As of 2006, a consortium of training institutions – the Integrated DDR Training Group – have been using the IDDRS as the basis for all the training programmes they provide. Their training course schedule can be found at http://www.unddr.org.

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FORMAT OF STUDY This course is designed for independent study at a pace determined by the student.

Course format and materials permit: • MODULAR STUDY • EASE OF REVIEW • INCREMENTAL LEARNING

Please visit http://www.peaceopstraining.org/course_extras to view a video introduction to this course by author Yvan Conoir.

STUDENT’S RESPONSIBILITY The student is responsible for: • • •

Learning course material Completing the End-of-Course Examination Submitting the End-of-Course Examination

Please consult your enrolment confirmation email or the end of this course for examination submission instructions.

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METHOD OF STUDY The following are suggestions for how to proceed with this course.

Though the student may have alternate approaches that are effective, the following hints have worked for many.

•

Before you begin actual studies, first browse through the overall course material.

Notice the lesson outlines, which give you an idea of what will be involved as you proceed.

•

The material should be logical and straightforward. Instead of memorizing individual details, strive to understand concepts and overall perspectives in regard to the United Nations system.

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Set up guidelines regarding how you want to schedule your time.

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Study the lesson content and the learning objectives. At the beginning of each lesson, orient yourself to the main points. If you are able to, read the material twice to ensure maximum understanding and retention, and let time elapse between readings.

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When you finish a lesson, take the End-of-Lesson Quiz. For any error, go back to the lesson section and re-read it. Before you go on, be aware of the discrepancy in your understanding that led to the error.

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After you complete all of the lessons, take time to review the main points of each lesson. Then, while the material is fresh in your mind, take the End-of-Course Examination in one sitting.

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Your exam will be scored, and if you achieve a passing grade of 75 percent or higher, you will be awarded a Certificate of Completion. If you score below 75 percent, you will be given one opportunity to take a second version of the End-ofCourse Examination.

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One note about spelling is in order. This course was written in English as it is used in the United Kingdom.

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LESSON 1 THE UN APPROACH TO DDR 1.1

Rationale and Objectives of DDR

1.2

DDR within Multidimensional UN Peacekeeping

1.3

Key Characteristics of DDR

1.4

Summary of Key Guidance on the UN Approach to DDR

Lesson 1 / The UN Approach to DDR

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LESSON OBJECTIVES After completing this lesson, the student should be able to: •

Explain and justify the rationale and mandate of DDR;

•

Recognise why DDR has become so important in the development of multidimensional UN peacekeeping operations; and

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Identify the main characteristics of DDR.

Please visit http://www.peaceopstraining.org/course_extras to view a video introduction to this lesson by course author Yvan Conoir.

Lesson 1 / The UN Approach to DDR

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Introduction Since the late 1980s, the United Nations (UN) has increasingly been called upon to support the implementation of disarmament, demobilization and reintegration (DDR) programmes in countries emerging from conflict. In a peacekeeping context, this trend has been part of a move towards complex operations that seek to deal with a wide variety of issues ranging from security to human rights, rule of law, elections and economic governance, rather than traditional peacekeeping where two warring parties were separated by a ceasefire line patrolled by blue-helmeted soldiers.

The changed nature of peacekeeping and post-conflict recovery strategies requires close coordination among UN departments, agencies, funds and programmes. In the past five years alone, DDR has been included in the mandates for multidimensional peacekeeping operations in Burundi, Côte d’Ivoire, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Haiti, Liberia and Sudan.

Simultaneously, the UN has increased its DDR engagement in non-peacekeeping contexts, namely in Afghanistan, the Central African Republic, the Congo, Indonesia (Aceh), Niger, Somalia, the Solomon Islands and Uganda.

While the UN has acquired significant experience in the planning and management of DDR programmes, it has yet to establish a collective approach to DDR, or clear and usable policies and guidelines to facilitate coordination and cooperation among UN agencies, departments and programmes.

1.1

Rationale and Objectives of DDR

The UN is increasingly engaged in complex DDR operations, both as part of peacekeeping operations and in non-peacekeeping contexts. The increase in the scale, complexity, scope and type of the UN’s work in DDR has required a change in the Organization’s approach. In the past, DDR programmes were often carried out in a disjointed and un-integrated way due to poor coordination, planning and support, and sometimes competition between and among peacekeeping operations, agencies, funds and programmes. As a result, national and international efforts to establish security were not adequately supported, thus weakening the chances of a successful peace process.

The Brahimi Report (A/55/305; S/2000/809) of August 2000 stressed the importance of all UN agencies, funds and programmes working with, or taking part in, UN peace operations that work towards the same goal. Because DDR is a multidimensional process that draws on the expertise of a number of actors to support field operations, an integrated approach is vital to ensure that these actors and processes are working in harmony and toward the same end. This in turn requires good, comprehensive and coordinated concepts, policies, structures and processes to guide and implement integrated operations.

As part of the formal peace-building process in countries emerging from armed conflict, the DDR of armed combatants from both State and non-State armed forces and groups can help establish a climate of confidence and security, which is necessary for recovery activities to begin.

Lesson 1 / The UN Approach to DDR

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The establishment of a DDR process is usually agreed to and defined during a ceasefire, the ending of hostilities or a comprehensive peace agreement. This provides the legally binding political, operational and legal framework for the process. Yet in many post-conflict situations, the parties who have agreed to a ceasefire or peace agreement neither trust each other nor have the capacity to design, plan and implement DDR. A third party such as the UN is therefore often called on to act as a broker to the peace agreement and to provide assistance for the planning and implementation of peace-building processes such as DDR. Disarmament and demobilization, followed by the long-term reintegration of excombatants into civilian life, help to deal with the post-conflict security problems by providing ex-combatants with an alternative to the ways of making a living (livelihoods) and military support networks that they may have relied upon during the conflict, but which are no longer relevant in peacetime. Yet DDR alone cannot resolve conflict or prevent violence; it can, however, help establish a secure environment so that other elements of a peace-building strategy, including weapons management, security sector reform (SSR), elections and rule of law reform, can proceed.

The UN sees DDR as an early step in a series of peace-building processes. DDR focuses on the immediate management of people previously associated with armed forces and groups; it lays the groundwork for safeguarding and sustaining the communities in which these individuals can live as law-abiding citizens; and it builds national capacity for long-term peace, security and development.

Lesson 1 / The UN Approach to DDR

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DDR within Multidimensional UN Peacekeeping

As part of its peacekeeping work, the UN has been involved in DDR processes for over 15 years, amassing considerable experience and knowledge of the coordination, design, implementation, financing and monitoring of DDR programmes. Integrated DDR originates from various parts of the UN’s core mandate, as set out in the Charter of the UN, particularly the areas of peace and security, economic and social development, human rights, and humanitarian support. UN departments, agencies, programmes and The general view of the 47th meeting of the ten-nation Committee on funds are uniquely able to Disarmament held at the Palais des Nations in Geneva, Switzerland, under the chairmanship of the representatives of Poland and the United Kingdom (27 June support integrated DDR 1960). (Source: UN Photo #133039) processes within multidimensional peacekeeping operations, providing such operations with breadth of scope, neutrality, impartiality and capacity-building through the sharing of technical DDR skills. DDR should also be linked to broader security sector reform, including judicial, police and military restructuring.

Concept and Definitions of DDR The aim of the DDR process is to contribute to security and stability in post-conflict situations so that recovery and development can begin. The DDR of ex-combatants is a complex process, with political, military, security, humanitarian and socioeconomic dimensions. It aims to deal with the post-conflict security problem that results from ex-combatants being left without livelihoods or support networks, other than their former comrades, during the critical transition period from conflict to peace and development. This view of DDR has several important policy and operational implications: •

DDR is only one of many post-conflict stabilization interventions. It should therefore be planned and closely coordinated as part of the other broader political and reconstruction efforts that are taking place at the same time;

•

DDR processes should deal very thoroughly with all aspects of disarmament and weapons control and management. While a DDR programme focuses on the immediate stabilization of the situation in a country through a disarmament process, longer-term

Lesson 1 / The UN Approach to DDR

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stability can only be achieved through responsible and carefully thought out arms management programmes; •

DDR programmes should support the process of turning combatants into productive citizens. This process starts in the demobilization phase, during which the structures of armed forces and groups are broken down and combatants formally acquire civilian status;

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DDR programmes are designed to achieve sustainable reintegration. On their own, DDR programmes cannot do this. Therefore, DDR should be linked with the broader processes of national reconstruction and development;

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The ultimate aim of DDR programmes is to prevent a return to violent conflict, i.e., to make peace irreversible. To achieve this, DDR programmes should encourage trust and confidence and deal with the root causes of conflict;

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DDR is a flexible process that should be adapted to the unique needs of a particular country (and region). Depending on circumstances, not all of its aspects may be employed in a particular situation, and they may not be carried out in the same order during each operation;

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Finally, the UN should use the concept and abbreviation “DDR” as a comprehensive term that includes related activities, such as repatriation, rehabilitation, reconciliation and so on, that aim to achieve reintegration. These activities should therefore be made a part of the overall concept and planning of reintegration processes, where necessary.

In his May 2005 note to the General Assembly (A/C.5/59/31), the Secretary-General defined the elements of DDR as set out in the following box. These definitions are also used for drawing up budgets where UN Member States have agreed to fund the disarmament and demobilization (including reinsertion) phases of DDR from the peacekeeping assessed budget.

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Disarmament Disarmament is the collection, documentation, control and disposal of small arms, ammunition, explosives and light and heavy weapons of combatants and often also of the civilian population. Disarmament also includes the development of responsible arms management programmes.

Demobilization Demobilization is the formal and controlled discharge of active combatants from armed forces or other armed groups. The first stage of demobilization may extend from the processing of individual combatants in temporary centres to the massing of troops in camps designated for this purpose (cantonment sites, encampments, assembly areas or barracks). The second stage of demobilization encompasses the support package provided to the demobilized, which is called reinsertion.

Reinsertion Reinsertion is the assistance offered to ex-combatants during demobilization but prior to the longer-term process of reintegration. Reinsertion is a form of transitional assistance to help cover the basic needs of ex-combatants and their families and can include transitional safety allowances, food, clothes, shelter, medical services, short-term education, training, employment and tools. While reintegration is a long-term, continuous social and economic process of development, reinsertion is short-term material and/or financial assistance to meet immediate needs and can last up to one year.

Reintegration Reintegration is the process by which ex-combatants acquire civilian status and gain sustainable employment and income. Reintegration is essentially a social and economic process with an open time-frame, primarily taking place in communities at the local level.

It is part of the general development of a country and a national responsibility, and it often necessitates long-term external assistance.

DDR Strategies In order to achieve DDR, the UN may employ or support a variety of DDR strategies adapted to suit each context. These may include: •

Short- and long-term disarmament strategies: The removal of weapons from combatants is only one aspect of disarmament within DDR. A broad range of short- and long-term activities should accompany this process, including: community-based weapons collection and control programmes; weapons destruction; the (re)establishment of domestic legal systems to control weapons possession, regulate local weapons production industries, and manage the supply and transportation of weapons; and securing State stockpiles to prevent leakage of arms into society. External measures such as international and regional small arms and light weapons conventions and arms embargoes must be used to devise cooperative regional strategies to control the flow of illicit weapons across borders;

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LESSON 1 END-OF-LESSON QUIZ

1. The establishment of a DDR process is usually agreed to and defined within: a. A ceasefire, the ending of hostilities or a comprehensive peace agreement; b. Ongoing hostilities and a comprehensive war plan; c. An electoral process as part of the voters registration; d. An economic and financial restructuring led by the IMF.

2. Historically, DDR originates from: a. The UN Charter in Chapters VI and VIII; b. The UN Convention on Refugees of 1951; c. The UN Covenant on Political and Civilian Rights; d. Various parts of the UN’s core mandate.

3. Which of the following is not a category of people that should be taken into consideration in DDR programmes? a. Children associated with armed forces and groups; b. Ex-combatants with disabilities and chronic illnesses; c. Mercenaries; d. Male and female adult combatants.

4. The concept of DDR as a comprehensive term includes related activities like: a. Retaliation, Reciprocity and Regulation of forces; b. Repatriation, Rehabilitation and Reconciliation; c. Rearmament, Regulation and Restructuring of troops; d. Reconciliation, Rearmament and Retaliation.

5. The UN Secretary-General defines Disarmament as: a. Surrendering of all troops before they become prisoners of war; b. Retrocession of all arms and weapons to the ICRC at the end of a conflict; c. Collection, documentation, control and disposal of small arms of combatants; d. Collection of heavy weapons as a first step towards a comprehensive ceasefire.

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6. The UN Secretary-General defines Demobilization as the: a. Control and surrender of all fighting groups within the civilian population; b. Massing of troops in their barracks pending a definite ceasefire; c. The disbanding of armed groups or militia in a peacekeeping operation; d. Formal and controlled discharge of active combatants from armed forces or other armed groups.

7. Which of the following is not a situation wherein DDR should be called? a. Disbanding of armed groups and militias; b. Protection of cultural sites in a warlike environment; c. Downsizing of State armies or armed forces; d. Re-establishment of legislation controlling arms in a situation of generalized social conflict.

8. Which of the following is not considered as being a combatant? a. A person arriving in a host country as a refugee; b. A person involved in recruiting or training military personnel; c. A member of a national army or an irregular military; d. A person arriving in a host country carrying arms or in military uniform.

9. All UN DDR programmes should be: a. Internationally owned and self-centred; b. Inflexible and accountable to the ex-combatants; c. Separated from other peacekeeping and peace-building operations, and secretive; d. Integrated and flexible.

10. The UN Secretary-General defines Reinsertion as: a. The assistance offered to ex-combatants during demobilization and prior to reintegration; b. The assistance offered to ex-combatants following the reintegration process; c. The assistance offered by local institutions and populations following disbanding of illegal combatants; d. A life-long process of transitional assistance supported by international donors.

ANSWERS: 1a, 2d, 3c, 4b, 5c, 6d, 7b, 8a, 9d, 10a