/hall

United Nations Member State: Australia—“Lucky Country” or Terrorist Target?

BY

Aidan Hall A T H E S I S P R E S E N T E D I N PA R T I A L C O M P L E T I O N O F T H E R E Q U I R E M E N T S O F

The Certificate-of-Training in United Nations Peace Support Operations

United Nations Member State: Australia – ‘Lucky Country’ or Terrorist Target?

A Thesis By Aidan Hall Post-Graduate Student Peace and Conflict Studies, University of Sydney, Australia

Presented in partial completion of the requirements of The Certificate-of-Training in United Nations Peace Support Operations Submitted: _____________________________________ Forwarded Recommending Approval: _____________________________________ Approval: _____________________________________

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List of Contents 1) Introduction ………………………………………………………………4 2) Critical Context – a comparison of the protagonists ……………………..6 i.

The Status Quo and Defining Terrorism ……………………..6

ii.

Indonesia and Terrorism: A quick summary ………………...13

iii.

Australia and the United Nations …………………………….20

iv.

‘Lucky County’ or Terrorist Target? …………………………25

v.

Counter Terrorist Strategies: Linking Australian Business and Government ……………….32

3) Integrative Conclusion: …………………………………………………...37 4) End Notes …………………………………………………………………39 5) Bibliography ………………………………………………………………48

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UNITED NATIONS MEMBER STATE: AUSTRALIA – ‘LUCKY COUNTRY’ OR TERRORIST TARGET? INTRODUCTION One of the most popular appellations used to describe Australia is the phrase ‘lucky country.’ With its breathtaking natural beauty and glorious climate, Australia is home to some 21 million people of mixed races including its indigenous people – the Australian Aborigine.

Australia’s abundance of natural resources and burgeoning economy have for the last few decades allowed the majority of Australians a fairly comfortable and affluent lifestyle. Though in recent years, it has become more financially challenging, the ‘great Australian dream’ of buying one’s own home for some is still possible.

Professor Anthony Giddens, Sociologist and Head of the London School of Economics, suggests that the risks which have concerned us in the past have been natural or external; over which we have no control such as floods, plagues and famines. However, many of the identified risks today have emerged out of our own actions – such as AIDS epidemic, addictions, nuclear events, holy wars and terrorism.

Until recently, the concept of terrorism has seemed distant and unfamiliar to most Australians. The aim of this research is to investigate if the ‘lucky country’ has in fact run out of ‘luck’ figuratively speaking and is now facing potential terrorist threat in the 21st century.

In order to come to some understanding of Australia’s vulnerability to terrorism, this investigation will firstly discuss this rising phenomenon, as terrorism is not generally dealt with comprehensively. An endeavour is made in explaining the importance of a definition of terrorism the world can agree on, as without a proper definition, combat against this type of criminal activity becomes almost impossible.

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Poverty and ignorance are food for extremism and provide support for radical groups rooted in nationalism and religious fundamentalism. Since Osama bin Laden and his regional deputy Abu Baker Bashir, declared Australia as an enemy of Islam, an examination is made of South-East Asian regional instability and especially since the Bali bombings where a large number of Australians were brutally massacred. The archipelago of Indonesia is explored as the region is now regarded as a ‘hot spot’ of global terrorist activity.

Secondly, this research looks at why Australia is specifically singled out and argues that regardless of Canberra’s support of the US march to war, Australia remains vulnerable to terrorist atrocities.

Due to the changing nature of contemporary terrorism, chemical, biological, radiological (CBR) devices, weapons of mass destruction (WMD), maritime piracy and Information Technology (IT) terrorism are all discussed as a means of possible, if not probable, attack on homeland Australia.

Finally, counter terrorist strategies vis-a-vis international cooperation are explored in context of Australia engaging in dialogue with other countries in the region to help support one another in the aftermath of a cataclysmic incident. The economic costs of terrorism are investigated and tied in with how the Australian government, together with corporate business, can pool their ‘brain-power’ and workshop methodologies to increase their ability to minimise threat and strategies to successful operations, post shock.

These focal points and the United Nations (UN) operations are intimately connected and therefore, are best discussed in context of their relationship to one another.

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UNITED NATIONS MEMBER STATE: AUSTRALIA ‘LUCKY COUNTRY’ OR TERRORIST TARGET? CRITICAL CONTEXT – A COMPARISON OF THE PROTAGONISTS The Status Quo and Defining Terrorism The Latin word ‘terrere’ means to frighten and was first used in a wider context during the French Revolution in the Reign of Terror (September 1793- July 1794) when France’s last Queen, the unloved Marie Antoinette along with some 17,000 people from all over France were beheaded.1

Since then terrorism has become one of the most challenging problems facing the modern world. It has evolved into a specialised and sometimes sophisticated, largescale type of criminal conduct where innocent, defenceless and unrelated civilians are victims along with the destruction of physical assets of a state’s infrastructure and cultural sites. Whether it be anti-abortion terrorism, IT terrorism, Armageddonists to ethnic-cleansing - from a legal point of view all forms of terrorist acts are criminal, illegal and always a human rights violation.2

The events of September 11, 2001 have alarmed governments across the world to the possibility of nuclear strikes should fanatical terrorists be successful in their attempts to obtain illicit nuclear weapons and their components. Fortunately, there are many obstacles terrorists face in acquiring individual components without being detected and the technical expertise necessary to assemble nuclear weapons is difficult to engage. Unfortunately, the conclusion of the Cold War, has seen an increase in unemployed nuclear scientists who possess the necessary skills al-Qaeda have been seeking since 1993.3

Detonation of a single nuclear warhead or a CBR device in a major population centre like downtown Manhattan in the United States (US) or Europe carries the potential to escalate into an exchange of nuclear strikes and regional war. Atomic detonation will

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cause large-scale loss of life, mass long-term casualties and considerable damage to the ecosphere. As UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan said in his speech addressing the General Assembly at New York City, “it is hard to imagine how the tragedy of 11th September could have been worse. Yet, the truth is that a single attack involving a nuclear or biological weapon could have killed millions.”4

One underlying event that developed contemporary terrorism was the Cold War. In 1961 then-Soviet premier Khruschev, announced that the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) would support so-called ‘liberation movements’, it caused grave concern to US government intelligentsia. The Cold War period saw alliances between nations normally opposed to each other but allied against commonly perceived enemies.

The US opposing the Soviets on political grounds allied with Afghan and

other Muslim resistance forces to fight the Soviets and the Afghan Soviet puppet regime. A massive expansion of forces to form a guerilla army was achieved by Saudi Arabian, Egyptian, European and the Sino-US coalition which established training camps in Pakistan.5

The operational task was to train Mujahideen units who opposed communism on religious grounds. After 10 years of guerilla warfare the war ended in 1989. US and Saudi Arabian funding had amounted to US$3 billion with logistics taken care of by Pakistan’s Inter Services Intelligence. The large number of 14,000 volunteer recruits from 22 Muslim countries who fought in this irregular army were motivated by the US strategy in widespread stimulation of militant Islam against communist rule.6

After the Afghan-Soviet war transnational terrorists emerged, wishing to apply the same measures against their own governments and the West. Some Mujahideen, sometimes referred to as Afghanis were executed and jailed by their governments upon return; others remained in Afghanistan still fighting with nowhere to go. A sizeable number have been sighted in Bosnia, Chechnya, China, Kashmir, Nigeria, Philippines, Sudan, Tajikistan and the United States. Western, Middle Eastern and Asian Intelligence officials claim it is the influence of the Afghanis that is behind the

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increasing volume of violence by the most extreme fundamentalist movements currently operating in the international arena.7

The Afghanis were fully trained militant guerrilla killers and terrorists with combat experience. Literally, ‘rebels without a cause’ with no vocation and no interest in life other than continuing to fight for Militant Islam, as they had been manipulated and trained to do. Many will engage in any battle where Muslims oppose non-Muslims, whether right or wrong. Many left Afghanistan to take up the ‘cause’ within the ranks of other Islamic organisations, targeting the new enemy consisting of liberal Arab governments and their allies in the West.

Internal instability in Egypt, Algeria,

Tunisia, the Israeli Occupied Territories, Pakistan and the Philippines have been linked to the operations of the Mujahideen. This certainly demonstrates the degree of religious fanaticism instilled in them.8

Funding is the primary concern of terrorists. Unless they are sponsored by a government, they tend to generate funds through criminal activities. The Afghanis ceased to be ‘heroes’ and became ‘villains’ for political reasons and because they began to run a lucrative narcotics trade, including stockpiles, to help fund training camps and terrorist operations. 79% of the world’s illegal opium with a value of US$ 56 million in 2001 is supplied from Afghanistan. This makes Afghanistan the largest producer of opium in the world. Not all-militant training camps closed after the Soviet-Afghan war, and religious schools and other facilities became training schools for further recruits to guerrilla warfare. It is estimated that Mujahideen from 40 countries attended these training camps after the war was officially over.

Subsequently, Islamic students formed an army known as the Taleban and seized much of Afghanistan.9

With the resurgence of Islam around the world, fundamentalists cast blame on Westernisation, urbanisation and industrialisation for new moral and social decline.

Osama bin Ladin developed the al-Qaeda network and transnational terrorist attacks began on US Embassies and other installations around the world in an attempt to promote division between Christians and Muslims, with an overall strategy aimed at

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creating a separate Muslim world. On 22 February 1998 bin Laden announced the creation of the International Islamic Front for Jihad Against the Jews and Crusaders and became preoccupied with the need to rid the Muslim world of those who do not accept his extremist version of Islam. It is reported that bin Ladin, the most hunted terrorist in history, funded US$20 million to rebels of the Militant Islamic Movement.10

As can be seen, religion is much associated with terrorism today and if contemporary Islamic terrorism is to be properly understood, it is necessary to point out that a true Muslim adhering to Islam views terrorism as blasphemy as Islam forbids the killing of women, children, unarmed or surrendered combatants, the destruction of buildings and even the felling of a tree with single green leaf on it. In context of terrorism, Islamic fundamentalism is actually a misnomer.11

The son of US evangelist Billy Graham, Franklin Graham said, “the god of Islam is not the same god. It’s a very different god, and I believe it is a very evil and wicked religion.” The danger with this simplistic view of Islam is the potential it carries to permeate the popular imagination, forming the basis of policy decisions of Western governments and the US. One example to be avoided was a comment by Saxby Chambliss from the US House of Representatives Sub-Committee on Terrorism and Homeland Security, when he told Georgia state law enforcement officials that they should arrest every Muslim that crossed the state line.12

After September 11, representatives of Christianity, Islam, Judaism, Buddhism and other various religions; recognising their faiths share several points in common, especially that of common good for mankind and society’s wellbeing - joined Pope John Paul II in the Italian town of Assisi. About 200 priests, imams, rabbis, patriarchs journeyed to the birthplace of Saint Francis and with the Pope, prayed for peace in the world. Assisi, known as an ancient pilgrimage centre, religious leaders from around the world all vowed to do everything to eliminate the causes of terrorism.13

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The Pope explained that dialogue between the monotheistic religions needs to be credible and marked by mutual respect, knowledge and acceptance. The spiritual bond that united Christians and Muslims must be recognised and developed as a step towards peace for future generations to enjoy.14

Regarded as the successor of Saint Peter, the Pope obviously does not share neither Graham’s nor Chambliss’ sentiments as previously discussed. The present Pope has made it clear his primary mission in life is to reconcile Judaism, Christianity and Islam. In Damascus, the aging pontiff was the first Pope to enter a mosque and was welcomed by Syria’s top Muslim cleric, Shiekh Ammad Kuftaro. In his visit to Kazakstan, the Pope said ‘all’ people of the world are children of god and asked Muslims to join Christians in building a civilisation of love and rejecting violence and hatred.15

It is claimed Osama bin-Laden follows Wahhabism, a fundamentalist movement of the Sunni form of Islam and has become an object of interest because of Wahhabism’s influence to the major sect of government and society of oil-rich Saudi Arabia. The Koran, holy book of the Islamic faith reveres Jesus (Ieshua) as a prophet from God and (despite Wahhabi’s influence in Saudi Arabia) demands protection (Dhimmi) for ‘People of the Book’ that is, Christians and Jews. Terrorists distorting Islam and killing innocent people are committing a blasphemy against Islam and are rejected by devout Muslims.16

Therefore, Graham can not reconcile his assertion on Islam with widely accepted fact.

Al-Qaeda are no more representative of Islam, than the US’s Klu Klux Klan (KKK) and Arcan’s Serbian militia were representative of Christianity.

Further to understanding Islam is the misuse of the word Jehad or Jihad – Arabic for making an effort or struggle. There are in fact many Jehads. For instance, a Jihad on one’s self in times of hardship such as studying. In short, it is considered as being a self-motivating effort to do well, underpinned with prayer. Unfortunately, the term Jihad is misunderstood or mis-used by sections of the media and exploited by power-

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hungry organisations, religious clerics and spiritual leaders based in the Middle East, western Asia, Africa, India and Indonesia to imply a holy war.17

Mis-using a distorted banner of Islam, terrorist acts by Muslims have occurred in Algeria, Angola, Egypt, France, Kashmir, Kenya, India, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Pakistan, Phillippines, South Africa, Syria, Tanzania, Turkey, Tunisia, U.S and Yugoslavia (former).

Non-Muslim terrorist acts were committed in Angola,

Argentina, Austria, Belgium, Bolivia, Columbia, Cyprus, Ecuador, El Salvador, France, Germany, India, Israel, Italy, Japan, Greece, Lebanon, Mexico, Myanmar, Nicaragua, Northern Ireland, Panama, Myanmar, Nicaragua, Northern Ireland, Panama, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Rwanda, Sierra Leonne, Spain, Sudan, Sumatra, Turkey, Uganda, UK, US, Yugoslavia (former) and Venezuela.18

In Algeria alone over 100,000 victims of terrorism were Muslims, killed by religious fanatics. From all over the world, Muslim police officers and soldiers are directly engaged in fighting terrorism and some have paid dearly with their lives.19

There are many more Muslim police and security forces engaged in tracking down alQaeda than non-Muslims.

The KKK, IRA and Kach – the lists of terrorist

organisations / ‘freedom fighters’ are long and yet other religions are not condemned because of the actions of a tiny number of its purported adherents.

The majority of terrorists cannot be attributed to any single religion, but a significant number of cataclysmic terrorist acts may be attributed to small pockets of terrorists distorting their own religion as a convenient way to cover and legitimise their criminal actions in the popular mind of society.20

Even though international terrorism has received a renewed momentum, terrorist crimes have been a concern to the international community since the 1920s when the League of Nations – UN predecessor, addressed the problem. If terrorism in the past was considered a serious irritation, today it has assumed more serious proportions.

Since the September 11 attacks, nations of the world are struggling to arrive at a

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common definition, which will help combat terrorism from a legislative angle and bond the anti-terrorist coalition. Though terrorism is punishable under existing national criminal law and anti-terrorist legislation – UN Security Council in resolution 1373 of 28 September 2001 was a mandatory first step in an international effort to suppress terrorism in its unanimous definition.21

Defining terrorism remains complex, as one government may condemn a terrorist and another government may defend by using the term ‘freedom-fighter.’ For instance, before signing a new UN international treaty against terrorism, Mr Hasmy Agam, the Malaysian representative said acts of ‘pure’ terrorism, involving attacks against innocent civilian populations should be differentiated from legitimate struggles of people fighting for self-determination.22

Defining international terrorism is at the forefront of the UN anti-terrorist efforts as some governments, short of direct participation, support terrorism by transfer of funding, sponsoring spiritual, ideological, diplomatic and political support. This is a motivating factor in the recruitment, running and control of terrorists and their operations. 23 May 2001, in accordance with article 22 (1) saw the UN International Convention for the serious suppression of terrorism through the prosecution and punishment of its executors.

However, improved international security and a

reduction of tension between nations can not come to full fruition without first defining terrorism. Until such a time that any definition will ever be generally agreed upon, peace between states will remain volatile due to terrorist-inspired tension, for example India and Pakistan.23

Terrorists often have more than one motive. It can be a mixture of political, religious, egotistical and financial components blended together. Democratic societies have become a favoured target to terrorists as chances of detection are less, penalties are lighter in democracies than in dictatorships, and media coverage in democracies is more rapid and widespread. The hypocrisy of terrorists is that they expect democratic

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principles to be fully applied when captured, they seek recognition from governments they refuse to recognise and though they expect their human rights to be upheld they refuse to acknowledge violation of their victim’s human rights.24

Indonesia and Terrorism: A quick summary This paper will now move to briefly examine Indonesia, widely perceived as a hub of terrorist activity disposed to violence in South-East Asia.

It is believed amongst those specialising in terrorism that economic hardship will be the greatest underlying cause of terrorism in the 21st century. The distribution of the world’s wealth, resources and opportunities for growth are not only unevenly distributed but in the hands of the minority.

Security in South-East Asia is

increasingly seen in terms of economic performance and political and social stability.

If the economic situation continues to worsen and developing nations are unable to make repayments on advance, the result will be widespread hopelessness and resentment. Mixed with government corruption, as in the case of Indonesia for many decades, revolt, rebellion and regionalised terrorism will be inevitable.25

Consisting of 13,677 islands, Indonesia is the largest archipelago in the world with a population of over 240 million people of whom 87% follow Islam. Clearly, Indonesia is the largest Muslim country in the world and a deeply troubled one at that. Unlike Australia, relatively isolated, stable and prosperous, Indonesia is a developing country without established democratic traditions. With a population expected to grow to 340 million by end of this century can only exacerbate pre-existing social problems such as ethnic tension and high unemployment. This potential breakdown of law and order and economic failure in Indonesia would have incalculable consequences for Australia, as the Indonesian government could take on adventurous foreign policy to divert attention from internal conflicts. Spillover of instability could also cause an influx of large numbers of refugees from the archipelago into neighbouring countries.26

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Issues around the wording of the 1945 Constitution and role of Islam for many Muslims remained unresolved, and the 1950’s saw rebellions in an attempt to make Indonesia an Islamic state. For over 30 years, Indonesia has continued to experience rapid political, technological, economical and socio-cultural change.27

One of the most interesting aspects of the Islamic radical movement in Indonesia is that it is mainly made up of young people under the age of 30. Since 1998, political Islam became liberated from the New Order with Islamic issues becoming central to political debate in Jakarta.28

The world for the young has become both an unfriendly and threatening place.

Uncertainty of the future, a breakdown of traditional values, rapid technologisation, mobile lifestyles, unemployment and AIDS just to name a few. Looking for solace and inner sanctuary, a generation of young people in Indonesia has turned to Islam for some understanding of the changing world they are living in. They want tools to work with in matters of relationships, raising children, how to be good Indonesians, relate to modern banking systems and to deal with new concepts of technology for example, test tube babies, organ transplants and guidance in dealing with their sexuality.29

Indonesian Muslims’ greatest objection was the then President Suharto’s unfriendly attitude towards Islam and Muslims. The frequent arrest of Muslim leaders and the prohibition of certain speeches and speakers continued to torment Muslims. The Muslims, who are in the majority, perceived Suharto and his regime as favouring the minority consisting primarily of affluent Chinese and Christians.30

With young Indonesians flocking to mosques, it was inevitable for political topics not to become sermons of the day. Controversial topics such as land issues, wealth inequalities and government corruption were often heatedly discussed and argued.

Free from government harassment, mosques became centres of religious, cultural and

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intellectual ideology-germinating centres, for political opposition and radical ideas against Suharto’s regime. By the 1990’s, mosques could no longer accommodate the high numbers of young people and students joining in the activities and intellectual stimulation. Islam (meaning ‘submission’ implicitly to God), essentially a religion of emancipation, became the solution to complex problems to those dispossessed, with a political voice advocating change.31

Within the Indonesian community exist progressive minded, university educated and intellectually inclined Muslims who support democracy and regressive Muslims where government secular policies have challenged and violated their belief systems.

Front Pembela Islam is an organisation dominated by Jakarta-based youths demanding the closure of places of gambling and prostitution. The youths, with links to elements of the Indonesian army achieved notoriety by raiding bars, brothels and nightclubs. Moral decline and spread of materialism which they consider corrupt and under the aegis of the US, in global cultural and geopolitical supremacy. None of this behaviour would have been tolerated prior to 1998, during the Soeharto era. Through the al-jihad al-saghir (Arabic for Muslim holy war against unbelievers) regarded as the lesser jihad, which advocates legitimate forms of strife with other human beings; fundamentalists call for a revolutionary transformation of society and an unconditional rejection of Western modernisation.32

Australia’s earlier contact with terrorist angst was on a relatively small scale. The Hilton Bombing in Sydney (1978), the assassination of the Turkish Consulate General (1980) and the Israeli consulate general’s office (1982).

This significantly changed

on October 12, 2002 when Australia was traumatised as 202 people, 88 of them young Australian holidaymakers were killed in Bali’s Sari nightclub.

This brought the

greatest slaughter of Australians since World War II, and in the war on terrorism, Bali became Australia’s Pearl Harbour.

The terrorist blasts were blamed on Islamic

Fundamentalist group Jemaah Islamiah (JI), al-Qaeda’s regional wing.33

JI was founded in mid-1990’s, and was in part a manifestation of the reaction to globalisation. JI’s popular fear of social change and growing westernisation saw the

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beginning operations of small secretive cell structures, using bombings, hijackings and bank robberies.

For some time Australian Intelligence organisations were

directing government attention to radical terrorist groups in the region. Though no specific warning was received, the security – threat level for Australians in Indonesia was rated high. In the words of Imam Samudra, mastermind of Bali horror “there will be more killings after Bali!” These events have thrown the spotlight on Australia’s counter-terrorist debate and associated social costs, later discussed in this paper.34

Terrorist experts say the epicentre of Islamic terrorism in the world has shifted from the Middle East to South-East Asia. Known as the godfather of South-East Asian terror, Abu Baker Bashir, leader of JI and suspected mastermind of the Bali bombings wants to turn South-East Asia into an Islamic superstate. JI have told of plans to blow up embassies, bombings of churches and shopping centres across the South-East Asia region using ammonium nitrate and chemical fertiliser. Bashir says any action against him will be considered an attack against all Muslims and commends bin Laden as a great leader.35

Central Intelligence Agent (CIA) Vincent Cannistraro said Australia remains at risk of further terrorist attack even though the financier of Bali bombings, a top al-Qaeda leader Khalid Sheikh Mohammed was captured. Dr Rohan Gunaratna, UN Crime Branch (ODC) consultant with the UN’s Terrorism Prevention Branch, said despite Mohammed’s arrest while other JI operational leaders remained at large, such as JI’s operational leader, Riduan Isamuddin, alias Hambali, and the JI secretary, Zulkifli Marzuki, there was grave risk of further devastation to South-East Asia and Australia.

Dr Gunaratna author of Inside al-Qaeda: Global Network of Terror, said JI still has a presence in Australia and Australia is part of JI’s area of operations. On 25 October 2002, JI was placed on the UN register of terrorist organisations.36

Aldo Borgu, military analyst with the Australian Strategic Policy Institute, comments that the primary threat Australia faces is related to the growth of Islamic extremist groups in our region, especially Indonesia.

Rather than Australia being more

concerned with the global fight, Borgu believes a unique approach using Australia’s

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best strategic brains, linguists, military and intelligence resources and leaders, are required to deal with the threat that Indonesia’s turbulent socio-political climate poses. This includes working closely with Indonesia’s elite army unit, Kopassus – despite its sullied reputation.37

Dr Alan Dupont, Director of the Asia-Pacific Security Program at the Australian National University’s Strategic and Defence Studies Centre, that argues that Kopassus is Indonesia’s pre-eminent counter-terrorist organisation, a highly trained and disciplined unit in the Indonesian armed forces. Dupont argues that marginalising Kopassus is not only unachievable in practice, but would be ultimately self-defeating in Australian counter-terrorist plans.38

Borgu explains that, with or without al-Qaeda Australia faces high risk of a major terrorist attack at home and against Australians abroad, than at any other time in the nation’s history. Potential for further terrorist attacks in South-East Asia exists on several fronts.

The problem is not only the rise of radical Islam with growing

populations, but also thriving black markets for weapons and explosives. The region has poorly controlled borders making possible illegal arms procurement and military training in remote areas. Illegal arms come from China down through Laos and Burma and low-paid military police that can be bought off to facilitate the trade.39

Professor Ross Babbage, the Australian National University’s graduate defence studies convenor, proposed a summit of regional defence ministers for cooperation should any one country in the region suffer from a devastating attack. Babbage’s proposal is on intelligence sharing on terrorism and is now before the Association of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN). In the period ahead one or more countries in the region may suffer a major terrorist attack so catastrophic as to be beyond the immediate capacities of the local authorities to manage alone. This collaboration could greatly assist Australia. Historically, ASEAN governments have maintained a principle of ‘non-interference’ in each other’s affairs, but the Bali blasts have demonstrated the point terrorists can strike in any number of South-East Asian tourist locations.40

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Professor Paul Dibb from the Australian National University said in Australia’s 10 year Defence Capability Plan, AUD$1 billion a year will be required to finance the Australian Defence Force. To devise a set of credible and defence policies to combat Australia’s growing sense of insecurity and vulnerability in the region following the Bali attacks would require ramping up Australia’s defence policy and means accepting that this is not a time for Australia to retreat into isolationism.41

Babbage’s summary of the attack by Aum Shinri-kyu cult in 1995, when 12 people were killed and over 5,700 were injured in a Sarin nerve gas attack on a crowded subway in the centre of Tokyo; suggests thousands would have died if the attackers had used a more efficient dispersal method for the gas. At the time, authorities in Tokyo experienced everything from ambulance communications breakdown, contaminated patients taken to wrong hospitals and contaminating others. The types of terrorist strikes that may be launched in the Asia-Pacific could be so cataclysmic as to be beyond the immediate capacities of local authorities, and organised international resources would become mandatory.42

Death and chaos would prevail if a chemical or biological attack were to occur on Australian cities. Although it is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to evaluate potential CBR attack, the Australian government needs to address current resource deficiencies and seriously invest in training and equipping health workers and facilitators. Understandably, the government may not want to outlay large spending for something that may not happen, juxtaposed with the Australian health system, already struggling for funds to provide basic services and currently ill prepared for anything more than a small number of patients.43

It is outside the scope of this paper to discuss various types of CBR and its acquisition. Suffice to say the World Directory of Collections of Cultures currently lists 453 repositories in 67 nations that supply biological agents.

The US

Congressional Office of Technology explained how a light crop-dusting aircraft carrying 100 kilograms of anthrax spores could deliver a fatal dose to approximately

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three million people. The complexity and range of such scenarios would raise a significant number of unique and important issues for the Australian government.44

The 2002 Australian National Federal Budget included AUD$17.8 million over four years for training Emergency Management Australia’s personnel. This includes the procurement of detection devices for a CBR incident. A further AUD$11.4 million was allocated to health agencies to acquire and stockpile appropriate medications and vaccines.45

Australian and South-East Asian governments agree that fighting terrorism is a collective responsibility and joint regional conferences are organised to look at how to tackle the funding of terrorist cells from the Philippines to Indonesia and beyond. The situation remains problematic.

For instance, making matters worst are security

breaches in the Australian military where explosives, hand grenades and thousands of rounds of ammunition suitable for light machine guns have been stolen from the Australian Defence Force, sparking fears they could be used by terrorists.46

The above mentioned situation adds to the proliferation of weaponry in circulation; munitions stocks left over from the old Cold War conflicts are further compounded by the ‘leaky arsenals’ of the former states of the Soviet Union. Availability of weapons has allowed terrorists to operate on a far more sophisticated and destructive level.

Alarmingly, several hundred US-made Stinger missiles are believed to have found their way to militant groups in South Asia. The Stinger (FM92-a) is a highly accurate surface to air projectile used with devastating effect against both commercial and military air traffic. Worse, the Soviet Union developed ‘suitcase’ nuclear bombs that could be carried by a single person. Russian authorities took steps to protect these devices from theft but unfortunately not all ‘suitcase’ bombs can be accounted for.

The detonation of these devices would wipe out hundreds of thousands of people and if detonated in New York City, could leave the metropolitan area uninhabitable for years.47

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Indonesia’s economic and political crises together with a new but weak democracy and penetrable security systems, make fertile grounds for openly propagating alQaeda’s agenda of holy Jihad with an enormous range of explosives available to terrorists, from assault rifles, machine and submachine guns, rocket-propelled grenades, shoulder-launched surface to air missiles, landmines and other demolition explosive materials.48

In response to the problems highlighted already, as part of intelligence gathering the Australian Federal Police (AFP) have a new Department called the Transnational Crime Coordination Centre (TCCC) to deal with the new and uncertain security environment. The Centre provides a 24-hour focal point of contact in national and international law for prevention, identification and dismantling of all forms of transnational crime. Areas of investigation includes terrorism, drug trafficking and people smuggling.49

Peter Jennings, from the Australian Strategic Policy Institute relates how bin Laden has specifically identified Australia as a terrorist target. Australia may be a big and relatively isolated country but it is not immune from terrorists travelling through or travelling to major cities. Malaysia, another Muslim majority nation with excellent transport and communication facilities, was used as a logistics base by September 11 hijackers. Abu Sayyaf guerillas that control the Muslim areas of Southern Philippines have been linked to al-Qaeda. US military is helping Philippines Army fight the insurgents.50

Australia and the United Nations

In 1990 President George H. W. Bush (senior) stated that not since 1945 has the world seen the real possibility of using the UN as it was designed: as a centre for international security vis-a-vis through international and regional organisations.

However, the American attraction to the UN was short-lived.

Member states,

especially the United States, failed to endow the institution with the necessary authority and resources. Efforts to reform the UN and Security Council stalled, and

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with disappointing failures in Somalia and Rwanda, confidence in the UN seriously plummeted. Nevertheless, the UN is the only global organisation remaining dedicated to international peace and security.51

Australia emerged as the strongest supporter of the US in worldwide debate over Iraq, telling the UN Security Council at an open meeting in February 2003 to disarm Saddam Hussein and declare Iraq in ‘material breach’ of resolution 1441, which set up the WMD inspections regime. The Australian Foreign Office dismissed the UN as irrelevant when the Security Council failed to authorise invasion of Iraq and the Howard government declared Australia could do without the UN.

However, as

former Australian Diplomat Richard Woolcott explains, the UN was no longer ‘irrelevant’ when urged to share the financial burden and pressured to become a team player in post-war Iraq. Australia’s long standing goodwill in the UN has been obscured by inconsistent government policy.52 Though Australia is the 12th largest contributor to the UN and closely involved in all areas of the UN activity, for the past 10 years it has a poor record of not supporting international treaties against terrorism. This recently changed when Australia’s new permanent representative to the UN, John Dauth asserted to the General Assembly, Australia’s support for a new Comprehensive Convention against Terrorism.53

There are arguments for and against Australia signing up so unreservedly to the Bush Administration’s march to war. “Either you are with us or with the terrorists” warned the American President.

Reminiscent of the early Cold War days, neutrality is

portrayed as immoral and not in synchronisation with the global struggle against terrorism. Comparing it to the war against communism, some observers are calling the war on terrorism the second cold war.

This sentiment is open to serious

conjecture and outside the scope of this paper.54

Australian Prime Minister John Howard and his Liberal Government believe ridding the world of Saddam Hussein would remove the risk of the Iraqi dictator arming terrorists with WMD that could threaten Australia. Although considered a remote

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probability, security experts have not ruled out attacks on Australian soil using WMD. Australians generally lacking confidence in their ability to defend themselves have forged strong military ties with the US in hope of ensuring America’s military might to protect Australia against any future regional threat. Australian General John Baker said the war on terrorism could not be pursued primarily by military means. The war against WMD in Iraq however, has to be pursued by military means.55

After September 11, many Australian eyes turned to the US for direction and not the UN. As a response, the Howard government aligned itself with the US (the world’s most powerful state) and Britain, and the bonds between these countries became much closer. The result was a disengagement on differing levels from neighbouring nations in Asia – ties which the Keating government promoted so assiduously. Richard Woolcott, in his excellent and eloquently written book of diplomatic memoirs The Hot Seat, clearly states that Australia’s support for questionable US actions and shared democratic values do not necessarily guarantee the US will support Australia when Australian interests are threatened.

In short, interests, not friendships,

determine US foreign policy. The US will support Australia only if it is in its interests to do so.56

The down side for Australia to joining America at war is that the immediate region will continue to view Australia as America’s loyal deputy; Australia also risks potential trade loss with the Middle East. Even moderate Arab leaders, like Amre Moussa, Secretary General of the Arab League, were bewildered by Australia so vociferously supporting the invasion of Iraq – a largely Muslim state. The same radicals who supported and carried out the Bali bombings will perceive Australia as anti-Islamic.

Anglican Primate, Dr Peter Carnley linked the Bali atrocity to

Australia’s high-profile support of President George Bush’s stance in relation to war on Iraq, saying it was only a matter of time until Australians were sacrificed in some form of retaliation. In November 2002, the BBC released a translation of a message believed to be bin Laden saying, Australia was warned not to join the Afghanistan war and not interfere with East Timor. The translation continues to explain how

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Australia ignored all warnings until it woke up to the sounds of the Bali bombs yet the government falsely claimed Australians were not targeted.57

In charge of planning defence security for the Sydney Olympics was Brigadier Adrian D’Hage who asserts it is in the policy area that the greatest change is needed.

Australians need to come to terms with how hated the US administrators and CIA are in many parts of the world, where they have either directly or indirectly assisted in alleged acts of terror against ordinary people. Listing these acts is outside the scope of this paper.58

D’Hage stressed that without UN approval Australia should not have supported another war in Iraq, and that Australians should press for a Palestinian state. The imprisonment of Palestinians in their own country by US-backed Israelis who themselves know what it is to suffer, is one of the keys to this ‘war’ on terror.59

Amin Saikal, Professor of Political Science and Director of the Centre for Arab and Islamic Studies at the Australian National University in Canberra, follows on to say, the suffering of the Iraqi people, democratisation of the Arab world, continued repressive occupation of Palestinian lands, and the disputed territory of Kashmir are all causes which have enabled someone like bin Laden to strike a chord in the Arab and Muslim world. The solution to these issues require political mediation and not military resolution.60

Furthermore, Stuart Rees Director of the Centre for Peace and Conflict Studies at the University of Sydney said that for 200 years the identity of Australia has been about men in uniforms sailing away and people building war memorials across the country.

Rees warned that if non-violent measures were not adopted to solve international problems, the violence of the 20th century would also be repeated in the new millennium.61

Borgu comments that if the attacks on Madrid’s train network killing 198 people injuring 1400 were because of its support for the Iraqi war, then clearly Australia is in

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line. The speculative theory that Madrid train blast was timed for maximum effect to throw out a government supportive of the US and replace it with one that was not, should at least be considered since there are Australian elections in 2004. The situation largely depends on where the next attack occurs.

Hugh Smith, from the

Australian Defence Force Academy states until all the complex facts are known, the risk to Australia remains unclear, unless the UK, Italy or Eastern European countries are next then the warning signs for Australia will become all too clear.62

Remarkably, countries such as Turkey - a secular state but nonetheless a Muslim majority - have been targets of al-Qaeda despite their opposition to the war on Iraq.

Suicide attacks on two synagogues; the British consulate and the HSBC bank brought carnage to Istanbul. Over 60 people were killed, amongst them British ConsulGeneral Roger Short.63

Australian Federal Police Commissioner Mick Keelty warns of future attack against Australia as inevitable. New South Wales (NSW) Police Chief Ken Moroney said Australia has been on medium alert against a terrorist strike since the events of September 11, 2001. National security experts fear Australia’s interests overseas, especially in the Middle East are at main risk and should now be rated as High.64

The Attorney-General’s Department is responsible for coordination of national security arrangements in Australia. Once the Department is satisfied on reasonable grounds that the Security Council of the UN has identified an organisation relating to wholly or partly to terrorism and that the organisation is directly or indirectly engaged in preparing, planning, assisting in or fostering terrorist action, the Australian Courts can then determine that body as a ‘terrorist organisation.’ And as such, it is an offence to direct the activities of the organisation, recruit personnel to the organisation, receive training to/from organisation, receive/make available funds to organisation, provide support and be a member of the organisation. Both JI and alQaeda are two of 17 such organisations listed by the Attorney-General’s Department.65

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Mr Howard reminds Australians they are on the al-Qaeda target list. The Prime Minister continues to say guarding every person at every railway station is unrealistic and virtually anywhere people gather without organised security such as bars, restaurants, places of worship, sporting events could be terrorist targets of choice.66

This research now moves to explore economic consequences of terrorism and expand on regional targets of choice.

Established world governments are recognising the tremendous costs catastrophic terror attacks can incur. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) estimate of the economic costs of the World Trade Centre attack is that it reduced US gross domestic product by US$ 75 billion in 2002. Insurance losses of up to US$58 billion. The fragile Indonesian economy relying heavily on tourism had a 2.2% fall in tourist arrivals in 2002, and a one-percent reduction in national gross domestic product. The number of Australian tourists now visiting Bali is below normal. If tourist dollars, which Bali so heavily relies on, do not start flowing in soon people will go hungry, children will drop out of school and the socio-economics of the island will descend into acute crisis.67

136,000 jobs were cut in the American airline industry with net losses amounting to US$ 2.3 billion. The American aircraft manufacturing industry retrenched 15% of its workforce. The Japanese government reported 10 billion yen in lost revenue through withdrawn seats, cancelled flights and reduced cargo orders.68

‘Lucky Country’ or Terrorist Target?

The Australian security environment dramatically changed on September 11, 2001 and the Bali bombings in 2002 brought that threat sharply into Australians’ psyche. It is impossible to predict exactly when and where terrorism will happen, so the assumption according to Peter Jennings from the Australian Strategic Policy Institute, must be that terror groups will launch in Australia if and when they can.69

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Dr Keith Suter, terrorist expert from the International Law Association, warns the next wave of terrorist attacks would be against the shipping industry. Increasing regional maritime crime allows transnational organised criminals huge financial return. The range of illegal activity this type of crime covers runs from people smuggling, narcotics and arms smuggling, illegal fishing, disposal of waste at sea, to hijacking of ships. Al Qaeda and JI understand how piracy can play in their terror campaigns. Freight ships may be detonated at ports. Bombs planted on freight ships as

they

go

into

major

ports

could

devastate

infrastructure.

Targets for example, as the symbolic and highly prestigious Sydney Opera House and Harbour Bridge, killing thousands of locals and tourists alike with nearby media able to beam pictures of the carnage around the world.70

Approximate estimations are that only two percent of the world’s shipping containers are physically inspected. Not surprising, considering there are 232 million container movements a year. In 2003, the global shipping industry invested US$ 1.3 billion and an annual US$ 730 million to improve security systems. One of the most vulnerable areas of maritime attack close to Australia will be in the Straits of Malacca – one of the world’s busiest shipping lanes linking the economies of Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore. As corruption increases and economic infrastructure fails, piracy is likely to expand in the waters of Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands, the Riau Islands and off the southern coast of China. Piracy in the waters of South-East Asia is set to get out of control. In short, Australia, particularly vulnerable because of its size and the length of its uninhabited coastline, has a security crisis at its very doorstep.71

From prominent buildings including Parliament House in Canberra to large public events such as sports finals at the Gabba in Brisbane to Flinders Street Station in Melbourne all harbour lots of people and so are perfect targets. As Borgu explains, there is nothing that is more or less at risk. The apocalyptic trend is terrorists like killing as many people as possible.72

Borgu says Australian troops in Iraq would be the first target on al-Qaeda’s Australian hit list, with embassies, high commissions and anywhere popular with Australian

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tourists coming a close second, for instance Anzac Day celebrations in Turkey.

Interesting to see that nothing happened at Gallipoli where many Australian travellers gather every year to honour the dearly departed victims of World War One? Gunaratna said the alleged existence of a Lashker-e-Toiba cell in Sydney shows an authentic threat to Australia from Islamic extremists linked to possible major attack on Lucas Heights nuclear reactor.73

With AUD $70 billion worth of US investment in Australia, it is highly likely American, Jewish and Australian businesses could be targeted. Australian Security Intelligence Organisation (ASIO) has increased surveillance of and protection for Israeli and Jewish assets in Australia, as there is always a tendency for some of their assets to be targeted. In the last three decades 80% of terrorist attacks in the US have been directed at business. As the New York and Bali bombings have proven, ongoing business costs flowing from these attacks are profoundly damaging to domestic and international markets.74

In 2001-02, over 32,000 Australian companies exported goods and services, with another 55,000 companies importing materials. Australian business has been at the forefront of globalisation and well integrated into the world economy. This is reflected in just under one million Australians living and working in almost 150 countries. The positive side to this growth is that Australia for the last few decades has enjoyed economic abundance, but it also means Australian business is either directly or indirectly exposed to consequences of possible future terrorist activity.

Measures Australian businesses can take to minimise human and economic cost will be discussed later in this paper.75

Australia also faces unanticipated challenges that result from new applications of IT. Some risks include dis-information, hate/revenge personal or work-related crime, commercial or military espionage, state and non-state based terrorism and information warfare.76

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A recent planned terrorist attack in Australia used a New South Wales (NSW) Government website to get maps, data and satellite images of potential targets such as Sydney Centrepoint tower, Parramatta Central Business District (CBD) and transport systems. Frenchman, Willie Brigitte admitted to French interrogators he and several others were preparing a terrorist act of great size in Australia. Brigitte, along with other terrorist suspect, Izhar ul-Haque prayed at the Haldon Street prayer hall at Sydney’s suburban Lakemba, which is now under surveillance.77

During office hours from his place of employment Faheem Lodhi frequently accessed the Department of Infrastructure, Planning and Natural Resources website called iplan. Using a false name, Lodhi asked about buying urea nitrate, which was to be used for bomb making to blast the electricity grid. Australia, to all intents and purposes would be paralysed.78

NSW Premier Bob Carr confirmed security had already been increased at the electricity grid and all critical infrastructures.

This case has reignited dialogue

concerning terrorism and application of new laws to investigations.79

Security-conscious Singapore was host to the US Navy stationed at the island-state.

US soldiers could go on shore without fearing for their safety.

About 17,000

Americans live and work in Singapore. It is now well established Islamic extremist group JI had 15 members living on the island with links to al-Qaeda and extremist groups in Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines.80

Caught with 3.9 tonnes of ammonium nitrate, commonly used in large vehicle bombs, the operative JI members were looking to acquire another 16.7 tonnes. A frightening amount, considering Timothy McVeigh used only 1.9 tonnes at Oklahoma City. Their targets ranged from US Navy vessels, US Navy personnel using the MRT train system, as well as US companies, US aircraft and facilities based at Paya Lebar Airbase, US diplomatic missions, Israel, the UK and Australia diplomatic missions, commercial buildings housing US firms and potential US business targets.81

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Australia’s foremost terrorist expert, Clive Williams is director of terrorism studies at the Strategic and Defence Studies Centre of the Australian National University in Canberra. He asks what does all this mean for Australia? Certainly, there is the risk of danger to Australian diplomatic missions overseas including those previously thought of as low-risk. Williams continues with further pertinent questions: from Australia’s Islamic community who has been to Pakistan since 1991 for religious training? How long did they go for and what did they do there? Do links exist between individuals in Australia to extremists’ elements overseas and can this be verified? 82

What is most disconcerting is the excellent security taught and practised by al-Qaeda cells. The 15 devout JI members avoided mainstream Muslim community activities.

Good security practices prevented their detection in Singapore, and the complex September 11 hijack operation was carried through to completion without any detection by US federal security and well-resourced intelligence agencies.83

21-year-old medical student, Izhar ul-Haque from University of NSW will be the first person in Australia to be charged with the training offence under new counterterrorism laws. Ul-Haque is in solitary confinement in jail after interrupting his medical studies by travelling to Pakistan and enrolling in a training camp run by terrorist group Lashkar-e-Toiba. Ul-Haque’s activities were confirmed in his private journals, revealed in court documents, recording the thoughts and ideals of a young man in military boot camp training in long and short firearms and detonation of explosives.84

2003 saw the biggest blackout in US history with up to 52 million people from Detroit to New York and into Canada without electricity. President George W. Bush declared a state of emergency. Any infringement to the integrity of Australia’s power grid could see the nation in chaos with trains, planes, hospitals, communications, computer systems, businesses, schools all affected. A major blackout would leave people stuck in elevators, devastate millions of dollars worth of frozen or cooled produce, disable

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stock exchange trading, cities would be grid-locked as traffic lights failed and most shops would be forced to cease operations.85

Former ASIO agent and chief of intelligence for the Sydney Olympics, Niel Fergus said Australian security lagged behind places like London, where they have had to endure over 30 years a series of significant terrorist attacks and graduated their security architecture in response to those attacks.

Though balance is required,

without becoming vigilantes, Australians need to become vigilant of suspicious activities, unattended bags and get used to front liners responding to potential CBR emergency training in space-age chem-bio suits on city streets. While the Federal Government has been instrumental in setting up a new Incident Response Regiment to handle CBR threats, this unit is based in Sydney. Should Melbourne or any other major Australian city face a serious problem, it may be too late by the time these units are transported.86

Babbage is concerned that Australia is prepared for the old style of terrorism, where casualties were generally low and the perpetrators were often prepared to negotiate over hostages. Babbage worries that Australian agencies still have not sufficiently prepared for today’s new wave of terror, intent on mass murder in the heart of densely populated areas.87

The Australian economic market in its present form is not capable of operating without computerised information systems and communications link. Computers, telecommunications, financial networks, defence communications all need electricity to operate. A major failure to Australia’s electricity supply could result in regional outrage.88

Optus’ satellites carry vital information relating to telephone systems, remote oil and gas pipeline monitoring, ground to air traffic control communications, secure defence signals, internet, radio and television services. International satellite control facilities may very well be possible targets in a global campaign of information war.89

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The Australian banking system is linked to international systems in the UK, the US and the Reserve Bank. All of which use a common transmission service facilitating shared communication. Trillions of dollars in funds and securities are transferred daily by electronic mechanisms and the entire system’s integrity will be in question if it were accessed by a disgruntled employee, illegally or by accident. Yes, backup facilities are available but nonetheless, how secure can such a system be?90

In the event of a major conflict any disruption to government payments to its armed forces and their families would affect the morale of the forces and Australian society as a whole. With government payments going through one computer, the financial security of millions of Australians, national and economic stability is threatened. To date, the majority of documented attacks on government and military sites were by criminals with no political motives.91

Actions to counter money laundering and combat terrorism financing requires all economies to work together and those that do not take counter measures could face lack of investor confidence and boycotts by other banks.

Financial institutions

directly or indirectly involved in terrorist financing risk reputation damage and criminal charges.92

Cyber-terrorist attack would cause varying degrees of disruption to systems, and without adequate recovery plans even small-scale disruption could severely affect government, industry and society. Even though Australia faces no current threats, if regional instability continues to further deteriorate, who knows how things might look in the future? Criminals and organised crime syndicates already utilise weaknesses in the National Information Infrastructure (NII), causing unnecessary growing costs to Australian society. In times of major conflict and war terrorists and aggressive states could seek to cripple the NII while permitting anonymity to the attacker.93

Nevertheless, a range of strategies can be adopted, some simple solutions others requiring more coordination and they do not have to be prohibitively expensive.

Adopting protection back-ups for specific information units as well as the system that

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comprises NII will allow Australia to successfully engage in the economy and society in current and future times.94

Counter Terrorist Strategies: Linking Australian Business and Government

This work will now discuss counter-terrorism and endeavour to illustrate strategic steps Australian businesses can take to minimise human and economic cost in the event of possible terrorist threat.

An important psychological aspect of September 11, was that it provided a potentially terrible stimulus to the imagination and aspirations of ‘wannabe’ terrorists in Australia and elsewhere. Events such as the Bali bombings will raise the sights of special interest extremists and lone terrorists that practise leaderless warfare; to have a more new and dangerous model to follow.95

Businesses have a significant economic interest in reducing the threat and/or impact of terrorism. Long term benefits to combating terrorism includes maintaining trade and investment levels and economic growth rates. With economies cooperating to deal with this problem, costs will be minimised and benefits maximised.

Thus, 96

strengthening regional and global security and future prosperity for one and all.

There is much that business can do to counter terrorism and in the process help government defeat terror groups. An important starting point is closer cooperation between government and business, by each borrowing the other’s styles of operating: governments needing to learn to be more flexible and business to develop stronger skills in strategic analysis and war gaming.97

Intelligence information is usually tightly held within government agencies. Business and community are kept away from operational concerns. Traditionally, business has not seen national security as a core interest. Potential risk to business operations are usually limited to a narrow set of concerns about employee safety, infrastructure security and financial systems to name a few.98

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Contemporary terrorism challenges these standard approaches by not recognising national or organisational boundaries. Therefore in today’s political climate business needs to work out how it can assure safety to its people and plant security, while continuing operations in a more difficult environment. Companies need to start innovative thinking about security the way governments do. The problem for government to solve is how to defeat non-state threat that constantly changes form while seeking vulnerable targets. Similar to business, government needs to develop greater organisational flexibility and faster reaction times.99

There are three good reasons why companies are advised to protect their operations against terrorism.

First, it underestimates the ripple effects within industry and

economic sectors. Second, there are practical things companies can do to protect operations from terrorism. Third, companies that do nothing will lag behind those with a competitive advantage who have not banked on remaining isolated with their ‘head in the sand,’ metaphorically speaking.100

Mr Howard believes the best defence against terrorism is high quality information.

This will involve business and government coming up with progressive methodologies to faster and more comprehensive information sharing to manage crises when they develop.101

Below are eight steps companies can use to harden their operations and maintain or quickly resume business operations after an attack:

1. Broaden risk assessments – Australian companies with overseas presence develop knowledge of local socio-political concerns and identify critical points where these issues touch company concerns. Companies invest more effort to analyse changing trends in regional security and terrorism and consciously bring these assessments into a firm’s strategic planning. This planning needs to be drill tested from time to time against worst case scenarios to gauge areas requiring further improvement. Business to access up-to-date information supplied by Canberra on terrorism.102

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2. Involve the board and top management – because the terrorist threat is largely new to Australia top executive management need to take the lead in hardening their operations in an age of increasing risk.

Senior level managers need to be

confident they understand how their business activities could be damaged by terrorist threat. Chief Executive Officers (CEO) need to review and put a high priority on developing counter terrorist plan linking it to traditional risk management.103

3. Review areas of organisational vulnerability – a company thousands of kilometres away from ground zero may find its operations disrupted due to impact on suppliers, transport routes, vital IT and financial systems. In a globalised business environment companies must develop understanding of theirs – and their supplier’s vulnerability to ripple effects of terrorist attack. Maintaining larger stocks will cost more but it may be mandatory for business continuity after shock.

The military approach of using ‘red teams’ may prove helpful.

In business

operations the red team finds faults which managers overlook because the latter normally focus on making the system work rather than being encouraged to look for problems.104

4. War game responses to terror attacks – besides the Defence Forces other government bodies are using gaming techniques to help identify new threats and effective responses. The best way to test this is to put a senior manager through decision-making simulations and see how they will respond. Terrorist scenarios are used to see how well staff would operate in reality. Strategic decision making exercises should be treated as vital part of building resilience against terrorism.

Better to learn crisis management skills in simulation than in real life.105

5. Share knowledge with other businesses – major Western governments are struggling to gather intelligence information to successfully defeat terrorism.

Australian businesses will face the same difficulty to identify all that which they need to know to protect their operations. This is why information sharing is recommended between businesses as one way of overcoming this dilemma.

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Businesses should discuss what counter terrorist strategies have worked and failed, share their assessments about potential threats to their companies and refine future plans. The natural business plan is to protect commercial information but the common riding interest to defeat terrorism is vital if corporations want to maintain a stable environment to carry on with profitable operations.106

6. Involve the major business peak bodies – the business council of Australia, the Australian Chamber of Commerce and Industry, the Committee for the Economic Development of Australia, the Australian Industry Group and the Australian Business Foundation all have a significant role to play in developing basic guidance for business on planning against terrorism. They could facilitate the pooling and sharing of business knowledge and act as a bridge between business and government. Peak bodies have excellent training and expertise in planning, structure and leadership. These finely tuned skills need to be focussed on the impact of terrorism within the private sector.107

7. Build links with government and non-business groups – businesses will need to build closer links with non-business groups and government to develop better understanding of terrorist threat. Meaning business must take responsibility in keeping informed about information only governments have. For instance travel advice recommended by the Department of Foreign Affairs needs to be taken seriously and so should advice from intelligence agencies on threat levels. A military buzzword, ‘asymmetric’ threat – meaning defeating conventional approaches by attacking from the inside.

Businesses need to develop less

conventional ways of approaching and dealing with terrorist threat. Approaches to strategic planning and perspectives can be broadened by networking with a range of people and institutions with the best alternate thinking available.108

8. Communicate specialised knowledge to authorities – companies communicating information to government relevant to defeating terrorism. Defeating terrorism is painstakingly slow and requires vigilance in cross-referencing of small pieces of data to build a bigger picture. The private sector can help contribute to the mosaic

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of information, ultimately leading to identifying terrorists and preventing their actions. The joint counter terrorism teams of State and Federal Police being set up around Australia will bring together the significant expertise, community linkages and local contacts of State and international expertise of the AFP linked to TCCC to tackle anything from hi-tech crime to money laundering.109

Brigadier Steve Ayling, security adviser for the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting on Queensland’s Sunshine Coast said that despite 911 and a spate of anthrax hoaxes which followed, corporate complacency was setting in before the Bali blasts. Ayling emphasises, companies should have an integrated approach to security from the Board down, review physical perimeter protection measures, checking personnel, closely scrutinising who has access to and from their premises, establishing capacity to seal off an area and arrange mass evacuations.110

From environmental planners, health, immigration, agriculture, energy, customs and police agencies are all legitimate bureaucratic stakeholders in the fight against transnational security threats. These and business bodies must be included in national security decision-making process and have sufficient policy clout to make a significant contribution. The Australian government cannot afford being structured along the same functional lines of the last 50 years. Dealing with counter-terrorist strategy requires a comprehensive and inclusive approach to security planning.111

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UNITED NATIONS MEMBER STATE: AUSTRALIA – ‘LUCKY COUNTRY’ OR TERRORIST TARGET? INTEGRATIVE CONCLUSION Australia’s nearest main neighbour is Indonesia with an overwhelming Muslim population.

It goes without saying that Islam is not the cause of contemporary

terrorism facing the world today. The rise of Islamic fundamentalism in Indonesia was discussed to provide a general understanding of instability in the archipelago.

The governments of Indonesia and the Philippines are not strong enough to prevent minority groups of Islamic militants from cultivating links with international terrorist networks. Addressing terrorism as a complex, multi-faceted, lethal phenomenon to Australia where there is no simple military response means dialoguing and working effectively with Indonesian authorities and ASEAN.

Major changes are not called for in the way Australians live when responding to terrorism. This research studied macro and micro levels of counter terrorist strategy government and Australian business can take to formulate responses to the threat at domestic, regional and global levels.

Whether Australia is not a soft target for terrorists or can be tumultuously brought to its knees remains to be seen. While no counter terrorist arrangement comes with a guarantee it is hoped that the previously discussed plans and procedures will ensure Australia remains relatively safe in the present and future.

Unfortunately, any

terrorist attack within Australia would be judged a success story by al Qaeda and JI. Australians strongly resent this risk or insecurity from terrorist attack. In the words of contemporary British author on terrorism, Paul Wilkinson, “fighting terrorism is like being a goalkeeper. You can make a hundred brilliant saves but the only shot that people remember is the one that gets past you.”

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This research comes to an unpleasant conclusion that we are living in uncertain and dangerous times and risk to the ‘lucky country’ from terrorist attack has substantially increased. This risk is likely to remain high in the foreseeable future, perhaps a decade or more. Although, the risk an individual Australian faces from accidents or misfortune in everyday life is probably higher, the question of terrorist attack on Australian home soil is not necessarily a question of ‘if’ but ‘when.’

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UNITED NATIONS MEMBER STATE: AUSTRALIA – ‘LUCKY COUNTRY’ OR TERRORIST TARGET? END NOTES 1.

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2.

Medhurst Ph.D, P. op.cit pp 5-8, 102 Silke, A. (ed) Terrorists, Victims and Society: Psychological Perspectives on Terrorism and its Consequences 2003, p xx

3.

Medhurst Ph.D, P. op.cit pp 9-10, 303

4.

Medhurst Ph.D, P. op.cit p 187 Dibb AM, P. Professor. Does Asia Matter to Australia’s Defence Policy?

NIAP Lecture Series, The National Institute for Asia and the Pacific 2002, p 12

5.

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6.

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7.

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8.

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9.

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10.

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Chomsky, N. Terror and Just Response, July 2, 2002, p 9 Sheridan, G. Cities of the Hot Zone: A Southeast Asian Adventure 2003, p 67 11.

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12.

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13.

www.help-for-you.com/news/Jan2002/Jan24/PRT24-228Article.html

14.

www.lightforthelastdays.co.uk/does/israel_mideast/the_pope.html

15.

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16.

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17.

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18.

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19.

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20.

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21.

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22.

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24.

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30.

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31.

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32.

MacIntyre, A. Social Change, Islamic Debates, Indonesia, 1993, p 40 Medhurst, Ph.D, P. ibid p 343 Williams, C. (1) (ed) et al. Countering Terror: New Directions Post ‘911’ 2003, p 34 Desker, B. op.cit p 388 Chalk, P. op.cit p 155, 160

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Borgu, A. Fear Back on Map, The Daily Telegraph, Saturday March 13, 2004, p 25 Stephens, T. The Mourning After, The Sydney Morning Herald, Weekend Special Edition, October 19-20, 2002, p 1 Kremmer, C. ibid p 15 Caldicott, D. et al Are we ready for this? The Diplomat, vol. 2. No. 1 April-May, 2003, p 11 Whitehead, R. (ed) Networks of evil, The Sydney Morning Herald, Weekend Special Edition, October 19-20, 2002, p 9

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