UN SCR1325 on Women, Peace, & Security and its Implications on the Current Peacekeeping Operations

UN Security Council Resolution 1325 on Women, Peace, and Security and its Implications on the Current Peacekeeping Operations

BY

Andrea Steffal

A T H E S I S P R E S E N T E D I N PA R T I A L C O M P L E T I O N O F T H E R E Q U I R E M E N T S O F

The Certificate-of-Training in United Nations Peace Support Operations

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Acronyms

3

Introduction

4

1.

5

2.

The Roots of the United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325 : 1.1. The United Nations Charter

5

1.2. The World Conferences on Women

7

1.3. The Windhoek Declaration and the Namibia Plan of Action

9

The United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325

10

2.1. UN Member States

11

2.2. Secretary-General and Security Council

12

2.2.1. Secretary-General

12

2.2.2. Security Council

13

2.3. Parties to Armed Conflict and all States/ Actors involved in

13

Peace Agreements and Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration

3.

Implications of the UNSCR 1325 on the current PKOs

16

3.1. The UN Security Council Resolutions establishing and/ or prolonging the Peacekeeping Operations

4.

17

3.2. Percentage and Role of Women in the current PKOs

22

3.3. Gender Perspective

32

3.3.1.

Training on gender issues

35

3.3.2.

Participation of women in peace negotiations

37

3.3.3.

Transitional Justice

40

3.3.3.1.

Truth and reconciliation commissions

41

3.3.3.2.

Security Sector reforms

42

3.3.4.

DDR programs

44

Conclusions

46

Bibliography

50

Internet Ressources

51

Annex I: Questionnaire

54

2

LIST OF ACRONYMS CEDAW CIMIC Officer CPA DDR DDRR DPKO DRC DSRSG ESP FPs FPU GU LPN MINURSO MINUSTAH MONUC

MONUSCO

NAP PKOs SGBV SRSG SSR TCC UNAMA UNAMID UNDOF UNFICYP UN HQ UNIFIL UNISFA UNMIK UNMIL UNMISS UNMIT UNMOGIP UNOCI UNSMIS UNSC UNSCR UNTSO

Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women Civil-Military-Coordination Officer Consolidated Peace Agreement Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration Disarmament, Demobilisation, Rehabilitation and Reintegration Department of Peacekeeping Operations Democratic Republic of Congo Deputy Special Representative of the Secretary General Educational Support Program Focal Points Formed Police Unit Gender Unit Liberia National Police United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti Mission des Nations Unies en République Démocratique du Congo (United Nations Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo) Mission des Nations Unies pour la Stabilisation en République Démocratique du Congo (United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo) National Action Plan Peacekeeping Operations Sexual Gender Based Violence Special Representative of the Secretary General Security Sector Reform Troop Contributing Country United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan African Union-United Nations Hybrid Operation in Darfur United Nations Disengagement Observer Force United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus United Nations Headquarters United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon United Nations Security Force for Abyei United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo United Nations Mission in Liberia United Nations Mission in the Republic of South Sudan United Nations Integrated Mission in Timor-Leste United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan United Nations Operation in Côte d’ Ivoire United Nations Supervision Mission in Syria United Nations Security Council United Nations Security Council Resolution United Nations Truce Supervision Organization 3

INTRODUCTION It has been ten years since the approval of the Resolution on “Women, Peace and Security� by the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) on 31 October 2000. More than ten years has passed and much has been changed. Each year progress is made, sometimes backward steps are taken but still there is much to be done.

The reports, studies and comments within the United Nations System as well as those of individual member states, other international organizations and non-governmental institutions concerning the application of UNSCR 1325 are diverse and provide much material for students of this resolution.

This paper focuses on the implications of UNSCR 1325 on the 16 peacekeeping missions operating until 30th June 2012. UNAMA which is a political mission has not been considered in this paper. After describing the roots that led to the Resolution in chapter 1, the reader will find a summary of the different points of the Resolution that are addressed to the different UN organs, Member States as well as to conflicting parties in chapter 2.

Chapter 3 is divided into three parts: the first considers the UN Resolutions that established and/ or prolonged the current PKOs and the wording of their mandates in relation to UNSCR 1325. The second examines the percentage and the role of women working in the PKOs with a special focus on leadership positions in the missions. The third part of chapter three is dedicated to the gender perspective, in general checking how many PKOs have gender units.

Of great interest is the question of the participation of women in peace negotiations and in transitional justice, in particular in truth and reconciliation commissions. The paper finally examines best practice in security sector reform and two examples of DDR programs where women were largely involved.

4

1. The Roots of the United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325 The equality of men and women and their equal participation in the United Nations was formally recognized in 1945 when the Charter of the United Nations was first signed. However women had and still have to fight for their rights and equal participation since then. Many conferences have been held to promote gender issues and gender equality and in the year 2000 a special resolution was taken by the UN Security Council in favour of the equal participation of women in peace matters and the special protection of women in armed conflict.

1.1. The Charter of the United Nations

The Charter of the United Nations which is the basic document of the organization and which was accepted by its Member States in 1945, outlines in its Preamble the equal rights of men and women. 1 In Chapter I, which refers to the purpose of the United Nations it reads as: Article 1, paragraph 3: “To achieve international co-operation in solving international problems of an economic, social, cultural, or humanitarian character, and in promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language or religion.” 2 Chapter III which refers to the organs of the United Nations defines in Article 8 that: “The United Nations shall place no restrictions on the eligibility of men and women to participate in any capacity and under conditions of equality in its principal and subsidiary organs”. 3

1

http://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/preamble.shtml Chapter I, Art. 1, Paragraph 3 3 Chapter III, Art.8 2

5

Also Chapter IX which refers to the International Economic and Social Cooperation and Chapter XII which refers to the International Trusteeship Council contain respect for human rights and non discrimination concerning sex. 4

Just one year later, in1946, the Commission on the Status of Women (CSW) was created with the mandate to prepare recommendations for the General Assembly in the field of women’s rights ensuring that men and women have equal rights. The CSW developed a number of Conventions and recommendations which where adopted by the General Assembly. The most important Convention is that on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) which came into force in 1979, just one year before the second Women’s World Conference in Copenhagen. 5 As of 30th June 2012, 187 States had ratified the CEDAW.6 States that have ratified the Convention commit themselves among other measures: “ to incorporate the principle of equality of men and women in their legal system, abolish all discriminatory laws and adopt appropriate ones prohibiting discrimination against women; to establish tribunals and other public institutions to ensure the effective protection of women against discrimination; and to ensure elimination of all acts of discrimination against women by persons, organizations and enterprises”. 7 187 States represent 97% of the overall number of Member States in the United Nations. If the Convention had really been put into reality in so many countries, there would be no more discrimination against women on a large scale but unfortunately this is not the case.

Even a decade before the implementation of the CEDAW, the General Assembly had adopted a Resolution for the protection of women and children in armed conflict, where it recognized for the first time the impact of gender. 8

4

Chapter IX, Art 55, letter c ; Chapter XII, Art 76, letter c www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/history.htm 6 http ://treaties.un.org 7 www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/cedaw.htm 8 Ann Janette Rosga, Ph.D.: Preventing Violence against Women and Gender Inequality in Peacekeeping, Peace Operations Training Institute, Williamsburg 2010, p.12 5

6

Gender – simply said – is about the different roles, responsibilities and expectations women and men have in different cultures. Whereas a person’s sex is biologically determined and cannot be changed, gender roles vary over time and from culture to culture. 9

The process of considering gender in any planned action is called gender mainstreaming. According to the definition of the UN Economic and Social Council it is: “… the process of assessing the implications for women and men of any planned action, including legislation, policies and programmes, in all areas and at all levels. It is a strategy for making women’s as well as men’s concerns and experiences an integral dimension of the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policies, and programmes in all political, economic and societal spheres so that women and men benefit equally and inequality is not perpetuated.

The ultimate goal is to achieve gender equality”. 10 Today gender mainstreaming is implemented in the United Nations and in most of the current peacekeeping operations (also in main because of UNSCR 1325). However it is a long way from recognizing the importance of the concept of gender and really implementing gender mainstreaming procedures into the UN system.

1.2. The World Conferences on Women

The World Conferences on Women contributed much to a new “understanding” of women themselves, their roles in conflict, development aid and peace processes.

The first United Nations World Conference on Women was held in Mexico in 1975. Women did not want to see themselves only as recipients of aid and as persons that have to be protected in times of conflict but also as active participants in development and peace processes. The outcome of the Conference was finalised in the Mexico Plan of Action which called for full 9

Prof. Ximena Jimenez: Gender Perspectives in United Nations Peacekeeping Operations, Unitar Poci, New York 2007, p.22 10 http: www.un.org/womenwatch/osagi/pdf/factsheet1.pdf

7

gender equality and elimination of gender discrimination, full participation of women in development and their increased contribution to world peace. 11 The Mexico Plan of Action had definitely also contributed to the finalisation of the CEDAW in 1979.

The second United Nations World Conference on Women in Copenhagen in 1980 reaffirmed that: “States should help women to participate in promoting international cooperation for the sake of the preparation of societies for a life in peace”. 12 The third United Nations World Conference on Women in Nairobi linked the issue of peace to the eradication of violence against women at all levels of society. 13

The fourth United Nations World Conference on Women in Beijing in 1995 demanded in its final document; called the” Beijing Platform for Action” that the obstacles that hinder women’s advancement at national, international, NGO and private sector level be removed and that the participation of women in conflict resolution at decision making levels should be increased. 14 However five years after - women were still a long way from peace negotiation tables, their needs not taken into consideration and as Elisabeth Porter put it “The consequence of a peace agreement that does not address these needs is that women’s subordination is exacerbated”. 15 By the end of 1994, the Secretary General of the United Nations - in trying to achieve gender equality in the United Nations - prepared a strategic plan of action for the improvement of the status of women in the Secretariat (19952000). This plan was endorsed by the General Assembly in its Resolution 49/167 of 23 December 1994. In the Secretary General´s Bulletin of 5th

11

Mexico Plan of Action, 1975 “Implementation of Security Council Resolution 1325 in Africa”: developed by OSAGI in collaboration with INSTRAW and ECA, Series Editor: Harvey J. Langholtz, 2011 United Nations, p. 18 13 Ibid, p.18 14 AnnJanette Rosga, Ph.D.: Preventing Violence against Women and Gender Inequality in Peacekeeping, Peace Operations Training Institute, Williamsburg 2010, p.13 15 Elisabeth Porter: Women, Political Decision-Making, and Peace-Building in Global Change, Peace & Security, 15: p. 249, Routledge, 2003 12

8

January 1996 he reaffirmed the policy and gave his personal commitment to the strategic plan which “establishes the goal of gender parity by the year 2000 overall and in policy level positions (D1 and above)”. 16 In the report of the Secretary General on the improvement of the status of women in the United Nations system in October 2001 one can see steady efforts to increase the representation of women at all levels in the UN system had been made but that parity had not been achieved.

“As of 30 June 2001, 40,2 per cent of Professional and higher level staff on geographical appointments in the Secretariat where women”. 17

1.3. The Windhoek Declaration and Namibia Plan of Action

A Panel held by the United Nations on peace operations in Windhoek, Namibia, in 2000, asked for a new strategy to promote the participation and inclusion of women in UN peace operations. This resulted in the “Windhoek Declaration” and the “Namibia Plan of Action on Mainstreaming a Gender Perspective in Multidimensional Peace Support Operations”. 18

Despite the documents and plans mentioned above which are only a small selection of a much wider range of documents and statements issued on the subject of women and security, it was necessary to pass a Resolution in the Security Council to which all the Member States would adhere to strengthen the protection mechanisms for women in times of conflict on the one hand and their role as contributors to peace and security on the other hand.

UNSCR 1325 on “Women, Peace and Security” was adopted by the Security Council on the 31st of October 2000.

16

http://www.un.org/womenwatch/osagi/pdf/n9600282.pdf, point 2 http://www.un.org/documents/ga/docs/56/a56472.pdf, p. 1 18 http://www.peacewomen.org/un/pkwatch/WindhoekDeclaration.html 17

9

2.The United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325 Over the last decades, forms of conflict have changed completely from interstate to intrastate conflicts with many different kinds of combatants (national armies, rebel groups, militias, mercenaries etc) and other ways of fighting. Many women remember the mass rapes of different combatant groups during the wars in the Balkans, the genocide in Rwanda or the rapes in the Democratic Republic of Congo and Darfur. Women and children have unfortunately become a target for armed groups.

UNSCR 1325 in its preamble takes this into account when describing women as “the vast majority of those adversely affected by armed conflict … and increasingly targeted by combatants and armed elements” but on the other hand the preamble also reaffirms the active role women should take in the peace process: “…the important role of women in the prevention and resolution of conflicts and in peace building and stressing the importance of their equal participation and full involvement in all efforts for the maintenance and promotion of peace and security, and the need to increase their role in decision-making with regard to conflict prevention and resolution”. 19 For Elisabeth Porter, Resolution 1325 is historic because the Security Council had never before discussed the role of women in peace processes and it is the first time that the need to increase their contribution in peace processes was mentioned. 20 This paper will later look at current peacekeeping operations and see if this importance is really given to women and if their role in decisionmaking has been increased (see chapter 3).

UNSCR 1325 consists of 18 points which are directly related to different actors. For simplicity this paper puts them into three categories: UN Member States – Secretary General and Security Council – Parties to Armed Conflict and States /Actors involved in Peace Agreements and Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration.

19

http://www.un.org/Docs/scres/2000/sc2000.htm: S/RES/1325 (2000) Elisabeth Porter: Women, Political Decision-Making, and Peace-Building in Global Change, Peace & Security, 15: p. 253, Routledge, 2003 20

10

2.1. UN Member States

The UN Member States are asked to increase the representation of women at all decision making levels in conflict matters and to provide candidates to the Secretary-General for the centralized roster.

Point 1 “urges Member States to ensure increased representation of women at all decision making levels in national, regional and international institutions and mechanisms for the prevention, management, and resolution of conflict; Point 3 “… calls on Member States to provide candidates to the SecretaryGeneral, for inclusion in a regularly updated centralized roster”. 21

UN Member States are also asked to include the protection of women and the importance of women in peace building in their pre-deployment training and to support with (their contributions) relevant funds and programmes that support gender-sensitive training.

Point 6 “… invites Member States to incorporate these elements (training guidelines on protection of women) as well as HIV/AIDS awareness training into their national training programmes for military and civilian police personnel in preparation for deployment”; Point 7 “urges Member States to increase their voluntary financial, technical and logistical support for gender-sensitive training efforts, including those undertaken by relevant funds and programmes, inter alia, the United Nations Fund for Women…” 22 Because the implementation of UNSCR 1325 was inconsistent in the first years after its signing, the President of the Security Council asked the Member States in 2005 to draw up National Action Plans (=NAP). The first countries that developed their NAPs were Austria, Ivory Coast, Spain and Switzerland in 2007. Only three countries out of those in which a peacekeeping operation currently takes place, have developed their NAPS so far, namely Ivory Coast,

21 22

http://www.un.org/Docs/scres/2000/sc2000.htm: S/RES/1325(2000) Ibid.

11

Liberia and the Democratic Republic of Congo. So far, worldwide 37 countries have developed National Actions Plans.

2.2.

23

Secretary General and Security Council

2.2.1. Secretary General The points of UNSCR 1325 which are addressed to the Secretary-General are two directional: Firstly, to increase the participation of women at decisionmaking levels, to appoint more women as special representatives and also to expand their contributions in field based operations as well as to include a gender component were applicable.

Point 2 “encourages the Secretary-General to implement his strategic plan of action (A/49/587) calling for an increase in the participation of women at decision-making levels in conflict resolution and peace processes; Point 3 “urges the Secretary-General to appoint more women as special representatives and envoys to pursue good offices on his behalf”. 24 According to Pampell-Conaway and Shoemaker only seven women have ever held the position of special representative to the Secretary-General in the years 1948 to 2008, (over 60 years). 25 In the table below (chapter 3.2.) there are three women as special representatives and three as deputy special representatives – which means a percentage of 18.75 for each category. One can say that the situation has improved since the implementation of the UNSCR 1325 but is still not satisfactory.

Point 4 “further urges the Secretary-General to seek to expand the role and contribution of women in the United Nations field-based operations, and especially among military observers, civilian police, human rights and humanitarian personnel”; Point 5 23

http://peacewomen.org/naps/list-of-naps http://www.un.org/Docs/scres/2000/sc2000.htm: S/RES/1325(2000) 25 Camille Pampell-Conaway and Jolynn Shoemaker: Women in United Nations Peace Operations: Increasing Leadership Opportunities, Women in International Security, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, June 2008, p.8 24

12

“… and urges the Secretary-General to ensure that, where appropriate, field operations include a gender component”. 26 Secondly, the Secretary-General is asked to provide training guidelines on the protection of women and the importance of their involvement in peace matters, to carry out a study on the impact of armed conflict on women and girls and to include any progress on gender matters in his reporting.

Point 6 “requests the Secretary-General to provide to member States training guidelines and materials on the protection, rights and the particular needs of women, as well as on the importance of involving women in all peacekeeping and peace building measures… and further requests the Secretary-General to ensure that civilian personnel of peacekeeping operations receive similar training”. 27 Point 16 “invites the Secretary-General to carry out a study on the impact of armed conflict on women and girls, the role of women in peacebuilding and the gender dimensions of peace processes and conflict resolution, and further invites him to submit a report to the Security Council on the results of this study and to make this available to all Member States of the United Nations”, Point 17 “requests the Secretary-General, where appropriate, to include in his reporting to the Security Council progress on gender mainstreaming throughout peacekeeping missions and all other aspects relating to women and girls”. 28

2.2.2. Security Council The Security Council which is the main organ of the UN to make decisions on measures for maintaining peace and security, it is also asked to consider the impact of their decisions on women and girls and to take gender considerations into account in its missions. The Security Council is asked to continue to work on this matter.

Point 14 “reaffirms its readiness, whenever measures are adopted under Article 41 of the Charter of the United Nations, to give consideration to their potential impact on the civilian population, bearing in mind the 26

http://www.un.org/Docs/scres/2000/sc2000.htm: S/RES/1325(2000) Ibid.

28 Ibid.

27

13

special needs of women and girls, in order to consider appropriate humanitarian exemptions”; Point 15 “expresses its willingness to ensure that Security Council missions take into account gender considerations and the rights of women, including through consultation with local and international women’s groups”; Point 18 “decides to remain actively seized of the matter”. 29

2.2.3. Parties to Armed Conflict and all States/ Actors involved in Peace Agreements and Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration

There are three points specifically addressed to the parties to armed conflict which concern full respect for international laws concerning the rights and protection of women and girls, special measures to protect them from genderbased violence and respect of the humanitarian character of refugee camps, in particular to take into account the needs of women and girls.

Point 9 “calls upon all parties to armed conflict to respect fully international law applicable to the rights and protection of women and girls, especially civilians, in particular the obligations applicable to them under the Geneva Conventions of 1949 and the Additional Protocols thereto of 1977... and to bear in mind the relevant provisions of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court”; Point 10 “calls on all parties to armed conflict to take special measures to protect women and girls from gender-based violence, particularly rape and other forms of sexual abuse, and all other forms of violence in situations of armed conflict”, Point 12 “calls upon all parties to armed conflict to respect the civilian and humanitarian character of refugee camps and settlements and to take into account the particular needs of women and girls, including in their design, and recalls its resolutions 1208 (1998) of 19 November 1998 and 1296 (2000) of 19 April 2000”. 30 29 30

Ibid.

Ibid.

14

All States are asked to put an end to impunity for those responsible for genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes including sexual and other violence against women.

Point 11 “emphasizes the responsibility of all States to put an end to impunity and to prosecute those responsible for genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes including those relating to sexual and other violence against women and girls, and in this regard stresses the need to exclude these crimes, where feasible from amnesty provisions”. 31 All those actors that are negotiating peace agreements and/ or are involved in disarmament processes are also asked to adopt a gender perspective.

Point 8 “calls on all actors involved, when negotiating and implementing peace agreements, to adopt a gender perspective, including inter alia: a) The special needs of women and girls during repatriation and resettlement and for rehabilitation, reintegration and post-conflict reconstruction; b) Measures that support local women`s peace initiatives and indigenous processes for conflict resolution, and that involve women in all of the implementation mechanisms of the peace agreements; c) Measures that ensure the protection of and respect for human rights of women and girls, particularly as they relate to the constitution, the electoral system, the police and the judiciary”, Point 13 “encourages all those involved in the planning for disarmament, demobilization and reintegration to consider the different needs of female and male ex-combatants and to take into account the needs of their dependants.” 32 The following chapter will have a closer look at the implications of the above mentioned points on the current peacekeeping operations where feasible.

31 32

Ibid.

Ibid.

15

3. Implications of the UNSCR 1325 on the current peacekeeping operations Peacekeeping operations are established by the Security Council through the adoption of a Security Council Resolution that sets out the mandate and the size of the mission. The Secretary General nominates all the senior staff of a mission such as the Head of Mission and his/her Deputies, Force Commanders and Police Commissioners and reports on a regular basis on the progress of the missions to the Security Council. The Security Council is also responsible for voting an extension, change or end of the Mission.

As of 30th June 2012, 16 UN Peacekeeping Operations were deployed on four continents and one special political mission in Afghanistan which is also led by the Department of Peacekeeping Operations but not taken into account for this paper.

To evaluate the implications of the UNSCR 1325 on the current peacekeeping operations, a questionnaire had been prepared with 30 questions on the following topics (see Annex I): -

Gender component

-

Training

-

Gender perspective and best practices

The questionnaire was sent out for the first time in August 2011. Only three questionnaires came back before the deadline of end September 2011. In order to have a broader basis of data, another try was made in May 2012 with the deadline end of June 2012. Just one more questionnaire was sent back so in total 4 answers where received which constitute a response rate of 25%.

Unfortunately the questionnaires were not all filled in completely especially concerning the best practices part. However UNMIL sent also their best practice report which covers a period of 6 years and MINUSTAH sent their Annual Report 2011 of the Gender Advisory Team.

16

The following chapters are based on internet research, and on the questionnaires received.

In chapter one, a close look is taken at the Resolutions that are the foundations of the current peacekeeping operations.

The second chapter is dedicated to the role and percentage of women in the current PKOs with special emphasis on the gender composition of the leadership.

The third chapter looks at the gender perspective and best practices where available.

In the fourth chapter the main findings will be summarized and some suggestions made as to how to reinforce the implementation.

3.1. The UN Security Council Resolutions establishing and/ or prolonging the Peacekeeping Operations

As already mentioned above, Peacekeeping Operations are established/ changed or prolonged by a UN Security Council Resolution that sets out the mandate and the size of the Operation.

For the purpose of this chapter, all UN Security Council Resolutions that originally established a Peacekeeping Operation, have been reviewed. The aim of this was to see if and in what way the Resolutions refer to UNSCR 1325. If another Resolution had been taken after the “founding Resolution� for a specific mission, it was also reviewed.

All Peacekeeping Operations as of 30th June 2012 were taken into consideration except the political mission UNAMA. Missions established after that date, are not part of this paper.

17

Name of

Established by

Referring to

Mission

UNSCR

UNSCR 1325 YES

UNMISS

S/RES/1996

NO

X

(2011) UNISFA

S/RES/1990

X

(2011) MONUSCO

S/RES/1925

X

(2010) UNAMID

S/RES/1769

X

(2007) UNOCI

S/RES/1528

X

(2004) UNMIL

S/RES/1509

X

(2003) MINURSO

Resolution 690

X

(1991) MINUSTAH

S/RES/1542

X

(2004) UNMIT

S/RES/1704

X

(2006)

X

S/RES/1802

X

(2008)

X

S/RES/1867

X

(2009) S/RES/1912 (2010) S/RES/1969 (2011) UNMOGIP

Resolution 39

X

(1948)

X

Resolution 47 (1948) UNFICYP

Resolution 186

X 18

(1964) UNMIK

S/RES/1244

X

(1999) UNSMIS

S/RES/2043

X

(2012) UNTSO

Resolution 50

X

(1948) UNDOF

Resolution 350

X

(1974) UNIFIL

Resolution 425

X

and 426 (1978) and 520 (1982)

X

S/RES/1553 (2004)

X X

S/RES/1559

X

(2004)

X

S/RES/1655

X

(2006) S/RES/1680 (2006) S/RES/1697 (2006) S/RES/1701 (2006) Table 1: UNSC Resolutions establishing and/ or reaffirming or enlarging PKOs

33

It is evident that missions, that have been established before UNSCR 1325 was taken - MINURSO, UNMOGIP, UNFICYP, UNMIK, UNDOF, UNTSO, UNIFIL - do not refer to it. But also UNSMIS, the mission in Syria, that was established only in 2012 to monitor the cessation of violence in Syria, did not refer to UNSCR 1325 in its mandate. 34 By taking the latter as an example it seems that for the more “traditional” peacekeeping operations in which monitoring of cessation of violence or observation of truces is the main aim, 33 34

www.un.org/en/peacekeeping www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/2043(2012)

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the mandates are not likely to refer to UNSCR 1325. As such missions are already male dominated (most of military personnel and especially the higher ranks are male) and had until now always male leadership (see chapter 3.2.1.), it would be of utmost importance to refer also to UNSCR 1325 and to apply this resolution wherever possible.

Nearly all other mandates established after the year 2000 contain a reference in their preamble (often “reaffirming” or “recalling”) to UNSCR 1325 and in the main part of the mandate one or several paragraphs to specific points of UNSCR 1325. It is interesting that missions that are more the traditional peacekeeping type such as UNISFA and UNIFIL just “reaffirm”35 or “recall” UNSCR 1325 whereas the mandates of multidimensional peacekeeping operations go much farther. For UNIFIL several mandates have been issued since the “founding” mandate in 1978, the first one after the year 2000, namely S/RES/1553 (2004) recalls UNSCR 1325, two years later with mandate S/RES/1655 (2006) UNSCR 1325 is also recalled. 36

The mandates of MONUSCO and UNAMID are focused - in respect of UNSCR 1325 - on the protection against gender based violence and the fight against impunity.

Whereas MONUSCO has “the implementation of the Government’s “zero-tolerance policy” with respect to discipline and human rights and humanitarian law violations, committed by elements of the security forces, in particular its newly integrated elements” 37 in its mandate, the “zero-tolerance policy” of UNAMID refers only to the mission personnel. 38 There are no other specific measures or points referring to the inclusion of women as contributors to peace, so one can say that women are once again only reduced to their roles as victims.

35

www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1990(2011)

36

http://unscol.unmissions.org/portals/unscol/SC%20Resolution%201655%20(2006)%20on%20UNIFIL%20exten sion.pdf 37 www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1925(2010) 38 www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1769(2007)

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The mandate of UNOCI focuses on the inclusion of women into disarmament, demobilisation, reintegration, repatriation and resettlement processes 39 whereas the mandate of MINUSTAH is directed to the inclusion of women in the electoral process, their protection against human rights abuses as well as their access to humanitarian assistance. 40

The most far reaching mandates are those of UNMIL, UNMIT (with all its follow up resolutions) and UNMISS where one can find also the words “gender perspective”, “gender considerations” or “gender expertise” in the mandate.

In the latest resolution of UNMIT it is said as follows: “Requests UNMIT to fully take into account gender considerations as set out in Security Council resolutions 1325 (2000), 1820 (2008), 1888 (2009) and 1889 (2009) as a cross-cutting issue throughout its mandate, stressing the importance of strengthening the responsiveness of the security sector to specific needs of women, and reaffirms its resolutions 1674 (2006) and 1894 (2009) on protection of civilians and 1502 (2003) on the protection of humanitarian and United Nations personnel”. 41 One can see that the above mentioned quote demands also that the security sector reform should respond to the needs of women, a demand which can also be found but only implicitly in the mandate of UNMIL and in the mandate of UNMISS.

The mandate of UNMISS is until now the only mandate that explicitly mentions the role of women as peace builders: “Reaffirming its resolutions 1325 (2000)…on women, peace, and security and reiterating the need for the full, equal, and effective participation of women at all stages of peace processes given their vital role in the prevention and resolution of conflict and peacebuilding; reaffirming the key role women can play in reestablishing the fabric of recovering society and stressing the need for their involvement in the development and implementation of postconflict strategies in order to take into account their perspectives and needs,…” and later on under point 12 it says

39

www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1528(2004) www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1542(2004) 41 www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1969(2011) 40

21

“Calls upon the Government of the Republic of South Soudan to take measures to improve women’s participation in the outstanding issues of the CPA and post-independence arrangements and to enhance the engagement of South Sudanese women in public decisionmaking at all levels including by promoting women’s leadership, supporting women’s organizations…” 42 From the above mentioned examples one can see that the content of the mandates concerning UNSCR 1325 differ considerably. In most of the mandates women are still seen only as victims that have to be protected and not as contributors to the peace process. Interesting are the mandates of UNMIT where one can see a certain development in the favor of women.

However the critical paragraphs concerning the inclusion of women are always repeated in the next resolution – until now 5 resolutions have been taken. This means that if things are demanded and repeated in writing several times, they may have a chance to be implemented.

3.2. Percentage and Role of Women in the current PKOs

Since the adoption of UNSCR 1325, UN Headquarters, the PKOs and the Member States have been working continuously to increase the number of women at UN HQ and in the field. In general, multidimensional peacekeeping operations consist of a military, a police and a civilian component. But there are also the traditional ones that have neither police nor a civilian component for example UNDOF, UNMOGIP, UNTSO and UNSMIS. Gender statistics for military components have been available on the internet since August 2006, and for police components since 2009 but unfortunately there are no statistics on the internet for any civilian components.

According to the “Gender Team Progress Report 2010” to have women in all areas of peacekeeping “is not only a matter of women’s equal employment rights, it is an operational imperative as they can undertake critical tasks that men cannot, such as: the reintegration of female ex-combatants; assisting female ex-combatants during the process of demobilising and 42

www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1996(2011)

22

reintegration into civilian life; widening the net of information gathering; performing cordon and search of women; interviewing survivors of gender-based violence; assisting in the aftermath of sexual violence and mentoring female cadets at police and military academies�. 43 The table below shows the percentage of women in current PKOs. Military as well as police components for the last three years always referring to the month of June (except for UNISFA – established end of June 2011 - and UNSMIS established only in 2012).

Mission

Year

Military

Troops

Experts

Formed

Police

Police Units

2010

1.46%

45%

50%

-------

2011

2.55%

7.41%

25%

-------

2012

3.03%

11.11%

0%

-------

2010

--------

1.89%

7.88%

8.20%

2011

--------

1.99%

9.37%

8.10%

2012

--------

2.38%

12.69%

5.87%

MONUC/

2010

4.82%

2.20%

5.58%

1.79%

MONUSCO

2011

3.35%

2.16%

12.56%

0.45%

2012

3.49%

2.14%

17.84%

0.85%

2010

3.58%

2.64%

12.49%

3.53%

2011

7.84%

2.33%

19.64%

2.85%

2012

2.06%

2.90%

16.30%

1.65%

2010

--------

2.79%

---------

--------

2011

--------

4.79%

---------

--------

2012

--------

3.07%

---------

--------

2010

--------

7.69%

20.28%

--------

2011

--------

6.61%

12.90%

--------

2012

--------

8.76%

13.23%

--------

2010

--------

4.12%

---------

--------

2011

0%

4.77%

---------

--------

2012

--------

3.60%

---------

--------

MINURSO

MINUSTAH

UNAMID

UNDOF

UNFICYP

UNIFIL

43

Individual

http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/documents/gender_team_progress_report_2010.pdf, page 9

23

2010

0%

-------

16.66%

--------

2011

0%

-------

16.66%

--------

2012

11.11%

-------

0%

--------

2010

6.01%

1.92%

12.5%

16.70%

2011

2.27%

2.62%

14.31%

15.08%

2012

1.57%

2.20%

11.76%

14.23%

UNMIS/

2010

3.42%

1.36%

15.97%

-------

UNMISS

2011

2.36%

1.89%

15.69%

-------

2012

1.66%

1.90%

15.30%

-------

2010

6.25%

-------

6.50%

1.25%

2011

6.06%

-------

10.86%

0.40%

2012

0%

-------

15.27%

0.40%

2010

2.27%

-------

--------

-------

2011

2.27%

-------

--------

-------

2012

7.14%

-------

--------

-------

2010

2.61%

-------

--------

-------

2011

7.94%

-------

--------

-------

2012

3.52%

-------

--------

-------

2010

7.25%

1.37%

4.34%

0%

2011

4.32%

0.97%

5.73%

0.31%

2012

4.56%

1.20%

9.30%

0%

UNISFA

2012

2.87%

5.38%

-------

------

UNSMIS

2012

1.07%

-------

-------

------

UNMIK

UNMIL

UNMIT

UNMOGIP

UNTSO

UNOCI

Table 2: Percentage of women in military and police components of current PKOs June 44 2010 – June 2012

When looking at the military components, one can see a higher percentage of female military experts than of female troops but that is probably based on the fact that the groups of military experts are much smaller in numbers than those of troops. When comparing the military experts group to the troops one can say that they would represent an average of 1,7% – 5% of troops.

An exception is MINURSO where the military experts group is about 87% 90% in comparison to 10% - 13% of troops. Only with MINURSO one can see 44

http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/resources/statistics/gender.shtml

24

a small but steady increase of female military experts over the last three years, for the troops - because of its small number of persons for this specific mission- there is a massive drop from 2010 to 2011 and then another increase to 2012.

The reason for the low percentage of women in the military component is definitely due to the fact that being a military is still a male dominated profession and that a lot of countries (especially the developing countries) have started recruiting female military personnel at a very late stage (late 90ies and in the early years of the 21st century) and mostly only for their officer’ corps. Bangladesh, the largest troop contributing country allows women into their officer’ corps since 2001but becoming part of the infantry is reserved to men. 45 India, the second largest TCC has opened up their officer’ corps since 1992 but also in India only males are accepted in the infantry. 46 In Pakistan, another large TCC, women have served in the army since its foundation especially in medical and educational work. Only recently women have been recruited for combat positions and for the moment Pakistan is the only Muslim country that has female Major Generals in its army. 47 In addition, Sahana Dharmapuri points out in her report that India, Pakistan and Bangladesh do not encourage increased recruitment of women into their national defence forces due to a lack of national frameworks.

48

Therefore,

PKOs with large troop contingents will probably always have a low female ratio because the selection of the personnel is not done by the UN but by the TCC that puts at the disposal a certain contingent for a certain mission as Francesco Bertolazzi writes in his report “Women with a Blue Helmet”. 49

The police component shows a different picture: from the 10 PKOs with police components, 4 have steadily increased their percentage of female officers: from 4.34% to 9.30% in UNOCI, from 7.88% to 12.69% in MINUSTAH, from 6.5% to 15.27% in UNMIT and from 5.58% to 17.84% in MONUSCO. The 45

www.army.mil.bd http://joinindianarmy.nic.in 47 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan_Army 48 Sahana Dharmapuri: Not Just a Numbers Game: Increasing Women´s Participation in UN Peacekeeping, International Peace Institute, 2013 49 Francesco Bertolazzi: Women with a Blue Helmet: The Integration of Women and Gender Issues in UN Peacekeeping Missions, UN-INSTRAW Working Paper Series, Dominican Republic, 2010 46

25

other missions show - except for MINURSO and UNMIK with 0 % - an average of 14.14% of women participation.

The formed police units, which can be found in only five of the PKOs as of 30th June 2012 show inverse percentages, meaning that the number of female police officers have in general decreased over the three last years. Despite that, the all female FPU that was sent to Haiti in May 2010 by Bangladesh did incredible work in the field of assistance after the earthquake, provision of free food and medical treatment to the local population. Bangladesh also deployed an all female FPU to the Democratic Republic of Congo. 50

According to different reports, the presence of female officers in the PKOs has shown a positive effect on women in the mission area. On the one hand, crimes against women are more easily reported to a female officer; and on the other hand the profession of a police woman might become more attractive to local women (“effect of female role models”). This was definitely the case in Liberia when an all women police unit from India was sent there and a lot of Liberian women enrolled in the national police force. 51 But the deployment of all female FPUs can also be seen critically as Sahana Dharmapuri does: “Institutionalizing all female units can lead to tokenism of women in peacekeeping mission and may give credence to the idea that men and women cannot work well together. Not only do surveys of female peacekeepers underscore their willingness and ability to work with their male counterparts, they also show that mixed (male and female) teams und units are more effective”. 52 Anyway, it seems that the “Global Effort” that was launched in 2009 with the aim to increase the proportion of women comprising UN Police to 20% by 2014 might be in reach. 53

Unfortunately no information for the civilian component has been received except for the PKOs that have returned the questionnaires. These included

50

MINUSTAH Gender Report 2011, page 5 http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/documents/gender_team_progress_report_2010.pdf, page 8 52 Sahana Dharmapuri: Not Just a Numbers Game: Increasing Women´s Participation in UN Peacekeeping, International Peace Institute, 2013 53 http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/sites/police/initiatives/globaleffort.shtml 51

26

also a question on the gender composition of local staff and are summarized in the table below:

International Staff

Local Staff

Mission

% men

% women

% men

% women

MINURSO

81.63%

18.37%

81.71%

18.29%

UNMIL

67.08%

32.92%

90.27%

9.73%

UNIFIL

70.74%

29.26%

74.20%

25.80%

MINUSTAH

66.60%

33.40%

80.55%

19.45%

Table 3: percentage of women among international and local staff

54

Even if the above data is only from 4 PKOs out of 16, a certain trend is visible: women constitute between 18.37% and 33.40% among international staff so gender parity is still unfortunately some time away. But three missions indicated that the role and contributions of women have changed considerably during the past years. UNMIL explained that women are involved as gender focal points and their activities are guided by gender checklists to facilitate gender mainstreaming in all the working areas. 55 The latter example gives hope that other missions will also improve their gender sensitivity.

Concerning the local staff one can see that the percentages of women are even below of that of the international staff ranging from 9.73% to 25.80%.

When looking at the female labour participation rate which gives the proportion of female population ages 15 and older that is economically active, 56 one gets the following table when comparing with the percentage of females locally recruited in the specific missions:

Female Labour participation

Percentage of local females

rate

in the specific missions

Difference

Morocco

26%

MINURSO

18.29%

-7.71%

Liberia

58%

UNMIL

9.73%

-48.27%

Lebanon

23%

UNIFIL

25.80%

+2.8%

54

Based on questionnaires received from MINURSO, UNMIL, UNIFIL and MINUSTAH Based on questionnaire received from UNMIL 56 http://data/worldbank.org/indicator/SL.TLF.CACT.FE.ZS 55

27

Haiti

60%

MINUSTAH

19.45%

-40.55%

Table 4: Female labour participation rate in comparison with % of females locally recruited 57 for PKOs

The table shows clearly that in 3 missions the percentage of locally recruited female staff of PKOs is much lower than the average female labour participation rate with the biggest difference being in UNMIL. Apparently the Gender Focal Point of UNMIL is aware of the problem as they have started sensitization campaigns with the aim to increase their percentage of local female co-workers. 58 MINURSO explained that there are less female candidates in the mission area. 59 For MINUSTAH there is no explanation given but it seems that the findings of a survey done by the Peacekeeping Best Practice Section in February 2007 on the “Recruitment of women among national staff” – to which 13 out of 18 missions responded at that time – are still valid: the main obstacles are the lack of academic qualifications of national women, their insufficient English and their lack of computer skills. Also the cultural expectations play an important role as in most of the mission areas women have the traditional role of staying at home and caring for their children. In one of the countries – the Democratic Republic of Congo – women had to get permission from their husbands to apply for a job. Besides that mission work is not seen as permanent and therefore women prefer employment with private companies. 60

However the survey also points out that once women have started as national staff, they have the same possibilities to advance in their careers as men and there are cases that national staff moved from the General Service Category to National Professional Officer or that they even obtained international or United Nations Volunteer appointments. What was critical in all those cases was additional training and training on the job as well as management that looked and cared for the progress of the women. 61

57

http://data/worldbank.org/indicator/SL.TLF.CACT.FE.ZS and questionnaires from UNMIL, MINURSO, MINUSTAH and UNIFIL 58 Based on questionnaire received from UNMIL 59 Based on questionnaire received from MINURSO 60 Recruitment of women among national staff : A survey of mission practice, Peacekeeping Best Practice Section, February 2007 61 Ibid.

28

Gender Composition of Leadership

Female leaders may serve as role models for other women not only within the UN system but also in the mission areas where women are often excluded from negotiation tables and are sometimes seen as inferior to men due to cultural or religious reasons.

The Table below shows the gender composition of the leadership of the missions as of 30th June 2012.

Mission

SRSG/Head DSRSG of Mission

2nd DSRSG Force Comm.

UNMISS

Female

Female

Male

Male

UNISFA

Male

MONUSCO

Male

Female

Male

Male

Male

UNAMID

Male

Male

Female

Male

Male

UNOCI

Male

Male

Male

Male

Male

UNMIL

Female

Male

Male

Male

Male

MINURSO

Male

MINUSTAH

Male

Male

UNMIT

Male

Male

UNMOGIP

Male

UNFICYP

Female

UNMIK

Male

UNSMIS

Male

Male Male

Male

Male

Male

UNIFIL Table 4: Gender composition of leadership positions of the PKOs

Male Male

UNDOF

62

Police Comm.

Male 62

www.un.org/en/peacekeeping

29

Please note that UNSMIS has no SRSG but a Chief Military Observer that is at the same time Head of Mission – for simplicity stated in the column of SRSG. UNAMID is a joint Mission with African Union. The Head of mission is called “Joint AU-UN Special Representative”. He has two Deputies, one “Deputy Joint AU-UN Representative for Operations and Management” and one “Deputy Joint AU-UN Special Representative for Political Affairs”. In the above table, you will find them in the columns for Special Representative of the Secretary General and Deputy Special Representative.

As of 30th June 2012, there were three missions that were led by women – UNMISS, UNMIL and UNFICYP and another three missions where women were appointed as Deputy Special Representative of the Secretary General (MONUSCO) or as second Deputy Special Representative (UNMISS, UNAMID). The leadership of the military component was (and still is) completely in the hands of men, no single Force Commander or Police Commissioner was/is female despite the effort of Norway who in 2012 tried to put forward a senior female candidate for a force commander position. 63 Even if the Secretary General appointed a woman to the rank of Police Adviser at the Assistant Secretary General level in the UN Police Division’s Headquarters in 2010, 64 nothing has significantly changed in the field.

However, the above situation is – although unsatisfying if one considers gender parity as the aim – a big progress looking at the time between 1948 and 2008 where only seven women held the position of special representative. 65 What is interesting is the fact that all three SRSG of the above table were women from Western countries (Norway, Sweden and the United States) and had all been working for the UN system for a long time. It seems that qualified women from outside the UN system rarely have a chance

63

Sahana Dharmapuri: Not Just a Numbers Game: Increasing Women´s Participation in UN Peacekeeping, International Peace Institute, 2013 64 http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/documents/gender_team_progress_report_2010.pdf, page 10 65 Camille Pampell-Conaway and Jolynn Shoemaker: Women in United Nations Peace Operations: Increasing Leadership Opportunities, Women in International Security, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, June 2008, p.8

30

to become SRSG, an assumption that is confirmed by the study of Pampell Conaway and Shoemaker. 66

Although women in leadership positions are seen as role models by their staff as well as by the people of the host countries and they are more open towards the different needs of female peacekeepers, 67 there are – according to Pampell Conaway and Shoemaker – a number of reasons why women don’t occupy their share of leadership positions in PKOs: -

Lack of transparency and political considerations in the recruitment process of SRSGs;

-

Pursuit of geographical balances and favouritism towards certain nationalities;

-

Problems with the UN’s online application procedures;

-

No self promotion of women in comparison to men;

-

Self elimination of well qualified women. 68

Self elimination is a common phenomenon of well qualified women in general when thinking of applying for a higher position. Many women tend to question if they are really qualified for the position and apply only if they meet all the criteria a hundred percent whereas men just apply even if they don’t meet all the criteria.

Another reason for self elimination that is more specific to PKOs is that the places in which one is sent are often non-family duty stations which causes problems for women with partners and children. 69 Military women often refrain from applying for high rank posts as they have not enough military experience which is a key requirement for such posts, 70 and the job descriptions often include specific requirements which only infantry officers can have, even in the Observation Missions.

66

Ibid, p.11 Francesco Bertolazzi: Women with a Blue Helmet: The Integration of Women and Gender Issues in UN Peacekeeping Missions, , UN-INSTRAW Working Paper Series, Dominican Republic, 2010 68 Camille Pampell-Conaway and Jolynn Shoemaker: Women in United Nations Peace Operations: Increasing Leadership Opportunities, Women in International Security, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, June 2008 p.8/9/11 69 Ibid. p.9 70 Francesco Bertolazzi: Women with a Blue Helmet: The Integration of Women and Gender Issues in UN Peacekeeping Missions, UN-INSTRAW Working Paper Series, Dominican Republic, 2010 67

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But even if a woman makes it to the top she has to perform much better than a man or like Pampell Conaway and Shoemaker put it: “they are frequently held to higher standards than men, who tend to circulate from mission to mission regardless of job performance.

Failure on the part of one woman in a leadership role can have repercussions on the general perception of all women to successfully lead UN missions”. 71 The Secretary General is well aware of the fact, that UN PKOs need more women in leading positions. In his report “Women´s participation in peace building” in September 2010, he stressed that efforts to engage women in peace processes have to be accelerated by all actors and concerning leadership positions, he emphasized that more women have to be appointed to senior positions and as chief mediators. 72

For the advancement of women in the military and police component, Sahana Dharmapuri stresses in her report the creation of a “gender-sensitive force generation strategy” 73 that should address measures for the recruitment, retention and advancement of female uniformed personnel and the research into the barriers for women in their national security forces and UN PKOs. She also suggests winning high rank male officers as allies for the advancement of women. And she is convinced that military gender advisers at force headquarters as well as the appointment of the chief of staff of national contingents as military gender focal points would have a positive effect on gender issues and the advancement of women. 74

3.3. Gender Perspective

UNSCR 1325 urges in point 5 the Secretary General of the UN “to ensure that, where appropriate, field operations include a gender component”. 75 And the

71

Ibid, p.12 http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/2010/466 73 Sahana Dharmapuri: Not Just a Numbers Game: Increasing Women´s Participation in UN Peacekeeping, International Peace Institute, 2013 74 Ibid, p.20 75 http://www.un.org/DOCS/SCRES/2000/SC2000.htm:S/RES/1325(2000) 72

32

Policy Directive of the Department of Peacekeeping Operation in its document “Gender Equality in UN Peacekeeping Operations” states that “DPKO has a particular responsibility and an opportunity to influence the channeling of resources and the shaping of laws, institutions and processes to advance gender equality and the empowerment of women in countries hosting peacekeeping missions”. 76 This chapter will first look at the gender component of the PKOs (where information is available) and then have a closer look at the following fields: -

Training on gender issues;

-

Participation of women in peace negotiations;

-

Transitional Justice and

-

DDR programs.

In the best case gender components consist of at least one international Senior Gender Advisor and several international and national gender officers plus administrative support staff (depending on the mission) and a network of gender focal points that have clearly defined tasks. The functions of gender advisors and focal points (FPs) should not be confused. Gender Advisors in Gender units have to “promote, facilitate, support and monitor the incorporation of gender perspectives in peacekeeping operations. Gender units and advisors in peacekeeping operations are working to provide technical guidance to the heads of operations, to ensure increased efforts to mainstream gender perspectives into all functional areas of peacekeeping and to increase the participation of women leaders and organizations in the implementation of the mandate of the operation. Gender Focal Point’s role is to assist in improving gender balance in peacekeeping operations…. These focal points are currently involved in personnel issues such as recruitment, promotions, employment discrimination and sexual harassment”. 77 As of 30th June 2012, 9 missions had a civilian gender adviser namely MONUSCO, UNMIT, UNMIL, MINUSTAH, UNOCI, UNMISS, UNAMID, UNIFIL and the political mission UNAMA which is not part of this paper. 78 Although the DPKO/DFS Guidelines on Integrating a Gender Perspective into the Work of the United Nations Military in Peacekeeping Operations called for the 76

DPKO Policy Directive: Gender Equality in UN Peacekeeping Operations, November 2006 Francesco Bertolazzi: Women with a Blue Helmet: The Integration of Women and Gender Issues in UN Peacekeeping Missions, UN-INSTRAW Working Paper Series, Dominican Republic, 2010, page 7 78 http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/issues/women/recentwork.shtml 77

33

appointment of military gender advisers, no military gender adviser was appointed until recently. 79

As already mentioned, the size of the gender components varies from mission to mission. Based on the questionnaires received, it goes from 9 staff in UNMIL, to 6 staff in MINUSTAH and 3 staff in UNIFIL. MINURSO has only a part time Gender Focal Point whose task is to provide induction training on gender issues for newly arrived personnel. 80 The question about when the gender components were established was only answered by UNMIL - since the establishment of the mission - and UNIFIL – since 2009. 81

The gender unit in MINUSTAH was established from the beginning of the mission in 2004, that of UNMIK mid 2003 and that of UNMISS under the precedent mission UNMIS since 2005. 82 UNMIS has apparently the biggest gender unit as it not only works in the capital but also in 9 branch offices all over Sudan. 83 The gender office in UNMIT was established in December 2000 under the precedent mission UNTAET, the first one of its kind ever established in a PKO. 84

The gender unit in MONUSCO was established in 2002 (under MONUC) with 8 staff and has currently 12 staff working in Kinshasa, Bukavu, Goma, Bunia and Kisangani. 85 Their work is supported by a network of Gender FPs in the different sections of the mission whose main task is to raise awareness on gender issues. 86 It is clear that missions with large gender units and a widespread gender focal point system that supports the gender unit in its endeavors to mainstream

79

Sahana Dharmapuri: Not Just a Numbers Game: Increasing Women´s Participation in UN Peacekeeping, International Peace Institute, 2013 80 Based on questionnaires from UNMIL, MINUSTAH, UNIFIL and MINURSO 81 Ibid.

82 http://www.peacekeepingbestpractices.unlb.org/pbps/Library/Gender%20Mainstreaming%20Progress%20repo rt.pdf 83 Ibid.

84 Ibid.

85 Caspar Merkle: Evaluation of Gender Mainstreaming in United Nations Peacekeeping Activities (MONUC/MONUSCO) in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, UN Women Evaluation Office, March 2012 86 Caspar Merkle: Evaluation of Gender Mainstreaming in United Nations Peacekeeping Activities (MONUC/MONUSCO) in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, UN Women Evaluation Office, March 2012

34

gender into all aspects of a mission are active in a variety of fields and can initiate much more than a single Gender FP with its limited tasks.

3.3.1. Training on gender issues

In general training on gender issues is essential for implementing and mainstreaming gender into all aspects of a mission. This applies not only to all UN personnel but also to key persons in the host countries that might facilitate and promote the concept of gender equality in their country.

Although UNSCR 1325 invites the Member States under point 6 to ensure training on the protection of women and training on HIV/AIDS and asks the Secretary General to provide training guidelines and materials on those subjects, from the information below, it seems that TCCs are not doing enough on the first subject.

Below is a table of the four missions that replied to the questionnaires concerning pre-deployment training:

MISSION

Military Yes

MINURSO

Protection, rights and

No

Police

Partly

Yes

No

Civilian personnel Partly

Yes

No

X

X

X

X

X

X

Partly

particular needs of women Importance of involvement of women in peacekeeping and peace building measures HIV/Aids MINUSTAH

Protection, rights and

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

particular needs of women Importance of involvement of women in peacekeeping and

35

peace building HIV/Aids

No information

X

X

n/a

X

available UNIFIL

Protection, rights and

X

particular needs of women X

Importance of

n/a

X

involvement of women in peacekeeping and peace building HIV/Aids UNMIL

X

Protection, rights and

n/a X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

particular needs of women Importance of

X

involvement of women in peacekeeping and peace building HIV/Aids

Table 5: Pre-deployment training in 4 missions based on questionnaires received

X 87

It is interesting that almost all participants of all components of PKOs had training on HIV/Aids - which was also introduced only in the beginning of 2000 - but concerning the protection, rights and particular needs of women as well as the importance of the involvement of women in all peacekeeping and peace building activities, the military components are in most cases not or only partly trained. So it seems that when troops are exposed to a certain health risk, they are trained well before they enter a respective country but when it comes to the protection and rights of women in host countries this is not such a burning issue despite UNSCR 1325.

UNMIL and MINUSTAH explained that they have no influence on the predeployment training as this is the responsibility of the Troop Contributing Countries. UN Police as well as civilian staff are trained in all areas except for

87

Based on questionnaires from UNMIL, MINUSTAH, UNIFIL and MINURSO

36

MINURSO. However all four missions offer induction sessions on gender mainstreaming for civilian personnel, police and military officers. 88

MINUSTAH also provides training on gender mainstreaming and sexual gender based violence (SGBV) for Civil-Military-Coordination Officers (CIMIC), UN police officers and civilians working at Gender Focal Points. UNMIL focuses on UN police officers and provides training on gender concepts, guidelines and the gender policy of the Liberian National Police and on ad hoc trainings such as gender and elections. 89

The Gender Unit in MONUSCO is also doing induction training on gender mainstreaming. According to an evaluation done at the end of 2011, mission staff suggested that “these types of short introductions are not sufficient to have a sustained effect”. 90

As in all training, the results depend on the participants (their pre-knowledge as well as their will to get the most out of the training) and the circumstances for the implementation of their new information into reality. It might be that pre-deployment training for MONUSCO personnel was only partly done and that some of the mission personnel hear only for the first time of gender mainstreaming and therefore it is difficult for them to apply their new knowledge into reality.

3.3.2 Participation of Women in Peace Negotiations

UNSCR 1325 describes in its preamble “…the important role of women in the prevention and resolution of conflicts and in peace building and stressing the importance of their equal participation and full involvement in all efforts for the maintenance and promotion of peace and security, and the need to increase their role in decision-making with regard to conflict prevention and resolution”. 91 88

Ibid.

Ibid.

90 Caspar Merkle : Evaluation of Gender Mainstreaming in United Nations Peacekeeping Activities (MONUC/MONUSCO) in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, UN Women Evaluation Office, March 2012 91 http://www.un.org/Docs/scres/2000/sc2000.htm: S/RES/1325 (2000) 89

37

Pablo Castillo Diaz et al. underlines in his study “Women’s Participation in Peace Negotiations” completed for UNIFEM in August 2010 three reasons for the importance of the inclusion of women in peace negotiations: 1. It seems likelier that the agreements negotiated will hold and the society will not return to conflict; 2. The texts of the peace agreements will be more gender-sensitive, which will enhance comprehensiveness and legitimacy and 3. The involvement of women in the peacemaking phase will also have a positive effect on the implementation of the agreement. 92

Despite the positive effects that speak for the inclusion of women, reality shows a completely different picture and more effort has to be made to increase the participation of women at all levels of peace negotiations.

According to Diaz et al., there are different possibilities for the inclusion of women in the negotiations: 1. As mediators or as members of the mediation teams: although women have played an important role in some peace processes, the UN has never officially appointed a woman to be a chief mediator.

2. As delegates of the negotiating parties: they represent in general between 0 – 25% of the delegates. For example for the Sun City Agreement in the DRC the percentage of female delegates was 11.76%, in the Abuja talks that led to the Darfur Peace Agreement the participation of female delegates was 8.33%.

3. As all-female negotiating party representing a women’s agenda: this has only been the case in Northern Ireland so far.

4. As signatories: the number is strikingly low. There have only been three peace agreements so far that have also women as signatories namely the Chapultepec Agreement, the Bonn Agreement (Afghanistan) and the Peace Agreement of Somalia in 2004.

5. As witnesses: this has a more representational character and limited input to the process.

6. As representatives of women’s civil society with an observer role: results depend on the women’s group and their efforts to lobby besides the official 92

Pablo Castillo Diaz et al.: Women’s Participation in Peace Negotiations: Connections between Presence and Influence, UNIFEM, August 2010

38

peace talks as they normally have no voice in the negotiations itself as observers. For example the Liberian Women in Peacebuilding Program was agitating for peace during months in Accra in 2003, impeding delegates from leaving the site of the talks without signing the peace agreement.

7. In a parallel forum or movement: often as reaction of the exclusion from the official peace talks.

8. As gender advisers to mediators, facilitators or delegates: this is the most effective strategy and was applied during the peace talks for Dafur in 2006.

The Dafur Peace Agreement contains among other points genderresponsive provisions on wealth sharing and land rights, physical security and women’s participation in the DDR program.

9. As members of technical committees or separate working group on gender issues. 93

Since UNSCR 1325, the participation of women in peace processes has unfortunately not really increased. Looking at the current PKOs, there are only three where women played significant roles in the peace negotiations namely in Liberia in 2003, in the DRC and in the Dafur Peace Agreement.

Diaz suggests five points to strengthen the implementation of UNSCR 1325 concerning the participation of women in peace negotiations: 1. Standardized Protocols for the UN and regional organizations working on peace to include women’s organizations from the very beginning of the peace processes, 2. Donor funding conditioned on the participation of women, 3. Women and gender experts should be included in all the technical work starting from ceasefire monitoring agreements, to security sector reform and DDR, provisions on justice and reparations, wealth sharing agreements etc.

4. Mediators (males and females) should get gender awareness training and

93

Pablo Castillo Diaz et al. : Women’s Participation in Peace Negotiations: Connections between Presence and Influence, UNIFEM, August 2010

39

5. Donors should earmark funding for the participation of women in peace negotiations. 94 Given the “role model” function of women in certain positions, one should also encourage the UN to nominate women as chief mediators where possible to set a “sign” to the host countries. Development work done by different UN organizations in the host countries should focus on the equal opportunities of boys and girls and encourage girls to stand up for their rights, identify possible leaders and develop them so that later on they will become influential leaders in their societies.

3.3.3.Transitional Justice A peace agreement after a long conflict is in most cases the starting point for strengthening the rule of law, ensuring changes in the legal system for providing men and women with equal rights, reinforcing laws concerning human rights abuses especially laws on the protection of women against SGBV but also changing electoral laws to reinforce the contribution of women in the new set up of the concerned country. At the same time changes in the security sector (military and police) are of utmost importance as military and police has often been involved in the conflict in a negative way and the confidence of the population towards the security sector has to be reestablished.

During conflict, women suffer differently from men. Whereas men are often confronted with weapons, women suffer from sexual and sex-specific forms of violence such as systematic rape, sexual slavery, forced marriage and pregnancy. The strategy behind is to destroy families and communities and to bring shame to the men that were not able to protect their wives. But women also suffer from domestic violence, lack of access to basic systems such as health care, forced displacement and lack of access to justice. 95

94

Ibid.

Nahla Valji et al: A Window of Opportunity? Making Transitional Justice Work for Women, UNIFEM, September 2010 95

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To be able to rebuild society on a gender justice basis, the following principles have to be taken into account according to Valji et al: “All the parties concerned have to recognize that development and peace require gender equity and that women have a right to participate in all aspects of transition; laws have to be developed that respect and foster gender equity and a justice component has to be developed that does not allow for impunity and ensures that crimes against women and girls are prosecuted”. 96 The above principles seem comprehensible and easy to apply but what should not be forgotten is that in most of the concerned countries, societies are very traditional and male oriented and establishing gender justice will take some time even if laws, rules and regulations are changed in due time.

3.3.3.1.Truth and reconciliation commissions One of the mechanisms installed in some countries to deal with past human rights abuses are truth and reconciliation commissions. To ensure that the truth commission is gender-sensitive it is important that woman’s groups are included in the commissioner selection panels, that there is a quota for women-staff, that sexual violence is investigated as a specific crime and that witness protection and psycho-social support is provided. 97

From the 16 PKOs under review, only three countries had established a truth and reconciliation commission namely Timor Leste in 2002, DRC in 2003 and Liberia in 2006. 98 In Darfur, the UN’s International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur was established in 2004, investigating on violations of international humanitarian and human rights law, especially concerning widespread and systematic rape and recommending in the end that the matter should be tackled by the International Criminal Court which was done. 99

96

Nahla Valji et al: A Window of Opportunity? Making Transitional Justice Work for Women, UNIFEM, September 2010 97 Ibid.

98 Ibid.

99 Ibid.

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The final reports of such truth commissions play an important role on the one hand for individual reparations to victims and on the other hand in terms of broader reforms to address gender inequality. For example in Timor Leste reparations were given to those most in need, including widows, single mothers and survivors of sexual violence. The report further recommended skills training and income-generating activities and that 50 % of any reparations be earmarked for women beneficiaries. 100

3.3.3.2.Security Sector Reform As already mentioned, security sector reform is one of the most important issues in every country where conflict has just ended and has a great impact on women. By transforming institutions such as police, military, intelligence services and corrections, SSR aims to enhance the confidence of the population in the security provided by their State institutions. The full respect for human rights and the rule of law implemented by those institutions are essential for enhancing this confidence. 101 The following missions are supported by UN HQ in their SSR efforts: MONUSCO, UNMIL, UNMISS, UNMIT and UNOCI. 102

Women have been victims to SGBV during conflict (for example rapes, sexual slavery, forced recruitment as sex slaves for rebel groups etc) and/or might also be victims of domestic violence. To be able to report their cases to the police it is important that police services respond to the specific needs of women and girls and that they have a certain amount of female officers to which the women can turn to and report their cases. This will hopefully ensure that victims are not marginalized and stigmatized and the perpetrators will be prosecuted. 103

100

Ibid. http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/issues/security.shtml 102 Ibid.

103 http://www.unifem.org/attachments/products/0601_GenderSensitivePoliceReformInPostConflict Societies_en.pdf 101

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But also female officers need a safe environment within the police force so as not to become themselves victims of sexual harassment. Effective gender sensitive police reform will also ensure that women are promoted to higher ranks serving as role models. 104

One best practice example in this respect was the recruitment of women into the Liberian National Police (LNP) based on a policy framework for getting a more gender balanced workforce which had originally set a quota of 15% for women´s participation in the police force which was raised to 20% later on. 105 The most important key success factor was the introduction of an Educational Support Program (ESP) that enabled women with a limited educational background to gain their high school diploma which was a prerequisite for entering the police force. The statistics showed that the more women went through that program, the more entered into the police force. So the barrier for women´s recruitment into the LNP was removed by providing the ESP which also had offered additional courses for students that had previously failed and child care for the student´s children in a nearby orphanage if needed. 106

The above example shows that quotas are often not enough to increase women´s participation in security sector (or in other public services).

Unfortunately women often lack the necessary prerequisites and/or have to take care of their children so that they are not able to work out of their home.

Both problems were dealt with in the above example by the creation of this ESP which was supported by UNMIL. Six years after the implementation of the ESP it has become clear that those new recruits were not really accepted at the LNP due to their lower educational background. Alliances within the LNP and a mentoring program could have helped the women to go on and stay within the police force. 107

104

Ibid.

Gender Mainstreaming In Peacekeeping Operations Liberia 2003-2009: Best Practices Report, UNMIL in cooperation with the KAIPTC, Ghana, 2010 106 Ibid.

107 Sahana Dharmapuri: Not Just a Numbers Game: Increasing Women´s Participation in UN Peacekeeping, International Peace Institute, 2013 105

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3.3.4. DDR Programs

In order to achieve long lasting peace, disarmament, demobilization and reintegration (DDR) of all ex-combatants into the wider community is of utmost importance. However, only in the early 1990s, when UN agencies began to focus on a more development-oriented approach towards DDR, did the programs start to look also at female combatants and child soldiers as separate groups. 108 Currently the following PKOs have DDR programs: MONUSCO, UNOCI, MINUSTAH and UNAMID 109 in other missions such as UNMIL they have already been finalized.

Women take part in conflict in three main roles: firstly as female combatants, secondly as female supporters and women associated with armed forces and groups and thirdly as female dependents. Even if the situation started to improve slightly as of the early 1990s, women have often been excluded from the DDR process. The reasons for this are manifold: security concerns, stigma, inadequate eligibility criteria (for example the presentation of a weapon that women in supporting roles do not have) and a lack of information concerning DDR programs as well as the negligence of their specific needs, in particular the need of being protected from violence. 110

But there are also some positive examples of the inclusion of women in such programs: At the start of the DDRR(Disarmament, Demobilisation, Rehabilitation and Reintegration) program in Liberia, all future participants had to present a weapon in order to be eligible for the program. Women in supporting roles – not being able to present a weapon - were therefore denied access. UNMIL began to advocate for a change and in the end also women in supporting roles were included in the program. After that first success, rumors started that women, participating in a DDRR program, would not get married anymore or would not be able to travel outside the country. Sensitization campaigns stopped those rumors and by end of 2004 out of an overall number 108

Second Generation Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration (DDR)Practices in Peace Operations, DPKO, DDR Section and Office of Rule of Law and Security Institutions, United Nations, 2010 109 http://www.une.org/en/peacekeeping/issues/ddr.shtml 110 http://www.unddr.org/key-topics/gender/introduction_5.aspx

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of 60.000 participants 10.000 were women, so a percentage of around 17%. In the final phase of the program this percentage raised to 22% participation of women. 111

The keys to success for this program were UNSCR 1509 which had put a focus on the needs of women and girls and served as a “minimum baseline for program implementation” 112 together with the sensitization campaigns through different networks which played a crucial role in encouraging women to participate. 113

The above mentioned example clearly shows that improvements can be made,- when the UN initiates them and when they are then spread by a large network within the country (through UN agencies but more importantly also through local NGOs and public information sources).

Another DDR example is taken out of the “DDR Highlights” from April 2012 from UNAMID which concerns the first phase of DDR – extensive public information on the issue: Hakamas is the name for Sudanese women in rural areas who sing songs to motivate the men from their tribe to fight in times of war and to maintain social order in peace. UNAMID trained 117 Hakamas on the basic concepts of peace building, DDR and gender issues in order to provide them with enough background to be able to compose appropriate and customized songs for the DDR campaign. In the end they presented those customized chants on proactive arms control and peace building and drama groups did inspiring performances on those issues. 114

This example shows that it is always important to use specific cultural means to address the issues of DDR and peace building and women can participate in DDR in very different ways.

111

Gender Mainstreaming In Peacekeeping Operations Liberia 2003-2009: Best Practices Report, UNMIL in cooperation with the KAIPTC, Ghana, 2010 112 Ibid.

113 Ibid.

114 http:// unamid.unmissions.org/LinkClick.aspx?fileticked=ZvRy0-7XmP8%3d&tabid=11011

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4. Conclusions The aim of this paper was to examine the current peacekeeping operations and to see in what way UNSCR 1325 is taken into consideration. The first chapter described (in short) the roots of UNSCR 1325, the second chapter went into its details and the third chapter concentrated on the outcome of a questionnaire concerning the implications of UNSCR 1325 (see Annex I) that was sent out to all current peace-keeping operations. Unfortunately only four questionnaires were sent back, but this is also understandable as gender issues seem to be one of the most investigated subjects of peace keeping missions. A lot of material is available on the internet and was also used for this paper.

What are the conclusions concerning the implications of UNSCR 1325?

In general, UNSCR 1325 shows that issues that are decided by a small group of people – such as the representatives of the Security Council Member States – need time to filter down to the “normal population” and even throughout the UN organization.

Although the UN has taken many initiatives to raise the participation of women into top positions of PKOs, their level as of December 2012 was still only 10%. 115

This “top down” approach does not take into consideration the difference in gender roles in different countries. Countries, where the subject of gender is already widely discussed and gender roles have changed in so far as women and men are treated the same at work and in the family are much fairer and for them it should be easier to apply UNSCR 1325. Other countries, were the gender gap is still very wide and girls have simply not the same possibilities as their brothers, women’s initiatives have to be more fully supported (especially through donor money) to be able to initiate and foster a change in their societies from the “bottom up” in order to profit from UNSCR 1325 as well.

UNSCR 1325 was a historic Resolution in so far as it was the first time that women were not only considered victims but also as active participants for 115

http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/articles/ah_statement_to_c34_2013.pdf

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achieving peace in their countries. 116 And without that resolution we would clearly not be where we are today, even if the results within the UN itself have been quite meager during the past years; they have improved.

One step to harmonize all the gender efforts within the UN system was the creation of UN women in 2010, the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women. It merged and built on the work of four distant parts of the UN system, the Division for the Advancement of Women (DAW), the International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women (INSTRAW), the Office of the Special Adviser on Gender Issues and Advancement of Women (OSAGI) and the United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) 117. It should support the UN in its role of a “leader” in gender parity in order to demonstrate to its Member States (in particular those where PKOs take place) that women are great negotiators, stabilizers and peace makers. But with only 10% in leadership positions in PKOs it is difficult to show this and to set examples. Hopefully the initiative “Bridging the Gender Gap in Peace Operations”, which was launched in January 2013 by the Department of Field Support within the Departments of Peacekeeping Operations and Political Affairs will improve the participation of women in the field, in particular also in leadership positions. 118

What is also important for a successful application of UNSCR is that all Mandates of PKOs continuously recall UNSCR 1325 in order to remind all warring parties about the fact that sexual violence must not be a tool of warfare and women play a vital role in peace negotiations. In addition terms of references and mission reports have to include progress on gender issues.

Especially the training and funding of women’s civil society groups and their empowerment and inclusion in formal as well as informal talks will definitely foster the application of UNSCR 1325. More could be done in this field if donor money would be made available for the strengthening of women’s groups.

116

Elisabeth Porter: Women, Political Decision-Making, and Peace-Building in Global Change, Peace & Security, 15: p. 253, Routledge, 2003 117 http://www.unwomen.org/about-us/about-un-women/ 118 Elisabeth Porter: Women, Political Decision-Making, and Peace-Building in Global Change, Peace & Security, 15: p. 253, Routledge, 2003

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Training on UNSCR 1325 is essential for all peacekeeping personnel as well as all people working in the security sector of their countries in order to make progress in the implementation of UNSCR 1325. Table 5, in chapter 3.1.1., on pre-deployment training showed that military had either not been trained at all as in MINURSO and UNMIL or only partly as in MINUSTAH. Although the Member States are asked to ensure pre-deployment training of their troops, it seems that not enough has been done so far. Training on the protection and needs of women but also of their role in peacekeeping and peace building should not just be limited to the troop contributing countries but should also be reinforced for the security sector personnel in those countries where PKOs take place. Funding for such projects is essential to alleviate the situation of women in countries were sexual violence is unfortunately still “on the daily agenda” and especially exercised by institutions of the security sector that normally should “protect” and not threaten or harm their citizens.

The UN should reinforce its dialogue with those member states, where PKOs take place and where women still suffer systematically from sexual violence, in order to support (financially) training measures of security sector staff of the respective countries and to make clear that any offences in such matters should be punished without excuse. Recently, the UN has already taken a leading role with its zero tolerance policy but as the Secretary General points out in his 2012 report on women, peace and security: “one substantiated case is one too many. Data of 2011 indicate a decrease in the number of reported allegations compared to 2010, and an increase in the rate of follow-up; however there are concerns about possible underreporting”. 119 Last but not least, women should be included in all transitional bodies, in truth and reconciliation commissions and security sector reforms (especially in the newly established police forces) and should have access to disarmament, demobilization and reintegration programs. As seen above the situation has changed slightly since adoption of UNSCR 1325 but still has to be improved considerably. The best practice examples of different missions for example the Best Practices Report of UNMIL should be shared with “new” missions (for 119

http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/2012/732

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example MINUSMA) to give them ideas on how to improve security and life after the conflict and how to include more women as they will be a guarantee for long lasting peace.

By 2020, 20 years after the adoption of UNSCR 1325, a study should look at what has been achieved and on the lessons learnt. My hope is that it will see that gender parity within the leadership positions of UN PKOs has been achieved and is no longer a topic of concern.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Bertolazzi, Francesco: Women with a Blue Helmet: The Integration of Women and Gender Issues in UN Peacekeeping Missions, UN-INSTRAW Working Paper Series, Dominican Republic, 2010 Best Practices Report: Gender Mainstreaming In Peacekeeping Operations Liberia 2003-2009: UNMIL in cooperation with the KAIPTC, Ghana, 2010 Castillo Diaz, Pablo et al.: Women’s Participation in Peace Negotiations: Connections between Presence and Influence, UNIFEM, August 2010 Dharmapuri, Sahana: Not Just a Numbers Game: Increasing Women´s Participation in UN Peacekeeping, International Peace Institute, 2013 DPKO Policy Directive: Gender Equality in UN Peacekeeping Operations, November 2006 Jimenez, Ximena Prof.: Gender Perspectives in United Nations Peacekeeping Operations, Unitar Poci, New York, 2007 Langholtz, Harvey J.: Implementation of Security Council Resolution 1325 in Africa, developed by OSAGI in collaboration with INSTRAW and ECA, United Nations 2011 Merkle, Caspar : Evaluation of Gender Mainstreaming in United Nations Peacekeeping Activities (MONUC/MONUSCO) in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, UN Women Evaluation Office, March 2012 Pampell-Conaway, Camille and Shoemaker, Jolynn: Women in United Nations Peace Operations: Increasing Leadership Opportunities, Women in International Security, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, June 2008 Peacekeeping Best Practice Section: Recruitment of Women among National Staff: A Survey of Mission Practice, February 2007 Porter, Elisabeth: Women, Political Decision-Making, and Peace-Building in Global Change, Peace & Security 15, Routledge, 2003 Recruitment of women among national staff : A survey of mission practice, Peacekeeping Best Practice Section, February 2007 Rosga, Ann Janette, Ph.D.: Preventing Violence against Women and Gender Inequality in Peacekeeping, Peace Operations Training Institute, Williamsburg 2010 Second Generation Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration (DDR)Practices in Peace Operations, DPKO, DDR Section and Office of Rule of Law and Security Institutions, United Nations, 2010

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Valji, Nahla et al: A Window of Opportunity ? Making Transitional Justice Work for Women, UNIFEM, September 2010

INTERNET RESOURCES: Bridging the Gender Gap 2013: http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/articles/ah_statement_to_c34_2013.pdf Charter and Preamble of the UN Charter: http://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/preamble.shtml Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW): http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/history.htm Definition of Gender of the UN Economic and Social Council: http://www.un.org/womenwatch/osagi/pdf/factsheet1.pdf DDR: http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/issues/ddr.shtml DDR taking women in consideration at UNAMID: http://unamid.unmissions.org/LinkClick.aspx?fileticked=ZvRy07XmP8%3&tabid=11011 Establishment of Gender Units in different PKOs as of 30th June 2012, accessed in August 2012 http://www.peacekeepingbestpractices.unlb.org/pbps/Library/Gender%20Main streaming%20Progress%20report.pdf Female labor participation rate according to World Bank: http://data/worldbank.org/indicator/SL.TLF.CACT.FE.ZS Gender Sensitive Police Reform: http://www.unifem.org/attachments/products/0601_GenderSensitivePoliceRefo rmInPostConflictSocieties_en.pdf Gender Team Progress Report 2010: http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/documents/gender_team_progress_report _2010.pdf Global Effort Initiative to increase women´s participation in UN Police: http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/sites/police/initiatives/globaleffort.shtml Information on the Pakistan Army: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan_Army Mandates of the different PKOs: http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping Members of CEDAW: http://treaties.un.org accessed on 20th July 2012 Number of countries that have developed National Action Plans: http://peacewomen.org/naps/list-of-naps 51

Number of Gender Advisors in the Missions as of 30th June 2012 accessed in August 2012: http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/issues/women/recentwork.shtml Reasons why gender was not taken into consideration in DDR programs: http://www.unddr.org/key-topics/gender/introduction_5.aspx Secretary General´s Bulletin of 5th January 1996: http://www.un.org/womenwatch/osagi/pdf/n9600282.pdf Secretary General´s Report on the Improvement of the Status of Women in the UN system of 15th October 2001: http://www.un.org/documents/ga/docs/56/a56472.pdf Secretary General´s Report on Women´s Participation in Peace Building of Sept 2010: http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/2010/466 Secretary General´s Report on Women, Peace and Security of October 2012: http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/2012/732 Security Sector Reform: http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/issues/security.shtml Statistics on women in military and police components of current PKOs June 2010 – June 2012 accessed in July 2012 http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/resources/statistics/gender.shtml UNSCR 1528/ UNOCI: http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1528(2004) UNSCR 1542/ MINUSTAH : http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1542(2004) UNSCR 1769/ UNAMID: http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1769(2007) UNSCR 1925/ MONUSCO: http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1925(2010) UNSCR 1969/ UNMIT: http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1969(2011) UNSCR 1990/ UNIFIL and extension of UNSCR UNIFIL http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1990(2011) http://unscol.unmissions.org/portals/unscol/SC%20Resolution%201655%20(2 006)%20on%20UNIFIL%20extension.pdf UNSCR 1996/ UNMISS: http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1996(2011) 52

UNSCR 2043/ UNSMIS: http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/2043(2012) UNSCR 1325 on Women, Peace and Security: http://www.un.org/Docs/scres/2000/sc2000.htm: S/RES/1325 (2000) UN women: www.unwomen.org/about-us/about-un-women/ Website of the Bangladesh Army: www.army.mil.bd Website of the Indian Army http://joinindianarmy.nic.in Windhoek Declaration: http://www.peacewomen.org/un/pkwatch/WindhoekDeclaration.html

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ANNEX I In the framework of COTIPSO at the Peace Operations Training Institute, I am writing a thesis on “UNSCR 1325 on Women, Peace and Security and its Implications on the current Peacekeeping Operations�. I would kindly ask you to support me, by filling in the following questionnaire. It consists of 30 questions and is written as a word document so you can easily fill it in, delete the wrong answers and write as much as you like if the question is an open one.

QUESTIONNAIRE

NAME OF MISSION: ___________________

GENDER COMPONENT 1) Does your mission have a gender unit?

Yes

No

2) If yes, how many staff work in that unit?

Number of staff:_________

3) When was the gender unit established?

Year of establishment: ________

4) If your mission has no gender unit, do you have a gender adviser?

Yes

No

5) If there is no gender unit and/or gender adviser is there any other unit/any other adviser that ensures that gender questions are considered and gender mainstreaming is applied?

Name of unit or adviser:_________________

6) When you look at the composition of your mission what is the number of women and men among international staff?

Number of women:__________ Number of men:____________

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7) Has the role and contribution of women in your mission been expanded during the past years, especially among military observers, civilian police, human rights and humanitarian personnel?

Yes

No

Please give examples why yes or why no: ___________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________

8) Concerning locally employed staff, what are the numbers of women/men?

Number of women:__________ Number of men:____________

9) If the numbers of locally recruited women are low please give reasons why.

Reasons: ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________

TRAINING 10) Have military personnel in your mission in their preparation for deployment received the following training on → protection, rights and particular needs of women

Yes

No

Partly

→importance of involving women in all peacekeeping Yes

No

Partly

No

Partly

and peace building measures →HIV/Aids training

Yes

11) Have civilian police personnel in your mission in their preparation for deployment received the following training on → protection, rights and particular needs of women

Yes

No

Partly

→importance of involving women in all peacekeeping Yes

No

Partly 55

and peace building measures →HIV/Aids training

Yes

No

Partly

12) Have civilian personnel of your mission received training on → protection, rights and particular needs of women

Yes

No

Partly

→importance of involving women in all peacekeeping Yes

No

Partly

No

Partly

and peace building measures →HIV/Aids training

Yes

13) If the answer is no, please give reasons why:_______________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________

14) Are you planning any training to reinforce UNSCR 1325?

Yes

No

15) If yes which subject and for which target group(s)?

Subject of training:____________________________ Target group(s) :_________________________

16) Have locally recruited staff received any training on the issues of UNSCR 1325?

Yes

No

In Planning

17) If no give reasons why: ________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________

18) If “in planning”, please mention: Subject (s) :_____________________________________________________ Target group (s): ________________________________________________

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GENDER PERSPECTIVE 19) Are the special needs of women and girls during repatriation and resettlement and for rehabilitation, reintegration and post-conflict reconstruction considered in your mission?

Yes

No

Partly

20) If yes or partly in what way: ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________

21) Are there any measures that support local women’s peace initiatives?

Yes

No

22) If yes, please state the measures: ________________________________ ______________________________________________________________

23) Are women involved in the implementation mechanisms of the peace agreement?

Yes

No

24) If yes, in what way:____________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________

25) Are there any measures that ensure the protection of and respect for human rights of women and girls, particularly as they relate to Constitution:

Yes

No

Electoral System:

Yes

No

Police:

Yes

No

Judiciary:

Yes

No

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26) Are there any best practices in your mission that you would like to mention concerning questions 19 to 25? _____________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________

27) If your mission has a DDR component, are the different needs of female and male ex-combatants taken into consideration?

Yes

No

Not applicable

28) If yes, in what way: ___________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________

PARTIES TO THE CONFLICT/ STATE 29) Have the parties to the conflict taken special measures to protect women and girls from gender-based violence, particularly rape and other forms of sexual abuse?

Yes

No

If yes, in what way: ______________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________

30) Does the State in which your mission is deployed prosecute genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes?

Yes

No

Not applicable

=========================================================

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