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Social Studies for Saudi Arabia
E L P
M A S Grade
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Social Studies for Saudi Arabia Grade
7 Student Book
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Pearson Education Limited is a company incorporated in England and Wales, having its registered office at Edinburgh Gate, Harlow, Essex, CM20 2JE. Registered company number: 872828 Website: www.pearsonglobalschools.com Text © Pearson Education Ltd and Future Education, 2012 First published 2012 17 16 15 14 13 IMP 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ISBN 978 0 435 08939 9 Copyright notice All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means (including photocopying or storing it in any medium by electronic means and whether or not transiently or incidentally to some other use of this publication) without the written permission of the copyright owner, except in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of a licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS (www.cla.co.uk). Applications for the copyright owner’s written permission should be addressed to the publisher. Series consultants: Dr Abdullah Qaied Al-Abbadi, Mrs Huda Almasri, Fatima Albaz, Ismail Abu Sahyoun, Sary Farah, Majid Laham Series editor: Karen Morrison Author team: Daphne Paizee, Lisa Sparks, Karen Morrison Book and cover design: Crazy Cat Designs Typesetting: Baseline Publishing Services Mapwork: Techtype Illustrations: Crazy Cat Designs Printed in the UAE by Al Ghurair Printing & Publishing House Co. LLC.
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Contents Unit 1 Invasion and change 5 Lesson 1 The Abbasid Caliphate: an overview 6 Lesson 2 The Mongol invasion and the fall of Baghdad 10 Lesson 3 Resistance to the Mongols 18 Lesson 4 Exceptional efforts 23 Lesson 5 The Abbasid Caliphs in Cairo 26 Lesson 6 Relevant old maps 29 What do you remember? 32 Test 35 Unit 2 States rise and fall 37 Lesson 1 More about the Memluks 38 Lesson 2 The Memluk state 42 Lesson 3 Sultans and scholars 47 Lesson 4 The rise of the Ottoman state 52 Lesson 5 The Ottoman state at its peak 59 Lesson 6 The decline and end of the Ottoman state 63 What do you remember? 66 Test 68
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Unit 3 People and places 71 Lesson 1 Demographic concepts 72 Lesson 2 Saving our wetlands 77 Lesson 3 Traveling in our region 84 Lesson 4 Regional and world economy 88 Lesson 5 Scientific developments 97 Lesson 6 Into the future 103 What do you remember? 107 Test 110 Unit 4 People and government 115 Lesson 1 Change and development 116 Lesson 2 Understanding governments 122 Lesson 3 Constitution 134 Lesson 4 Rights and duties of citizens 138 Lesson 5 Leaders and leadership 142 Lesson 6 People and government 146 What do you remember? 151 Test 154
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Unit 1
Invasion and change
In the 13th century, the center of the Islamic state moved to Cairo in Egypt. Buildings from this era can still be seen in Cairo today.
In this unit you are going to learn about the Mongol invasions of the Islamic state, the end of the Caliphate in Baghdad and the establishment of a new Caliphate in Cairo. Think about the following questions: Why did the Abbasid state centered in Baghdad come to an end? What was the Shadow Caliphate? Who were the Mongols? What is the importance of the Battle of 窶連in Jalut? Who were the leaders, scholars and heroes of the resistance against the Mongol and Christian invasions in the 13th century?
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Lesson 1
The Abbasid Caliphate: an overview Benchmarks In this lesson, you will: review the achievements and main events of the Abbasid Caliphate from the 8th to the 13th century identify the reasons for the decline of the Caliphate.
Introduction The Abbasid Caliphate lasted for more than 500 years. During that time, Islamic civilization experienced a Golden Age. New, efficient systems of government were introduced. The Islamic state became very prosperous from trade with other states, and scholarship flourished. Baghdad became the center of learning because the Abbasids stressed the value of knowledge. There were important developments in Islamic studies, in education, in the study of sciences and in art and architecture. The Abbasids took over from the Umayyads as rulers of the Islamic state in the middle of the 8th century. At this time the Islamic state was the biggest state the world had ever known. It included the Iberian Peninsula (modernday Spain and Portugal), most of north Africa (modern-day Morocco, Algeria, Libya, Tunisia, Egypt), the whole Arabian Peninsula and larger territories to the north and northeast of the Peninsula.
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Abbasid state in the 8th century
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A timeline of the Abbasid Caliphate The rule of the Abbasid dynasty can be divided into four main eras: 749 ad – 847 ad This was the era of the powerful Caliphs, when Islam experienced a Golden Age. Baghdad flourished with scholars from all over the world coming to visit its famous libraries and schools. Great Caliphs such as Al-Mansur, Al-Mahdi and Harun Al-Rashid introduced new systems of government and supported the development of scholarship, the arts and sciences.
A diagram of the eye, from a medical text book of the era. 848 ad – 946 ad During this second era there were big changes in the Islamic state. The Fatimids, who had set up a rival Caliphate in North Africa, were based in Egypt. They also ruled parts of Syria and western Arabia. Then, in 945 ad, the Buwayhids occupied Baghdad. In Iraq and western Iran the most powerful rulers were the Turkish Ghaznavids and the Karakhanids.
This plate was made in the 10th century in Iran by a Buwayhid potter.
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946 ad – 1075 ad In 970 ad, the Seljuk Turks entered territories of the Caliphate. They came from central Asia and they occupied Baghdad, Syria and Palestine. The Seljuks were Muslims and they allowed the Caliphs to remain as head of the Caliphate although the Caliphs were not as powerful as they had been before. The Seljuks later defeated the Byzantine armies in 1071 ad at the Battle of Manzikert and they occupied Anatolia. Shortly after this, the crusader armies started to invade the Islamic lands, with the aim of taking over Al Quds.
The Seljuk leader Alp Arslan defeated the Byzantines and set up the Seljuk state. 1075 ad – 1258 ad The fourth era is known as the Seljuk Age. By this time, the massive Caliphate had broken up into smaller states and the influence of the Seljuks was at its greatest. At this time, the Franks (crusaders) also started to invade the Islamic lands. Leaders like Imaduddin and his son Nuriddin started to unite the Muslims and organize armies to fight against the crusaders. Later, under the leadership of Salahuddin, they were driven out of Al Quds. Salahuddin started the Ayyubid Sultanate. This Sultanate was based in Cairo and it played an important role in defeating The crusaders surrender to the crusaders. Salahuddin.
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In 1220 ad, the Mongols from Asia started to invade the Caliphate. In the meantime the Memluk Sultanate had been established in Cairo in place of the Ayyubid Sultanate. The Caliphate ended in 1258 ad, when the Mongols sacked the city of Baghdad. A few years later, a new Abbasid Caliphate was established in Cairo. This Caliphate is often called the Shadow Caliphate, because it had no real political power.
A statue of Alp Arslan
Activity Work in groups. 1 Discuss what you know about the Abbasid state: a Discuss the importance of this era in Islamic history and the achievements of the era. b Identify key dates. 2 Make a presentation to the class on one feature of the Abbasid state that you think was very important.
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Lesson 2
The Mongol invasion and the fall of Baghdad Benchmarks In this lesson, you will: identify the reasons for the fall of the Abbasid Caliphate describe the Mongol invasion of the Abbasid state.
The Mongols The Mongols came from the northeastern part of Asia. They started to become powerful in the early 13th century when the Mongol and Turkic tribes in the area united under the leadership of Genghis Khan (Khan was the word for emperor). This was the start of the Mongolian state. It grew quickly, expanding east into China, north into Russia, and west into the Islamic states and into Europe.
Genghis Khan became the leader of the Mongols in 1206 ad. His aim was to rule the world.
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Karakorum became the capital city of the Mongol state.
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The Mongols were fierce soldiers who invaded other lands with aggressive attacks. They were skilled horsemen and attacked on horseback. They were also skilled archers, preferring to fight with bows and arrows rather than swords. They wore their hair long and were considered to be pagans as they did not worship only one god like the other main religions of the time. The Mongols were mostly illiterate and in the early days of their state they did not value knowledge and learning.
The Mongols were skilled archers and horsemen.
Activity Do your own research on Genghis Khan. His name is sometimes spelled in different ways, for example: Jenghis Khan and Cinggis Khan. Find out: when he ruled and who his successors were which countries he conquered the new laws that he made to improve the lives of his own people.
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The Mongols invade the Islamic state Genghis Khan died in 1227 ad. He was succeeded by his son Ogedei Khan. Ogedei Khan continued to expand the Mongol state. Later, there were power struggles between Genghis Khan’s sons and grandchildren. But the Mongol armies continued to invade other lands and they soon started to invade parts of modern-day Iran and modern-day Turkey.
Mangu Khan Then, in 1251 ad, a grandson by the name of Mangu Khan (also sometimes spelled Möngke Khan) was elected as the new leader of the Mongol state. He ruled from the rich and splendid city of Karakorum. Mangu Khan decided to expand the state even further. Mangu sent one of his brothers, Kublai Khan, to expand the Mongol state to the east. Kublai Khan invaded southern China. Later Mangu took charge of the Mongol armies in China, where he later died. In order to expand westwards, Mangu gave orders to another brother, Hulagu Khan (also sometimes spelled Hülegü Khan), to conquer all the lands as far as Egypt. Hulagu started to invade the Islamic state then moved towards Iraq. In 1258 ad, Mongol forces besieged and then captured Baghdad. The Mongol armies then went on to capture Damascus and Aleppo before they were prevented from invading Egypt at the Battle of ‘Ain Jalut in 1260 ad.
Mangu Khan, the leader of the Mongols from 1251 ad
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This map shows the Mongol campaigns to the west of their lands in the 13th century. It also shows how the Memluk forces moved up from Egypt to meet the invading Mongols. Black Sea
SELJUK
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Withdraw after Mongke’s death May 1260 AD
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Maragheh Mosul Aleppo (13th Jan 1260 AD)
1256 AD Hamadan
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Memluks under Qutuz and Baybars
Map of Mongol conquests
When Mangu Khan died in 1259 ad, his brother Kublai Khan was elected as the next Great Khan of the Mongols. Kublai Khan based himself in modern-day Beijing in China and founded the Yuan Dynasty there. But the Mongol state also split up into four Khanates (states) at this time. The Golden Horde Khanate ruled in the northwest, the Chagatai Khanate in the west, the Yuan in the east and the Al-Khans in the southwest of the state. Mongol attacks on the Muslim state continued during the time of the Ottoman rulers, especially at the beginning of the 15th century when the Mongol leader, Timur Lenk (also called Tamerlane), invaded Syria and defeated the Ottomans in Ankara. The Memluks were unable to defend Syria against this Mongol attack.
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The destruction of Baghdad in 1258 ad The destruction of Baghdad by the Mongols in 1258 ad was one of the most catastrophic events in the history of the Islamic state. The attack was cruel and senseless and it took many, many years for the people in the area and the city to recover from the attack. Hulagu Khan brought a huge army to Baghdad. His army consisted of hundreds of thousands of well-trained and well-armed warriors. They were all expert horsemen and archers. Hulagu brought Chinese military engineers who were experts in setting up siege equipment such as engines and catapults. He also received some support from Christian leaders in the Levant. Mongol forces gathered around Baghdad early in 1258 ad. The army set up camp on both sides of the Tigris River and laid siege to the city. Hulagu had orders to destroy Baghdad if the Caliph did not submit to him. Caliph Al-Muta’sim’s army at first tried to resist the Mongol armies. Then the Caliph tried to negotiate an end to the siege but he refused to submit to the authority of the Mongols. By February 10th, the siege was over and Baghdad had fallen to the Mongols. Three days later the Mongol army entered Baghdad and proceeded to destroy the city. The Caliph and his family were executed, along with hundreds of thousands of citizens.
This picture from a 14th century Persian book shows Hulagu Khan capturing Baghdad.
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Rashiduddin, a famous historian at the time, wrote about the destruction of Baghdad by the Mongols. Read this extract from one of his books, called The Book of Tribes, written in the 13th century. Baghdad, before the Mongolian attack on February 10th, 1258 ad: “Together with them [two high officials and the army leader of Baghdad], the Baghdad army decided to withdraw, and much of the population hoped in this way to be saved. However they were divided up between the thousand-, hundred-, and ten-man units of the Mongolian army and were killed. Those who remained in the city dispersed and hid themselves beneath the Earth and underneath the baths.”
Historians estimate that the Mongols killed between 100,000 and 1,000,000 people in Baghdad in this attack. The city was also destroyed, which is why we can see so few remains of the buildings of the Golden Age of Islam in Baghdad today. Mosques, libraries and other buildings were either pulled down or burnt. These included famous libraries like the Bayt Al-Hikmah (House of Wisdom).
An illustration from Rashiduddin’s world history, showing the Mongols in battle
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All the ancient manuscripts and books in these libraries were thrown into the Tigris River. Amongst these were important manuscripts that had been collected from all over the world by the Caliphs. There were also books written and translated into Arabic by great Islamic scholars. According to legend, the water in the river Tigris first turned red from the blood of all the people who were massacred and then turned black from the ink of all the books that were thrown into the river. Baghdad, its people, cultural and intellectual life and agriculture were destroyed. Afterwards, Hulagu and his army moved on, conquering lands to the east of the Tigris river, before crossing the Euphrates and moving on to Aleppo and Damascus.
The aftermath of the destruction of Baghdad The destruction of Baghdad was a huge psychological blow to Muslims. People questioned how this catastrophe had been allowed to happen. It took many years for the city to start to recover and during this period scholarship declined.
Power shift As a result of the destruction of Baghdad, the old Abbasid Caliphate came to an end and power shifted to Egypt. The Memluks had established a Sultanate in Cairo and they successfully defeated the Mongols in battle two years after the destruction of Baghdad. They stopped the Mongols from invading Egypt and other parts of the Middle East. The Memluks also invited a member of the Abbasid dynasty to become Caliph in Cairo. Baghdad became a provincial capital city of part of the Mongol state which was ruled by the descendants of Hulagu Khan. They were called the Al-Khans. They continued their attempts to conquer Turkey and Egypt. They were successful in overcoming the Seljuk Sultans, but not the Memluks. One of the Al-Khans, Ghazan Khan, later converted to Islam.
Mongol troops under the leadership of Hulagu Khan
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Collapse of agriculture in the region The city of Baghdad and the surrounding areas were depopulated by the attacks. This caused a decline in agriculture. Over the years a complex system of irrigation canals had been set up around the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. As a result of this, agriculture had flourished and food was exported from the area to other parts of Asia and the Middle East. But, after the destruction of Baghdad, the irrigation canals were filled with sand. Some of this was done deliberately and other canals were no longer used because there were not enough people left in the area to look after and use the canals. There were also fewer people left to farm the land.
These irrigation canals were built before the Mongol invasion of Baghdad. They can still be seen today.
Activity Write an essay in which you describe the effects of the Mongol invasion of the Islamic state.
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Lesson 3
Resistance to the Mongols Benchmarks In this lesson, you will: describe the resistance movements and wars against the Mongols explain how Sayfuddin Qutuz and Al-Zahir Baybars won the battle of 窶連in Jalut describe the role of Sultan Al-Zahir Baybars in resisting the Mongols.
Muslims begin to resist The Mongols were powerful, but the people living in the Levant did not want to be ruled by these invaders. Led by the Memluk Sultanate and inspired by scholars, Muslims started to resist the invaders. The Mongol army moved along the Tigris River towards Aleppo after destroying Baghdad. They captured Aleppo early in 1260 ad and destroyed it in the same way as they had destroyed Baghdad. Then the Mongols marched towards Damascus. The city of Damascus resisted the Mongols at first but then they surrendered. The Mongol army continued to move towards the Mediterranean and towards Cairo. Their goal was to capture Cairo and control North Africa.
The Mongol army was huge and very well-equipped. They used siege engines like the one shown in this picture to capture strongly defended fortresses in the Levant and Iran.
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In 1260 ad, the Mongols sent envoys to Cairo, demanding the surrender of Egypt. The Memluk Sultan at the time was Sultan Sayfuddin Qutuz. An historical source from the time provides us with some insight into the way in which the Mongols operated. Read this English translation of the letter the Mongols sent to the Sultan.
From the King of Kings of the East and West, the Great Khan. To Qutuz the Mamluk, who fled to escape our swords. You should think of what happened to other countries‌ and submit to us. You have heard how we have conquered a vast empire and have purified the earth of the disorders that tainted it. We have conquered vast areas, massacring all the people. You cannot escape from the terror of our armies. Where can you flee? What road will you use to escape us? Our horses are swift, our arrows sharp, our swords like thunderbolts, our hearts as hard as the mountains, our soldiers as numerous as the sand. Fortresses will not detain us, nor arms stop us. Your prayers to God will not avail against us. We are not moved by tears nor touched by lamentations. Only those who beg our protection will be safe. Hasten your reply before the fire of war is kindled‌. Resist and you will suffer the most terrible catastrophes. We will shatter your mosques and reveal the weakness of your God, and then we will kill your children and your old men together. At present you are the only enemy against whom we have to march.
Sultan Qutuz and his generals held a council to decide what to do about this threat. They knew that the Mongol army was very big and strong and they were tempted to surrender. But Qutuz decided to take strong action instead. He had the envoys executed, sending a message to the Mongols that he was not prepared to surrender. The two armies prepared for battle.
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The Battle of ‘Ain Jalut (1260 ad) The Mongol army was now led by a general called Kitbuqa. Hulagu Khan been recalled to Karakorum because the Mongol ruler Mangu Khan had died in 1259 ad. Hulagu, who was a Mongol prince, had to be present to elect a new Mongol leader. Hulagu withdrew his main army because he was so was confident that he could defeat the Sultan’s army even with a smaller army. He ordered Kitbuqa, who was based in Syria, to march towards Cairo and attack the Sultanate. Part of Sultan Qutuz’s army was led by a Memluk general called Al-Zahir Baybars (who later became Sultan Al-Zahir Baybars). Baybars was the leader of another Memluk group. He had previously opposed Qutuz, but they agreed to work together against the Mongol invaders. Qutuz heard that part of the Mongol army had been withdrawn and that Kitbuqa was marching along the River Jordan. He sent his army out to meet them. The army arrived at a narrow strip in the valley of ‘Ain Jalut (also known as The Spring of Goliath). Baybars knew the area well. He used his knowledge to plan the battle strategy against the Mongols. He planned to ambush the Mongols. The Memluk army arrived first. The main army went to hide in the hills around the narrow valley. But some Memluk troops, under Baybars’ command, waited in the valley and then attacked the Mongol army when it arrived. Homs
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The Memluk army travelled northeast from Cairo to meet the Mongol army near the River Jordan.
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Baybars then pretended to retreat and the Mongols followed him deeper into the valley. The rest of the Memluk army came down from the hills around the valley and surrounded the Mongols. It was a fierce battle. Qutuz rallied his own forces by removing his helmet so that his troops could recognize and see his face as he led his army in battle. The Mongol army of Kitbuqa was completely destroyed and Kitbuqa was executed.
This photograph shows the valley of ‘Ain Jalut. Today you can’t see the narrow strip where the Memluks defeated the Mongols, as the valley has been changed by farming.
Results of the battle The Memluk Sultanate had managed to conquer the Mongol army and stop its advance towards Cairo. The victory of the Memluks at ‘Ain Jalut had far-reaching consequences. It is recognized as one of the most significant battles in history. This was the first time that the Mongols had been defeated in battle. The people living during this time had started to believe that the Mongols were invincible and that they would eventually rule the whole world. The victory of the Memluks changed this view and probably also made the Mongols themselves less confident. After this defeat, they never tried to invade Egypt again.
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The victory also established the Memluk Sultanate as an important and strong Islamic center. It maintained this position until the Ottomans took over power in 1517 ad. The Memluks allowed Islamic culture to develop and flourish in Cairo. The results of this can still be seen in Cairo today. The victory at 窶連in Jalut also had consequences for the western world. It helped to bring about the end of the few crusader states that remained in the Levant, some of whom had supported the Mongols in their attacks on the Islamic state. Many historians also point out that if the Mongols had captured Egypt and then moved across north Africa, they would have been able to invade southern Europe. They had by this time already captured Poland and parts of Russia and they would then have been able to control Europe completely. This would have changed the way that the whole world developed after the 13th century.
The prayer hall in the Sultan Hassan Mosque is one of many remaining Memluk buildings in Cairo.
Activity 1 Research the role of Sultan Sayfuddin Qutuz in resisting the Mongols. 2 Pretend you were the leader at the time. Write a response to the letter the Mongols wrote to Sultan Qutuz.
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Lesson 4
Exceptional efforts Benchmarks In this lesson, you will: learn about the special efforts of certain leaders to save the Islamic state.
Imaduddin Zangi ibn Sonqor (1084 ad – 1146 ad) Imaduddin Zangi ibn Sinqor (often called Zangi) was a leader who founded the Zangid dynasty in Iraq. He was the first leader to organize resistance to the crusaders. Salahuddin’s father served in Zangi’s army and Salahuddin in turn entered military service in the army commanded by Zangi’s son, Nuriddin. The Seljuks appointed Zangi as governor of Basra and later also of Mosul. Later, the city of Aleppo submitted to his authority in order to protect themselves against the crusaders. Zangi’s aim was to defeat the crusaders and create a united Muslim state. He managed to take Edessa from the crusaders in 1144 ad. The city of Edessa was the site of many battles between the crusaders and Muslim forces. It was a strategically important city because it was fertile and there was plenty of water. This meant that armies could camp there and use the city to attack other cities nearby. Below the citadel of ancient Edessa there are freshwater springs. The city of Edessa (the modern-day city of Sanli Urfa in Turkey)
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Nuriddin (1118 ad – 1174 ad) Nuriddin was a Muslim ruler who reorganized the armies of Syria and helped to unite the Muslim world against the invasion of the crusaders. He fought against the crusaders in Syria and in Palestine. His army was successful in recapturing Edessa and Damascus from the crusaders. Under his leadership, Syria and parts of Egypt were also united. Nuriddin was a brave and capable military leader. He was also a pious and fair ruler, who lived a simple life. At this time, it was common practice for victorious armies to take goods after a victory. Nuriddin used booty from battles to build mosques, schools, hospitals and caravansaries for his people.
Caravansaries were places where travellers could rest and get food and water.
Shajarat Al-Durr Shajarat Al-Durr was the wife of Sultan Al-Salih Ayyub, the last Sultan of the Ayyubid dynasty founded by Salahuddin. Her name means “Pearl Tree” or “Spray of Pearls.” When Sultan Al-Salih fell ill while fighting crusaders who were attacking Egypt, Shajarat took over and issued orders to the army in the name of the Sultan. When the Sultan died, Shajarat kept his death a secret and continued to issue orders. This allowed the army of the Sultanate to defeat the crusaders at the Battle of Damietta. It also gave Al-Salih’s son and heir Turanshah time to return from Mesopotamia and take control of the Sultanate. Turanshah returned, but he offended his father’s Memluk guards and they killed him.
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Sharajat Al-Durr then, with the support of the Memluks, proclaimed herself the “Queen of the Muslims.” However, the Syrian emirs refused to accept her as their leader. The Caliph in Baghdad took the side of the Syrians and asked that a man be chosen to take her place. The Memluks then decided to appoint Aybak as commander-in-chief of their army. He married Shajarat Al-Durr and became the Sultan, but they ruled together until 1259 ad when they were both murdered. This was the beginning of the Memluk state, which was to remain powerful for several centuries and to succeed in driving both the crusaders and the Mongols from Egypt and the Levant. Sharajat Al-Durr is remembered as the first woman in Islam to rule an Islamic state. She saved her state from the crusaders and she also helped to establish the rule of the Memluks.
This is Shajarat Al-Durr’s mausoleum, which can still be seen in Cairo today.
Activity Draw a timeline of important sequence of events that show the Muslim resistance to both the invasions of the crusaders and the Mongols. You will need to include information about the crusades and about Salahuddin that you learned in Grade 6 in this timeline.
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Lesson 5
The Abbasid Caliphs in Cairo Benchmarks In this lesson, you will: describe the Abbasid (Shadow) Caliphate in Egypt. For a long time Egypt had been ruled as a province of the Abbasid Caliphate, by governors appointed in Baghdad. In the second half of the 9th century, the Turkish Memluks took control of the administration and established a short-lived dynasty called the Tulunids. After that, the Ikhshidid dynasty ruled Egypt for about 35 years, until Egypt was attacked by the Fatimids from north Africa (modern-day Tunisia and Algeria). The Fatimids remained in Egypt until Salahuddin ended their rule in 1171 ad. Salahuddin then established the Ayyubid dynasty, which was based in Cairo. Salahuddin united Egypt and Syria under this Sultanate. The Ayyubid dynasty ruled until Sultan Al-Salih Ayyub died in around 1259 ad. His wife, Shajarat Al-Durr, became the first woman to lead a Muslim state after the Sultan’s death. Shajarat Al-Durr then married a Memluk general called Aybak. This was the beginning of the Memluk Sultanate in Cairo. Black Sea Byzantine State
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The Memluk Sultans ruled Egypt from the middle of the 13th century. Egypt became the political, cultural and economic center of the Arab Islamic world. This lasted until the beginning of the 16th century, when the Ottoman Turks defeated the Memluks and made Egypt part of their own state. The Ottomans were based in the area today known as Turkey. Their state was already big and very powerful when the Memluks came into power. The military strength of the Memluks played an important role in their success. They successfully defeated the Mongols at the Battle of 窶連in Jalut and stopped them from capturing Egypt. They were also successful is liberating many of the cities in the Levant that had been captured by crusaders. Cities such as Antioch, Acre and Tripoli were all liberated by the armies of the Memluk Sultanate. The Memluk Sultan Al-Zahir Baybars set up a new Abbasid Caliphate in Egypt. This Caliphate is also called the Shadow Caliphate, as it operated under the protection of the Memluk Sultanate.
The Memluks were skilled soldiers.
You will learn more about the Memluks and the Ottomans in Unit 2.
The Shadow Caliphate in Cairo Three years after the Mongol attack on Baghdad, and a year after he defeated the Mongols at the Battle of 窶連in Jalut, the Memluk Sultan Al-Zahir Baybars invited a surviving descendent of the Abbasid dynasty to become Caliph in Cairo. This was a clever political move by Baybars because it added authority to his Sultanate and to his position in the Muslim world. The first Caliph, Al-Mustansir, and most of the Caliphs who succeeded him over time, did not have any real political power. They were under the protection of the Memluk Sultanate in Egypt and served as spiritual heads of the Muslim ummah at the time. This arrangement lasted from 1261 ad until 1517 ad, when the Ottomans made the Memluk Sultanate part of the Ottoman state. Al-Mutawakkil III was the last of the Shadow Caliphs.
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The tombs of the Caliphs of the Shadow Caliphate can still be seen in Cairo today.
There are many other mosques and buildings in Cairo today that date back to the times of the Memluks and the Shadow Caliphate.
The Blue Mosque is the largest mosque in the Bab al-Wazir district of Cairo. It was built in 1347 ad by Amir Aqsunqur.
This is the mosque and madrassah built during the time of the Memluk Sultan Hassan. Building started in 1356 ad and was completed three years later.
Activity 1
Find out more about the tenth Caliph, Al-Musta’in (1406 ad – 1414 ad). He was the only Caliph to hold any political power.
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Lesson 6
Relevant old maps Benchmarks In this lesson, you will: examine an old Egyptian map drawn in the 11th century examine an old Korean map of the Islamic and Mongolian states drawn in the 14th century. Old maps are interesting because they remind us that the world was not always viewed in the same way as we view it today. Cartographers did not have access to satellite images and other modern equipment. They relied on travelers to provide them with information to draw their maps.
11th century Egyptian map The map below is a hand made copy of a map of the world that was first drawn up in Egypt in the 11th century. We do not know the name of the cartographer.
An 11th century Egyptian map of the world.
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Map with English names
This is the same map, but the names have been translated into English. Africa is at the top of this map and Europe is on the bottom right hand side. Asia is on the left.
Activity Work in small groups or pairs and study the map. You will need a modern map of the same area as well. 1 Find these places on the old map. The names of cities will give you clues. a Modern-day Saudi Arabia b Modern-day Italy c Modern-day Iraq 2 Which countries are missing on the old map? Discuss why they are missing. 3 Compare the map with a modern map of the same area. Which parts of this old map are the most accurate? Why?
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A 14th century map
A 14th century map of Africa and Asia
This map was compiled in Korea in the mid-1300s. It shows the Islamic and Mongol states at the time. China is at the center and Iran, Central Asia, Korea and Japan can also be clearly seen on the map. Europe is not very clear, although the cities of Marseilles (in modern-day France) and Seville (in Spain) can be seen on the left. Africa is clearly represented, showing that knowledge of the continent existed before it was included in later European maps.
Activity Work in small groups and compare this map with a modern map. Identify as many places as you can on the older map.
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What do you remember? 848 ad – 946 ad: Big changes in Islamic state. Fatimids rule in Egypt, Buwayhids occupy Baghdad. Ghaznavids and the Karakhanids rule in Iraq and Iran.
749 ad – 847 ad: Golden Age, the era of the powerful Caliphs.
Lesson 1: The Abbasid Caliphate: an overview 1075 ad – 1258 ad: The Seljuk Age. Caliphate breaks up into smaller states. Invasions by the crusaders and Mongols.
946 ad – 1075 ad: Seljuk Turks enter territories of the Caliphate.
Black Sea
Mongols arrive from northeastern Asia, under leadership of Genghis Khan. State expands quickly into China, Russia, MONGOL CONTROL Eastern Europe and Islamic states. SELJUK
Mongols, led by Mangu Khan, invade Caspian Withdraw after Islamic state. Sea
Mongke’s death May 1260 AD
(after 1260 AD)
Mediterranean Sea
Lesson 2: Mosul The Mongol invasion Aleppo andJanthe fall of Tigris R. (13th 1260 AD) Euphrates R. Baghdad Damascus ’Ain Jalut (3rd Sept 1260 AD)
N
Collapse of agriculture and scholarly life in Al Quds Baghdad. End of Abbasid Cairo Caliphate in Baghdad; power moves to Cairo.
1-SASS Gr7 SB.indd 32
1256 AD Hamadan
Baghdad (Feb 1258 AD)
Baghdad is destroyed by MEMLUK CONTROL (after 1260 AD) Mongols in 1258 ad.
0
Red Sea Mongols under Hulagu
Maragheh
Mongols under Kitbuqa
32
200
400
600 km
Memluks under Qutuz and Baybars
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Sultan Sayfuddin Qutuz and General Al-Zahir Baybars defeat the Mongols at the battle of ‘Ain Jalut.
Mongols destroy Baghdad, Damascus and march towards Cairo.
Lesson 3: Resistance to the Mongols
Results of Battle of ‘Ain Jalut: Mongols are prevented from moving into North Africa and southern Europe; Memluks become leaders of Islamic state.
Imaduddin Zangi ibn Sonqor (1084 ad – 1146 ad): Plays a leading role in driving the crusaders out of the Levant.
Nuriddin (1118 ad – 1174 ad): Unites Egypt and part of Syria, fights successfully against crusaders.
Lesson 4: Exceptional efforts
Shajarat Al-Durr (died 1259 ad): Queen of the Muslims, first woman to rule Muslim state; start of the Memluk Sultanate.
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Sultan Al-Zahir Baybars sets up a new Abbasid Caliphate in Egypt, known as the Shadow Caliphate.
Under the protection of the Memluk Sultanate, Caliphs have no real power.
Lesson 5: The Abbasid Caliphs in Cairo Al-Mustansir was first Caliph, Al-Mutawakkil 111 was last Caliph.
Many great buildings from this era survive in Cairo.
Old maps show the world differently to how we see it today.
Lesson 6: Relevant old maps Cartographers: people that draw maps.
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Test 1
Match each word to its correct meaning. Words
Meanings
1
a places where travelers could rest and get food and water
Khan
Answer
2 archer
b a soldier who shoots with a bow and arrow
3 cartographer
c goods and money taken from conquered people and places
4 booty
d leader or ruler
5 surrender
e someone who draws maps
6 caravansaries
f to stop resisting or fighting
2 Complete this timeline of some of key events from the 8th to 13th centuries by filling in dates and brief descriptions.
749 ad
Imaduddin Zangi takes Edessa from crusaders.
Genghis Khan becomes leader of the Mongols.
1251 ad
Destruction of Baghdad by the Mongols.
1259 ad
1260 ad
Shadow Caliphate established in Cairo.
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3 Complete this paragraph about the Battle of ‘Ain Jalut with single words or phrases.
The Battle of Ain Jalut took place in 1260 ad between the armies of the
Sultanate led by Sultan Sayfuddin Qutuz
and general general
and the Mongol army led by the . Al-Zahir Baybars led his troops into while the rest of the Memluk army
around the valley. It was an
. The Mongols went into
the valley and attacked Baybars’ troops. The rest of the Memluk army then came down from the hills. They surrounded the Mongols and them. This was the first time that . 4 Write full answers to these questions in your exercise book. a How could we describe the Abbasid Caliphate between the years 749 ad and 847 ad? b Where and when did the Mongol state begin? c Why was the battle of ‘Ain Jalut so important in our history? d Why was the Caliphate in Cairo called the Shadow Caliphate? e Which of these words could we use to describe what happened in 1258 ad when the city was attacked by the Mongols: a catastrophe, an ambush, senseless destruction, surrender. Explain your answer. f Who was Nurridin and what role did he play in driving out invaders in the Levant? g Why is Sharajat Al-Durr an important person in history?
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^ƚƵĚĞŶƚ ŽŽŬ
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