Research Journal Volume 16.01

Editor:

Kalpana Kuttaiah, Associate AIA, LEED AP® BD+C

Cover Graphic: “Disaster Map #32” Allan Horton, AIA, NCARB, WELL AP, LEED® Green Associate™

Acknowledgements:

We would like to extend our appreciation to everyone who contributed to the research work and articles published within this journal.

Perkins&Will is an interdisciplinary design practice offering services in the areas of Architecture, Interior Design, Branded Environments, Planning and Strategies, Landscape Architecture and Urban Design.

Journal Overview

The Perkin&Will Research Journal documents research relating to the architectural and design practice. Architectural design requires immense amounts of information for inspiration, creation, and construction of buildings. Considerations for sustainability, innovation, and high-performance designs lead the way of our practice where research is an integral part of the process. The themes included in this journal illustrate types of projects and inquiries undertaken at Perkins&Will and capture research questions, methodologies, and results of these inquiries.

The Perkins&Will Research Journal is a peer-reviewed research journal dedicated to documenting and presenting practice-related research associated with buildings and their environments. The unique aspect of this journal is that it conveys practice-oriented research aimed at supporting our teams.

This is the 28th issue of the Perkins&Will Research Journal. We welcome contributions for future issues.

Research is a systematic investigation into existing knowledge to discover or revise facts or add to knowledge about a certain topic. In architectural design, we take an existing condition and improve upon it with our design solutions. During the design process, we constantly gather and evaluate information from different sources and apply it to solve our design problems, thus creating new information and knowledge.

An important part of the research process is documentation and communication. We are sharing the combined efforts and findings of Perkins&Will researchers and project teams within this journal.

Perkins&Will engages in the following areas of research:

nj Practice related research

nj Human Health and Experience

nj Construction Innovation

nj Resource Circularity

nj Design Performance Optimization

nj Physical-Digital Experience

nj Strategies for operational efficiency

nj Design process benchmarking

nj Organizational behavior

Editorial

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is reshaping many industries, and in architecture, it holds remarkable promise to elevate the design process and enhance project outcomes. This issue of the Perkins&Will Research Journal includes four articles that explore the transformative potential of Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning within the design practice—each of them takes a slightly different approach, and utilizes different applications of AI—ranging from a focus on the implications of democratizing creativity, visually analyzing different workflow models for common architectural design tasks, looking into innovative approaches to disaster management to an assessment of the potential benefits, challenges, and perceptions of AI tools in architectural practice.

“Generative AI: Democratizing Creativity" will focus on implications of democratized creativity, informing new workflows for design from beginner to advanced, implications for architecture, and potential research directions. It will give more people the ability to communicate their opinions visually.

“From Pipeline to Production: Harnessing the Power of Machine Learning for Visual Analysis Tasks in Architecture + Design” is a survey of the potential applications of machine learning with the intention to compare different types of machine learning models and propose workflows for common architectural design tasks.

“Harnessing Artificial Intelligence for Disaster Resilience: A Framework for Mitigation and Management of Natural Disasters” explores leveraging Artificial Intelligence (AI) and smart technologies to revolutionize disaster preparedness and mitigation efforts. By elucidating innovative approaches to disaster management, this article endeavors to inform policymakers, urban planners, and technologists about harnessing the transformative potential of AI for resilience in the climate crisis, thus ensuring long-term sustainability and safety for affected communities.

“Advantages, Challenges, and Perceptions in using AI Generative Images: A Case Study at Perkins&Will Sao Paulo Studio” aims to assess the potential benefits, challenges, and perceptions of AI tools in architectural practice, focusing on their application during the initial design phases. Utilizing a mixed-methods approach, the study comprised an initial survey, a hands-on workshop with the architects of Perkins&Will’s Sao Paulo Studio, and a follow-up survey to evaluate shifts in architects' perceptions and experiences with AI.

Kalpana Kuttaiah, Associate AIA, LEED AP® BD+C

Anish Reddy, AIA, WELL

Charlie Portelli, AIA, RIBA, CDT

Sonata Caric, LEED AP

Breno Tisi Mendes da Veiga, CAU BR

Fernando Longhi Pereira da Silva, CAU BR

Preface

At Perkins&Will, we have been experimenting with Artificial Intelligence (AI) to understand how we may deliver additional value to our clients and a healthier built environment. While AI is often viewed or confused through the lens of generative design, its impact will reach far beyond the creative process, fundamentally altering how we approach and execute the design process from project brief to construction closeout.

While AI's potential for innovation and value creation in architecture is evident, we must remain mindful of the ethical implications of these technologies. As AI tools become more prevalent, ensuring their responsible integration—emphasizing equity, transparency, and accountability—is critical. Architects must balance innovation with responsibility, harnessing AI to its fullest potential while maintaining public trust.

At Perkins&Will, we have been actively exploring AI's possibilities through global webinars, hackathons, and thought leadership efforts. Our global webinars featuring industry "futurists" Phil Bernstein and Mehdi Nourbakhsh have reached thousands of participants worldwide. Internally, we have run over 30 AI experiments, applying cutting-edge technologies to real-world architectural challenges and contributing to internal knowledge and industry innovation.

As we move forward and beyond the initial hype surrounding AI, I am confident that AI will evolve into an iterative tool for architects. AI offers new ways to improve design workflows, automate mundane tasks, and provide new insights. However, it is essential to recognize that AI is not meant to replace human creativity but to amplify it. This perspective underpins our efforts at Perkins&Will to integrate AI into our practice in ways that enhance our work without sacrificing the human-centered approach that makes architecture so unique and meaningful.

Our approach to AI extends beyond automation to fostering creativity and innovation. From developing AI engines like Chato—which integrates design models, cost data, and sustainable materials for more precise decision-making—to leveraging custom versions of Stable Diffusion for generative AI visualization, our use of AI enables designers to iterate and refine designs more efficiently. These tools allow us to produce data-driven designs that align with our client's goals and expectations while maintaining a focus on sustainability, resilience, and design excellence.

AI holds tremendous promise for the future of design, offering unprecedented opportunities for efficiency, innovation, and value creation. As we continue to explore the possibilities of AI, our goal remains clear—to amplify human creativity, elevate design, and ultimately shape a more innovative, sustainable, and resilient built environment for the future.

Nicholas Cameron, FAIA, LEED AP Director Digital of Practice

01

Generative AI: Democratizing Creativity

H. Patrick Bayer, AIA, LEED AP BD+C, patrick.bayer@perkinswill.com

Abstract

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is an incredibly vague concept, describing a long lineage of technologies that seek to mimic human intellectual work. The term applies to everything from the Turing Machine to Artificial General Intelligence (AGI). For the purposes of this essay, we will discuss Generative Artificial Intelligence, or GenAI, at its current state of development. This encompasses the family of tools including ChatGPT, Midjourney, and Stable Diffusion.

GenAI has reached an inflection point, unlocking a new and exciting landscape of possibilities for the field of design. New tools are enabling new workflows for visualization and iteration that expand our ability to be creative. These tools are not just allowing the same types of places to be designed differently—they’re widening the aperture for the design process itself (and the design business model) to be reimagined. For the first time ever, we can create images, videos, or models of our ideas in less than a minute simply by describing what we want in natural language. It’s not just designers that have this new superpower, either. It’s their spouse who works in public relations. It’s their client, their stakeholders, the local planning commission members. GenAI gives more people the ability to communicate their opinions visually.

This article will focus on implications of democratized creativity, new workflows for design from beginner to advanced, implications for architecture, and potential research directions.

Keywords: digital practice, artificial intelligence, GenAI, speech-to-text, LookX, script generation, style transfer, text-to-Image, image-as-prompt.

1.0 Introduction

What does a designer do, really? A builder builds. A contractor manages the construction process. A designer creates the vision of a place and then documents that vision in sufficient detail, through drawings and images, to be built by others. We analyze a vast landscape of parameters ranging from artistic and cultural to highly technical. We draw spaces that respond to those parameters. This unique ability to bridge the gap between conceptual ideas and visual responses is a foundational skill and unique strength. On average, architecture and engineering students score higher on tests of Spatial Reasoning than other students.1

Technology has continually expanded the designer’s ability to visualize and iterate with less effort. Each time new technology is developed, the new workflow has an impact on the character of the designs that are created. With Building Information Modeling, or BIM, larger and vastly more complex designs can be delivered. With parametric tools, freeform architecture and mass customization became possible and widespread among culturally significant projects. The Louvre Abu Dhabi project, for example, was designed using parametric software to control the individual width of all 7,850 stars in its shading dome to create microclimates throughout

the galleries based on the amount of sunlight allowed through.2

Architects at the cutting edge of computational design have been experimenting with generative design for quite some time now. Neri Oxman’s 2015 TED Talk featuring her work in generative biomimicry is nearly 10 years old, riding the invention of generative adversarial networks (GAN’s) in 2014. 3 Within the last few years, however, a new wave of powerful artificial intelligence tools has drastically increased the accessibility of generative design. Today, 41% of architects, according to RIBA, are now using GenAI in some capacity in their everyday work.⁴ There is no sign of slowing, either.

In fact, many people outside of the design industry are now tapping into the creative superpowers of GenAI. ChatGPT, for reference, reached 100 million active users just two months after launch, making it the fastestgrowing consumer application in history.⁵

2.0 Increasing Access

GenAI promises to bring non-designers into the design process more directly by lowering the barriers to visual communication. There is an important distinction to make between “design” and “visual communication.”

Design is a rigorous process by which we break a challenge into its constituent parts, understand issues deeply, explore creative solutions, develop those solutions with expert knowledge, produce the design drawings, communicate our design, and then start all over again until the needs of a challenge are artfully and thoroughly solved. The foundation of this process is a knowledge base spanning art, culture, science, codes & regulations, environment, building technology, etc. The fuel of this process is objective critique from others.

Visual communication, on the other hand, is the ability to create visuals that allow another person to understand an idea. Visual communication is a necessary skill within the design process, but it is not the same as design.

As GenAI tools improve, they democratize the ability to communicate visually. Before GenAI, creating a rendering of a new design would require a professional designer with years of experience in a number of complicated industry-specific software. The required amount of specialized knowledge to create a rendering

of a new design has now dropped tremendously. Just navigate to the right website and describe, in natural language, the image you would like. Some of these tools, like ChatGPT, have free versions. Others have relatively low monthly subscription costs between $10-30/month. There is a storm of new tools trying to automate parts of the design process, from image creation to floor plan layouts and code analysis. It is important to note that access to software and monthly cost are still barriers that prevent many from participating, and that those with specialized knowledge and higher-cost subscriptions are still at a substantial advantage. That being said, since many more people than before are now able to generate creative content, we may expect two logical outcomes. People will likely use GenAI for DIY design, and the increased access to the design process itself may lead to increased demand for design services.

Currently, only about 28% of new homes built in the US are completed with “significant Architect involvement.”⁶

Many people are currently opting for other alternatives, such as pre-engineered house plans, when faced with the cost of hiring designers to create something custom that may better meet their needs. According to a recent article in the Wall Street Journal, more and more homeowners are using GenAI software for DIY design. Of the people interviewed, they cited various reasons for using GenAI. Jess Sandlin, a homeowner in Houston, used text-to-image software to develop her own design style and communicate it in great detail to her design team. Given the deep emotional connection between a person’s home and their sense of self, it’s only natural to want more direct creative control. Beyond residential design, clients of all project types are now able to use GenAI to communicate visually with their designers. Without a foundation of trade knowledge, however, people may not be prepared to thoroughly understand and critique the images they generate on their own. The role of the professional designer has never been more critical.

With expanded access comes increased design literacy, increased interest, and increased demand for design services. We have seen this before with the rise and proliferation of Instagram. Instagram allows designers and creators across the globe to share their work in a curated format with broad appeal. This gives designers access to more creative inspiration and gives people direct access to great design. As people share perfectly

curated moments of their lived experiences to build their own online aesthetic, we have seen the rise of instagrammable spaces.⁷ Spaces that astound, delight, and photograph well are shared more often. This provides a direct boost to a project’s brand, which also affects the client’s bottom line. The net effect is a general public with an ever-increasing appetite for creativity and higher-than-ever expectations.

3.0 New Creative Workflows [Beginner to Advanced]

How will GenAI allow designers to rise to the occasion? Tools like ChatGPT, Stable Diffusion, Dall-E, Midjourney, and LookX are unlocking new ways to be creative. Simple workflows like text generation, text-to-image, image-asprompt, and style transfer are shortening the feedback loop between idea and synthesis. The following case studies demonstrate a small cross-section of possibilities for front-end design iteration, ranging from beginner to advanced.

3.1 Text Generation [Beginner]

Generative text analysis allows anyone to use tools like ChatGPT to generate text based on a natural language prompt. This gives creatives the ability to expand on a seed of an idea or distill a central concept from a storm of ideas. It gives us the ability to explore more ideas faster, digest more information, and synthesize. During ideation, ChatGPT can be used as a creative sounding board to inform the process. Consider the following prompt that only has some fragments of an idea and asks to expound:

Prompt:

Take the role of an architect explaining your ideas for a project to your teammates. Describe a concept for the design of a new public library that is inspired by the culture and context of Queens, New York City. Refer to the weathered metal materiality, local brickwork, and street art. Describe in detail what the facades will look like. Use creative and powerful imagery. Use no more than 8 sentences.

Response:

"Weathered Metal Tapestry" Our concept envisions

the library as a modern tapestry woven from weathered metal panels, reflecting the industrial past of Queens. The facades will feature a dynamic interplay of textures and tones, resembling the intricate patterns found in local brickwork. Street artinspired murals will adorn select panels, celebrating the vibrant artistic culture of the borough. The overall effect will be a harmonious blend of old and new, with the weathered metal symbolizing the borough's resilience and the street art adding a contemporary flair.

While the concept might not be exactly what the designer is looking for, the ideas generated may inspire unique paths of creative exploration. The idea of treating the façade as a “tapestry” of metal is specific and actionable, but vague enough for a creative team to take in different directions.

3.2 Text-to-Image [Beginner]

Text-to-image workflows allow designers to input words and receive an image. Midjourney has become a widely used tool for this workflow in architecture & interior design. For each prompt, Midjourney generates four images. The designer then has options – they can choose an image to upscale, make variations of an image, make variations with a revised prompt, zoom out, pan right, etc. Each iteration takes about a minute, allowing a rapid curating process that gets closer to the desired outcome each step. Once the desired image is achieved, it can be post-processed to remove artifacts or correct details. Prompt engineering is an evolving field, and different people have different systems by which they structure their prompts. One philosophy to consider aims to describe the desired image in as much detail as possible. Try using a main idea, more detail, scene setting, style, and image type:

Prompt:

An award-winning library design with thatched straw facades and mass timber structure , long and rhythmic façade , rising from the prairie of central Kansas in autumn , transparency, soft curves , morning dew fog , style of Danish Minimalism , punched windows , thick straw walls , soft , glowing from within, natural prairie, architectural photoreal competition rendering, unreal engine

Response:

It is important not to take AI-generated images too literally. The design generated will only have as much intention as the human author is able to impart, minus a decent amount of communication inefficiency. But with an image that feels right, the designer gains certain insights. They can use the successful aspects of the result and target improvements while they develop a full project design.

3.3 Image-as-prompt [Beginner]

In addition to words, Midjourney allows designers to use images as prompts for new images. The image can be given a “weight” from 0-2 that controls the degree to which the generated image will resemble the prompt image. This is tremendously helpful with one of the most challenging points in the creative process – the bridge between a concept and its synthesis into architecture. Consider the following prompt, which aims to explore a project inspired by the imagery of paper lantern festival:

Full Prompt:

https://s.mj.run/WJqgv4FgRnM floating mass timber pavilion buildings on a placid lake with connecting pathways, glowing from within, style of Japanese contemporary architecture, architectural photoreal competition rendering, unreal engine –iw [X]

Figure 1: Prairie sanctuary concept, co-created with Midjourney.

Figure 3: Final Image (after approximately 150 generations, prompt refinement, post-processing):

Figure 2: Responses at various image weights

At an image weight of 2, the generated image is extremely similar in content and style to the prompt image. The text prompts about pavilions are relegated to the background. At image weight .25, however, some interesting things are happening. The pavilions no longer even look like paper lanterns, but they still feel like them. The essence of the image has been used without impeding creative generation.

Image blending is also possible. Two images can be remixed with Midjourney, resulting in a completely new image that shares essential qualities from both images. This can be used to remix ideas from different precedent projects or infuse a rendering of architecture with aspects of something non-architectural, for example.

3.4 Style Transfer [Intermediate]

Style transfer in GenAI refers to the process of applying the visual style of one image to another, creating an

output that combines the content of the original with the style of the reference image. This technique allows designers to explore different styles, materials, and articulation on a relatively low-detail base image. This offers a new level of creative freedom. By using style transfer, architects can quickly explore various design aesthetics and generate unique visual concepts.

This case study uses LookX to explore a concept, first using LEGO bricks, then using low-detail screenshots of a digital progress model. To perform the style transfer in LookX, a user needs three things: a base image, a style reference image, and a text prompt. The base image informs the content of one’s result—the geometry and composition of the image. The style reference informs the colors, tones, materiality, and mood. The text prompts are used to supplement the style reference and can be used to guide the image in different directions during the process.

Figure 4: Photo of LEGO model.

Figure 5: Image output from LookX.

Via this case study, we can also see the potential of combining GenAI tools. In this case, Midjourney was used to create style reference images from text prompts that had the visual character and general content desired. Midjourney is stronger in text-to-image workflows, and LookX is stronger in style transfer. We can use each tool for its strengths.

To retain control over fine details, Trimble SketchUp free web version was used to create a more detailed base image. This intuitive software has a lower learning curve than any other modeling software and could be used by nearly anyone with limited training.

It’s important to note that the base image that controls the overall geometry of the output can come from anywhere. It could be a hand sketch, an oil painting, or a photo of a sand castle. By preparing a style transfer setup beforehand, one could easily lead a workshop with many people contributing to rendering creations directly.

3.4 Script Generation [Advanced]

The same natural language workflow can be used to generate code in Python or C# for grasshopper or custom rhino plugins for specific 3D-related tasks. Custom plugins would otherwise be time-intensive to code and require an expert. Consider the following sample workflow using ChatGPT:

Prompt:

Please create a GhPython script that creates a circle pattern starting from an image, and extrudes those circles based on the darkness of the image at that point. The darker, the higher the extrusion.

Response:

Certainly! Here's a GhPython script that generates a circle pattern based on an image and extrudes the circles according to the darkness at each point. The darker the pixel, the higher the extrusion.

Figure 6: 3D Model Screenshot.

Figure 7: Image output from LookX.

How to Use the Script in Grasshopper

1. Prepare an Image: Make sure you have an image file accessible on your computer.

2. Add a GhPython Component: Drag a GhPython component onto the Grasshopper canvas.

3. Set Inputs:

• Set the input x to receive the path to the image file (as a string).

• Set the input y to receive the number of circles along one dimension of the grid.

• Set the input z to receive the maximum extrusion height for the darkest pixels.

4. Copy and Paste the Script: Copy the above script and paste it into the GhPython script editor.

5. Run the Script: Connect the inputs, and run the script.

Inputs and Outputs

• Input x: The path to the image file (string).

• Input y: The number of circles along one dimension (integer).

• Input z: The maximum extrusion height for the darkest pixels (float).

• Output a: Circles based on the image.

• Output b: Extrusions of the circles based on the darkness of the image at each point.

This script reads the pixel brightness from the image, calculates the circle radius and extrusion height based on that brightness, and generates the corresponding circles and extrusions. You may need to adjust the grid size and maximum extrusion height according to your specific requirements and the resolution of your image.

The implications are tremendous for designers when everyone with beginner-level understanding of Rhino and Grasshopper can create their own custom tools. An intuitive follow-up to this prompt may be another script to create cut files for the lengths of each cylinder for easy manufacturing.

Figure 8: Output from ChatGPT (free version).

Result:

4.0 Implications for Architecture

The tools we use have a direct impact on what we design. Antoine Predock famously used physical clay models and collage as an integral part of his creative process, and one could argue they helped to infuse his projects with qualities of juxtaposition and tactility that are unique to his work.8 Petco Park, for example, was designed with clay models and has tilted, not-quite-orthogonal forms that one might expect to find when working with clay. After using these tools for initial case studies, I’ve noticed that image diffusion-based GenAI has some perceived strengths and weaknesses that help predict the types of architecture that may be unlocked.

Strengths:

• Depiction of interesting and sculptural forms

• Custom textures and details unique to each generation

• Instant complexity with no more effort than simplicity

• Blending/merging of aesthetic styles

Weaknesses: Details

Beware of zooming in on AI-generated images. The joints may not be straight and uniform. The hands may have 7 fingers. The chairs may be missing legs.

Designer control

One must only expect a certain degree of control when directing an image with words rather than drawing it. It is far easier to achieve the “general feeling” that you intend than to get the details right.

Geometric simplicity

GenAI struggles with depicting geometry that is truly planar, modular, uniform, and easy to describe to a builder.

Spatial clarity

The image may be excellent, but if you try to make a 3D model of it, the model may be nonsensical.

Realism

The contents of the image may not comply with the

Figure 9: Source image from Midjourney.

Figure 10: Generated Rhino Model.

rules of physical reality – gravity, weather, sun, scale, etc. The knowledge and guidance of the designer is critical here.

Bias

All diffusion models are trained with a dataset. Their product is limited by that dataset. This is why OpenAI is now training their model on datasets estimated at around 800GB.⁹ These models work by predicting the statistical probability of pixels correlating to prompts, so may not produce responses that represent data that is less frequent in the dataset.

Based on these strengths and weaknesses, what new and returning trends or impacts may come to fruition as GenAI becomes integral to the process? Some key examples may include:

4.1 A Return of Ornament

Where did it go in the first place? The decline of ornament and traditional styles in Western architecture began in the 1800s with the Industrial Revolution and simultaneous worldwide sociopolitical and cultural changes.10 This transition from handcrafted to assembly line manufacturing led to a need for simple designs that were easier to mass produce and appealing to a global audience. Monarchies were cast aside for new forms of government, and the ornamental styles associated with symbols of power and wealth were rejected. Society restructured.

The Bauhaus, International style, etc. began working this paradigm shift into the pedagogy of Western architecture —away from style/ornament and toward a new, simple, modular architecture free from the ornament of the past.11 Perhaps the most visceral form of this rejection of the past was the Dada Art Movement. Following World War I, a number of artists in Zurich reflected on whether the devastation the world had experienced was the natural conclusion to the arc of European culture, tradition, and logic. They concluded only the opposite of logic would help them heal.12 Thus—Marcel Duchamp’s “Fountain.” 13

Fast forward to the 21st century, and again revolutionary technologies promise to advance our production systems and drive global sociopolitical and cultural changes. Building upon the momentum of projects like Michael Hansmeyer’s 2013 “Digital Grotesque” structure,14 natural language GenAI tools are making it easier than ever before to digitally generate completely unique and unimaginably complex 3D sculptures. Even “Digital Grotesque” had 16 million facets—impossible to design by hand. New robotic and additive manufacturing methods are becoming widespread, and these manufacturing methods are somewhat agnostic to geometric complexity. New styles of ornament may arrive and gain traction. This ornament might be more abstract, like the “Digital Grotesque.” Or it might be more representational and parallel our art and culture, like the 2015 residential tower by Mark Foster Gage, nicknamed “Khaleesi.” 15

Figure 11: “Digital Grotesque” - Michael Hansmeyer.

Figure 12: “W 57th Street Residential Tower” – Mark Foster Gage

4.2 Radical Participation

In the 1970s, Belgian Architect Lucien Kroll was selected to design a new building for the Medical School at the University of Louvain.16 His revolutionary approach centered on inviting the students themselves to cocreate the project with him. Due to the variety of identities present in the student body, this process resulted in a building that defied architectural precedent with its chaotic composition. While this drew criticism from other architects, it is undeniably a site-specific creative response that directly reflected the intentions of the people it served.

Participatory design is now a commonly accepted best practice for leading architects like Alejandro Aravena and Jeanne Gang. In his 2014 TED Talk, Aravena described the process by which he brought people into the process in order to deeply learn about their challenges and needs.17 This process led to a groundbreaking idea for affordable housing—rather than build homes cheaply, build half of a good home and allow people to add on and customize over time. Jeanne Gang works directly with community members to envision projects that directly address the needs of the people through architectural activism. This collaborative process has led to projects like the Arcus Center for Social Justice Leadership18 and Civic Commons19, which directly advance the common good.

GenAI invites designers and their stakeholders alike to communicate their needs visually, unlocking new and more powerful ways to bring people into the creative process. No longer will it be solely up to the designer to give life to individual aesthetic preferences—more will be able to communicate their preferences visually.

Recently our Perkins&Will Digital Practice Strategist, Thomas Kearns, invented a workflow to provide realtime creative imagery during a visioning session for the Future of Santa Monica Airport project.20 The workflow used a custom app to automatically prompt Midjourney using keywords and phrases from the conversation using microphones. One could imagine a whole host of similarly creative ways to engage with GenAI. Students could draw pictures of their dream classrooms, and GenAI could render those sketches based on a pretrained model. Community members could move massing blocks on a site model to help decide where a

new library might go, and GenAI could generate aerial imagery. The designer will remain critical for asking great questions, providing their expertise, and connecting the various perspectives in the room with creative and inclusive solutions.

4.3 Designer as Generalist

As technology reduces the amount of friction in the production of the drawings (the contract), the role of the designer may evolve. They may do less of the drawing, measuring, cross-referencing, and analysis as GenAI tools find ways to assist with these tasks. That does not mean that the designer isn’t necessary. On the contrary, it means that their role is more important than ever. They have a responsibility to their community and to the people they serve through their projects. They protect a common quality of place in a process with many different special interests. Moving forward, designers may need to hone their skillsets of storytelling and directing to maximize their impact through GenAI.

Before these new tools, a design generally came straight from the hand of a person through drawing, painting, sculpting, or clicking. Now, the designer may instead direct the generation of design drawings. This is not the same skillset. Overseeing and directing typically are the roles of more experienced professionals with enough knowledge and intuition to sense problems and opportunities before they arise. Effectively, the use of GenAI elevates the role of the designer automatically into a more curatorial/editorial position. It is important to ensure that this person has enough knowledge and experience to fulfill that role.

Interacting with GenAI is a skillset, and there is an entire field of study called Prompt Engineering that deals with how best to communicate intent. The trend, however, is that these types of tools are all trying to receive natural language. Given the pace of progress, we can assume for now that they will be successful, and that directing GenAI will eventually be similar to directing a person or team of people. Designers that are strong storytellers, poets, and artists may be more effective at both communicating intent and inspiring interesting end product through their direction.

5.0 Potential Research Directions

There is a vast horizon of applications for GenAI and GenAI-enabled tools. Much like the early days of the internet, people can and will continue to innovate in every facet of human productivity. For the architecture & design profession, the following would be a few interesting directions for future GenAI research:

Process Automation

The process of architectural design and delivery is wrought with inefficiency. Designers need to know dozens of complicated softwares, each with their own flavor of tedious tasks. Designers spend a lot of time on things that do not require their full knowledge/ experience. By using GenAI to automate parts of the creative process, we could free designers up to spend less time on tedious tasks and more time ideating and problem solving.

Larger Challenges

Many of the problems society is facing are systems-level challenges that are extremely challenging to understand alone. A small change in polar ice may have a domino effect through ocean ecosystems and ultimately cause extreme weather upticks along coastlines. This leap forward in computational power could unlock ways to analyze and problem solve that would have otherwise required large teams with more resources.

Smaller Challenges

GenAI has great potential for iterative optimization. There are many small challenges that would benefit from the ability to generate and test hundreds or thousands of solutions automatically until the most efficient solution reveals itself. This new way of working has been in the hands of experts for some time but is now becoming much more accessible.

Ideation to Fabrication

What if we could establish a direct-to-production workflow with GenAI that allows rapid ideation to be synthesized into logical and optimized 3D designs? If that’s possible, could we use GenAI to robotically manufacture these designs?

6.0 Conclusion

Generative Artificial Intelligence has arrived, and with it, a revolution in the ways we work rivaled only by the invention of the internet. A myriad of companies are competing to develop tools that demonstrate rapid advancement in capabilities. These new tools are lowering the barriers to access for generative design, which will allow AI-savvy designers to unlock tremendous potential and will allow more people to participate in the design process directly. With increased access to creativity comes increased demand and increased expectations. With new tools come new possibilities, new styles, and more inclusive design.

References

[1] Berkowitz, M., Gerber, A., Thurn, C., Emo, B., Hoelscher, C., & Stern, E. (2021 , February). Spatial Abilities for Architecture: Cross Sectional and Longitudinal Assessment With Novel and Existing Spatial Ability Tests. Frontiers in Psychology via National Library of Medicine, NIH. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/ articles/PMC7884773/

[2] Imbert, F. & Frost, K. S. (2013, January). Concurrent Geometric, Structural and Environmental Design: Louvre Abu Dhabi. ResearchGate. https://www. researchgate.net/publication/301951625_Concurrent_ Geometric_Structural_and_Environmental_Design_ Louvre_Abu_Dhabi

[3] Oxman, N. (2015, October). Design at the intersection of technology and biology [Video]. TED. https://www. ted.com/talks/neri_oxman_design_at_the_intersection_ of_technology_and_biology?language=en

[4] Royal Institute of British Architects. (2023). Artificial intelligence in architecture. RIBA. https://www.architecture.com/knowledgeand-resources/knowledge-landing-page/ artificial-intelligence-in-architecture

[5] Hu, K. (2023, February 1). Reuters. ChatGPT sets record for fastest-growing user base: Analyst note. https:// www.reuters.com/technology/chatgpt-sets-recordfastest-growing-user-base-analyst-note-2023-02-01/

[6] LaBarre, S. (2008, October). Metropolis Magazine. Truth in numbers. https://metropolismag.com/programs/ truth-in-numbers/

[7] Katsikopoulou, M. (2018, June 12). Instagram design guide shows architects how to create "a visual sense of amazement". Dezeen. https://www.dezeen.com/2018/06/12/ instagram-design-guide-architects-design-hotel/

[8] Predock, A. http://www.predock.com/Clay/clay.html

[9] OpenAI. (2022). What is the size of the training set for GPT-3? OpenAI Community. https://community.openai.com/t/ what-is-the-size-of-the-training-set-for-gpt-3/360896

[10] Chauhan, T. (2020). Rethinking the Future. What is the impact of Industrial Revolution on architecture? https://www.re-thinkingthefuture.com/designing-fortypologies/a3740-what-is-the-impact-of-industrialrevolution-on-architecture/

[11] Winton, A. G. (2007, August).The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History: The Bauhaus, 1919-1933. https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ hd/bauh/hd_bauh.htm

[12] Trachtman, P. (2006, May). A Brief History of Dada. Smithsonian Magazine. https://www.smithsonianmag. com/arts-culture/dada-115169154/

[13] Duchamp, M.(1917). Fountain. Philadelphia Museum of Art. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA. https:// philamuseum.org/collection/object/92488

[14] Havemeyer, M. (2022). Digital Grotesque. Lecture at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. Mediasite. https:// mediasite.mms.rpi.edu/mediasite/Play/dfa56951a9bf4c 1399bba6aeca86dcfb1d?catalog=7bc5b1d44e04486dbf c2739e3ff46af321

[15] Mark Foster Gage Architects. (2023). Khaleesi. https://www.mfga.com/khaleesi

[16] de Graaf, R. (2016, July). Few architects have embraced the idea of user participation: A new movement is needed. Architectural Review. https://www. architectural-review.com/essays/few-architects-haveembraced-the-idea-of-user-participation-a-newmovement-is-needed

[17] Aravena, A. (2014, January). My architectural philosophy? Bring the community into the process [Video]. TED. https://www.ted.com/talks/alejandro_ aravena_my_architectural_philosophy_bring_the_ community_into_the_process?language=en&subtitle=en

[18] Studio Gang. (2014). Arcus Center for Social Justice Leadership. Studio Gang. https://studiogang.com/ project/arcus-center-for-social-justice-leadership

[19] Studio Gang. (2020). Civic Commons. Studio Gang. https://studiogang.com/project/civic-commons

[20] Kearns, T. (2023). Perkins&Will. Live AI visualization from automated speech-to-text keyword prompts. https://www.santamonica.gov/programs/ the-future-of-the-santa-monica-airport

02

From Pipeline to Production:

Harnessing the Power of Machine Learning for Visual Analysis Tasks in Architecture + Design

Anish Reddy, AIA, WELL AP, anish.reddy@perkinswill.com

Charlie Portelli, AIA, RIBA, CDT, charlie.portelli@perkinswill.com

Abstract

This article is a survey of the potential applications of machine learning (colloquially referred to as artificial intelligence / AI) in automating visual analysis tasks for architectural design. AI offers a wide array of tools with potential applications for architecture. In particular, image analysis tools have made enormous strides in recent years, with software capable of recognizing faces, generating images from text, changing the style of one image to another, and much more. Although architecture has a heavy focus on drawings and images, it still struggles to incorporate these tools into everyday practice. Current off-the-shelf solutions are inadequate to incorporate the many parameters involved in understanding an architectural drawing with its combination of text, linework, and shading. On the other end, though architects generate rich data constantly as part of projects, it is rarely standardized enough to form useful datasets that can be compared across projects.

This article will compare different types of machine learning models and propose workflows for common architectural design tasks. In all cases, curated datasets will be key to producing acceptable results.

Keywords: AI, machine learning, quality assurance.

1.0 Introduction

“When you can measure what you are speaking about, and express it in numbers, you know something about it; but when you cannot measure it, when you cannot express it in numbers, your knowledge is of a meagre and unsatisfactory kind.” – Lord Kelvin

Our brains are continually exposed to a myriad of stimuli—sights, smells, tastes, emotions, and more. Over time, with repeated exposure to this sensory “data,” we begin to recognize patterns and trends, a process we can refer to as "training". Our imagination then allows us to perceive new thoughts, ideas, and experiences

by synthesizing this accumulated knowledge. While recent advancements in brain scanning have allowed us to understand more about how this intricate process unfolds across our roughly 86 billion neurons, much is still undiscovered.

Artificial intelligence offers an exciting possibility for society: modeled on our own brains, a “digital mind” that trains on massive amounts of electronic data, allowing it to reason and imagine at or beyond human levels. But in the current environment where we still struggle to define how our own human brains work, we come

to a translational gap: digital minds capable of mindboggling amounts of math, but no way to translate our thoughts into that math.

Architects rely heavily on their imagination. They draw from their extensive exposure to built works, incorporating precedents and design influences while using guides or standards as guardrails for direction. Through this process, they build conceptual bridges between learned experiences, resulting in innovative and functional designs. Because of the interconnected nature of design, when compared to other industries such as software and finance, architects struggle to translate the requirements of this thought process into actionable data.

This article explores various AI model types that hold significant potential for the architectural industry, by focusing on models that are already being widely used in other industries. We will delve into the functionalities and applications of image classifiers, image-toimage transformers, 2D-to-3D transformers, text-toimage generators, and 3D classification models. By understanding the workflows that other industries use, similar workflows can be imagined for architecture and design, enabling more innovative, efficient, and informed decision-making.1, 2

2.0 Types of Machine Learning Models

To create a machine learning model, a series of algorithms in a network (known as a neural network) are trained to detect patterns in a given dataset, allowing the algorithms to generate their own mathematical approaches without user input. This new algorithm can be used to then detect the same patterns in a new entry. While the concept of a neural network has been around since the 1960s, in the past decade there have been major breakthroughs in logic and computation, enabling the creation of models that can perform tasks with accuracy approaching, and sometimes even exceeding, the capacity of the average human.

Different types of models are more useful for certain tasks. Models with different capabilities can also be connected into complex workflows, sometimes with another model being used to moderate between the two. In the most

famous cases their power is derived from both the quality and quantity of their datasets, sometimes with billions of data points scraped from a wide array of sources. But substantial results can still be produced by smaller actors with much smaller datasets, by fine-tuning existing public-use models. The following sections are a selection of some of the most useful models for visual analysis tasks relevant to architecture and design, along with some examples of their utility.3

2.1 Image Classification

An image classifier assigns a label to an entire image based on pre-existing training data of already labeled images. This type of model underpins some of the earliest and most widely used machine learning applications, such as text recognition and facial recognition.

2: Image classifier trained to identify which “starchitect” the work most closely resembles.5

Figure 1: The structure of an image classifier model.4

Figure

Image classifiers underpin many data-scraping techniques, allowing for large amounts of unstructured data from the internet to be organized automatically into ways that are useful for training other types of models. Organizations that deal with large-scale geospatial data also have found use for image classifiers in identifying anomalies and patterns.

At Perkins&Will, classification algorithms have been used to help organize large groupings of data, with tasks ranging from mining project text for sentiment analysis⁷ to creating adjacency maps of program spaces from previous projects’ Revit models.⁸ Another implementation uses clustering to derive the optimum distribution of devices in a space.

The broad-based nature of image classification analysis makes it difficult to apply directly to complex architectural drawings. However, by using image segmentation techniques, key parts of plans can be directed to image classifiers to add useful labels, identifying things such as object categories and non-compliant dimensions.

2.2 Image-to-Image (img2img) Transformers

An image-to-image transformer uses a GAN (Generative Adversarial Network) to generate new images that simulate the results of a “ground truth” dataset. The ground truth dataset is composed of image-image pairs that help the model correlate visual qualities between the two. This type of model fuels a broad range of generative AI tools, such as LookX’s image style transfers, Sora’s generative video, Snapchat’s face filters, etc.

Image-to-image transformers are already an integral part of many visualization programs, including Photoshop and LookX, allowing users to turn basic sketches into advanced renderings. A social media universe has emerged with design influencers creating extravagant AI-driven renderings, pushing the architectural discourse further into the abstract and digital realms. Architecture

Figure 4: The structure of an image-to-image transformer.9

Figure 3: Image classifier trained to identify architectural styles.6

Figure 5: An example of two datasets (input and ground truth) being used to train a transformer, which will then output a predicted image based on a new input image.10

firms such as Zaha Hadid and Coop Himmelblau have created fine-tuned models based on their previous body of work that allow for the generation of novel design renderings.11

Perkins&Will has experimented with image transformers in a variety of ways. In-house workflows built around open-source software allows all employees to generate and transform images into a variety of styles, streamlining the rendering process. The authors of this article posited a tool that would evaluate plan conditions for potential code violations, using existing projects as a training set.

As larger and more advanced models become accessible, firms should be able to train models on detail drawings as well as renderings, allowing for three-dimensional reasoning in coordination with a digital model.

2.3 Text-to-Image Generators

Similar to an image-to-image transformer, a text-toimage generator uses a GAN to generate new images, but uses text-image pairs as the “ground truth” dataset rather than image-image pairs. This type of model is used in generative AIs such as Midjourney and DALLE, which allow for creative prompts to generate novel images. These types of models have become interwoven with image-to-image transformers to allow for promptbased modification of a generated image.

In architecture, text-to-image generators can be used to create fine-tuned images based on verbal discussions with a client or within a team. Visualization programs such as Chaos Vantage will allow for text prompts to be used to modify a given 3D model, allowing for textures, colors, and entourage to be generated and placed within the model on the fly.

Figure 6: Zaha Hadid Architects has trained an AI model on their own project images.12

Figure 7: The structure of a text-to-image generator. 13

Figure 8: An AI-generated image created from a text prompt.14

Perkins&Will has used text-to-image generators in many diverse applications. A “visioner” app allows for seamless speech-to-text-to-image generation, allowing an AIdriven slideshow to follow the course of a conversation live. In another, visual analysis of an area is combined between multiple factors to provide a combined analysis that gives a score to individual sites.

Looking further into the future, as corresponding textbased models become more advanced, documents as complicated as specifications and drawing notes can be interpreted and coordinated with the 2D or 3D drawings. Schedules and contracts can be interpreted into workplans and cartoon sets, allowing for the streamlining of the project management process.

2.4 2D-to-3D Transformers

A 2D-to-3D transformer relies on taking multiple view angles of a 3D scene and projecting them across each other, interpolating a 3D model of the full scene. A separate model can be used to generate the multiple view angles from a single image, or the multiple views can be pictures taken of a physical space.

Software firms such as Hover already use algorithms such as these to turn site photos into a full 3D model. This allows them to immediately deliver accurate dimensions and material quantities to their clients, and to propose compatible details.

Perkins&Will has developed in-house workflows using similar models to perform architectural tasks, such as creating gaussian splats of a given space, or generating 3D models from images.

As these models and their workflows improve, design firms could use them to create 3D models quickly from a 2D sketch / generated image from a text-to-image generator. This would allow for different design iterations to be generated quickly and with a sense of scale in relation to a given space. These models could also be used to translate 2D details into a more detailed 3D model, allowing for LOD 400/500-type models to be created quickly and with minimal human intervention.

2.5 3D Model Classification

The goal of 3D Model Classification, otherwise known as semantic segmentation, is to segment a 3D model into its constituent parts. Similar to image classifiers, models are trained to identify key features of certain types of objects, allowing for entire objects to be separated from a complex scene.

Figure 11: PointNet is capable of transforming a point cloud into semantic segments.17

Figure 10: Hover uses machine learning models to provide cost estimates for home remodeling using just a few photos.16

Figure 9: The structure of a 2D-to-3D transformer.15

This is used in a number of fields, including robotics, autonomous driving, and augmented reality, where identifying different parts of a scanned 3D scene can allow software to adapt outputs to changing conditions. Within design, 3D model classification could be used for both new projects and adaptive reuse. For adaptive reuse, an existing space can be scanned with photogrammetry and LIDAR to create a point cloud model, which could be segmented into its constituent parts. Original drawings could be fed into the model to add extra detail to elements that are obscured, such as exterior wall assemblies and above-ceiling areas. And for new projects, complex 3D designs can be rapidly broken down into fabrication-ready models, accelerating prebuilt assemblies or guiding on-site robotic construction. Existing facilities could use 3D model classification to build a digital twin, streamlining building management.

3.0 Conclusion

The architecture profession is continuously shaped by advancements in technology, materials, regulatory standards, and many more requirements. From the early days of large drafting tables and hand-drawn plans, we have witnessed significant milestones such as the advent of computer-aided drafting (CAD) systems, the development of building information modeling (BIM), and the rise of generative design and parametric modeling. Today artificial intelligence (AI) stands to be the next frontier in the ongoing transformation.

Throughout this article, we have explored various AI model types- image classifiers, image-to-image transformers, 2D-to-3D transformers, text-to-image generators, and 3D classification models- and their potential benefits to the architectural design process. Each of these AI models brings unique capabilities to the table, from automating repetitive tasks to generating innovative design solutions.

By understanding how these systems are trained and the advantages they offer, AI can significantly enhance the creativity, efficiency, and precision of architectural practice. Image classifiers can quickly analyze and sort large datasets of images, aiding in design inspiration and precedent studies. Image-to-image transformers can help architects visualize different design options and material choices. 2D-to-3D transformers bridge the gap between flat drawings and three-dimensional models,

facilitating a more comprehensive understanding of spatial relationships. Text-to-image generators can translate conceptual ideas into visual representations, streamlining the early stages of design.

This new technology will increasingly play a crucial role in architecture, redefining the boundaries of what is possible. Embracing these technological advancements will enable architects to explore broader limits of creativity and efficiency, ultimately leading to more innovative, sustainable, and responsive built environments.

References

[1] Brynjolfsson, E., & McAfee, A., (2014). The Second Machine Age: Work, Progress, and Prosperity in a Time of Brilliant Technologies, New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company

[2] Kurzweil, R., (2005). The Singularity Is Near: When Humans Transcend Biology, New York, NY: Viking

[3] Géron, A., (2022). Hands-On Machine Learning with Scikit-Learn, Keras, and TensorFlow, 3rd Edition, Sebastopol, CA: O'Reilly Media, Inc.

[4] SuperAnnotate, (n.d.). "Image Classification Basics," Report, Retrieved on 5/23/2024 from https://www. superannotate.com/blog/image-classification-basics

[5] Reddy, A., (n.d.). "Starchitect Classifier v1.1," Report, Retrieved on 5/23/2024 from https://areddy831.github. io/starchitect

[6] Reddy, A., (n.d.). "Architectural Style Classifier v1.0," Report, Retrieved on 5/23/2024 from https:// areddy831.github.io/

[7] Pandit, A., Kearns, T. (n.d.). “Generative AI Pipeline”. Report, Retrieved on 8/21/2024 from https:// io.perkinswill.com/generative-ai-pipeline/

[8] Saha, N. (n.d.). “Mantle Space Algorithms”. Report Retrieved on 8/21/2024 from https://github.com/ SHL-Digital-Practice/mantle/tree/space_algorithms

[9] ProjectPro, (n.d.). "Generative Adversarial Networks (GAN) Based Projects to Work On," Report, Retrieved on 5/23/2024 from https://www.projectpro.io/article/ generative-adversarial-networks-gan-based-projectsto-work-on/530

[10] Toljan, I., (2019). Urban Space Index. 10.13140/ RG.2.2.31750.73280.

[11] Schumacher, P. (2023 December 16). “AI is boosting Parametricisim 1.0 and falls short on Tectonism (Parametricisim 2.0)” [Conference keynote]. AIA NY AI + A Future of Architectural Practice, New York, NY, United States. https://www.centerforarchitecture.org/video/ artificial-intelligence-in-architecture-aia-future-ofarchitectural-practice/

[12] Ravenscroft, T., (2023). "Zaha Hadid Architects developing 'most' projects using AI images says Patrik Schumacher," Report, Retrieved on 5/23/2024 from https://www.dezeen.com/2023/04/26/zaha-hadidarchitects-patrik-schumacher-ai-dalle-midjourney/

[13] Shorten, C., (n.d.). "Text-to-Image," Report, Retrieved on 5/23/2024 from https://towardsdatascience.com/ text-to-image-a3b201b003ae

[14] Designboom, (2022). "Interview: Kory Bieg on Textto-Image Generators & the Future of AI in Design," Report, Retrieved on 5/23/2024 from https://www. designboom.com/design/interview-kory-bieg-text-toimage-generators-future-ai-design-08-17-2022/

[15] Mr-for-example, (n.d.). "From NeRF to 3D Gaussian Splatting: The Frontiers of Text-to-3D," Report, Retrieved on 5/23/2024 from https://mr-for-example.medium. com/from-nerf-to-3d-gaussian-splatting-thefrontiers-of-text-to-3d-3fd543696f66

[16] Hover Inc., (n.d.). "Home Measurement Software," Report, Retrieved on 5/23/2024 from https:// hover.to/measure/

[17] Qi, Charles (n.d.). "PointNet: Deep Learning on Point Sets for 3D Classification and Segmentation," Report, Retrieved on 8/13/2024 from https://arxiv.org/ pdf/1612.00593v2

Harnessing Artificial Intelligence for Disaster Resilience: A

Framework for Mitigation and Management of Natural Disasters

Sonata Caric, LEED AP ND, LFA, sonatacaric@gmail.com

Abstract

Climate change projections indicate an imminent surge in both the frequency and severity of natural disasters. The United States especially has experienced a 154% increase in the occurrence and cost of disasters.1 The Pacific Northwest faces an impending catastrophe with the anticipated Cascadia Subduction Zone Earthquake, poised to affect 7 million people across 140,000 square miles, including major urban centers like Seattle, Portland, and Vancouver BC. Government readiness is still falling short of the monumental challenge. This article explores leveraging Artificial Intelligence (AI) and smart technologies to revolutionize disaster preparedness and mitigation efforts. A responsible approach to this technological augmentation builds resilient communities. Urban planners and other designers have a unique opportunity to capitalize on natural disasters as catalysts for a sustainable reimagining of a city and to enhance the quality of life in their communities. This article delves into potential strategies for integrating AI into disaster management protocols and potential methodology for incorporating AI into the mitigation efforts for the Cascadia Earthquake. By elucidating innovative approaches to disaster management, this article endeavors to inform policymakers, urban planners, and technologists about harnessing the transformative potential of AI for resilience in the climate crisis, thus ensuring long-term sustainability and safety for affected communities.

Keywords: disaster management, artificial intelligence, resettlement, displaced populations, distributed infrastructure.

1.0 Introduction

Natural disasters are unpredictable and require intense preparation to mitigate potentially detrimental impacts. Historically, disaster management in the United States has followed a paramilitary approach and excluded the community from any level of involvement. “United States disaster management planning is based on civil defense and natural disaster responses as well as on behavioral science research.”2 This perspective has merit because military operations are executed quickly and with vigor. However, a multidisciplinary approach to disaster management involves acknowledgment of the varying interests and stakeholders in a community and fosters the development of strategic partnerships to balance competing interests to reach a common objective.

A post-disaster response balances constantly shifting factors. Poorly coordinated bureaucratic changes in policy and leadership lead to instability in the planning process. Community panic and distrust often underpin the post-disaster response. A natural disaster exposes the weaknesses and the strengths of public and private institutions. Experiences of reconstruction, relocation, and claim-settling form the perception of recovery. As the United States prepares for an increase in natural disaster occurrences and varieties, planning authorities should adopt a multidisciplinary approach to rebuild more resilient and eventually self-sufficient communities.

Table 1: Classification of Natural Disasters.

CATEGORY DISASTER DEFINITION

Geophysical Earthquake

Landslide

Tsunami

Volcanic Activity

Hydrological Avalanche

Flood

Climatological Extreme Temperatures

A sudden slip on a fault, and the resulting ground shaking and radiated seismic energy caused by the slip, or by volcanic or magmatic activity, or other sudden stress changes in the Earth (USGS, no date)

The downslope movement of soil, rock and organic materials under the effects of gravity, which occurs when the gravitational driving forces exceed the frictional resistance of the material resisting on the slope. (Varnes, D.J., 1978.)

A series of travelling waves of extremely long length and period, usually generated by disturbances associated with earthquakes occurring below or near the ocean floor (IOC, 2019)

A volcano is currently active if it is erupting lava, releasing gas or generating seismic activity. (UN-SPIDER Knowledge Portal, no date)

An avalanche is a rapid flow of snow down a hill or mountainside (NSIDC, 2021).

The overflow of water from a stream channel into normally dry land in the floodplain (riverine flooding), higher-than–normal levels along the coast and in lakes or reservoirs (coastal flooding) as well as ponding of water at or near the point where the rain fell (flash floods) (IRDR Glossary)

A period of marked unusual hot weather (maximum, minimum and daily average temperature) over a region persisting at least three consecutive days during the warm period of the year based on local (station-based) climatological conditions, with thermal conditions recorded above given thresholds. (UNSPIDER Knowledge Portal, no date)

Drought

Wildfires

Heat island effect

Meteorological Cyclones

Storms/wave surges

Tornado

A period of abnormally dry weather characterized by a prolonged deficiency of precipitation below a certain threshold over a large area and a period longer than a month (WMO, 2020).

Any unplanned or uncontrolled fire affecting natural, cultural, industrial and residential landscapes (adapted from FAO, 2010).

Urbanized areas that experience higher temperatures than outlying areas. (EPA, 2024)

Intense circular storms that originate over warm tropical oceans and have maximum sustained wind speeds exceeding 119 kilometers per hour and heavy rains. (WHO, no date)

The rise in seawater level caused solely by a storm. (WHO, 2017)

A violently rotating column of air touching the ground, usually attached to the base of a thunderstorm. (National Weather Service, No date)

1.1 Stakeholders

The complexity and scale of a natural disaster necessitates the involvement of diverse stakeholders, each contributing unique resources, knowledge, and capabilities. These range from individuals and local communities directly affected by a disaster to international organizations and governments involved in relief efforts. Understanding the roles and

interdependencies of these stakeholders cultivates comprehensive and inclusive disaster response strategies. Those who endure the immediate impact of a disaster (residents) such as loss of life, property, and livelihoods are the primary stakeholders. The immediate needs of this population include shelter, food, medical attention, and psychological support. Within this category are the broader vulnerable groups such as children, the elderly,

Figure 1: Map of areas at risk of natural disaster in the United States

POSSIBLE NATURAL DISASTERS

disabled individuals, unhoused, and low-income families. These groups often face heightened barriers to accessing resources and relief services.

Municipalities are central in all phases of a natural disaster. They are responsible for implementing local emergency plans, coordinating evacuation efforts, and managing temporary housing. The proximity to the affected area enables governments to respond quickly and effectively. First responders such as local police, fire departments, and emergency medical services maintain public order, coordinate rescue operations, and deliver aid. The support of the federal government compensates in areas where local resources may be scarce. Military resources are necessary in extreme circumstances. Operation Tomodachi oversaw unprecedented intervention from the US Military in the aftermath of the 2011 Tōhoku Earthquake.3 International organizations such as the United Nations, World Bank, and foreign governments offer critical support in large

scale disasters through financial aid, technical expertise, and logistical support. This is especially necessary for managing transboundary disasters and comprehensively addressing the needs of affected populations. For example, the Sandoz chemical spill at Schweizerhalle, Switzerland in November 1986 had huge implications for the drinking water supply and the ability to farm pastoral land in France, Switzerland, West-Germany and even the Netherlands.”4

Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs) provide immediate humanitarian assistance, often filling in the gaps left by governmental agencies, particularly in remote or underserved communities. Community-based Organizations (CBOs) facilitate participatory approaches to disaster management to ensure local voices are heard and respected. They mobilize local resources and knowledge to engage community members, disseminate information, and foster resilience among a community.

Figure 2: Natural Disaster Framework

Local businesses are in a complex position as both victims and responders after a disaster. They face significant disruptions while simultaneously providing essential goods and services. Restoring operations and providing employment opportunities foster a swift economic recovery from a natural disaster. Partnerships between the public and private sectors enhance the efficiency and reach of response efforts. Large corporations and multinational companies offer substantial resources and expertise by engaging in corporate social responsibility initiatives, providing financial donations, logistics support, and technological solutions.

The media disseminates information in all phases of a natural disaster. Accurate and timely reporting raises awareness, mobilizes resources, and informs the public about safety measures and available assistance. The media also has the power to ensure transparency and responsiveness by holding stakeholders accountable. The comprehensive and relentless coverage of Hurricane Katrina played a critical role in ensuring transparency and responsiveness by bringing attention to the shortcomings in the disaster response, holding government officials accountable, and prompting necessary changes to improve future disaster management.⁵ This is also relevant to man-made disasters like the 2023 train derailment in East Palestine Ohio. People on social media were performing real-time analysis and dissection of the disaster cause and response putting pressure on the authorities to roll out a coordinated response and pressuring regulators to introduce policies to prevent similar events from happening again.6 Effective management in a disaster situation requires coordinated efforts among all stakeholders, leveraging their strengths to mitigate impacts, facilitate recovery, and build resilience against future disasters.

2.0 Artificial Intelligence Integration into a Natural Disaster Framework

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is already revolutionizing many industries, ushering in a new era of innovation and efficiency. AI-driven algorithms process vast amounts of data, allowing urban designers and planners to make well-informed decisions about material usage, structural integrity, and energy efficiency. However, like any era of automation, AI has caused strife among communities and distrust in economic leadership; therefore, this

technology must be integrated responsibly to ensure an equitable future.

The integration of Artificial Intelligence into urban design and planning can revolutionize disaster preparedness and recovery. As AI technology continues to advance, its potential to enhance disaster management will grow exponentially, offering new opportunities to protect urban populations and ensure sustainable development in the face of natural disasters. The integration of AI into urban planning can provide critical insights, improve decision-making processes, and enhance the resilience of cities against natural disasters. By leveraging AI for risk assessment, emergency response optimization, infrastructure resilience, community engagement, and post-disaster recovery, urban planners can create safer, more resilient cities in the face of a rapidly changing world. Effective planning significantly reduces the adverse impacts of natural disasters, safeguards lives, and facilitates resilience through the following phases.

2.1 Preparedness Phase

The preparedness phase in natural disaster management involves meticulous planning, coordination, and active community involvement, fostering a culture of readiness essential for future resilience. Contingency planning details roles, responsibilities, and actions for the stakeholders during disasters. An adaptable plan covers different scenarios, evacuation routes, shelter locations, and resource allocation. “A contingency Plan is not a single event. It will need to be flexible, changing and adapting itself to new circumstances as the situation develops; a planning phase comes to an end either because of the need to convert the contingency plan into an operational plan or because of a significant improvement in the circumstances which led to the development of the contingency plan in the first place.” 7 Pre-positioning resources like food, water, medical supplies, and equipment ensures readiness and reduces response delays. Coordination mechanisms between authorities on all levels, including communication protocols, disaster response teams, and regular drills, guide a seamless response.

It is imperative that objectives be both clear and measurable to ensure their effectiveness. Specific goals should include reducing fatalities, minimizing economic losses, and expediting the restoration

of essential services. Accurate data collection on historical disaster patterns, geographic vulnerabilities, population demographics, and infrastructure conditions is foundational in disaster management. Data is used to determine resource allocation strategies, distribute funding, and to generate simulations. Risk assessments evaluate hazards, vulnerabilities, and impacts, guiding protection measures for at-risk areas and populations. Community engagement and education through public awareness campaigns, training programs, and participatory planning safeguard culturally appropriate and locally relevant preparedness measures.

The prevalent instrument undergoing research and development for natural hazard modeling is Machine Learning, which uses algorithms to identify patterns in information. 8 Unlike traditional models which use algorithms designed and coded by developers, machine

learning models are trained through multiple steps to detect patterns from large data sets. Traditional hazard modeling is limited by uncertainty. Frequently, new storms suffer from inadequate representation due to delayed or unavailable observations that cannot be promptly incorporated into a model. There is uncertainty in hurricane predictions due in part to changing atmospheric conditions. Flood modeling limitations create model outputs that are not entirely representative of actual flood characteristics, and in-depth knowledge and expertise of the model’s parameters are often required to interpret the results. Wildfire management tools have limitations that cause the model to overor under-predict the rate of spread of any given fire. Machine learning algorithms derive the mathematical relationships between inputs and outputs by analyzing a training dataset.

Figure 3: AI integration into the Natural Disaster Framework.

2.1.1

Predictive Risk Analysis

While we cannot prevent every natural disaster, we have the potential to reduce casualties and minimize damage. Machine learning models can analyze historical seismic data, monitor ground movements, and detect subtle changes in the Earth’s crust to anticipate seismic events, playing a vital role in disaster prevention. “In some research studies, machine learning has shown the potential to significantly speed up modeling results, leading to quicker forecasts and more timely responses that can save lives and property. Other research has suggested machine learning increases the accuracy of models by more quickly incorporating and using data from existing sensors.” 9 Drones equipped with AI algorithms monitor forests for ignition sources like lightning strikes or campfires, and FlamMap analyzes weather conditions to predict fire spread, enabling more effective firefighting strategies. AI models process data from rainfall gauges, river levels, and soil moisture sensors to predict floods, aiding in better infrastructure design and urban planning to reduce flood risk and damage.

2.1.2

Predictive Failure Assessment

The potential of using AI for predictive failure assessment in natural disasters is significant, offering transformative improvements in disaster preparedness and response. AI can analyze extensive datasets on existing infrastructure to predict which structures are likely to withstand a disaster and which are prone to failure. By evaluating factors such as building materials, construction methods, and geographic vulnerabilities, AI can identify high-risk areas and structures. This predictive capability enables emergency planners to prioritize these areas during the preparation phase, ensuring that evacuation routes are strategically planned to avoid unstable regions and reduce the risk of stalled traffic during emergencies. For instance, AI can identify buildings and infrastructure in liquefaction zones following an earthquake, highlighting them as unsafe and prioritizing their evacuation and reinforcement.

Moreover, AI-driven predictive failure assessment enhances the efficiency of resource allocation and emergency response. By forecasting which infrastructures are most susceptible to damage, authorities can preposition emergency supplies and personnel in optimal locations, ensuring quicker and more effective responses

when disasters strike. This proactive approach not only improves the safety and resilience of communities but also minimizes the economic and logistical challenges associated with disaster recovery. In summary, leveraging AI for predictive failure assessment can significantly enhance disaster preparedness, streamline evacuation processes, and ensure that resources are used more effectively, ultimately saving lives, and reducing the impact of natural disasters on communities.

2.2 Response Phase

The response phase of a natural disaster involves urgent, coordinated efforts to protect lives and minimize damage. Early warning systems use technologies like meteorological data, seismic sensors, and satellite monitoring to provide timely alerts, employing multiple communication channels to ensure wide reach. Public awareness and training on interpreting and responding to warnings are essential for effective response. The application of tools like Facebook allowed users to mark themselves as safe during Hurricane Harvey and volunteer groups like the Cajun Navy used social media to organize and direct their rescue operations. They coordinated through Facebook groups and Twitter to locate and assist people stranded by floodwaters, significantly augmenting the official rescue efforts.10

Evacuation planning identifies safe routes and shelters, based on detailed geographic, infrastructure, and population analyses. Coordinated execution involves law enforcement, emergency services, and transportation authorities, addressing logistical considerations like transportation for those without vehicles and provisions for vulnerable populations. Safe and accessible shelters equipped with necessities are critical.

2.2.1 Early Warning Systems

The application of AI-powered early warning systems in natural disasters holds transformative potential for mitigating the impact of these events. By leveraging advanced machine learning algorithms, these systems analyze vast amounts of data from various sources, such as satellite imagery, sensor networks, and historical weather patterns, to predict and detect impending disasters with greater accuracy and speed. For instance, AI processes seismic data to identify precursor signs of

earthquakes, allowing for timely alerts that save lives by providing precious minutes for evacuation. “AI-powered systems can process data from various sources, including weather sensors, satellites, and social media, to detect early signs of impending disasters. For example, in the case of hurricanes, AI algorithms can analyze atmospheric data to predict their path and intensity accurately. These predictions enable authorities to issue timely warnings and evacuate at-risk areas, saving countless lives.” 11 Similarly, AI models can analyze meteorological data to forecast hurricanes and typhoons, offering early warnings that enable communities and authorities to prepare and respond effectively. These systems enhance traditional warning methods by reducing false alarms and improving the reliability of predictions, thereby increasing public trust and compliance with evacuation orders and other safety measures.

AI-powered early warning systems extend beyond mere prediction to enable dynamic and adaptive response strategies. For example, AI continuously monitors realtime data from weather stations, ocean buoys, and river gauges to provide up-to-the-minute flood warnings. This capability allows for adaptive management of water resources, such as the controlled release of water from dams to prevent overflow. In wildfire management, AI integrates data on vegetation, topography, and wind conditions to predict fire spread patterns and suggest optimal firefighting tactics. These predictive insights not only improve immediate disaster response but also inform long-term planning and infrastructure development, enhancing resilience to future disasters. By integrating AI technologies into early warning systems, societies will move towards a more proactive and prepared approach to natural disaster management, ultimately reducing the human and economic toll of these devastating events.

2.2.2 Intelligent Evacuation Planning

Evacuations are logistically chaotic. Natural disasters often occur with little warning, leaving limited time for authorities to organize and execute an evacuation plan. Planned evacuation routes may be damaged or blocked, hindering the flow of evacuees and emergency responders. Highly populated urban areas experience congestion and traffic on normal days. During a disaster, traffic jams increase the risk of those trying to leave. Evacuating vulnerable groups such as the elderly,

disabled or unhoused presents additional challenges as those people might need special accommodations which can complicate evacuation efforts. Addressing the many challenges of an evacuation necessitates a comprehensive approach to safeguard an efficient retreat.

AI systems process vast amount of real-time data to determine the best evacuation routes, including weather patterns, seismic activities, traffic conditions, and geographic information. Through data processing and machine learning algorithms, models integrate data from sensors, satellite images, and social media to dynamically update and recommend safe paths of travel in urban areas during an emergency.12 A timely and efficient evacuation is challenging in an emergency, people need to make a series of quick decisions under extreme stress. Intelligent evacuation route planning considers the number of evacuees and traffic conditions to optimize the allocation of people to various routes and uses a maximum flow approach to quickly generate efficient evacuation routes.13

In India and Bangladesh, Google has deployed AIdriven flood forecasting systems to predict the severity and location of floods. “The system simulates how water will flow across the land, even keeping in view factors like terrain and historical flood data. The system then generates maps and alerts that provide local communities and authorities time to prepare and respond.” 14 This system has reached millions of people and provided them with life-saving information. These technologies have become invaluable assets in the response phase of disaster management.

2.2.3 Impact Assessment and Response Coordination

The integration of AI-powered impact assessment and response coordination in natural disaster management presents significant advancements in mitigating disaster effects and enhancing response efficiency. AI systems rapidly analyze data from various sources, such as satellite imagery, social media, and ground sensors, to assess the immediate impact of a disaster. For example, AI algorithms process high-resolution satellite images to identify damaged infrastructure, blocked roads, and affected populations within hours of an event. This real-time impact assessment allows emergency responders to prioritize areas of greatest need, allocate

resources more effectively, and implement targeted relief efforts.15 Additionally, AI processes social media feeds and mobile phone data to detect distress signals and locate individuals in need of urgent assistance, thereby facilitating quicker and more precise rescue operations.

In response coordination, AI systems enhance decisionmaking by providing comprehensive situational awareness and optimizing resource deployment. Machine learning models can predict the movement and behavior of natural disasters, such as the trajectory of a hurricane or the spread of a wildfire, enabling dynamic adjustment of response strategies. AI-driven logistics platforms can manage the distribution of supplies, track the availability of emergency shelters, and ensure the efficient deployment of medical teams and equipment. By analyzing patterns from previous disaster responses, AI can also suggest best practices and identify potential bottlenecks, improving overall coordination among various agencies and stakeholders. The integration of AI in impact assessment and response coordination not only improves immediate disaster response but also builds a foundation for more resilient and adaptive disaster management systems in the future.

2.3 Relief (Short Term)

The first week after a natural disaster defines the trajectory of the recovery process. A well-planned approach and coordinated execution ease the transition from disaster recovery to post-disaster life. This process should begin with an evaluation of disaster-prone areas to prioritize needs based on cultural or regional norms. Geographic risk factors, climate conditions, and subsequent adaptability are considered to pre-position necessary supplies in accessible locations, minimizing delays in resource availability. Analyzing local and regional disparities based on the disaster radius helps tailor interventions to specific needs. Collaboration with local institutions creates effective preconstruction and transition, ensuring recovery efforts are grounded in local knowledge and resources, enhancing their relevance and sustainability.

Evaluating disaster-prone areas involves assessing vulnerabilities, accounting for population density, socioeconomic conditions, and critical infrastructure to prioritize areas needing immediate attention. Geographic risk analysis identifies high-risk zones, while climate data

informs resilient recovery measures. Pre-positioning supplies reduces dependency on external aid, ensuring rapid deployment when needed. Targeted interventions address specific local and regional disparities, optimizing resource allocation. Collaboration with local institutions facilitates streamlined preconstruction activities and supports the transition from temporary shelters to permanent housing. Effective recovery efforts transform affected communities, enhancing resilience and preparedness for future challenges. The post-disaster response in Christchurch New Zealand exemplified the multidisciplinary, community-oriented approach. “Within hours, volunteers, farmers, and students were galvanized into action by leaders who used social media to communicate.” 16 The recovery efforts took an opportunity to reimagine the city during the rebuilding process and prepare for a different future.

2.3.1 Recovery Monitoring

The application of AI-powered recovery monitoring and resettlement coordination offers significant advancements in post-disaster management, enhancing both the speed and effectiveness of recovery efforts. AI facilitates continuous monitoring of recovery activities by analyzing real-time data from various sources, such as drones, satellite imagery, and sensors. This capability allows for the precise tracking of reconstruction progress, identification of delays, and detection of any emerging issues that require immediate attention. For instance, AI algorithms assess the structural integrity of buildings and infrastructure, ensuring that repairs and rebuilds meet safety standards. Additionally, AI analyzes data on resource utilization, helping to optimize the distribution of materials and labor to areas most in need. This real-time monitoring ensures that recovery efforts are efficient, transparent, and adaptive to changing conditions on the ground.

2.4 Resettlement (Long-term)

The resettlement phase focuses on reducing future disaster risks through mitigation, community engagement, and the provision of temporary and permanent housing. Mitigation involves implementing structural measures like building disaster defenses and reinforcing infrastructure, along with non-structural

measures such as land-use planning and building codes. Comprehensive risk assessments identify safe resettlement sites, considering topography, soil stability, and access to resources. Sustainable development practices, including renewable energy and water conservation, ensure long-term viability and resilience. Community engagement in planning ensures resettlement efforts are culturally appropriate and widely accepted. Participatory planning and fostering social cohesion through community meetings and workshops support integration and empowerment. Temporary housing solutions must be safe, hygienic, and equipped with basic amenities. Transitioning to permanent housing requires careful planning, consideration of local architectural styles, cultural preferences, and environmental conditions. Post-disaster evaluations assess the effectiveness of resettlement efforts, identifying lessons learned to inform future disaster management practices. Continuous improvement involves updating policies and refining planning processes to better manage future disasters, ensuring resilient and sustainable new settlements. A notable example of a successful sustainable post-disaster resettlement initiative is the reconstruction and resettlement efforts in Aceh, Indonesia, following the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. The reconstruction efforts prioritized building earthquakeresistant and environmentally sustainable houses. The use of locally sourced materials and traditional building techniques helped ensure that the new structures were both resilient to future natural disasters and culturally appropriate.17 Ongoing monitoring and evaluation were integral to the initiative. Feedback mechanisms were established to ensure continuous improvement and address any emerging issues. This adaptive approach helped in fine-tuning the resettlement strategies and ensuring their long-term sustainability.

2.4.1 Resettlement Coordination

In resettlement coordination, AI augments efforts in planning and managing the relocation of displaced populations. AI systems analyze geographic, demographic, and environmental data to identify suitable sites for resettlement that minimize future risk exposure. By considering factors such as proximity to essential services, economic opportunities, and social infrastructure, AI helps design resettlement plans that promote sustainable and resilient communities. Furthermore, AI assists in coordinating the logistics of

moving large populations, ensuring that transportation, housing, and support services are effectively managed. Machine learning models can predict potential challenges and optimize resource allocation to address the specific needs of different population groups.18 This level of coordination is essential for maintaining social cohesion and ensuring that resettled communities have access to necessary services and opportunities, ultimately fostering a more robust recovery and long-term resilience against future disasters.

2.5 Ethical Considerations

The integration of Artificial Intelligence in natural disaster management offers significant potential for improving response and recovery efforts. However, several ethical considerations must be addressed to ensure that these technologies are used responsibly and equitably. AI systems for disaster management rely heavily on data, including personal information such as location, health status, and social media activity.19 This raises significant concerns about data privacy and security. Unauthorized access or misuse of this data could lead to privacy violations, identity theft, or exploitation of vulnerable individuals. Ensuring robust data protection measures, such as encryption and secure storage, is essential. Additionally, transparency about data collection and use, as well as obtaining informed consent from individuals, is crucial to maintaining public trust in AI-driven disaster management systems.

AI algorithms are trained on historical data, which contains biases related to socioeconomic status, geography, and access to resources. If not carefully managed, these biases result in unequal distribution of aid and resources, disproportionately impacting marginalized communities. For example, an AI system might prioritize affluent neighborhoods for evacuation or resource allocation, exacerbating existing inequalities. To mitigate this risk, it is essential to use diverse datasets and regularly audit AI systems for bias. Inclusive development practices that involve stakeholders from diverse backgrounds also help ensure that AI solutions are fair and equitable.

The deployment of AI technologies must be accessible to all communities, including those in low-resource settings. This involves not only making the technology available but also ensuring that it is understandable and usable by a wide range of people, regardless of their technical

expertise. Efforts should be made to bridge the digital divide by providing necessary infrastructure, training, and support. Ensuring equitable access to AI-driven disaster management tools help all communities benefit from technological advancements and improve their resilience to natural disasters.

AI systems greatly enhance decision-making processes during disasters, but it is crucial to maintain human oversight. Decisions made solely by AI lack the nuanced understanding of human judgment and ethical considerations. Clear accountability structures must be established to delineate the roles and responsibilities of AI systems versus human decision-makers. This ensures that AI remains a tool to aid human judgment rather than replace it, maintaining ethical standards and societal values in disaster management.

While AI offers powerful tools for disaster management, overreliance on technology is problematic. Technical failures, such as software glitches or hardware malfunctions, disrupt disaster response efforts. It is essential to balance AI applications with traditional methods and human expertise to ensure redundancy and resilience. Preparing for potential AI system failures by having backup plans and alternative strategies is crucial to maintain effective disaster management operations.

Implementing AI solutions requires significant infrastructure and resources, which may not be available in all regions, particularly in low-income or disasterprone areas. This disparity leads to unequal benefits from AI technologies, where only well-resourced areas can leverage these advancements effectively. Addressing these constraints involves investing in infrastructure development and ensuring that resource allocation prioritizes the most vulnerable and underserved communities. Collaborative efforts between governments, international organizations, and private sectors can help bridge these gaps and promote more inclusive disaster management practices.

While AI has the potential to transform natural disaster management, it is essential to address ethical considerations related to data privacy and security, bias, accessibility, accountability, overreliance on technology, and infrastructure constraints. By doing so, we can harness AI's capabilities responsibly, ensuring that its benefits are distributed equitably and that disaster response and recovery efforts are both effective and just.

3.0 The “New Normal”

Disasters provide designers and municipalities with a unique opportunity to reimagine and recreate urban environments, moving beyond restoration to embrace transformative change. “Cities can take the opportunities created by disasters to prepare for a different future, not just rebuild the way they were.” 16 The COVID-19 Pandemic underscored the necessity of adapting to a new normal, an experience equally applicable to the ongoing climate crisis, which now constitutes our present reality.

Distributed infrastructure galvanizes urban resilience. This system disperses critical services and resources across various locations, thereby reducing the vulnerability of urban areas to localized disruptions. Decentralized energy grids can maintain power supply to unaffected areas even when parts of the grid fail, enabling continuity of essential services. Similarly, distributed water management and communication systems can enhance a city’s ability to respond to and recover from disasters by providing redundant pathways for critical functions.20

Developing social capital is essential for effective disaster preparedness and resilience. Social capital, the networks, relationships, and norms that facilitate collective action within a community, mobilize resources and support during emergencies. High social capital fosters trust, cooperation, and mutual aid, enabling communities to respond effectively to disasters. 21 Strategies to enhance social capital include community engagement initiatives, volunteerism promotion, and local leadership development support. These efforts help create a resilient social fabric capable of withstanding and recovering from disasters.

New Zealand’s response to the Christchurch earthquake of 2011 exemplifies the successful integration of these principles. The disaster initiated extensive rethinking of urban planning and infrastructure. The rebuild efforts focused on creating a more resilient city through distributed infrastructure such as decentralized energy and water systems, and the development of green spaces that simultaneously acted as flood protection.22 Community groups and volunteer networks drove a majority of the recovery work, including a social capital project. Additionally, New Zealand has been a pioneer of AI integration in disaster response, using data analytics to improve emergency management and resource distribution.23

3.1 Role of Artificial Intelligence

AI offers significant potential to augment traditional disaster preparedness and response efforts, particularly in the context of earthquakes. AI-powered technologies can analyze vast amounts of data, including seismic activity, infrastructure vulnerabilities, and population demographics, to enhance risk assessment and decisionmaking processes. Machine learning algorithms can predict ground shaking intensity, identify high-risk areas for building collapse, and optimize evacuation routes in real-time. Furthermore, AI-driven simulations and modeling techniques enable emergency planners to simulate various disaster scenarios, evaluate response strategies, and allocate resources more effectively. Additionally, AI-powered early warning systems can provide timely alerts to residents and emergency responders, enabling proactive measures to mitigate damage and prevent loss of life.

3.1.1

Preparedness

AI can analyze historical seismic data and geological information to improve predictive modeling for earthquake hazards. By identifying high-risk areas and potential impacts, authorities can develop more effective preparedness plans and allocate resources accordingly. Natural language processing (NLP) algorithms can analyze social media and news reports to monitor public sentiment and awareness about earthquake preparedness. This information can guide targeted public education campaigns and outreach efforts. AI-powered risk assessment tools can evaluate the vulnerability of critical infrastructure, such as bridges and hospitals, to seismic events. By identifying weaknesses and prioritizing retrofitting efforts, communities can enhance infrastructure resilience and minimize damage.

3.1.2

Response

AI-enabled early warning systems can detect seismic activity in real-time and issue timely alerts to at-risk populations. Machine learning algorithms analyze sensor data to accurately predict the intensity and location of earthquakes, allowing authorities to initiate evacuation procedures and deploy emergency responders more effectively. Computer vision algorithms can process

satellite imagery and drone footage to assess the extent of damage in affected areas. This rapid damage assessment enables responders to prioritize search and rescue operations and allocate resources where they are most needed. AI-powered chatbots and virtual assistants can provide real-time information and support to affected individuals, helping them access emergency services, find shelter, and navigate relief efforts. Natural language understanding capabilities enable these systems to respond to inquiries and requests with humanlike interaction.

3.1.3 Relief

AI-driven logistics optimization tools can streamline the distribution of humanitarian aid and supplies to affected communities. By analyzing transportation routes, demand forecasts, and resource availability, these systems ensure that relief efforts are efficient and equitable. Sentiment analysis algorithms can monitor social media and communication channels to assess the evolving needs and priorities of disaster survivors. This data-driven insight enables relief organizations to tailor their support services and provide targeted assistance to vulnerable populations.

3.1.4 Resettlement

AI-powered risk assessment tools can inform urban planning and land-use decisions in the post-disaster recovery phase. By analyzing geospatial data and population dynamics, these tools help authorities identify safe areas for resettlement and minimize exposure to future hazards. Natural language processing algorithms can analyze community feedback and engagement to inform participatory decision-making processes during resettlement efforts. By incorporating diverse perspectives and preferences, authorities can promote inclusive and sustainable recovery strategies. As the Pacific Northwest braces for the impending threat of the Cascadia Subduction Zone earthquake, local municipalities are taking proactive steps to prepare for this catastrophic event. Through comprehensive preparedness initiatives and the integration of artificial intelligence technologies, stakeholders are working collaboratively to enhance resilience, minimize damage, and save lives in the face of an inevitable seismic disaster.

By leveraging AI-driven solutions alongside traditional approaches, the region aims to build a more resilient future and mitigate the devastating impact of the "Big One" on its communities and infrastructure.

4.0 Cascadian Subduction Zone Earthquake

4.1

The “Big One”

The Pacific Northwest region of the United States and Canada faces a looming threat from a potentially catastrophic earthquake known as the "Big One." Scientists predict that a megathrust earthquake, originating from the Cascadia Subduction Zone, could strike the region with devastating consequences.24 With estimates suggesting that this event could result in extensive damage, loss of life, and disruption to critical infrastructure, local municipalities are ramping up their preparedness efforts.

Experts warn that the Cascadia Subduction Zone earthquake could unleash massive seismic energy, resulting in widespread destruction across the Region. The expected magnitude will be somewhere between 8.0 and 9.2. “By the time the shaking has ceased, and the tsunami has receded, the region will be unrecognizable. Everything west of Interstate 5 will be toast.”24 The area of impact will cover approximately 140,000 square miles and the 7 million people living there. 13,000 people are expected to be killed in the catastrophe, twenty-seven thousand will be injured, 1 million will be displaced and 2.5 million will be without access to food and water. The potential damage encompasses infrastructure, including buildings, bridges, roads, and utilities, with estimates projecting economic losses in the range of hundreds of billions of dollars.

The onset of the Cascadia earthquake would be marked by a compressional wave radiating from the fault line, detectable by animals and perceived by humans as a sudden jolt. These waves are critical for early detection, as they travel fast enough to be identified by sensors 30 to 90 seconds before the more destructive seismic waves arrive. This brief warning period allows early-warning systems to perform lifesaving functions such as shutting down railways and power plants, opening elevators and firehouse doors, alerting hospitals to halt surgeries, and

triggering public alarms. As the shaking intensifies, the electrical grid would likely fail, leading to a catastrophic blackout if the earthquake occurs at night. Larger structures, including buildings, bridges, railways, airports, fire stations, police stations, and hospitals, would also bear significant risk due to outdated building codes.

The Cascadia earthquake will trigger numerous secondary disasters. Landslides will occur throughout the region, with Seattle alone expected to experience up to thirty thousand. The earthquake will also induce liquefaction, where solid ground behaves like a liquid, causing severe damage to structures built on such land. Fifteen percent of Seattle, including daycare centers and homes of over thirty-four thousand people, and Oregon’s critical energy infrastructure hub in Portland, are built on liquefiable land. The combination of landslides, liquefaction, and intense shaking will lead to fires, flooding, pipe failures, dam breaches, and hazardous material spills, potentially rivaling the earthquake itself in terms of cost, damage, and casualties. Following the initial earthquake, a tsunami will pose an additional, near-insurmountable threat, necessitating immediate evacuation to high ground for the seventy-one thousand people living in Cascadia’s inundation zone. With only ten to thirty minutes to escape and impassable roads, timely evacuation will be complex.

4.2 Current Preparedness Initiatives

Recognizing the seismic threat posed by the Cascadia Subduction Zone, local municipalities in the Pacific Northwest are implementing various initiatives to enhance resilience and minimize potential impacts. Municipalities are conducting risk assessments, vulnerability analyses, and scenario-based exercises to identify priority areas for intervention and resource allocation. Collaboration between government agencies, non-profit organizations, academia, and private sector stakeholders is facilitating coordinated efforts to strengthen building codes, retrofit critical infrastructure, and develop evacuation plans for at-risk communities.

4.2.1 Washington

Washington State's preparedness for the Cascadia Subduction Zone earthquake includes a multifaceted

Figure 4: Cascadia Subduction Zone.

Figure 5: Timeline Breakdown of Cascadia Earthquake.

approach designed to mitigate potentially devastating impacts. Public education initiatives involve extensive campaigns to inform residents about earthquake risks and preparedness measures, participation in annual Great ShakeOut drills, and the provision of educational materials on emergency kits, family communication plans, and home retrofitting.25 Infrastructure resilience efforts prioritize retrofitting essential structures such as bridges, schools, hospitals, and public buildings, updating building codes to enforce stringent seismic standards, and enhancing utility services to minimize disruptions. Emergency response planning by the Washington Emergency Management Division (EMD) includes developing comprehensive emergency response plans, establishing robust coordination and communication mechanisms among various agencies, and conducting regular training exercises like Cascadia Rising. Community engagement is fostered through support for Community Emergency Response Teams (CERTs), neighborhood preparedness programs, and partnerships with volunteer organizations and NGOs. Washington also leverages advanced technologies and research, including participation in the ShakeAlert system for earthquake early warnings and collaborating with universities and geological surveys to improve seismic monitoring and predictive models. Specific measures for tsunami preparedness include detailed evacuation plans, public education on tsunami risks, and the construction of vertical evacuation structures.

The city of Seattle has focused on retrofitting structures to make them more earthquake-resistant. This includes efforts to secure houses to their foundations and retrofit over 1,100 unreinforced masonry buildings that are prone to collapse during strong earthquakes. One of the primary challenges is the retrofitting of critical infrastructure, especially bridges. While many bridges built in the 1960s and 1970s have been retrofitted, important structures like the Interstate 5 Ship Canal Bridge and the State Road 20 Deception/Canoe Pass bridge remain unaddressed due to their complex structures. Beyond bridges, the state's roads, particularly those on liquefiable soil, need assessment and reinforcement to prevent significant damage during an earthquake. Current funding is inadequate to address these needs comprehensively, which poses a risk to recovery efforts following a major quake.

4.2.2 Oregon

Oregon's preparedness for the Cascadia Subduction Zone earthquake involves a comprehensive approach aimed at mitigating potential impacts. The state's focus areas include public education, infrastructure resilience, emergency response planning, and community engagement. Public education campaigns, such as outreach programs, annual Great ShakeOut drills, and dissemination of educational materials, inform residents about risks and necessary preparations.26 Infrastructure resilience is enhanced through seismic retrofitting of critical facilities, updating building codes to enforce stricter seismic standards, and upgrading utility services to minimize disruptions. Emergency response planning by the Oregon Office of Emergency Management (OEM) includes developing comprehensive plans, robust coordination mechanisms among various agencies, and regular training exercises like Cascadia Rising. Community engagement is strengthened through support for CERTs, neighborhood preparedness programs, and partnerships with volunteer organizations and NGOs. Oregon also participates in the ShakeAlert system for early warnings and collaborates with academic institutions to improve seismic monitoring and predictive models. Coastal communities are prepared with detailed tsunami evacuation plans, public education initiatives, and vertical evacuation structures. Oregon's 2023 legislative session introduced a grant program to create community resilience hubs. These hubs are designed to support community-based organizations in providing shelter and assistance during disasters. The aim is to bolster support for vulnerable populations, such as low-income and disabled communities, who are most at risk during such events.

The Portland Metro area is home to over two million people. A major concern is the Critical Energy Infrastructure (CEI) Hub, which houses over 90% of Oregon's liquid fuel supply. In the event of a Cascadia earthquake, it is estimated that between 94 to 194 million gallons of liquid fuel could be released, causing catastrophic environmental and health impacts. Efforts are needed to enhance the resilience of these facilities and to develop robust spill response strategies. Infrastructure throughout the city requires significant seismic retrofitting. Older buildings, bridges, and essential facilities like hospitals and schools must be strengthened to withstand severe shaking. The Portland

International Airport (PDX) is situated in a high-risk area for liquefaction. Estimates suggest that a Cascadia earthquake could result in $37 billion in building damages in the Portland metro area, highlighting the urgency of these upgrades. Emergency response capabilities need further enhancement. This includes expanding the capacity for emergency shelters and improving coordination among city, county, and state agencies. Current projections indicate that up to 85,000 people may require shelter, and ensuring sufficient, accessible emergency accommodation is paramount.

4.2.3 California

California's preparedness for the Cascadia Subduction Zone earthquake involves a comprehensive strategy focused on minimizing potential catastrophic impacts. The state's efforts encompass public education, infrastructure resilience, emergency response planning, and community engagement. Public education initiatives include extensive outreach programs, annual participation in Great ShakeOut drills, and dissemination of educational resources to inform residents about earthquake preparedness. Infrastructure resilience efforts prioritize retrofitting essential infrastructure, updating building codes to enforce stringent seismic standards, and enhancing utility services to minimize disruptions. 27 Emergency response planning by the California Office of Emergency Services (Cal OES) involves developing detailed strategies, establishing robust coordination and communication systems among various agencies, and conducting regular training exercises like Golden Guardian. Community engagement is supported through the formation and training of CERTs, neighborhood preparedness programs, and partnerships with volunteer organizations and NGOs. California also leverages advanced technologies and research, including participation in the ShakeAlert system and collaborating with universities and geological surveys to improve seismic monitoring and predictive models. Tsunami preparedness measures include detailed evacuation plans, public education on tsunami risks, and constructing vertical evacuation structures.

4.2.4

British Columbia, Canada

British Columbia has adopted a comprehensive and

strategic approach to prepare for the anticipated Cascadia Subduction Zone earthquake, focusing on public education, infrastructure resilience, emergency response planning, and community engagement. Public education campaigns aim to raise awareness about earthquake risks and necessary preparedness steps through outreach programs, annual ShakeOut drills, and a wide array of educational resources. 28 These initiatives help residents understand the importance of preparedness and equip them with the knowledge to protect themselves and their families. Enhancing infrastructure resilience is another cornerstone of B.C.'s strategy, with efforts to retrofit essential structures like bridges, schools, hospitals, and public buildings. Updated building codes now incorporate stringent seismic standards, and utility companies are working to reinforce critical infrastructure to minimize service disruptions. Emergency response planning involves detailed strategies and coordination mechanisms among various agencies, supported by regular training exercises like Exercise Coastal Response. Community engagement is strengthened through programs supporting CERTs, neighborhood preparedness initiatives, and partnerships with volunteer organizations. Additionally, B.C. leverages advanced technologies and research, including participation in the ShakeAlert early warning system and ongoing seismic research, to enhance preparedness. Tsunami preparedness efforts include detailed evacuation planning, public education on tsunami risks, and constructing vertical evacuation structures.

Preparations for the Cascadia earthquake in Vancouver, BC, encompass a multifaceted approach that includes infrastructure upgrades, public awareness campaigns, emergency response planning, and efforts to build community resilience. Retrofitting older buildings to ensure seismic resilience, including reinforcing foundations, walls, and roofs, is essential, and the City of Vancouver has incentivized such upgrades. Ensuring the resilience of critical infrastructure like hospitals, fire stations, bridges, and utilities remains a priority for local governments. Emergency response plans, involving coordination between local, provincial, and federal agencies, are regularly updated and tested through drills to ensure preparedness. Public awareness campaigns educate residents on earthquake risks and preparedness measures, such as creating emergency kits and developing family communication plans. The development and implementation of early warning

systems are crucial, providing critical advance notice before shaking begins, although further improvements are necessary. Tsunami preparedness is also critical for coastal communities, necessitating robust evacuation plans. Building community resilience involves fostering social cohesion, strengthening local networks, and including vulnerable populations in planning efforts, addressing issues like affordable housing, healthcare access, and social support systems.

The anticipated Cascadia earthquake presents an urgent challenge for cities in the Pacific Northwest but also offers a unique opportunity to rebuild for a more resilient future. Urban planners and designers can integrate innovative strategies to enhance disaster resilience, incorporating distributed infrastructure, fostering social capital, and utilizing artificial intelligence. By drawing lessons from past disasters and proactive planning, municipalities can transform potential devastation into a catalyst for sustainable development.

5.0 Conclusion

Forced displacement is a global crisis intensifying on an exponential level being magnified by inconsistent policy and design standards. There is a substantial disparity between the recognition of the need for sustainable practices in design solutions and any guidelines or policies for climate mitigation in current construction practices. Proposed solutions should promote sustainable practices such as the use of natural resources and reduction of waste, as well as utilize new opportunities of emerging technologies and the sustainable potential of natural resources. Artificial Intelligence has the capability to complement and improve comprehensive earthquake preparation. disasters, while devastating, offer a critical juncture for cities to reimagine their futures. The impending Cascadia earthquake underscores the necessity of proactive and innovative urban planning. By integrating distributed infrastructure, fostering social capital, and leveraging AI, cities in the Pacific Northwest can transform this challenge into an opportunity for building a resilient, adaptive, and sustainable future. Municipalities must prioritize these strategies to ensure that their urban environments are not only capable of withstanding the immediate impacts of the earthquake but are also better prepared for the long-term challenges of the 21st century. The imperative to embrace change,

rather than revert to past norms, is clear. The climate crisis demands innovative and forward-thinking approaches to urban planning and development. Those in positions of power today bear the responsibility for driving this transformation. By prioritizing sustainability, resilience, and community cohesion, municipalities can turn the challenges posed by disasters into opportunities for creating more robust and adaptive urban environments.

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Advantages, Challenges and Perceptions in

using AI Generative Images: A

Case Study at Perkins&Will Sao Paulo Studio

Breno Tisi Mendes da Veiga, CAU BR, breno.veiga@perkinswill.com

Fernando Longhi Pereira da Silva, CAU BR, arq.longhi@gmail.com

Abstract

This article investigates the use of AI-generated images into architectural design. The research aims to assess the potential benefits, challenges, and perceptions of AI tools in architectural practice, focusing on their application during the initial design phases. Utilizing a mixed-methods approach, the study comprised an initial survey, a handson workshop with the architects of Perkins&Will’s Sao Paulo Studio, and a follow-up survey to evaluate shifts in architects' perceptions and experiences with AI. The initial survey revealed a substantial interest in AI tools, with 81% of participants expressing a desire to incorporate AI into their projects. The workshops provided practical exposure to AI tools like Midjourney, highlighting both the potential and the challenges of AI integration. Post-workshop, participants demonstrated an increased appreciation for AI's capabilities, though concerns regarding data security and intellectual property persisted. The study concludes with recommendations for effective AI implementation, emphasizing continuous training, robust data management, ethical standards, and the necessity of human oversight. This research contributes valuable insights into the evolving role of AI in architecture, advocating for a balanced approach where AI augments rather than replaces human creativity.

Keywords: design process, generative design, text-to-image, artificial intelligence, design exploration.

1.0 Introduction

In recent decades, the intersection of architecture and computer technologies has catalyzed the emergence of novel design principles and methodologies, fundamentally challenging established design and construction paradigms. The increased adoption of parametric design techniques, algorithmic scripting, and other computational methods has significantly reshaped the ways architects conceptualize, model, and execute projects. These advancements, particularly in digital modeling and fabrication, are not only transforming the workflow of architects but also influencing the nature of architectural outputs by introducing new forms, aesthetics, and possibilities that were previously unattainable.1

While the profound impact of these advanced tools on today's architectural landscape is evident, it is important to recognize that their roots extend several decades into the past. The foundational contributions of pioneers in the field of computer-aided design (CAD) laid the groundwork for many of the technological tools now considered indispensable in contemporary architectural practice. The lasting influence of these early innovators has nurtured a dynamic synergy between architecture and technology, demonstrating that innovation in the field is a continuous process. Ivan Sutherland's introduction of Sketchpad in 1963 at MIT, a pioneering CAD system, serves as a pivotal moment in architectural history, initiating a trajectory that has now spanned over

six decades.² From the rudimentary yet groundbreaking capabilities of early CAD platforms to the sophisticated, data-rich environments of today's Building Information Modeling (BIM) systems, architecture has undergone a remarkable transformation in its journey toward full digital integration.

Though technologies like CAD and BIM were specifically developed with architectural applications in mind, the recent rise of AI is set to revolutionize the architectural profession in ways that extend beyond their original scope. AI's capacity to process and manipulate abstract symbolic structures, much like the human intellect, opens new avenues for enhancing architectural design processes. The shift towards computational approaches for design exploration allows AI to influence tasks such as generating multiple design options, optimizing solutions, and even assisting in complex decisionmaking processes that were once reliant solely on human intuition and experience.³ The incorporation of AI into architectural workflows thus promises to enhance not only efficiency but also the depth and breadth of creative exploration.

The traditional act of directly modeling buildings has evolved dramatically. Today, designers often create a graphical representation or algorithmic script that, when executed, generates the architectural model.⁴ This shift in methodology is transformative, as even minor adjustments to the script can produce profoundly different architectural outcomes, enabling architects to explore a wide range of design alternatives with unprecedented flexibility. This capacity for algorithmic design has led to the emergence of entirely new architectural genres, where computational precision and human creativity intersect.

Moreover, the ability to distill architectural concepts into well-defined algorithms capable of generating multiple configurations from a limited set of parameters highlights the transformative impact of scripting and digital tools.⁵ This capability not only streamlines the architectural design process but also empowers architects to work more efficiently while exploring numerous design possibilities with precision and agility. The incorporation of such tools has fundamentally altered the architecture profession, enabling architects to focus on higher-level creative problem-solving while delegating routine or complex calculations to machines.

Digital design has evolved from being a specialized skill to becoming an integral component of contemporary architectural practice. The transition from novice users of digital tools to proficient creators has marked a significant shift in the architectural design process.6 Architects and designers are now fully immersed in digital technologies, using them as extensions of their creative vision. This has allowed for a more fluid and innovative exploration of design possibilities, emphasizing the flexibility and adaptability that digital tools offer in a rapidly changing profession.

In summary, the integration of technology has been a driving force behind transformative changes in architectural design. From the pioneering days of computer-aided design to the advent of parametric design and scripting, architects have continuously harnessed technological advancements to expand the boundaries of what is creatively and practically achievable. However, the emergence of Artificial Intelligence heralds a paradigm shift of unprecedented proportions. AI's potential to challenge conventional design methodologies and inspire novel approaches presents both opportunities and challenges. As this new technological frontier continues to evolve, architects will need to critically assess how best to integrate AI into their practices while ensuring that it complements, rather than replaces, human creativity.

1.1 Research Goals

This research aims to investigate the integration of AIgenerated images as an additional tool for architects at the Sao Paulo Perkins&Will Studio, particularly focusing on the early stages of design conception. In architectural practice, the design process is composed of distinct phases, each with its own set of tasks that contribute to the creation of a final project. These phases include concept formation, programming, organization, schematic design, articulation, detailing, and specifications. Each task plays a crucial role in shaping the overall architectural outcome, and AI technologies can interact with these tasks in different ways, depending on the design phase.

This study specifically addresses the initial stages— concept formation and schematic design, where the generation of ideas, spatial organization, and the communication of abstract concepts are most prevalent.

These early stages require flexibility and creativity, where AI-generated images could enhance the architect's ability to explore a wide range of design possibilities quickly and effectively. While AI can also support later phases, such as detailing and specifications, by optimizing workflows and managing data, this research focuses on how AI tools can influence the creative aspects of the design process.

The research goals include exploring the potential benefits and challenges of integrating AI-generated images within these early design phases, particularly in aiding concept formation and visual communication. The study seeks to assess the advantages AI brings to these initial stages, identify challenges in their implementation, and examine how these tools influence architects' perceptions at Perkins&Will Sao Paulo Studio. Additionally, the research aims to evaluate the role of AI in expanding the exploration of innovative design concepts, thus providing valuable insights into how AI can support architects in the critical phases of conceptualization and schematic design.

2.0 Literature Review

Artificial Intelligence (AI) has become a pervasive force in modern life, as noted in an article published in The New York Times.⁷ Its integration into daily routines, while often subtle, has profound implications far beyond mere convenience. AI systems are embedded within critical infrastructure such as airports and subway systems, underscoring their importance in ensuring societal and industrial functionality. This widespread integration mirrors earlier technological revolutions, such as the adoption of Building Information Modeling (BIM), parametric modeling, and scripting, which have continuously reshaped architectural practice. Both AI and these earlier technologies demonstrate how the evolution of computational power and the ability to handle increasingly complex data have propelled forward innovation in design and architecture. Understanding AI's potential and its role in architecture requires an exploration of its core principles, historical development, and evolving capabilities.

At its core, AI represents the pursuit of creating machines that can perform tasks typically requiring human intelligence. This includes abilities such as

perception, learning, prediction, planning, and even motor control. AI's functionality extends well beyond human capabilities by leveraging computational power to analyze and process vast quantities of data.8 The domain of AI is subdivided into categories such as Machine Learning (ML) and Deep Learning (DL), each with unique applications. ML focuses on enabling systems to learn from data without being explicitly programmed, while DL, a more advanced subset of ML, involves neural networks that mimic human brain processes, allowing systems to recognize patterns and make decisions autonomously. These developments are the result of decades of research and innovation, rooted in the work of pioneers like Alan Turing.

The discourse surrounding AI began with Turing’s seminal paper "Computing Machinery and Intelligence,"⁹ where he posed the fundamental question, "Can machines think?" This question marked the inception of AI as a field of study. Turing's work catalyzed the exploration of intelligent machines and laid the foundation for modern AI research. In 1956, the Dartmouth Conference10 formally introduced the term "Artificial Intelligence," defining it as the "science and engineering of making intelligent machines, especially intelligent computer programs." This definition broadened the scope of AI, transitioning it from philosophical speculation to a scientifically rigorous field concerned with replicating human-like cognitive processes through computational means.

AI can be categorized based on four primary goals or definitions, distinguishing between systems that mimic human thinking and actions and those that aim for rational behavior and decision-making. Turing’s concept of AI aligns with the former, where the goal is to replicate human behavior and cognition in machines. However, as computational capabilities have grown, AI has increasingly focused on rational thinking and optimization, moving toward the "ideal approach" that prioritizes efficiency and decision-making beyond human limitations. AI’s interdisciplinary nature, combining elements of computer science, mathematics, and cognitive psychology, enables it to address complex challenges across various fields, including architecture.11

In architecture, AI has begun to revolutionize the design process by automating data-intensive tasks and enabling the exploration of vast design spaces. The integration of AI in architectural design processes, offers a novel approach to collaborative design, particularly

through AI-assisted human teams. Rather than replacing human designers, AI functions as a supportive agent, enhancing creativity and decision-making by processing large datasets and offering solutions that humans alone might overlook.12 This collaboration between human intuition and AI’s computational prowess creates new opportunities for solving complex, interdisciplinary problems in architecture, where multiple variables such as aesthetics, structural integrity, and environmental sustainability must be balanced.

In architectural design, AI plays a crucial role in concept generation, design exploration, and optimization. AI can quickly process and analyze vast amounts of data, enabling designers to explore a wider range of design possibilities in a fraction of the time it would take through manual methods. AI agents improve team agility by handling the more repetitive or data-heavy aspects of design, such as generating multiple design alternatives based on set parameters or optimizing designs for specific outcomes, such as energy efficiency or structural stability.12 This frees human designers to focus on higher-level creative tasks, such as making aesthetic decisions or integrating client feedback, thus enhancing the overall efficiency and creativity of the design process.

The interaction between human designers and AI is particularly valuable in situations that require rapid adaptation to changing design constraints. AI not only supports human designers by offering computational power but also facilitates better communication and coordination among team members. By providing explicit design options that are easy to interpret, AI enables teams to make faster decisions, allowing them to respond more effectively to evolving project requirements or abrupt changes in the design environment. This collaborative dynamic fosters a more adaptive and responsive design process, one that can better accommodate the complexities inherent in architectural projects.

In architectural design, AI has the potential not only to generate definitive solutions but to explore a variety of design possibilities and requirements, which is especially valuable in the early phases of design when project parameters are often vague and fluid. During these stages, AI enables designers to experiment with different design elements and configurations, evaluating both quantifiable and non-quantifiable factors such as

material choices, spatial layouts, and environmental considerations. This exploratory capability is crucial in helping architects push the boundaries of conventional design thinking.13

Among the AI techniques most applied in architecture are evolutionary computing and cellular automata. Evolutionary computing, inspired by natural selection, generates and optimizes architectural forms through iterative processes, allowing for the exploration of creative and innovative design solutions. Cellular automata, on the other hand, use mathematical rules to simulate complex systems, generating spatially intricate architectural patterns that would be difficult to conceptualize manually.13 Both techniques encourage architects to think beyond traditional design limitations and embrace more experimental and innovative approaches.

In addition to generating novel forms, AI has increasingly been employed to optimize architectural designs for performance, particularly in areas such as sustainability, energy efficiency, and cost-effectiveness. By integrating performance criteria such as daylighting, thermal performance, and material efficiency into the design process, AI can help architects create buildings that are not only aesthetically pleasing but also environmentally responsible and economically viable. This shift from purely aesthetic design generation to performance optimization represents a significant advancement in how AI is used in architecture today.

Despite the many benefits of AI in architectural design, the authors emphasize the importance of maintaining a human-centered approach. They caution against allowing AI to dominate the design process, advocating instead for AI to serve as a tool that enhances, rather than replaces, human creativity. The designer's role remains critical in interpreting AI-generated options, making final decisions, and ensuring that the design aligns with the client’s vision and project goals. Furthermore, the ability of AI to handle multiple performance parameters simultaneously positions it as an indispensable tool in the modern architectural landscape, especially as the demand for sustainable and optimized buildings continues to grow.

In conclusion, the integration of AI in architectural design offers immense potential for improving efficiency, expanding creative possibilities, and supporting complex

decision-making. However, AI must be thoughtfully integrated into the design workflow, complementing rather than supplanting human expertise. The impact of AI on team dynamics and the creative process requires further study to fully understand its role in shaping the future of architecture.12,13 As AI continues to evolve, architects will need to strike a balance between leveraging computational power and preserving the essential human elements of creativity, intuition, and vision that define the architectural profession.

2.1 Machine Learning

Machine Learning (ML) is a specialized branch of artificial intelligence (AI) that enables computers to autonomously learn from data, progressively enhancing performance without the need for explicit programming. At its core, ML is designed to identify patterns within large datasets and make inferences that allow systems to improve their operations, decision-making, and predictive capabilities. The fundamental concept behind ML is learning through experience, wherein algorithms refine their accuracy and efficiency through iterative exposure to increasing amounts of data.14

The authors highlight that the advancement of ML has been intrinsically linked to developments in computational power and the growing availability of extensive datasets. As datasets have become more complex, there has been a greater demand for systems capable of more nuanced and responsive analysis. Early ML techniques, which were often limited by simpler statistical models, have since evolved into more sophisticated methodologies. With the expansion of computational capabilities, ML now includes advanced techniques such as deep learning and neural networks, which have dramatically expanded the field's scope and application.

In the context of architecture, the integration of ML has opened new avenues for automating and enhancing various stages of the design process. The authors emphasize that ML-driven generative design allows for the exploration of numerous design solutions by using algorithms that generate and evaluate architectural forms based on specific criteria. These criteria may include aesthetic considerations, structural integrity, or environmental impacts, and the ML system can efficiently iterate through a multitude of design

possibilities to identify the most optimal outcomes. Moreover, the development of AI in architecture is closely tied to the domain of computational design, where techniques such as generative design, optimization algorithms, and neural networks are employed to navigate expansive design spaces and produce multiple alternatives. These models can assess design parameters, forecast outcomes, and propose solutions based on predefined constraints, such as material efficiency, structural stability, or environmental performance.

One of the key contributions of AI in architecture is its ability to facilitate decision-making through the use of surrogate models, which approximate the results of complex simulations. These models can expedite the design process by swiftly evaluating numerous alternatives, thereby minimizing the time and resources that would typically be required for manual iterations and assessments. AI also enables architects to explore creative possibilities by employing generative models that can propose unconventional and innovative design solutions.15

While AI can assist in generating and assessing a variety of design options, the final decisions must still rely on the architect’s expertise to interpret and refine these outputs. Consequently, the integration of AI in architecture represents a collaborative relationship between human creativity and computational power, where AI serves as a valuable tool that enhances—rather than replaces— the role of the architect in the creative design process.

2.2 Neural Networks

In recent years, there has been a significant surge in the adoption of AI as a generative design tool within the field of architecture. This raise in interest primarily arises from AI's potential to transform the creative dimensions of architectural practice. By integrating computational algorithms and leveraging AI's image-generation capabilities, architects could have access to innovative methods for exploring design possibilities through tools like Midjourney, Dall-e, and Veras, which offer a diverse range of features for generating high-quality AI-generated images based on text prompts.

Generative text-to-image models, such as Dall-e and Midjourney, typically employ deep learning techniques,

particularly based on Neural Networks, to accomplish their generative and discriminative tasks. These networks, named after the neurons in the human brain, consist of layers of interconnected nodes, or neurons, each layer processing and transforming input data to produce an output. Through a process known as backpropagation, Neural Networks adjust the weights of connections between neurons during training to minimize the difference between predicted and actual outputs, enhancing their ability to approximate desired outcomes. This iterative training process involves exposing the models to a series of input-output pairs, allowing them to learn and optimize connection weights to approximate desired outputs.16

Text-to-image AI models undergo training on extensive datasets containing pairs of textual descriptions and corresponding images. The models encode text descriptions into numerical representations through tokenization, breaking down words into tokens converted into numerical embeddings. These encoded representations serve as input for the generative neural network.17

Neural Networks learn to map encoded text representations to image features by training on a vast dataset of paired text-image examples. Over time, it becomes adept at generating images aligned with textual descriptions by understanding the relationships between words and visual elements. The generation process involves producing coherent images that match input text by manipulating visual elements, and employing advanced structures depending on the specific architecture and training methodology.

In addition to the training methods, it is pertinent to delve into the architectural implications of Neural Networks within the domain of text-to-image generation. Neural Networks, structured in layers of interconnected nodes, display notable adaptability in processing textual descriptions and converting them into visual representations. This architectural flexibility enables Neural Networks to accommodate various complexities inherent in architectural design tasks, including spatial arrangements, material characteristics, and aesthetic preferences. Through their hierarchical configuration and iterative learning processes, Neural Networks demonstrate the potential to significantly impact architectural design workflows by providing architects with potent tools for generating and exploring

design alternatives based on textual cues.

2.3. Midjourney

Midjourney employs sophisticated neural network models to interpret natural language and generate corresponding images.18 Accessible via the online communication platform Discord, Midjourney distinguishes itself with its user-friendly prompting process. A prompt comprises a concise text phrase interpreted by the Midjourney Bot to produce an image.

The efficacy of prompts relies on their conciseness and clarity, emphasizing the use of simple, succinct sentences to convey desired image outcomes effectively. Wellcrafted prompts, characterized by descriptive and specific language, typically yield superior results.19 For advanced prompts, users have the flexibility to incorporate additional elements such as image URLs, multiple text phrases, and various parameters. Image URLs, when positioned at the beginning of a prompt, can influence the style and content of the final image, while text descriptions form the core of the request.

Parameters play a crucial role in prompt engineering, offering users the ability to fine-tune image generation by adjusting features like aspect ratios, models, and upscales. Parameters are appended to the end of prompts, allowing for precise customization according to user preferences. It is imperative to understand that the Midjourney Bot does not interpret grammar or sentence structure in the same manner as humans. Hence, word choice is critical, and the use of specific synonyms often enhances outcomes. Clarity is paramount, and prompts should focus on articulating what is desired rather than what is not, as omitting details may lead to unexpected variations.

When crafting prompts, users are encouraged to provide relevant context and details such as subject, medium, environment, lighting, color, mood, and composition to guide the bot effectively. Incorporating specific numbers and collective nouns instead of plurals can enhance the precision of prompts, minimizing randomness and increasing the likelihood of obtaining desired results.

Whether users opt for crafting straightforward prompts or delve into more complex specifications with additional elements, such as image URLs and parameters, the precision of the generated images depends heavily

on the clarity of the instructions given. This emphasis on clarity underscores the importance of effectively communicating the intended visual concept to the AI system, facilitating the generation of images that closely align with the user's creative vision. As users navigate the process of prompt formulation, they are encouraged to provide detailed descriptions and consider contextual factors to unlock the full potential of Midjourney.

3.0 Methodology

The methodology of this study is structured in three distinct phases: an initial survey, workshops, and a follow-up survey. Each phase was designed to assess the integration of AI-generated images within the architectural design processes at Perkins&Will Sao Paulo Studio, providing a comprehensive analysis of both perceptions and practical applications of AI tools.

Phase 1: Initial Survey

The first phase involved the distribution of an online survey to all architects within the Sao Paulo Studio. The survey was designed to evaluate participants’ familiarity with AI-generated images, their expectations, and any concerns related to incorporating AI tools into architectural design processes. The questions were structured to assess levels of awareness, interest, and engagement with AI technologies. By gathering responses electronically from the entire studio, the study aimed to capture a broad spectrum of insights, offering an in-depth view of current attitudes and experiences related to AI in architecture.

Phase 2: Workshops

The second phase consisted of a series of two-hour interactive workshops, involving architects from various roles within the firm. These workshops were designed to provide a hands-on experience with AI tools, specifically focusing on the use of Midjourney, a text-to-image generative AI platform. Participants, divided into teams, were tasked with utilizing AI to enhance conceptual design studies, generate alternative design solutions, and explore innovative possibilities. The workshops emphasized collaboration and practical engagement

with AI tools, and the researchers provided technical support and guidance throughout. It is important to note that while the study concentrated on generating images from text prompts, AI has broader capabilities, such as generating architectural plans and sections. However, this research was intentionally focused on image generation to support the conceptual design stages of the process, leaving the exploration of other AI applications for future research.

Phase 3: Follow-up Survey

In the final phase, a follow-up survey was administered to participants to measure any shifts in perceptions following their engagement with AI tools during the workshops. This survey aimed to identify changes in attitudes, insights gained, and overall acceptance of AI as a tool within their design processes. The followup survey played a crucial role in evaluating the longterm impact of AI on the participants' professional workflows and their willingness to integrate AI tools in future projects.

Data Analysis

The data collected from both surveys and the workshop feedback were systematically analyzed to derive insights and formulate recommendations. This mixed-methods approach facilitated a thorough understanding of the architects' initial perceptions, their practical experiences with AI, and any subsequent shifts in attitude following the workshops. The multiphase structure of the methodology provided a robust framework for evaluating the integration of AI tools in architectural practice and allowed the development of informed strategies for their effective implementation in a professional setting.

4.0 Initial Survey: Evaluating Awareness of AI Generative Images at Sao Paulo Studio

To systematically evaluate the knowledge, engagement, and attitudes towards AI tools in architectural design among the architects at Perkins&Will's Sao Paulo Studio, a detailed questionnaire was meticulously crafted.

This survey was disseminated to all architects within the studio to capture a comprehensive snapshot of their perspectives and experiences. The questionnaire comprised four pivotal questions designed to elicit meaningful insights into the architects' familiarity with AI tools, their willingness to engage with AIdriven activities, and their perceptions of the benefits and challenges associated with integrating AI into architectural workflows.

4.1. Participants Demographics

The survey was distributed electronically to all staff members at the Sao Paulo Studio, consisting of four key questions. A robust participation rate saw 42 out of 89 studio members respond, representing approximately 47.2% of the workforce (Table 1). It is important to acknowledge the potential for self-selection bias in this context, as those with a greater interest in AI may have been more likely to participate. Nevertheless, the response rate remains high, contributing to the overall validity of the findings while highlighting a strong level of engagement with AI-related topics within the studio.

4.2. Survey Questions and Responses

The first question, "Are you acquainted with or interested in utilizing Artificial Intelligence during the initial phases of an architectural project?" aimed to assess the architects' current awareness and interest in incorporating AI tools at the preliminary stages of design projects. The responses revealed that a significant proportion of participants, 81% (34 out of 42), were familiar with certain AI tools and expressed a keen interest in integrating them into their architectural practices. This high level of awareness and interest underscores a positive disposition towards AI technologies within the studio. Conversely, 19% (8 participants) admitted to a lack of familiarity with AI tools, yet they still demonstrated a strong inclination to explore these technologies.

The second question sought to identify which AI tools the architects were familiar with, asking, "Which Artificial Intelligence tools are you familiar with?" The responses highlighted a diverse range of AI tools recognized by the participants, with a total of 18 different tools mentioned. Among these, ChatGPT emerged as the most widely

recognized, with 64.3% (27 participants) acknowledging their familiarity with it, as seen on Figure 1. Midjourney and DALL-E, both text-to-image AI tools, were also wellknown, receiving mentions from 31% (13 participants) and 21.4% (9 participants), respectively. Other notable tools included Veras, Adobe Firefly, and Stable Diffusion, reflecting a broad spectrum of AI applications relevant to architectural design. Interestingly, 16.7% (7 participants) indicated they were not familiar with any AI tools, suggesting an area for potential knowledge development within the studio.

The third question, "Would you like to participate in an activity that involves the utilization of Artificial Intelligence in a project?" aimed to gauge the architects' enthusiasm for engaging in hands-on AI-driven activities. The overwhelming majority, 90.5% (38 participants), expressed a strong willingness to participate in such an activity, highlighting a proactive attitude toward

Table 1: Sao Paulo Studio Statistics and Participants

learning and integrating AI into their workflow. This enthusiasm suggests a fertile ground for further training and collaborative exploration of AI technologies within the studio. Conversely, 9.5% (4 participants) indicated a lack of interest in participating in AI-related activities, reflecting a need to address potential reservations and ensure inclusive engagement strategies.

The fourth question, "In your perspective, what are the benefits, drawbacks, and challenges associated with employing Artificial Intelligence in the field of architecture?" provided an open-ended opportunity for respondents to share their insights on the broader implications of AI in architecture. The responses were categorized into several key themes:

4.2.1. Benefits

Respondents frequently highlighted AI's potential to significantly accelerate various design processes. AI tools can automate and streamline tasks such as generating volumetric studies, creating high-quality renders, and performing complex calculations. These efficiencies can reduce the time and effort required for labor-intensive tasks, allowing architects to focus more on creative and strategic aspects of design. For example, AI can

rapidly produce detailed 3D models from basic sketches, dramatically shortening the conceptual design phase and enabling quicker iteration and refinement.

AI's capability to analyze large datasets and generate diverse design alternatives was seen as a major advantage. This ability enables architects to explore a wider range of options and consider unconventional solutions that might not emerge through traditional methods. AI-driven generative design tools can produce thousands of design permutations based on specified parameters, providing architects with a rich repository of innovative concepts to evaluate. This expansive exploration fosters a more thorough and creative design process, ultimately leading to more refined and effective architectural solutions.

AI tools were perceived as supportive of enhancing architects' creativity. Particularly for those with limited experience in complex software, AI offers intuitive interfaces that simplify the visualization of design concepts. By automating technical aspects, AI allows architects to concentrate on the creative and conceptual dimensions of their work. AI-driven tools can also assist in generating detailed visualizations and simulations, helping architects to experiment with different materials, lighting conditions, and spatial configurations. This

Figure 1: AI Tools recognized by participants.

creative assistance not only broadens the scope of architectural possibilities but also enhances the overall quality and impact of the design.

AI's potential to optimize work processes was another key benefit identified by respondents. By automating repetitive and administrative tasks, AI can improve overall organizational efficiency. Tasks such as generating tables, documentation, and analyzing large datasets can be performed swiftly and accurately by AI systems. This optimization reduces the burden on architects, allowing them to dedicate more time to critical thinking, problem-solving, and design innovation. Furthermore, AI can assist in project management by tracking progress, identifying potential issues, and ensuring that projects stay on schedule and within budget.

4.2.2. Drawbacks

A significant concern among respondents was the potential risk of excessive dependence on AI. Relying too heavily on AI-generated solutions could lead to a homogenization of design outcomes and a loss of human creativity and originality. While AI can provide valuable insights and efficiencies, it is essential for architects to maintain a balance, using AI as a tool to enhance rather than replace their creative instincts and professional judgment. The fear is that over-reliance on AI might diminish the unique, human-driven aspects of architectural design that are critical to creating distinctive and contextually appropriate buildings.

The potential for AI to reduce job opportunities in architecture was another drawback highlighted by respondents. As AI technologies continue to evolve and become more capable of performing tasks traditionally carried out by humans, there is a concern about job displacement. This shift necessitates that architects adapt by upskilling and embracing new roles that leverage AI's capabilities while complementing human expertise. The transition towards AI-driven workflows might require a reevaluation of the architectural profession, focusing on how to integrate AI in a way that enhances rather than diminishes employment opportunities.

Respondents emphasized the importance of correctly interpreting and applying AI-generated data. Misinterpretation or mishandling of data can lead to

flawed design outcomes. It is crucial for architects to have a deep understanding of AI's limitations, biases, and the context-specific considerations necessary for accurate data usage. AI should be viewed as a tool that complements and enhances professional judgment rather than replacing it. Ensuring proper use of data involves rigorous training, ongoing education, and a critical approach to evaluating AI-generated insights.

4.2.3. Challenges

Training AI systems to follow human-like design principles and critical thinking processes was recognized as a significant challenge. Developing methodologies to effectively train AI to understand architectural principles, aesthetics, and contextual factors is complex. Respondents highlighted the need for defining clear parameters, constraints, and design criteria to guide AI systems toward desired outcomes.

Addressing ethical issues related to AI usage, such as bias, transparency, and accountability, is crucial for responsible integration. Establishing clear guidelines and standards for AI use can help navigate these ethical challenges. Ensuring that AI tools are designed and utilized responsibly will foster trust and acceptance among architects and clients alike. Ethical considerations also involve ensuring that AI-generated designs do not perpetuate biases or lead to unjust outcomes.

5.0 Workshop

The in-office workshop aimed to provide architects at Perkins&Will's Sao Paulo Studio with hands-on experience using AI tools, specifically Midjourney. The workshop was structured over three separate dates to accommodate the schedules of all participants and ensure comprehensive engagement, as seen on Table 2. It featured two-hour sessions that allowed participants to delve deeply into the potential of AI in augmenting the architectural design process.

Each session began with an introduction and research presentation by the authors, explaining the investigation's goals and methods. This was followed by a brief lecture on AI image generation approaches, focusing on text-to-image, image-to-image, and mass study-to-image tools. Participants were then divided

GROUP WORKSHOP DATE DESIGN METHODS THEME

A August 5 th, 2023 Hand Sketches, Photoshop & Midjourney Bamboo Habitat

B August 5 th, 2023 Hand Sketches & Midjourney Reimagining Pinheiros River

C August 7th, 2023 Hand Sketches & Midjourney University

D August 12 th, 2023 Midjourney Care Center

E August 12 th, 2023 Client's Mission, Values and Vision & Midjourney Corporate Interiors HQ

into groups and assigned specific themes to explore using Midjourney.

5.1 Group A

Group A set out to design a Bamboo Habitat, initiating their process with a collaborative brainstorming session. Using Post-it notes, the team identified key thematic concepts such as "bamboo design," "biophilic design," and "unity," which served as foundational ideas guiding their design approach. To translate these abstract concepts into tangible forms, the group adopted a hybrid methodology, blending traditional hand-sketching techniques with advanced digital tools. Several team members focused on creating hand-drawn sketches to capture initial ideas, while others experimented directly

with Midjourney, utilizing AI-driven textual prompts to generate visual representations based on their conceptual inputs.

The team’s workflow evolved into a synthesis of different design mediums, with Photoshop playing a crucial role in merging AI-generated imagery with hand-drawn sketches and images sourced from the internet. This integration process presented a significant challenge, as the group needed to ensure coherence across the diverse design elements produced by these distinct methods. The task of merging AI outputs with hand sketches required a meticulous and iterative approach, as the team sought to maintain a unified design language that reflected the project’s core themes of bamboo and biophilic design, as well as the overarching concept of unity.

Through their iterative design process, Group A leveraged Midjourney’s capabilities to explore multiple visual possibilities, while using Photoshop to refine and harmonize the generated visuals into a cohesive whole. This allowed the group to not only experiment with various aesthetic and spatial configurations but also to refine the finer details of their design as they progressed.

The resulting visuals (Figure 2) reflect the group’s exploration of both external and internal design aspects. In images A1 and A2, the team began by examining the external geometry of the structure and its relationship with the surrounding environment, focusing on how the design could harmonize with natural elements. In images A3 and A4, the group shifted their attention to the internal spaces, conceptualizing how these could be developed in alignment with their initial design inputs, ensuring that the interior maintained coherence with the project’s broader themes. By balancing traditional design methods with AI tools, Group A demonstrated

Table 2: Workshop dates and groups themes and methods.

Figure 2: Group A Images.

how technological integration can enhance creative exploration while preserving the artistic integrity of architectural design.

5.2 Group B

Under the theme "Reimagining Pinheiros River," Group B explored innovative design possibilities for this historically polluted watercourse in Sao Paulo. The group began by identifying key thematic concepts such as "environmental restoration," "urban river," and "pollution mitigation" to guide their design vision. These foundational ideas were translated into a comprehensive prompt for Midjourney, an AI-based image generator. However, the initial AI-generated outputs, seen in Figure 3, B1, were incoherent and overly stylized, diverging from the group's original intent to visualize a realistic and actionable restoration plan for the Pinheiros River. These initial results illustrated a core limitation of relying solely on textual prompts for AIgenerated designs—particularly in projects that require specific environmental contexts and urban details.

Recognizing the shortfall, the team pivoted by incorporating an actual photograph of the Pinheiros River into Midjourney. This shift proved to be pivotal, as the visual input drastically enhanced the accuracy and relevance of the AI-generated outputs. The new images (Figures 3, B2 and B3) reflected a more accurate depiction of the river, capturing its unique environmental conditions while staying true to the team’s vision of urban revitalization. This experience underscored the

importance of integrating both textual and visual data to guide AI systems effectively, especially in complex design scenarios where environmental specificity is paramount.

Group B faced considerable challenges in ensuring that the AI outputs adequately represented the Pinheiros River’s environmental context. The initial reliance on text-only prompts resulted in generic and somewhat disconnected images that lacked coherence (B1). However, when the group introduced visual inputs— by uploading real photographs of the site—the AI was able to generate far more contextually accurate and visually compelling representations (B2). This iterative process highlighted the limitations of text-based inputs for intricate design problems and reinforced the need for multi-modal inputs to optimize AI performance.

The final images generated by Group B (B3 and B4) showcased significant improvements in both accuracy and relevance. These images provided a realistic and inspiring vision of a revitalized Pinheiros River, incorporating thoughtful design solutions for urban environmental restoration. The project not only demonstrated AI's potential in addressing complex environmental challenges but also emphasized the importance of combining carefully curated textual and visual inputs to achieve optimal results. By incorporating both narrative and imagery, the group was able to align AI outputs more closely with their design goals, resulting in a cohesive and feasible proposal for rehabilitating one of Sao Paulo’s most prominent watercourses.

Figure 3: Group B Images.

5.3 Group C

Group C focused on designing a university, beginning with the creation of a table of material samples using Midjourney (Figure 4, C1). This preliminary step allowed the group to explore various textures, colors, and materials that could inform their overall design concept. Building on these material studies, one group member sketched a generic interior perspective based on collective input from the team. This hand-drawn sketch was then scanned and uploaded into Midjourney, where it was combined with textual prompts to generate AI-enhanced design outputs. The resulting images maintained a sketched quality, blending the artistic nature of the original drawing with AI-generated elements, thus retaining a strong element of artistic interpretation (Figure 4, C3).

The final concept developed by Group C integrated both exterior architecture and interior design ideas, culminating in a moodboard that detailed the desired materials, colors, and spatial arrangements. The group focused on keywords such as "modern university," "sustainable materials," and "collaborative spaces" to guide their design process. Using Midjourney for material samples and interior perspectives, combined with hand sketches and material tables, they were able to create a cohesive vision that reflected both traditional design methods and contemporary AI-enhanced techniques.

One of the main challenges faced by Group C was ensuring that the artistic integrity of their designs was preserved while leveraging the AI tools to enhance and explore new creative possibilities. Crafting prompts that effectively communicated the intended aesthetic was key, and the team had to make iterative adjustments to refine the AI outputs until they aligned with the desired hand-drawn look. This careful balance between human creativity and AI-generated enhancements required significant attention to detail, particularly in maintaining the coherence between hand-drawn sketches and the digital renderings produced by AI.

The results of Group C's efforts underscored the potential of AI tools to enhance the architectural creative process while preserving the essence of traditional design methods. The final presentation (Figure 4, C2 and C4) featured detailed material boards and interior perspectives that closely aligned with the group’s original vision. By effectively integrating hand-drawn sketches with AI-generated images, the group produced innovative, visually cohesive outputs that demonstrated how AI can elevate traditional architectural design approaches. The project highlighted the value of AI as a complementary tool that supports the creative exploration of design possibilities without overshadowing the designer's personal artistic expression.

Figure 4: Group C Images.

5.4 Group D

Group D focused on designing a care center, utilizing only textual prompts within the Midjourney platform for ideation. Their approach focused on various representation styles, such as hand-sketched aesthetics, reduced-scale models, and architectural section drawings. The team’s efforts culminated in a comprehensive visual presentation, as illustrated in Figure 5, which includes a masterplan view (D1), a unit view (D2), and the interior perspective of an apartment (D4). Group D’s design approach aimed to create a patient-centered and accessible care facility, with a strong emphasis on healthcare design principles.

Throughout the process, Group D faced notable challenges, particularly in navigating Midjourney's syntax and understanding the influence that the arrangement of words had on the AI-generated outputs. Crafting effective text prompts became a critical task, further complicated by the fact that several participants were non-native English speakers. This language barrier made the process of prompt creation more complex, as the specificity and clarity required for accurate image generation in Midjourney demanded precise language use. As a result, the group had to iterate extensively on their prompts to ensure the outputs aligned with their vision.

Despite these challenges, Group D effectively employed key terms such as “healthcare design,” “patientcentered,” and “accessible facilities” to guide the AI in producing relevant design outputs. The outcomes included a masterplan (D1), which depicted the overall layout of the care center, showing how different units and facilities were organized within the landscape. The unit view (D2) offered a detailed representation of individual spaces within the facility, with a focus on accessibility and patient comfort. The interior view (D4) provided a glimpse into the design of private living spaces, emphasizing a balance between comfort and functionality within the care environment.

In addition to these visual representations, the design process involved constant refinement to ensure that the AI-generated images maintained coherence with the group’s overall vision. The integration of diverse representation styles—ranging from sectional views (D3) to immersive interior perspectives—demonstrates Group D's ability to leverage AI tools to explore multiple facets of the design concept, while overcoming the challenges posed by language and syntax in the AI platform. Their final presentation highlights the potential for AI to assist in the conceptualization of complex healthcare environments, offering both practical and innovative design solutions.

Figure 5: Group D Images.

5.5 Group E

Group E approached the task by conceptualizing the headquarters for a cosmetics company, a client of the firm, with a clear focus on integrating the client's core values and brand identity into the design process. Their method involved analyzing the client's mission, vision, and values, and using these insights to craft keywords that could be inputted into Midjourney. This approach allowed the group to translate subjective and abstract brand concepts into tangible material samples and interior design visuals. Comprised of architects with specialized expertise in Corporate Interiors, the team leveraged their knowledge to ensure that the generated images resonated with the client’s identity.

Despite their expertise, Group E encountered several challenges in translating the abstract values of the cosmetics company into physical design elements using AI. One of the main difficulties was ensuring that the AI-generated outputs from Midjourney aligned with the client’s brand and vision. This required a process of iterative refinement, where the team continuously adjusted the prompts to guide the AI in producing outputs that matched their expectations. Keywords such as "brand identity," "innovative workspaces," and "corporate aesthetics" were central to their approach, ensuring that the design solutions reflected the unique

qualities of the client’s brand. The group used Midjourney primarily for generating material samples (Figure 6, E1) and interior design concepts (Figures E2, E3, and E4), carefully guided by their analysis of the client’s ethos.

The results of Group E’s efforts demonstrated both the challenges and potential benefits of using AI in translating brand concepts into spatial design. The process of refining prompts and aligning AI-generated outputs with the brand’s identity was time-intensive, highlighting the complexity of using AI to bridge abstract corporate values with concrete design outcomes. However, through persistence and careful prompt engineering, Group E successfully produced a final presentation that included detailed material samples (Figure E1) and sophisticated interior design views (Figures 6, E2, E3, and E4) that effectively embodied the client’s brand.

This process underscored the potential for AI tools like Midjourney to enhance the design of corporate spaces, particularly when used to complement the creative expertise of architects. By combining AI-generated imagery with their understanding of corporate interiors, Group E was able to create a design that was not only aesthetically aligned with the client’s identity but also reflected the innovative and forward-thinking nature of the brand.

Figure 6: Group E Images.

6.0 Follow-up Survey: Assessing Shifts in Perception Post-Workshop

After completing the in-office workshops, a followup survey was administered to assess any shifts in the participants' perceptions regarding AI technology and its application in architectural design. This postworkshop survey was integral to understanding how direct engagement with AI tools, particularly Midjourney, influenced the architects' attitudes, knowledge, and readiness to integrate these technologies into their professional workflows.

The follow-up survey consisted of several key questions aimed at evaluating changes in the participants' views on AI. These questions focused on their overall impression of AI tools post-workshop, the perceived feasibility of incorporating AI into various stages of the design process, and their reflections on the benefits, challenges, and future potential of AI in architecture. The responses provided valuable insights into the efficacy of the workshops and highlighted areas where further training and support might be necessary.

6.1. Overall Impression of AI Tools Post-Workshop

The first question sought to gauge the participants' overall impressions of AI tools after their hands-on experience during the workshop. The question, "Has your perception of AI tools changed after participating in the workshop?" aimed to identify any shifts in their attitudes and understanding.

Data analysis revealed that 76.2% of the respondents (32 participants) indicated a positive change in their perception of AI tools. They expressed increased confidence in the capabilities of AI to generate innovative design concepts and appreciated the efficiency gains AI could bring to the design process. These participants highlighted that the workshops provided a clearer understanding of how AI could be used as a supportive tool rather than a replacement for human creativity.

Conversely, 19.0% of respondents (8 participants) reported no significant change in their perception, maintaining a cautious but interested stance toward AI integration. These individuals noted that while the

workshop demonstrated AI's potential, they still had reservations about its practical application and the learning curve associated with mastering these tools.

A minority, 4.8% of the participants (2 individuals), expressed a more skeptical view post-workshop, citing concerns about the reliability of AI outputs and the challenge of crafting precise prompts. They emphasized the need for further development and refinement of AI technologies to better align with architectural design standards and practices.

6.2. Feasibility of AI Integration in Design Stages

The second question addressed the practical aspects of AI integration, asking, "In which stages of the design process do you believe AI tools can be most effectively applied?" This question aimed to pinpoint where participants saw the most potential for AI to add value.

A significant majority, 85.7% of respondents (36 participants), identified the conceptual design phase as the most promising stage for AI application. They cited AI's ability to quickly generate and visualize multiple design options, facilitating a more expansive exploration of creative possibilities. Participants appreciated how AI could aid in brainstorming sessions and early-stage ideation, making the conceptual phase more dynamic and innovative.

Additionally, 59.5% of respondents (25 participants) saw potential for AI in the preliminary design phase, particularly in generating volumetric studies and optimizing spatial layouts. They noted that AI tools could enhance efficiency and accuracy in these initial technical assessments, providing a robust foundation for further design development.

Less frequently, but still notably, 38.1% of participants (16 individuals) mentioned the detailed design phase. They indicated that AI could assist in refining design elements, generating detailed renderings, and producing technical drawings, although they emphasized that human oversight would be crucial to ensure quality and adherence to design intentions.

6.3. Reflections on Benefits, Challenges, and Future Potential

The follow-up survey also included open-ended questions to capture qualitative insights on the perceived benefits, challenges, and future potential of AI in architecture. Participants reiterated several benefits highlighted during the initial survey, emphasizing AI's potential to enhance creativity, improve efficiency, and broaden design exploration. They particularly valued AI's ability to generate high-quality visualizations and its role in optimizing repetitive and time-consuming tasks.

Challenges identified by the participants included the steep learning curve associated with mastering AI tools, the need for accurate and contextually appropriate data inputs, and the risk of over-reliance on AIgenerated outputs. Participants stressed the importance of developing robust training programs and support systems to help architects effectively integrate AI into their workflows.

Looking forward, many participants expressed optimism about the future potential of AI in architecture. They envisioned AI becoming an integral part of the design process, complementing human creativity and expertise. Participants suggested that ongoing research, development, and collaboration between architects and AI developers would be crucial in realizing this potential. They called for continuous updates and improvements to AI tools to better meet the specific needs of architectural practice.

7.0 Discussion

The integration of AI tools in architectural design, as explored in this study, demands significant advancement and refinement. This research revealed a dual sentiment among architects, encompassing both enthusiasm and caution regarding AI utilization, reflecting broader trends observed within the field. The initial survey revealed a substantial interest in AI tools, with 81% of participants expressing a desire to incorporate AI into their projects despite having limited prior experience with these technologies. This high level of interest underscores a recognition of AI’s potential to enhance the design process, even among those who are not yet proficient in its use.

The workshop findings further underscore the potential of AI to transform architectural design processes, while also highlighting significant challenges. Participants reported difficulties in crafting effective text prompts that AI could accurately interpret. This challenge was evident in the varying degrees of success different groups experienced with AI-generated outputs. Despite these challenges, there was widespread admiration for AI's image-generation capabilities. Participants acknowledged its potential to significantly aid in concept generation and early-stage design development, recognizing how AI can expand the scope of creative exploration. For instance, Group A's experience with creating a Bamboo Habitat showcased how AI could merge traditional design elements with innovative digital tools to produce unique design concepts.

One of the most prominent challenges noted was the difficulty in crafting prompts that AI could interpret effectively. AI tools rely heavily on the precision and clarity of textual prompts, and small variations in wording often result in dramatically different outputs. This sensitivity to language can make the AI process unpredictable, requiring multiple iterations to achieve the desired result. Participants found that AI frequently misinterpreted their intentions, producing outputs that were either irrelevant or only loosely aligned with their design goals. This emphasizes the need for architects to develop specific prompt-crafting skills to communicate effectively with AI systems, ensuring the outputs match their creative vision.

AI tools, while capable of generating visually compelling designs, often make mistakes, particularly when interpreting complex design instructions. These errors can manifest as misinterpretations of spatial relationships, inappropriate material selections, or illogical combinations of elements that defy architectural logic. Participants noted that while AI can accelerate the ideation process, its occasional inaccuracies necessitate constant human oversight and correction.

However, the necessity of human oversight was strongly emphasized. Participants encountered difficulties with AI’s literal interpretation of prompts, which often led to outputs that did not fully align with their design intentions. This highlighted the importance of maintaining a critical perspective in guiding AI tools, ensuring that the architect's vision remains the driving force behind the design process.

The follow-up survey provided additional insights into participants' perceptions of AI tools post-workshop. Many participants noted an increased appreciation for AI’s capabilities, particularly in expanding creative thinking during the preliminary design phases. This shift in perception indicates a growing recognition of AI's role as a valuable assistant in the creative process. However, participants also reiterated the need for improved skills in crafting prompts to fully harness AI’s potential. This need for better prompt crafting skills was a recurring theme, as effective communication with AI tools was seen as essential for achieving desired design outcomes.

Additionally, concerns regarding data control and copyright issues were prevalent. Participants emphasized the necessity for clear guidelines to address ownership and intellectual property rights when using AI-generated content. These concerns underscore the importance of developing robust protocols to ensure that the integration of AI into architectural practice adheres to legal and ethical standards.

Addressing the ethical implications of AI in design is crucial. Establishing clear guidelines and standards for AI use can help navigate issues related to bias, transparency, and accountability. Ensuring that AI tools are designed and used responsibly will foster trust and acceptance among architects and clients alike. This involves not only adhering to best practices in AI development and deployment but also fostering an ongoing dialogue about the ethical dimensions of AI in design.

Based on the findings, several guidelines can be proposed for the effective implementation of AI in the architectural design process

Continuous Training

Architects should engage in ongoing training programs to develop the technical skills necessary for effective AI tool utilization. This includes learning how to craft effective prompts and understanding the capabilities and limitations of various AI technologies. Training initiatives should offer hands-on experiences, enabling architects to navigate AI tools with confidence and efficacy.

Robust Data Protocols

Establishing comprehensive data security protocols is essential to protect sensitive project information and

ensure compliance with legal and ethical standards. This includes guidelines for data management, storage, and sharing. Prioritizing the collection and curation of highquality architectural data is crucial for training AI models to produce accurate and relevant design images.

Ethical Standards

Developing clear ethical guidelines for AI use in architectural design can help address issues related to bias, transparency, and accountability. These standards should be regularly reviewed and updated to keep pace with technological advancements. Ensuring that AI tools are designed and used responsibly will foster trust and acceptance among architects and clients alike.

Human Oversight

Maintaining human oversight in the AI-assisted design process is crucial. Architects should ensure that their critical perspective and creative vision guide the use of AI tools, preventing over-reliance and preserving the integrity of the design process. AI should be understood as a project partner, aiding in design rather than dictating outcomes.

Collaborative Environment

Fostering a collaborative environment where AI is viewed as a tool to augment human creativity can facilitate smoother integration. Encouraging interdisciplinary collaboration can also enhance the development and application of AI tools tailored to architectural needs.

Addressing Intellectual Property

Clear guidelines should be established to address ownership and intellectual property rights related to AIgenerated content. This ensures that creators' rights are protected and that there is clarity regarding the use and distribution of AI-assisted designs.

8.0 Conclusion

The integration of AI technologies in architectural visualization and concept development holds transformative potential for the future of design, yet it requires careful and strategic implementation. Architects and design professionals must evaluate AI tools with a critical understanding of their applications at various stages of the design process, ensuring they complement

existing workflows rather than disrupt them. A successful integration hinges on selecting the most suitable AI platforms that align with the architectural firm’s goals and the specific needs of each project. This requires a nuanced approach where AI tools enhance creativity, improve efficiency, and support innovation without undermining the human role in design.

One of the key factors in this integration is understanding how AI technologies can be effectively applied at different junctures of design management. AI can be an asset across the spectrum of architectural tasks, from the conceptual stages to detailed design work, but its role must be clearly defined and strategically employed. Comprehensive education and training are critical for architects and staff, ensuring they not only understand the technical aspects of AI tools but also their creative and conceptual applications. Training programs must be designed to help architects critically engage with AI, equipping them with the skills to leverage AI as a collaborative partner in the design process. This combination of technical proficiency and creative insight will empower architects to use AI to expand the possibilities of their work, making the design process both more innovative and more efficient.

In addition to training, the successful implementation of AI requires adept management strategies that account for both the immediate and long-term implications of its integration. Design managers and architects must be aware of the evolving landscape of AI technologies and must develop adaptable strategies to manage this integration. This includes addressing challenges such as data security, quality control, and the ethical implications of using AI in design. A balance must be struck between harnessing the power of AI and preserving the essential human elements of creativity and judgment that are fundamental to architectural practice. AI should be seen as a tool that enhances, rather than replaces, the architect’s role in the design process, and its integration must be managed with a clear focus on maintaining this balance.

The ethical implications of AI in architectural design are particularly important to consider. AI technologies can introduce biases, lack transparency, or make decisions that are difficult to interpret. Without clear guidelines and standards, there is a risk that AI-generated designs could perpetuate biases or lead to design outcomes that lack the necessary human insight and context. To

mitigate these risks, architectural firms must establish robust ethical frameworks that ensure AI is used responsibly and transparently. This will not only help prevent unintended consequences but also foster trust in the use of AI within architectural workflows, ensuring that it is perceived as a beneficial tool for enhancing design rather than a disruptive force.

Moreover, AI-generated images and designs should not be viewed as replacements for traditional architectural tools or the expertise of architects. Instead, they should complement existing methods such as parametric design, Building Information Modeling (BIM), and manual sketching. AI can expand the range of possibilities available to architects, offering new ways to explore and visualize concepts. However, AI tools must be used in conjunction with the architect’s vision and critical input. The human element of creativity, interpretation, and decision-making remains irreplaceable, and AI should function as a support system that amplifies rather than diminishes the architect’s role in shaping the final design.

The broader debates on the ethical and professional implications of AI are central to shaping the future of architecture. As AI becomes increasingly integrated into the design process, key questions about authorship, intellectual property, and the role of the architect in an AI-driven design landscape must be addressed. Who owns the design when AI plays a significant role in its creation? How does AI reshape the professional identity of architects? These are critical issues that require thoughtful consideration as the profession adapts to the growing presence of AI. Engaging in these debates will provide a stronger foundation for understanding how AI can be integrated into architectural practice responsibly and ethically.

In addition to these ethical and professional concerns, the cultural and social implications of relying on AI for creativity must also be considered. As AI becomes more prominent in design, there is a risk that architectural aesthetics could become standardized, with algorithmdriven solutions prioritizing efficiency and optimization over cultural nuance and local context. This could challenge the traditional role of architects as cultural interpreters and diminish the diversity of architectural expression. Moreover, the global accessibility of AI tools is uneven, and this disparity could exacerbate existing inequalities in architectural practice. Regions with access to advanced AI technologies may gain an

advantage, while others could fall behind, widening the gap in architectural innovation. It is therefore essential that AI be used responsibly, ensuring that it enhances the cultural and social dimensions of architecture rather than erodes them.

Continuous education and training are vital for ensuring that architects remain at the forefront of AI technology. As AI evolves, architects must stay updated on the latest advancements and be equipped to use these tools effectively. Ongoing training programs that address both the technical aspects of AI and its creative applications will be critical for fostering innovation within architectural firms. Continuous learning ensures that architects can fully leverage AI’s potential, using it to push the boundaries of design while maintaining control over the creative process.

Although this study focuses on the Sao Paulo Perkins&Will Studio, the insights and methodologies presented have broader relevance to the global architectural community. The principles of AI integration discussed—such as ethical considerations, data security, and the preservation of the human touch—are universally applicable across various architectural firms and contexts. Firms around the world can adapt the recommendations from this study to meet their specific cultural, social, and design needs, ensuring that AI tools are used in ways that foster innovation while respecting the uniqueness of local design approaches. Whether addressing the complexities of urban design, responding to regional architectural traditions, or fostering interdisciplinary collaborations, AI has the potential to enrich architectural practice globally if used thoughtfully and responsibly.

The discussion of AI’s integration in architecture, as presented in this conclusion, is deeply intertwined with the broader historical context of technological innovation in the field. As highlighted in the literature review, the intersection of architecture and computational technologies has long been a catalyst for new design methodologies, from the early days of Computer-Aided Design (CAD) to the development of sophisticated Building Information Modeling (BIM) systems. Each of these innovations expanded the boundaries of what architects could achieve, and AI represents the next frontier in this ongoing evolution. However, as with earlier technologies, the successful integration of AI depends on careful management, ethical considerations, and a commitment to preserving

the human aspects of creativity and judgment that are central to the architectural profession.

In conclusion, AI offers transformative potential for architectural design, enhancing creativity, optimizing performance, and improving efficiency. However, its integration must be handled thoughtfully, with careful consideration of ethical, cultural, and professional implications. By balancing the power of AI with the irreplaceable human elements of architecture, the profession can harness AI’s capabilities while safeguarding the creativity, diversity, and cultural richness that define architectural practice. The insights gained from this study, when connected to the broader historical and theoretical context provided in the literature, offer a valuable framework for understanding how AI can be responsibly and effectively integrated into architectural design, ensuring that it serves as a tool for innovation without compromising the fundamental principles of the profession.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to express their gratitude to the Innovation Incubator Committee of Perkins&Will for their financial backing, which enabled this research. Additionally, the authors recognize the Sao Paulo studio team for their active involvement in the surveys and workshops conducted within the scope of this research. Their valuable contributions and insights have significantly influenced the outcomes of this study.

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Peer Reviewers

Dr. Yasser El Masri National Renewable Energy Laboratory

Nico Larco University of Oregon

Abhishek Shinde TYLin / Silman Structural Solutions

Joshua Vermillion University of Nevada Las Vegas

Patrick Bayer

Patrick is a designer, architect, and researcher. As a researcher, he focuses on design process at the intersection of technology and society. He has completed exploratory research on hyperreality, artificial intelligence, and design storytelling. Patrick has developed new GenAI workflows for creativity that can supercharge the early design phases. He has taught at the University of Kansas and lectured at numerous institutions across the US.

Anish Reddy

Anish is a Project Architect based out of Perkins&Will’s New York studio, where he focuses on project delivery for S&T / Healthcare projects. He is also deeply involved in Perkins&Will’s Construction Innovation Lab, where he leads research in robotic fabrication and mass timber. In recent years he has learned to code in Python and experimented with a wide range of AI software. Anish has guest lectured at Yale and the AIA National Convention.

Charles Portelli

Charles is an Associate and Digital Innovation Strategist for Perkins&Will’s I/O group, where he focuses on envisioning 3D models and data as a focal point for project design and delivery strategies. Charles teaches Environmental Parametrics at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute’s Center for Architecture and Sustainable Ecologies (CASE) program, where he focuses on combining parametric modeling, optimization, and daylighting as a strategy to inform design.

Sonata Caric

Till recently Sonata was an architectural designer at Perkins&Will with experience leading projects through programming, design, and documentation. Through a passion for exploring AI applications, Sonata spearheaded a research initiative to address the use of AI in different phases of design, the impact of biases, and the process of implementing AI systems for Perkins&Will studios.

Breno Tisi Mendes da Veiga

Breno is an Architect and Urban Planner in Perkins&Will's São Paulo studio. He graduated from Mackenzie University and holds an MBA in Project Management from the Polytechnic School of the University of São Paulo (POLIUSP), and a M.Sc. in architecture from Mackenzie University.

Fernando Longhi Pereira da Silva

Fernando is an Architect and Urban Planner. He graduated from the University of Brasília. He holds a M.Sc. in architecture from the University of São Paulo School of Architecture (FAUUSP).

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