Leadership Theories

viewed that the images portrayed in Hollywood, folklore, and Old West influenced the popular view of leadership. Gemmill and Oakley (1992) viewed leadership as a myth, the major function of which is to preserve the existing social systems and structures by blaming problems on the ineffective leadership abilities rather than on the systems themselves. Villoria and Iglesias (2011) emphasized the importance of leadership in explaining changes and continuity. In the absence of “leadership, public organizations will never mobilize themselves to accomplish their mandated purposes” (Behn 1998, p. 209). Despite the advocacy of privatization and outsourcing, the reform movements of the 1980s and the 1990s centered on leadership. The New Public Management and Reinventing Government approaches focused on the privatization of the public sector with a central focus on leadership. At present, there is much emphasis on reforming public administration. The central focus of reforms is on leadership. In the United States, the reinvention movement centered on leadership efforts (Hennessey 1998). Influenced by the reform movement in the United States, every organization felt compelled to respond with initiatives to promote leadership (Hartley and Allison 2000). Because of the “continued focus on market mechanisms and public–private partnerships as key levers for reform, the public sector was encouraged to look to the business world for models of good practice in a drive to inculcate entrepreneurial values and import dynamic styles of leadership” (Newman 2001, pp. 79, 85).

Vogel and Masal (2012) emphasized the importance of leadership considering the changes in the socio-economic situation and the financial squeeze and austerity measures. They assert that in the public sector there is a greater emphasis on participative leadership because the rules are set leaving not much room for maneuver for the public leaders. Leadership is conceived as a process of making the decisions. Gemmill and Oakley (1992) defined leadership as a social process of dynamic collaboration between individuals and organization members with intellectual and social interactions. According to one analysis, “[the] leadership process is like a river. Contained by its bed (the culture), it can be said to be flowing in one direction, yet, upon close examination, parts of it flow sideways, in circles, or even backward relative to the overall direction. It is constantly changing in speed and strength and even reshapes its own container” (Gemmill and Oakley 1992, p. 124). Leadership is an ability to get others to do what they don’t want to do and like it (Cohen et al. 1984). Leadership is considered to be the influence of a person to get followers get something extraordinary happen (ibid.). It is a process of using power to obtain interpersonal

influence (Schermerhon et al. 2005). Leadership is an understanding of the operation and effectiveness of an organization. An account of different leadership theories will be helpful in increasing understanding of the challenges of leadership under globalization.

Leadership Theories There are a wide variety of definitions of leadership. One of the earliest theories of leadership is the traits theory based on the personalities and the characteristics of great leaders such as Abraham Lincoln, Mahatma Gandhi, and Napoleon Bonaparte. Stogdill published research in 1948 that outlined the important characteristics of leaders. In 1974, he published more research based on the second survey. Later researchers conducted extensive research on the traits. The major leadership traits are intelligence, self-confidence, determination, integrity and sociability. However, these traits are considered inherent and not capable of being acquired.

The other theory of leadership is skills theory, which focuses on skills and abilities rather than personal characteristics. One of the advocates of this theory, Robert Katz (1955), identified three important leadership skills: technical, human, and conceptual. According to Katz (1955), skills are based on accomplishments, and the traits are inherent. The three types of skills are discrete: Technical skills are the ability to use the tools and knowledge for the efficiency of an organization. Human skills differ from technical skills because they deal with people and focus on interpersonal skills. Finally, conceptual skills deal with ideas of problem-solving. Both traits and skills focus on the abilities of the leadership. They do not deal with how the leaders act and behave.

The leadership style focuses on the behavior of the leader. By contrast, the style approach focuses on the capabilities of the leaders and on two types of behavior: task behavior and relationship behaviors. Task behavior focuses on the accomplishment of tasks, while employee behavior focuses on relationship.

Situational theory considers leadership based on different types of situations: directive and supportive. In both of these approaches, the leader evaluates the situation based on the subordinates’ characteristics in terms of their ability and competence. Directive behavior focuses on providing direction about how to accomplish the goals, and who is to be responsible for the tasks. Supportive behavior focuses on the facilitation of goals by making the subordinates feel comfortable about their tasks. It is based on two-way communication between the leaders and the subordinates.

Based on motivation, the path-goal theory considers how leaders motivate subordinates to achieve the assigned goals. The premise of the path and goal theory is that the leadership style is based on the motivational needs of the subordinates. It is based on a match between the leader’s style, the characteristics of the subordinates and the work setting. For example, the followers who have strong needs for affiliation prefer supportive leadership.

The other theory is leader–member exchange (LMX) theory, which is based on the interactions and linkages between leaders and members. The linkages and interactions are based on relationships and negotiated role responsibilities. Those who are willing to go beyond the formal roles are called the in-group; and those who are based on formal role are called the out-groups. The LMX theory is based on a dyadic relationship between in-groups, and out-groups. Leaders treat the out-groups fairly and do not provide extra support. On the other hand, the leaders provide support and incentives to the in-group.

In an age of continuous changes, the transformational leadership is increasing in popularity. James MacGregor Burns (1978) first coined the term “transformational leadership” first and in doing so he distinguished between traditional (transactional) and a more potent transformational leadership. According to Burns, transactional leaders try to satisfy the basic human needs as outlined by Maslow. However, transformational leaders go beyond the basic needs and try to satisfy the higher needs of the subordinates. Transformational leaders use charisma and influence their followers to bring about changes in society. Among the more familiar examples of transformational leaders are leading historical figures such as Nelson Mandela, Dr. Martin Luther King, Abraham Lincoln, and Mahatma Gandhi. In contrast, transactional leaders try to advance their agenda by providing the incentives to the subordinates. Transformational leaders focus on the improvement of performance of the followers and try to help them to develop to their fullest potential (Avolio et al. 1999). The important characteristics of transformational leadership are the idealized influence, charisma, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation and individualized consideration. The transactional leaders exchange the values to advance their own interests. It was Burns (1978) who elaborated on the concept of transformational leaders, who are instrumental in motivating the followers. Avolio and Bass (1995) described the characteristics of transformational leaders as an idealized influence, inspirational motivations, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration. The practical