1. The Development of the Principle of Participation

forms of participation is made below. In this book, we consider popular initiative, the citizen’s panel, the referendum, and the community-level forms of participation.

The degree of participation is quantified using certain indicators, including the number of individuals, the time invested in and the frequency of participation, the involvement of individuals, the extent of influence on the process with respect to the issues addressed by the public authority, and the level of participation that citizens are entitled to. For instance, should citizens’ views be taken into account in their decision-making, or is it just an opportunity to voice an opinion? In community-level participation, it is uncertain as to whether the opinions expressed will actually result in action, and in popular initiatives there is limited influence once the initiative has been completed.

Further distinctions can be made among those who are given the opportunity to participate, including individuals acting independently, individuals who form groups to promote collective interests, and organizations established to promote all or specific elements of a common interest. Certain target groups or stakeholders may also be explicitly given the opportunity to participate.6 It is clear that these cases involve different interests and motives that form the basis for participation.

For participation on local level, a significant consideration for the Dutch situation is that since the implementation of the separation of powers at local level in 2002, the mayor and the Queen’s Commissioner must both publish an annual report on public services provided to residents (burgerjaarverslag), including an indication of the quality of procedures governing public participation.7 In addition, the report addresses the quality of procedures for community-level participation and the application, if any, of non-binding referenda or a popular initiative. This annual reporting duty should ensure periodic consultation with public representatives on any shortcomings of procedures for public participation. These reports are usually published online. However, it is unclear how the intended consultation should be put into practice.8 The Dutch Ombudsman has recently published a study ‘Strengthening citizen’s participation’ in which he has developed ten recommendations for good local citizens’ participation.9 These recommendations include how the municipality should explain and motivate if and how citizens are involved, that they make municipality participation an integral part of the political and administrative decision-making process, and determine the participation pathway before it begins. Citizens could play different roles, for example one of co-decision-making, co-producing, counselling, consultation, or of distributing information.

1. The Development of the Principle of Participation

Democratic systems are in principle open to criticism and adjustment. For instance, this criticism can address strong party discipline in parliament, the intense monistic relationship between government and parliamentary majority, the exercise of ministerial responsibility, or the legitimacy of decisions and the decision-making process. There is also a direct link with the transparency principle. Sometimes, transparency is

6 De Graaf 2007. 7 Section 170 of the Dutch Municipalities Act and s 175 of the Dutch Provinces Act. 8 Press releases have been issued stating that the Minister of the Interior wants to delete this stipulation. 9 Brenninkmeijer 2009.