The Philosophy of the Age: Aristotle
“Mine is the first step and therefore a small one, though worked out with much thought and hard labor. You, my readers or hearers of my lectures, if you think I have done as much as can fairly be expected of an initial start. . . will acknowledge what I have achieved and will pardon what I have left for others to accomplish.� Aristotle
PHILOSOPHY is the science of estimating values. The superiority of any state or substance over another is determined by philosophy. By assigning a position of primary importance to what remains when all that is secondary has been removed, philosophy thus becomes the true index of priority or emphasis in the realm of speculative thought. The mission of philosophy a priori is to establish the relation of manifested things to their invisible ultimate cause or nature. "Philosophy," writes Sir William Hamilton, "has been defined [as]: The science of things divine and human, and of the causes in which they are contained [Cicero]; The science of effects by their causes [Hobbes]; The science of sufficient reasons [Leibnitz]; The science of things possible, inasmuch as they are possible [Wolf]; The science of things evidently deduced from first principles [Descartes]; The science of truths, sensible and abstract [de Condillac]; The application of reason to its legitimate objects [Tennemann]; The science of the relations of all knowledge to the necessary ends of human reason [Kant];The science of the original form of the ego or mental self [Krug]; The science of sciences [Fichte]; The science of the absolute [von Schelling]; The science of the absolute
indifference of the ideal and real [von Schelling]--or, The identity of identity and nonidentity [Hegel]." (See Lectures on Metaphysics and Logic.) The six headings under which the disciplines of philosophy are commonly classified are: metaphysics, which deals with such abstract subjects as cosmology, theology, and the nature of being; logic, which deals with the laws governing rational thinking, or, as it has been called, "the doctrine of fallacies"; ethics, which is the science of morality, individual responsibility, and character--concerned chiefly with an effort to determine the nature of good; psychology, which is devoted to investigation and classification of those forms of phenomena referable to a mental origin; epistemology, which is the science concerned primarily with the nature of knowledge itself and the question of whether it may exist in an absolute form; and ĂŚsthetics, which is the science of the nature of and the reactions awakened by the beautiful, the harmonious, the elegant, and the noble. An ancient philosopher once said: "He who has not even knowledge of common things is a brute among men. He who has an accurate knowledge of human concerns alone is a man among brutes. But he, who knows all that can be known by intellectual energy, is a God among men." Man's status in the natural world is determined, therefore, by the quality of his thinking. Of the philosophy of Aristotle, the same author says: "The end of Aristotle's moral philosophy is perfection through the virtues, and the end of his contemplative philosophy a union with the one principle of all things." Aristotle conceived philosophy to be twofold: practical and theoretical. Practical philosophy embraced ethics and politics; theoretical philosophy, physics and logic. Metaphysics he considered to be the science concerning that substance which has the principle of motion and rest inherent to itself. To Aristotle the soul is that by which man first lives, feels, and understands. Hence to the soul he assigned three faculties: nutritive, sensitive, and intellective. He further considered the soul to be twofold - rational and irrational - and in some particulars elevated the sense perceptions above the mind. Aristotle defined wisdom as the science of first Causes. The four major divisions of his philosophy are dialectics, physics, ethics, and metaphysics. God is defined as the First Mover, the Best of beings, an immovable Substance, separate from sensible things, void of corporeal quantity, without parts and indivisible. Platonism is based upon a priori reasoning; Aristotelianism upon a posteriori reasoning. Aristotle taught his pupil, Alexander the Great, to feel that if he had not done a good deed he had not reigned that day. Among his followers were Theophrastus, Strato, Lyco, Aristo, Critolaus, and Diodorus.1
To Eoin the Druid of Sindidun2, 1
From: http://www.sacred-texts.com Ref. The Druid of Sindidun, Vladislac Bajac. The book describes the contact between the Macedonian and Celtic culture, during Philip II of Macedon’s reign, which resulted in the founding of Sindidun (Belgrade).
2
I know that this letter will find you startled, although not astonished, since I have chosen to write to you - my dear semi-barbarian - of my life, not as a confession of an old man facing his own demise, but as a final console to a friend, with whom I shared the mysteries of the Other World, knowing that the Secret will not vanish with me but will live as part of the great Truth that you will pass on to your bards to sing of it in times to come. I beg you not to see this as a burden to which I have bonded you, therefore do tear down this letter as soon as you finish reading it, and I will know by the sound of the winds that you have received the message. It has been a while since we have last conversed on matters of ethics3 and mystery, and now that my master4 is no longer among the living, I have reached a state where I cannot but contemplate our pitiable existence as humans, whose part on this stage is merely defined by the drama5 we have inherited from the myths6 our forefathers cherished in their hearts, singing of it in times of
3
Aristotle wrote several works on ethics: the Nicomachean Ethics, the Eudemian Ethics, and, less probably, the Magna Moralia. All are concerned with the question of virtue. Of these, the Nicomachean Ethics has received the most scholarly attention. The ten books which comprise it are based on notes from his lectures at the Lyceum and may have been edited by or dedicated to Aristotle's son, Nicomachus.
Aristotle believed that ethical knowledge is not precise knowledge, like logic and mathematics, but general knowledge like knowledge of nutrition and exercise. Also, as it is a practical discipline rather than a theoretical one; he thought that in order to become "good", one could not simply study what virtue is; one must actually be virtuous. Analogously, in order to become good at a sport like football, one does not simply study but also practices. Aristotle first establishes what was virtuous. He began by determining that everything was done with some goal in mind and that goal is 'good.' The ultimate goal he called the Highest Good: happiness (Gk. eudaimonia - sometimes translated as "living well"). (from Wikipedia) 4
Alexander died on 11 June 323 BCE, in the late afternoon; this can be deduced from the Astronomical diaries, a Babylonian source. Several scholars have argued for 13 June and 10 June, but the first of these dates is based on an inaccurate Greek source that uses a confused Egyptian calendar, and the second is based on inaccurate reading of the Astronomical diary. When Alexander was thirteen, he started learning from Aristotle. Aristotle taught him ways of the Greeks, philosophy, politics, plants and animals. The most important lesson that Aristotle taught Alexander was about the Golden Mean. 5
In the case of drama, Aristotle’s words in The Poetics have set the standard, to the extent that there has in the western world not been any theory of the drama, or discussion of its structure and inner workings, without reference to Aristotle – in all periods where his book was known. His short book is somewhat the stage on which all such thoughts have been acted out. It is adequate to regard all western theory of drama, as comments on Aristotle - little more, but sometimes less, in the sense that his thoughts are repeated without much comment at all. (by Stefan Stenudd) 6
Myths of central and cosmological nature were most likely orally transmitted, long before they were written down, and although they may have transformed greatly in that process from mouth to pen, they were certainly given their plot and structure already well before. As oral tales, they need be much closer to the enacted drama than a written story must, or they would most likely have been forgotten through the generations. Also, it is commonplace in cultures past and present, to enact their central myths – if not in pantomime, so in performances with more or less of a ritual structure. But the most firm indication of their dramatic nature is the structure of all those myths remaining with us, either in documents only, or in practice as well. A vast majority of them have clear signs of the same drama
recollection of the ancient lore, something my master cherished so deeply in his heart, which shaped his visions that I wanted to distract him from, to no avail as it seems. Who knows – maybe Time will show that his Mysteries7 were after all fruitful to the world, knowing how much he relied to his sensual rather than his logical nature, at least when it came to the divine affairs he pursued. I was merely trying to teach him moderation8, to help him see the virtue of ethics in all human actions so that his deeds are those of a good man, since “we are not studying in order to know what virtue is, but to become good, for otherwise there would be no profit in it”9. I could not blame the circumstances that have shaped my life for this position I have acquired in life, since it was my father’s call to take the Rod of Asclepius10, and thus be endeared by the King, which proved favorable during his reign, but turned perilous afterwards. I took a shelter in Athens11, from the turmoil in the Macedonian court. I would not have done it if things were more structure as can be found in most plays of the world, as well as in Aristotle’s The Poetics, and other literature on the construction of the drama. (by Stefan Stenudd) 7
Ref. Orphic Mysteries - Aristotle also writes sympathetically of the Orphic view: ‘the poems known as Orphic say that the soul is born by the winds, enters from the air into animals when they breathe.’ This view of breath as akin to soul is close to the Hindu view and that of Homer, and Aristotle seems here to agree with Pythagoras that animals have souls. Aristotle admired Homer's work - the Iliad and the Odyssey - and used them frequently as examples in his Poetics. 8
Aristotle believed that every ethical virtue is an intermediate condition between excess and deficiency. This does not mean Aristotle believed in moral relativism, however. He set certain emotions (e.g., hate, envy, jealousy, spite, etc.) and certain actions (e.g., adultery, theft, murder, etc.) as always wrong, regardless of the situation or the circumstances. In the Nicomachean Ethics Aristotle often focused on finding the mean between two extremes of any particular subject; whether it be justice, courage, wealth and so forth. For example, courage is a mean between two feelings (fear and confidence) and an action (the courageous act). Too much fear or too little confidence leads to cowardice, and too little fear or too much confidence can lead to rash, foolish choices. Aristotle says that finding this middle ground is essential to reaching eudemonia, the ultimate form of godlike consciousness. This middle ground is often referred to as The Golden Mean. (From Wikipedia) 9
From: Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle
10
The Rod of Asclepius (also known as the rod of Asklepios, rod of Aesculapius or asklepian) is an ancient symbol associated with astrology and with healing the sick through medicine. (from Wikipedia) Aristotle’s father was Nicomachus and his mother Phaestis. We know little about brothers or sisters, except that he must have had at least one, since he had a nephew, Callisthenes, whom he recommended to the service of Alexander the Great – something he would have reason to regret. Diogenes refers to Hermippus in having Nicomachus’ father Machaon and his grandfather the legendary Asclepius, whereas Dionysius of Halicarnassus gives the name Esculapius for the grandfather. In his letter to Ammaeus, Dionysius states that Aristotle’s father traced his lineage to Machaon, which implies more generations than just one. Nicomachus was a prominent physician, member of the guild of the Asclepiade, with prominent physicians allegedly ascended from Asclepius, father of Troy. (by Stefan Stenudd) 11
According to the sources, Nicomachus had cared for the health of king Amyntas III of Macedonia, and may also have been a friend of his. If Aristotle’s father was indeed a friend of Amyntas III, that would be a fortunate thing during his rule, but could very well be the opposite under another king. The one to take over after Amyntas was his
timid at home12. My father’s Trojan heritage and my mother’s Ionian13 bonds, had made my life a bridge between the two sharp edges of this world of mine, shaped both by my senses and reason, that I merely attempted to bestow unto my master’s young mind, so that he may have lived longer and given much more to this world. However, he wanted to follow the path of the crucified one, which took him to lands unknown to our mores, where he attained what we wanted to his own peril. When I arrived in Athens, I was shown to the Academy14, to learn from those who have already attained the glory of the age15, not knowing of what awaited me there. I was incited in the sciences due to my father’s vocation in the Macedonian court, since I knew that eventually it was there where my destiny would take me. The Athenians would never have me as one of their own – if they could not have Socrates16, why would I make an exception. Although it tormented17 me son, Alexander II, who would have been likely to respect the friends of his father, but after just a year he was killed by Ptolemy Alorites, the new husband of Eurydice, widow of Amyntas II. He ruled 368-365 – and that period the friends of Amyntas III might have been out in the cold. In 365 the rule returned to sons and grandsons of Amyntas III, all the way to the death of Alexander in 323. The difficult time for friends of Amyntas III, 368-365 BC, is particularly interesting, since it was in this short period that Aristotle left Macedonia to study in Athens, in 367 or 366. So, he might have had other motifs for this, than an intellectual thirst. At least, he took off in a time when he was the least likely to have good opportunities in the court of Pella. (by Stefan Stenudd) 12
Aristotle was born in 384 BC, in Stagira, a small coastal town in Chalcidice, north of the Aegean sea.
13
Aristotle’s mother Phaestis was a descendant of one of the founders of Stagira, bringing a colony from Chalcis, on the isle of Euboea. Her family owned property in Chalcis, where Aristotle would go at the end of his life.
Ancient Stagira was founded in 655 BC by Ionian colonists from the island of Andros, and survived until the Middle Ages. The distance from Stagira to Athens was well over 200 kilometers, also by sea, but communication was manifold and there was general knowledge of what passed in Athens – in politics as well as philosophy. Stagira belonged to Chalcidice, which was not a part of the Macedonian kingdom at the time of Aristotle’s birth. It was to be annexed in 348 BC by Macedonian king Philip II. Stagira resisted for a while, but in vain. Philip was as forceful a monarch as his son, Alexander the Great, would be. The town was laid in ruins, to be rebuilt later at the order of Alexander, perhaps as a kindness to Aristotle. 14
The concept of philosophical schools on fixed locations was born in this period. Before that, sophists traveled about – either locally, like Socrates, or from one city to another. Athens in that time had two significant schools. One was that of Isocrates, devoted to rhetoric training – a skill of vast importance in the Greek world of that time, with a possibility of both fame and fortune for those most prominent at it. The other school was Plato’s Academy, formed just above twenty years before Aristotle arrived, giving its students a wider education with a mathematical basis. There was distinct rivalry between the schools, whereof that of Isocrates was the most successful. But Aristotle ended up in Plato’s school, whether that was decided already at his departure from Stagira or his own choice when comparing the schools. (by Stefan Stenudd) 15
In 384 BC, when Aristotle was born, Socrates had been dead for 15 years. Plato was 43, just three years past the traditional age of flourishing, and his Academy had been in function for about four years. Sophocles had been dead for two decades. So had Euripides, who spent his last years at the Macedonian court in Pella. Aristophanes died just the year before. In both drama and philosophy, Greece was well into its splendor. (by Stefan Stenudd)
16
Although no nobleman at birth, it is likely that Socrates was a citizen of Athens, something out of reach for Aristotle, who came from up north. His good connection was with Macedonian royalty, not at all the elite of Athens. This must have been frustrating to him, spending such a large portion of his life in Athens, and having the school of
to have lived all my life dedicated to the advance of their intellectual splendor and still not being accepted as theirs, I was more in agony due to the fact that I did not uphold the mysteries of my own kin in the House of Macedon, to the extent that I should have. It was this division that shaped my path in life, which had created an unsurpassable rift in my heart where I gathered all the echoes of my semi-barbaric soul’s yawping, which only solitude could soothe. Out of that rift of opposites the balance came forth, which although a solution to my troubled mind, was way beyond comprehension in the rationality of the Academy18 as set by the principles of my well-revered teacher, and his elite followers. It was my barbaric senses that objected to the Hellenic reason, which taught me the ethics of the equilibrium. I saw such people who defended only reason, and considered themselves superior by means of their self-acquired status. Yet their limitations in perceiving the bliss19 of others in relation to their own vanity, deprived them of the state of perfection that I revered most in the natural world – that of the balance of polarities, not of supremacy of one over the other. It seemed as civilization had lost its touch with the core of its ideals - that of the attainment of perfection, which was dimmed by their rational minds, hidden deep under the veil of fallacies they so boldly called “Hellenic virtues”. It was this charade of hollow vanities that made me delve deep into my soul and see the world as one. The middle path opened to me. I discovered the Golden Mean20.
his making there. He left the city twice – first at Plato’s death, which indicates that his teacher was also his protector in the city with little patience toward strangers. The next time he left Athens was at the death of Alexander III, which was quickly followed by Athenian hostility against anything Macedonian, and that led to the threat of a trial against Aristotle. (by Stefan Stenudd) 17
So, although he lived most of his life in that city, contributing to its education and intellectual refinement, Aristotle was little but tolerated by the citizens, and had no chance of significantly altering their attitude to him. On the contrary, he had to be very careful not to provoke them, and to still his tongue when leaving the compound of the Academy, or later his Lyceum. For a man with as many views as his, that must have been a torment. (by Stefan Stenudd)
18
Plato belonged to the highest citizens of Athens, which had been ruled by relatives of his. Although a brilliant pupil, Aristotle opposed some of Plato's teachings, and when Plato died, Aristotle was not appointed head of the Academy. Whereas Aristotle's teacher Plato had located ultimate reality in Ideas or eternal forms, knowable only through reflection and reason, Aristotle saw ultimate reality in physical objects, knowable through experience. (by Stefan Stenudd) 19
Aristotle contended that happiness could not be found only in pleasure or only in fame and honor. He finally finds happiness "by ascertaining the specific function of man". But what is this function that will bring happiness? To determine this, Aristotle analyzed the soul and found it to have three parts: the Nutritive Soul (plants, animals and humans), the Perceptive Soul (animals and humans) and the Rational Soul (humans only). Thus, a human's function is to do what makes it human, to be good at what sets it apart from everything else: the ability to reason or logos. A person that does this is the happiest because he is fulfilling his purpose or nature as found in the rational soul. Depending on how well he did this, Aristotle said humans belonged to one of four categories: the Virtuous, the Continent, the Incontinent and the Vicious. (from Wikipedia) 20
In philosophy, especially that of Aristotle, the golden mean is the desirable middle between two extremes, one of excess and the other of deficiency. Aristotle's Concept of the Golden Mean
I later taught my young master to attain these, and learn from my experience, of the good habits, which when formed at youth can make all the difference. He who is to be a good ruler must have first been ruled by his good habits, and I feared my young master was too much under the influence of his mother, who incited lust for the sensual in him. Little did I know how deep she had initiated him into the Mysteries at that time! I insisted that his mind must govern his body and that only a good deed would make him a true ruler at the end of the day. However it was his instincts, his intuition and his senses that shaped his path, very much unlike mine, which I secretly admired and often coveted for myself. My greatest disappointment with the Athenians was when the teacher died. It might have been because of my expectations to be appointed as head of the Academy, but I received nothing, not even a gratitude for the knowledge shared. However, it was this that drove me further from the vanity of the elites into the natural realm of experiential science that I enjoyed so much on my travels across Phrygia, Mysia and Troas. I learned a lot about the living world from the observations I did there. When Macedon conquered Athens and the whole of the Greek land, I started a school there, my own Lyceum21, wherefrom I ardently followed my young master’s Holy Quest. I knew he was going to get far, but I never thought he would reach the heights that even the one whose steps he followed could not reach.
cowardice COURAGE rashness humility MODESTY pride quarrelsomeness FRIENDSHIP flattery
stinginess LIBERALITY extravagance secrecy HONESTY loquacity self-indulgence TEMPERANCE insensibility
sloth AMBITION greed moroseness GOOD HUMOR buffoonery apathy EQUANIMITY irascibility
21
The Lyceum (Greek: Λύκειον, Lykeion) was a gymnasium located just outside the walls of ancient Athens, most famous for its association with Aristotle. The Lyceum was an important early milestone in the development [1] of Western science and philosophy and was named for its sanctuary to Apollo Lykeios dates from before the 6th century BC.
Aristotle founded his famous school there in 335 BCE and walked in the Lyceum's stoae and grounds as he lectured, surrounded by a throng of students, so the philosophical school he founded was called the Peripatetics. Aristotle was the head of his school until 322 BCE when he fled to Macedon after a charge of impiety was made against him. Theophrastus served as the second head of the school. Later heads include Strato of Lampsacus and Alexander of Aphrodisias. (from Wikipedia)
When the young master fell bed-ridden, I was summoned by his mother to go to Babylon and see to him myself, since he wanted to see “the best”22, that is what he had said. My tempers flared at this notion, since he only used it to mock me when he was a young rascal. I was indeed driven by the tacit vanity of being the best among men, and I secretly praised myself when I thought of all the knowledge I have acquired23. But I found that the golden mean was the best way to do that, not that it would conceal my ambition, but rather endorse my equanimity as such. The very notion “the best” deterred me from my modesty, and I always failed to resist its humiliating effect on my cultivated rational soul. In Athens they started spreading all sorts of fallacies24 against me, and I felt like everything was lost. I decided I would not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy, so I set on a journey that would change me forever. I already told you in my previous letter about the unusual event that befell upon the procession as we were carrying the young master’s body. However, I did not tell you that the storm that appeared from nowhere took us by surprise, and when it all calmed down, I entered the carriage only to see that the young master’s body was gone, vanished – it disappeared in thin air. There was only a red crystal stone left on it. As big as a human head. The young master’s last words to me were to take the stone to the place where the Sun met the Cross25, and wait for his return there. I could not make anything from his mumbling at that time, since I thought it was the illness that made my young monster speak in delirium.
22
Some writers have added to the Royal Diaries that the high officers most closely in his confidence asked Alexander to name his successor, and that Alexander's reply was 'the best man'. The name Aristotle translates approximately to ‘the best’, suggesting that to be in bravery and the like. (by Stefan Stenudd)
23
Aristotle not only studied almost every subject possible at the time, but made significant contributions to most of them. In physical science, Aristotle studied anatomy, astronomy, economics, embryology, geography, geology, meteorology, physics and zoology. In philosophy, he wrote on aesthetics, ethics, government, metaphysics, politics, psychology, rhetoric and theology. He also studied education, foreign customs, literature and poetry. His combined works constitute a virtual encyclopedia of Greek knowledge. It has been suggested that Aristotle was probably the last person to know everything there was to be known in his own time. 24
Upon Alexander's death, anti-Macedonian sentiment in Athens once again flared. Eurymedon the hierophant denounced Aristotle for not holding the gods in honor. Aristotle fled the city to his mother's family estate in Chalcis, explaining, "I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy," a reference to Athens's prior trial and execution of Socrates. However, he died in Euboea of natural causes within the year (in 322 BC). Aristotle left a will and named chief executor his student Antipater, in which he asked to be buried next to his wife. It has also been proposed that Aristotle's banishment and death resulted from the possibility that he was involved with the death of Alexander the Great.
25
The Sun Cross, a cross inside a circle, is one of the oldest and most widespread of symbols. The Neolithic symbol combining cross and circle is the simplest conceivable representation of the union of opposed polarities in the Western world. Crossed circles scratched on stones have been recovered from Paleolithic cave sites in the Pyrenees. At the most famous megalithic site in Scotland, Callanish, crossing avenues of standing stones extend from a circle. Scratched into stone or painted on pottery, as on that of the Samara culture, the crossedcircle symbol appears in such diverse areas as the Pyrenees in Old Europe, the Anatolia, Mesopotamia, the
…I remember when he was still a young child I once took him to a place in Macedonia, by a beautiful lake, where I wanted to teach him of the nature’s miracles. As we were walking along the shore, the sun’s rays diffracted from behind the hills reflecting the image of a cross on the lake’s surface. He was so amazed by the phenomenon that he shouted: Look, the Sun on Cross… I was shocked to see the stone in the coffin, and at first I did not know what to do. I told Ptolemy about the whole matter, and we decided to seal his coffin and put it in a safe place where people would pay reverence to the Great Czar. We told nobody of the missing body and the crystal stone. We were astounded by the mystery that struck us. I took the stone to that place and hid it in a cave nearby. Only Ptolemy knew of this secret that the master bestowed upon us without warning. And I marked the place with a cross in a square.
Sun diffraction image Celtic Cross Cross symbol from Kokino To me it was as if I was following my master’s orders coming from the Other World. And even now as I am writing this letter to you, my dear friend, knowing that the secret will be sealed with you forever, my hand is trembling and my heart is shivering at the Mystery I was initiated in, by witnessing this miraculous resurrection of my master’s dead body, just as the prophecy proclaimed, which he believed wholeheartedly, following the steps of the one who walked in the Mystery before him. The reason I am telling you this is because of the same symbol that I saw embroidered on your garment, which you told me represented the Sun Hero26 which at that time amused me, but now I Iranian plateau, and the cities of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa in the Indus River valley. It may be compared to the yin-yang symbol of the Eastern world. In the prehistoric religion of Bronze Age Europe, crosses in circles appear frequently on artifacts identified as cult items, for example the "miniature standard" with an amber inlay that shows a cross shape when held against the light, dating to the Nordic Bronze Age, kept in the National Museum of Denmark, Copenhagen. The Bronze Age symbol has also been connected with the spoked chariot wheel, which at the time was four-spoked (compare the Linear B ideogram 243 "wheel" ), a technological innovation that reached Europe in the mid 2nd millennium BC, and which in the context of the Sun chariot may also have had a "solar" connotation.
26
Another important mythological complex is that of the "Sun Hero", typical of the nomad-herders. Such heroes are encountered among the African nomad tribes, the tribes from Central Asia (Gesen Khan), and among all IndoEuropean peoples. The Sun Hero always has a "dark" side - he has some sort of connection with the underworld,
see the true power of its reverence in your beliefs and I admire you for the faith you hold. I have become a believer, and at this very moment, as I have nothing left to attain besides my mother’s native land - the sacred womb that awaits my worn body to retire in her hidden temple - I know that at least I have seen the Mystery unveiled to me, and although I am not worthy to proclaim this truth even to my own shadow, I believe in the resurrection of the souls, and in the new life in eternity. If, then, the manner of God’s existence is as good as ours sometimes is, but eternally, then this is marvelous, and if it is better, this is still more marvelous; and it is the latter. And life belongs to God, for the actuality of the intellect is life, and He is actuality; and His actuality is in virtue of itself as life which is the best and is eternal. We say that God is a living being which is eternal and the best; so life and continuous duration and eternity belong to God, for this is God. (Metaphysics) May your soul rejoice in eternal bliss‌ Yours in faith, Aristotle
with the initiation ritual and with fertility. The Sun Hero myth contains many elements that link the Hero with the Demiurge. The Hero often saves the world, renews the world, opens a new epoch, and generally brings about some major renewal to the established cosmical order. These functions of the Sun Hero represent the demiurgical "legacy" left from the supreme celestial being. A typical example for such evolution is the god Mithras. The Mithraic Mysteries or Mysteries of Mithras (also Mithraism) was a mystery religion based on the worship of Mithra, the Persian god of the sun, justice, contract, and war in pre-Zoroastrian Iran. Preceding Christianity by 600 years, Mithra was born on Dec. 25. A son of the sun god, he raised the dead, healed the sick and casted out demons. His religion had a eucharist, in which his blood was wine. He bleeds corn in some depictions. originally the slaying of the bull was attributed to Ahriman, but later to Mithra (who brought forth life through the slaying of evil [in the form of a bull]). It was said that at the endtimes, when all men are to be made immortal, a "bull of heaven" (called "Hadhayos") would be slain, whose fat would be mixed with haoma (the sacred intoxicant), and would grant eternal life to mankind. Mithraism was an initiatory order, passed from initiate to initiate, like the Eleusinian and Orphic mysteries. It was not based on a body of scripture, and hence very little written documentary evidence survives.