An overview of childbirth in urban China
(1) Maternal state
In the old days of China, there was a strong emphasis on foetal education. What is foetal education? To better prepare for the baby’s physical and mental health, the expectant mother would undergo gefang (‘room separation’ i.e., pelvic rest) with the father, since the first sign of baby bump, usually around the end of the first trimester of the pregnancy.
During this period, special attention must be paid to the expectant mother’s daily activities, for example, avoidance of all kinds of exercises, so as not to exhaust the mother. On the one hand, she should be comforted mentally by given all sorts of arts, crafts, literature and musical works including novels, embroidery and drawings etc. in the spare time. On the other hand, she is provided with infant outfits, gears and equipment in preparation of the baby’s arrival.
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All these are meant for her spiritual fulfilment and cultivation, so that the child may be brought up well. Gestational diet is particularly concerned, that the food must be easy to digest, nourished with nutritional supplements. In one or two months prior to the childbirth, additional attentiveness and precaution must be observed. The midwife visits and cares for the mother frequently towards the full term of pregnancy.
(2) The state of the birth
The expectant mother’s closest caregivers, of course, are her mother-in-law, mother and the midwife, who often look after her.
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She should be able to relate to the experience of her mother-in-law and her maternal mother who both had given birth to children. Soon, the mother will enter the stage of linpen (labour). What is meant by linpen? When the woman is ready to give birth, a pen (basin) is placed on top of the ruzi (birth mattress), and that lin (to arrive) phrases it up as ‘arrival to the basin’. The purpose of this is to receive the water from the birth canal (the amniotic fluid) and so on.
Sometimes, when the mother is weak or in a difficult labour, a rich family will prepare shenshui (ginseng water) to help her recover energy and facilitate the labour. Right after the delivery, the baby is received by hand by the shoushengpo (Midwife. Shou,‘to receive’; sheng, ‘birth’; po, ‘old lady’), and the umbilical cord is cut by scissors.
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The child is then washed with the prepared aizishui (mugwort water) and wrapped in the pre-arranged gezi (Cloth diaper. Ge, originally refers to the front lapel of jacket, or monk’s robe.)
During the day and night, the baby is not given any food or drink in order to defecate before having kaikounai (First milk. Kaikou, ‘to open the mouth’). Sometimes, prior to being fed with kaikounai, the baby is given a small amount of huanglianshui (water boiled with golden thread, coptis japonica) for detoxing purpose. Then the baby is fed with milk again.
(3) Xi-san (Washing on the third day after birth)
On the third day, the baby is officially bathed.
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Close relatives and friends such as aunts and uncles who want to celebrate for the new-born are allowed to enter and leave the maternity ward from this day onwards, while those who are not here today (i.e., general relatives and friends) are forbidden to enter and leave the maternity ward during the whole month.
Three days after the childbirth, the grandparents give the relatives and friends a special gift of chicken eggs dyed in red and placed in a box, as a prosperous notice of delivering the good news of a new-born baby. At the same time, the relatives and friends provide gifts to celebrate the baby birth, such as pork knuckles, jizi (rooster’s testicle), brown sugar, and kang-roo (baked wheat cake, a kind of dim sum in Beijing).
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(4) Banmanyue (One month old celebration)
A formal ceremony is held to celebrate the baby’s first full month after birth. (30 days from the first day of the baby's birth). The mother steps out of the delivery room and introduces the baby to everyone, followed by a celebratory feast.
Notes:
During the month, the mother consumes a nutritious diet including chicken eggs, milk, baked wheat cake and millet congee.
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A general description of childbirth in the less civilised areas of old rural China
Customs and practices vary among different parts of China, so as the perspectives of understanding childbirth. With the introduction of maternity care school, delivery wards and modern medical techniques, the situation in the rural areas have changed. Let’s take a look as follows.
(1) Condition of the expectant mother
The countryside is short of sanitary facilities. Attention to the health of the pregnant woman is limited. Pregnant women may not be given enough rest.
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However, she is encouraged to avoid heavy lifting, and will be able to do light work.
The baby's gezi (cloth diaper) is prepared in advance. The expectant mother’s diet remains normal. When the due date gets close, a midwife is invited to visit the family once.
A day or two before the birth, the midwife is asked to stay with the family. A local woman with childbirth experience is also invited to the house. What is the role of an additional lady? Her job is to prepare the milk for the baby (the mother is not allowed to prepare the first milk for her baby).
(2) State of labour
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Village houses are made of earth and unburnt bricks. Impoverished villagers live an extremely tatty life with no sanitary facilities, which is sad and pitiful. Sunken pits are covered straw mat, instead of cloth mattress or soft sitting mat. Regardless of its low value, the straw mat is highly treasured by the locals who always keep it clean. Therefore, when a woman gives birth, the straw mat is removed and will not be stained by the amniotic fluid.
The woman’s labour and delivery are entirely handled by hand by the midwife. In the case of complication, the midwife massages and pushes the woman’s belly, clears the fluid from birth canal, or tear the perineum (the layer of skin between vaginal opening and scrotum), all by hand.
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Medical negligence and malpractice lead to the midwife’s failure to handle birth asphyxia. She does not know how to perform artificial respiration, and cannot make correct judgement of whether the baby is alive or dead. Doctors are usually not consulted, and the baby is dumped in the field unburied. If a wild dog eats the corpse of the baby, the superstitious villagers may consider it as an omen for a soon arrival of the next healthy baby.
If the baby is smoothly delivered, the placenta must come down with the baby at the same time. A baby must not be brought out without the placenta, which will be buried under the edge of a sunken pit. The straw mat is then laid out properly. A stick will be used to split the placenta into halves and
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cut the baby’s umbilical cord which is then glued into a clump. The additional lady (local woman, as explained above) will smack the baby’s mouth with a salted radish and give him a mouthful of the first milk.
A small mattress of sorts is made from bags of rice bran. Pockets of ashes are also used to put on the child's buttock, so that if the ashes get wet, they can be replaced. The baby’s arms, belly and legs are tied with gezi (Diaper made of green cloth. Two to three pieces are often made as replacement). When the baby turns one year old, the gezi will be untied,
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and the baby instantly crawls away. Instead of the mother's milk, the baby is fed with someone else's milk. Some believe that this may lead to infant convulsion, and even death, within a single day.
(3) Xi-san (Washing on the third day)
On the third day after birth, the baby is washed with jizi (rooster’s testicle). A coin is placed in the bathing basin, and will be taken by the midwife as a reward afterwards.
If a baby boy is born, a bow and an arrow will be hung on the door; P13
If a baby girl is born, a red cloth will be hung. The couple is not allowed to live in the same room for one month. Friends and relatives are forbidden to enter the house. If a visitor stops by with a key, the key must be held back and returned to them after a month. (Superstition suggests that if the key is immediately taken away, the milk will also be gone). In some regions, women with children are restrained from entering the house (also in the fear of ‘taking away’ the milk).
Three or twelve days after the childbirth, friends and relatives bring white noodles or jizi as a present to the family. If it is the family’s first child, the mother's maiden family will bring over a bushel of white rice, a pocket of white noodles and 200 jizi, as well as baby goods like mattress and gezi.
(4) Banmanyue (One month old celebration)
A celebration party is held on the 30th day since the baby is born. Steamed buns are sent to the family by the mother’s maiden family. In some areas, dabo (big bun, a kind of dim sum) is also prepared. White noodles are mainly served in the banquet. Depending on the number of guests, quantities of tables vary. Every table sits four attendants, and is placed four big trays of food including vermicelli made of bean flour, green vegetables, fried jizi, fried bean sprouts, etc., together with four other cold appetizers. The more affluent families would afford six hot dishes and six cold dishes, with noodles as the main dish as well.
From one month old, the baby will lay in a bassinet.
An overview of childbirth in rural China is outlined above.
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Manifestations of Love
(1) From parents to children
Natural and innocent, parents’ love for their children is innate, and is universal across cultures and nations. The only difference is the way love is expressed. In the old China which is bound by multi-layered rituals, although the love between father and son is fundamentally genuine, it is hardly expressed. Based on my knowledge on the according customs and practices, I further elaborate the topic as follows.
There should be no difference between the love a child receives from his father or mother. However, the love of the father is often characterised by a sense of severity. For example, if the child is lazy and lacks motivation to study or work, the father will get angry and address a reprimand, which is indeed an expression of love. On the other hand, the mother is always seen tender, kind and considerate. She never stops concerning her daughters and sons, including their day-to-day living, diet, travel and all sorts of activities. The mother hugs and kisses her children, sings and reads poems to them, pats them to sleep and plays with them. When the children get sick, the parents are most anxious to take him to the doctor and give them medicine. Nothing makes the parents happier than the recovery of the sick children. The parents are aspired to nurture the children for an outstanding academic path and a successful career. Love from the parents is unconditional and pure.
(2) Brotherhood and sisterhood
Manifestations of love among individuals are rare in the old China. Customs such as shaking hands and kissing are nonexistent. However, in some circumstances, certain practices are noted. In terms of brotherhood, the sworn brothers burn incense and make offerings to each other. They also bow to each other's parents, and exchange lanpu (‘orchid book’, genealogical record of sworn brothers) in which the names of ancestors including great-grandparents, grandparents and parents, as well as children's names and birth dates are written. Since swearing loyalty to each other, they share the same honour and integrity, and live as close as maternal siblings.
Women consider each other as ganjiemei (god sisters) without compiling lanpu. They project an intimate friendship, may live and study handicrafts, needlework and embroidery together. If they do not live together, they make sure to visit each other often, go out for games and sports, and regularly exchange gifts of beloved objects. They continue to see each other even after marriage and keep the friendship as strong as ever.
P15 (3) Love between childrenThe natural and innocent love among children is not manifested through any solid means. The mischievous children play and sing together, exchanged hugs, and visit each other's homes for meals. The love in children does not show much difference among geographical regions. --
Hosts receiving guests
New Year, parents' birthdays and general visits
New Year, festive seasons and parents' birthdays are all about celebration. Visits are rarely made individually, but almost always with the whole family. Relatives and friends, for examples, all come to celebrate the occasion. When they meet with each other, the guests begin with auspicious words to their hosts, offering distinguished celebratory notes associated with New Year, different festivals, and birthday of the host. All are spoken in a polite, courteous and cheerful manner.
For example, during the visit, the guest starts the conversation to the host by saying ‘Happy New Year! We are here to pay our respects to you. Please sit down and I will give you a bow. The host oftens politely rejects the bow, 'You are so welcome. Please refrain from being overly courteous.’ If the guest is a junior, it is necessary for him to bow, which is naturally accepted by the senior host. In the case of a more distant relative, the guest may bow upwards to the sky, while the host, at his side, politely lifts him up by hands.
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If the guest and the host are of the same generation, they either salute to each other, or excuse each other’s courtesy gestures.
The customs of celebrating general festivals and the new year are basically the same. The only difference is the language used in each occasion.
General visit
Most first-time visit are made by a solo person without company of family members. Upon meeting, the guest hands souvenirs through whoever opens the door to the host. The host then greets the guest at the door of the house. The two salute and bow to each other (handshakes are also practised in the city nowadays).
The host allows the guest to enter the house first, walks him to the living room to be seated. The host prepares tea and cigarettes, and entertains him with various conversations. Almost all of the conversations are polite and pleasant, often in the sequence of ‘I have heard a lot about you’ (guest); 'Where are you from? What can I do for you today? I would be grateful for your advice.’ (host). The guest courtly replies in humble language such as 'I am driven by your great reputation. Please excuse me from visiting you so suddenly. I am honoured to be here'. As long as politeness is emphasised, there is no specific format of speech. If something inappropriate is said, the listener will be too embarrassed to make correction. Only close relatives or intimate friends are comfortable to correct each other. After the conversation, the guest says, 'I'm sorry to have bothered you', while the host responds 'You are welcome'. The host sends the guest out to the door, bids farewell, watches his car departs faraway and enters back home.
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For visits between close relatives and friends, such as a couple with their children going to see an elder host, formal welcoming is not necessary. The guests can casually wait inside the house. If the two are of the same generation, or the guest is a senior, the host must perform the formal greeting. If the guests are woman and children, they are almost always escorted to the backyard by the hostess. In all meetings, tea, cigarettes, fruit snacks such as melon seeds are prepared by the host for the guest. Their chat is generally in casual manner. The guest is often asked to stay for dinner or playing mahjong (Chinese poker). They show an intimacy to each other. If someone says something wrong, the other one can correct it. They candidly make jokes, tell stories, listen to music or sing some songs together. When the visit ends, the host sends the guest off to the car and waves a solemn goodbye.
Notes:
As a general rule, if the host is a senior, he will sit at the front of the table, otherwise the guest will be asked to sit there.
The love of a married couple
In the old days of China, marriage between a man and a woman is arranged by their parents and through a matchmaker. When a couple first meet, they are unaware of the physical outlook and personality of each other, and their feelings towards each other change over the course of marriage. In some cases, love at first sight happens; in other cases, it takes a long time for affection to develop; in worse cases, disappointment occurs from the first day, or good feelings never
accumulate; in the worst cases, quarrelsome, ill-fated relationship is resulted. Human relationship is highly tied to and bothered by the rigid society and its many rules of the old China.
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Therefore, people tend to avoid affectionate reaction when meeting each other. For husband and wife, the classic motto xiangjing rubin (never fail in mutual respect) is the central concept that governs all behaviours among married couples.
In recent years, manifestation of love between married couples in urban China are expressed in a similar way to the rest of the world. Intimate gestures such as handshakes and kisses are commonly seen.
Sitting techniques
1. Pantui zuo (Cross-legged sitting) (for men and women)
Elderly people or senior members of the family often sit in this way. If a younger person sits cross-legged when meeting an elder, he is considered poor-mannered and disrespectful.
2. Jizuo (Kneeing) (for men and women)
Before chair is invented, people in ancient China sit directly on the floor. This kind of sitting is the same as kneeling on the floor.
3. Jiju (Squatting) (for men only)
Labourers and general people sit in this way after work, as a restful pose.
4. Baoxi zuo (Sitting on the knees) (for men only)
Same as above, a leisurely pose.
5. Talatui zuo (Colloquial. Sitting with legs pulled down) (for men and women)
General people’s common posture on pits, chairs and sofas.
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(6) Zuoyoutui tazhe zuo (Colloquial. Sitting with the left and right legs in a marching position)
This is the most common form of sitting, whether on a pit, a chair, a bed or a sofa.
(7) Panyitiaotui Zhiyitiaotui zuo (Sitting with one leg over the other)
A natural way of sitting during casual conversation (forbidden when meeting a guest for the first time).
(8) Jiafu zuo (Sitting cross-legged) (for men and women)
A common practice for monks and elderly people during meditation.
(9) Jiaozhi zuoshang (Sitting with the feet on the table) (for men only)
An overly casual way of sitting. If a guest sits on a chair with his feet on the table, he is considered uncultured.
(10) Yizuo (Leaning) (for men and women)
Leaning against a cushion, a rock, a tree, a log, etc.
(11) Cuitou zuo (Sitting with the head hanging down) (for men and women)
An intrinsic posture when one is bored, or when an old person is tired.
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(12) Angran erzuo (Sitting with aspiration and lifting spirit) (for men only)
Of someone when aiming high in life, with a sense of arrogance.
(13) Kuzuo (Sitting withered) (for men and women)
A person sitting alone and solitarily.
(14) Mozuo (Sitting in silence) (for men and women)
Sitting without words.
(15) Fujizuo (Bending over the table) (for men and women)
A sign of sitting asleep.
(16) Chenzuo (Zen sitting) (for men and women)
Same as fujiazuo above, a monk sitting into the void.
(17) Cezuo (Side sitting) (for men and women)
When the younger generation meets with the elder, they sit on the side instead of face to face, as a respect.
(18) Mozuo (Last seat) (for men and women)
The last seat.
(19) Shouzuo (First seat) (for men and women)
The uppermost seat.
(20) Dazuo (Meditation) (for men and women)
The meditation poses for both Daoist and Buddhist monks. The prior sometimes sit with their hands on both knees and their feet on the ground. P21
(21) Cuxi zuo (Sitting knee to knee) (for men and women)
Two friends or relatives sitting knees to knees while talking to each other
Types of incense burning
(1) Incense burning for worshipping ancestor
(2) Incense burning at New Year and special festivals
(3) Incense burning at marriage (old-style marriage ceremony) when worshipping heaven and earth
(4) Incense burning at funerals
(5) Incense burning as offerings to ancestors and buddhas
(6) Incense burning at the temple
Incense is burned inside and outside the temple during New Year or other kinds of celebrations
(7) Incense burning when monks enter the temple chanting scriptures, equivalent to Taoist rituals.
(8) Incense burning at monasteries as daily offerings
(9) Incense burning at temple fairs in metropolitan areas
(10) Incense burning at shops (for New Year and opening of a business. Worship of the God of Wealth)
(11) Incense burning on the first and fifteenth days of each month (to the ancestors, heaven and earth, and the King of Turtles in family household)
(12) Incense burning at ancestral halls and guilds (by carpenters, blacksmiths, masons, etc. on the first and fifteenth days of the month)
(13) Incense burning by merchants at Guandi (the God of Chivalry) Temple on the first and fifteenth days of the month
(14) Incense burning by village people in local temples on the first and fifteenth days of the month
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(15) Incense burning by kiln dwellers to Immortals Hu and Huang on the first and fifteenth days of the month, or everyday
(16) Incense burning by women to the Bodhisattva, daily (the believers)
(17) Incense burning by the government at Confucius Temple and Guandi Temple in spring and autumn.
Notes:
Incenses are supposed to be burnt fully.
Notes:
The origin of immortals Hu and Huang remains obscure. Some believe that Hu is a fox and Huang is a yellow rat, both of which is able to deceive people. This is a myth in the village from the old days. --
Types of Incense
(1) Zangxiang (Tibetan incense) (Incenses made in Tibet)
One large stick and nine small sticks to be burnt.
(2) Yunxiang (Rue incense) (biscuit)
(3) Tanxiang (Sandalwood incense) (biscuit)
(4) Xianxiang (Threaded incense) (three sticks to be burnt)
(5) Jinlingxiang (Golden bell incense) (three sticks to be burnt)
(6) Chenggude jinlingxiang (Bunch of golden bell incense) (bunch)
(7) Chenggude xianxiang (Bunch of threaded incense)
(8) Xiangmian (Powdered incense)
(9) Jiangxiang (Agarwood incense) (small red pieces)
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Outline of the controversial remarriage by widow in the old northeast China
(1) Attitude of the general public
Numerous practices and customs are seen in different parts of China. I am going to explain what I know about the subject in the northeast region. If a young widow without children or property remarries another man whom she genuinely loves, the community, her parents and clan normally accept the situation without harsh criticism, in recognition of her unique situation. If a widow does not have the above condition, lives as single in her mother-in-law's house for many years, but suddenly give up her virtue and abandons her children, or takes them with her together with part of the family property
P24 and secretly marries another man, her parents, relatives, and in-laws will be deeply unhappy and inevitably unsympathetic about her choices. If a widow pretends to be single and continues to stay with her in-laws for many years,
but is indeed seeing other men underground, she may face a consequence, sometimes out of the displeasure of the community, as a forced bride to a random man. In some cases, the widow’s parents and the clansmen may order her to remarry, halting her stay in the in-law's residence as a widow. If a widow refuses to leave her deceased husband's house, shoujie (keeps her chastity) and supports her in-laws, she is praised and admired by the general public. The local officials or the city government will commission to build a stone plaque of honour, in praise of her high moral standard, permanently on display.
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Surname changing of widow’s children
The answer is as follows.
Young children will be raised by the widow mother for a few years and returned to the father’s side when grown up. If the family of the father’s side is too poor, the child will have to follow the mother's remarriage and adopt the surname of a different man. However, if the child is able to become independent in the future, he may return to the father’s ancestral home and revert to the original surname.
(2) Remarriage of women who has been proposed but not officially married to the deceased husband
1 - If a woman is not officially married but the fiancé has died, and she decides to stay with and support her in-laws instead of seeking a new marriage, she will be highly respected by both parents, relatives and the general public. The families or community will request the government to build a stone plaque in honour of her chastity.
2 - If a woman of the above situation decides to remarry, she is hardly criticised by her surroundings. However, she will be called wangmenfang (traditionally referring to a deceased bride shortly after married), in the superstitious thought that she brings ill fate that leads to the husband’s death.
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As the widow is considered to be a person of bad luck, most men are unwilling to marry her. Even if she is able to find a new spouse, the choice is limited, and is usually restricted to men of inferior appearance or low social rank.
(3) Men to remarry
A man looking into remarriage is never criticised. In ancient China, buxiao yousan, wuhou weida (‘of the three sins of lack of filial piety, the greatest is to have no sons’, quoted from Mencius) has been a deeply-rooted stigma. A remarried man is regarded only right and proper. But if he does not want to marry another woman, he is described as shouyi (withholding the integrity).
Notes:
A widow (woman) chooses not to remarry is called shoujie (withholding the chastity); a widower (man) chooses not to remarry is called shouyi (withholding the integrity).
(4) Illegitimate childbirth
If a husband learns that his wife has committed adultery and given birth to a child of another man, he may undergo the process of youqi (repudiate the wife). The woman will be disdained by parents of both sides as well as the general public. The illegitimate child will be raised by the husband’s family or sent to orphanage.
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(5) Women have no legal power to divorce men
If a wife wants to be officially separated from her husband, it is impossible for her to seek permission from the magistrate. However, it can be carried out through private settlement, colloquially called dabadao (secretly draft the terms of divorce). Practically speaking, she must return all property to the man. Her family and the community may consider her action improper, although little is being said. If the woman’s in-law family is known to be a very good and caring one, she will be judged harshly for divorcing the husband and remarrying another man.
(6) Status of men and women
(Family) Men have inheritance rights to property; women do not.
(Society) Women are dependent on men; they have no independent status. (Labour) Men works outside; women take care of the house. (Government) Women are not allowed to work in the government.
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Above is the custom observed in the old days of China. General views and practices have long been reformed. Examples nowadays include:
(1) Both men and women have the freedom of marriage and divorce. A divorce is validated only if it is deemed lawful by the court.
(2) Illegitimate children are also part of the family.
(3) Widows are free to remarry without criticism from their parents or the general public.
(4) Women’s adultery is not interfered, but are most likely divorced if husbands find out.
(5) Men and women are equal in all aspects.
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Jizijin (Collection of characters comprised of many smaller characters)
Following is a list of Chinese characters that are recreated by mixing several smaller individual characters into a large one.
Zhaocai jinbao (Ushering in wealth and prosperity)
Wufu shouweixian (Of the five blessings, longevity is the most important)
Chinese people often write this character on red paper and stick it on the money cabinets.
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Huangjin wanliang (Ten thousand taels of gold, with similar meaning to the previous)
Five Blessings and Longevity (the top element imitates the shape of a bat. Fu (bat) and fu (blessing) are homonymous in Chinese. The bottom left part is Arabic number five that constitutes the ‘five’ blessings.
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Fu, lu, shou, xi, pingan, ruyi (Blessings, prosperity, longevity, happiness, peace and all come true as the heart desires)
Weiwu zhizu (I am always contented)
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Dou (The Great Dipper and the North Star)
Kuixing (Shape of Chinese character dou formed by four out of the seven stars in the Great Dipper constellation; God of Literature)
Zhengxin, xiushen, keji, fuli (To rectify the mind, cultivate the body, restrain oneself and restore the rites)
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Rijin doujin (Receiving ten litres of gold every day)
Xiqi mantang (The house full of joy)
There are plenty of such hybrid characters in China. I hereby record what I know, mainly the popular ones.
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San (Umbrella)
Tianxia taiping (World peace)
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Notes on matchmaking in the old Chinese society
In the old days of China, marriage is defined by the classical saying fumuzhiming, meishouzhiyan (make match by parents’ order and on matchmaker's word). Marriage can be arranged at the couple’s childhood or after they reach adulthood. Until the wedding ceremony, all negotiations and related matters are handled by the meiren (matchmaker). Some newly-wed couples never meet with each other until the wedding day. Before photography was invented, the bride and groom are unable to know about each other’s physical appearance. Similarly, they cannot communicate with each other without the going through the matchmaker. The matchmaker is supposed to deliver truthful information to both parties, but there are cases of false
statements like fake age or concealed health issues.
If either party decides to huihun (repudiation of engagement) before the marriage is made official, and makes actions for legal proceedings, the matchmaker will also be interrogated at the court. The matchmaker is not given any particular rights.
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After the wedding ceremony, the matchmaker will be rewarded a banquet, wine, meat and noodles. If the bride is a widow, the matchmaker may earn a portion of the her shenjia (price for buying a girl in old China. In case of widow, the price is paid to the deceased husband’s parents, ranging $300 to $500 yuan).
The marriage of a man and a woman is usually based on the advice of their parents, so the parents of both parties are the key persons of the marriage. The man and the woman may each consult a matchmaker and seek a guzhe (blind person) or buzhe (fortune-teller) to proceed. If the couple is examined by the teller to be an unfortunate one, they will give up the engagement; if they are considered to be a good match, a matchmaker will be appointed by both parents to carry out the marriage plan. (In urban China, fortune telling is not necessary in matchmaking. The superstition is extinct in modern times.) The expectant groom picks an auspicious day for the engagement, invites the matchmaker, any person assisted the matchmaking and other relatives and friends to a dinner party, and presents a folded red paper of meiqian (matchmaking letter) or longfengqian (‘dragon and phoenix’ letter, also refers to matchmaking letter). The letter is normally written ‘X asks for permission to marry the daughter of Y for his son (includes his birth date and birth hour)’ and is signed by the matchmaker.
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(Signatures of both matchmaker and the assistant). Caili sise (Gifts of four colours) is written on the letter by the matchmaker, which usually says ‘two pieces of clothing, a gold or silver box, a gold or silver bracelet, and cheek powder). The gifts are placed in a red box and sent to the bride’s house by the matchmaker and the assistant.
The bride’s family then hosts a dinner with friends and relatives, matchmaker and the assistant. They will write a letter of similar sort, as a reply to the groom’s family. The letter should state the acceptance of the marriage proposal, include the bride’s birth date and hour, also signed by the same matchmaker and the assistant. Another set of caili sise, which is typically ‘a hat, a belt, a pair of shoes and a gold or silver watch’, is placed in the same box and sent to the groom’s house.
From here, both parties keep their matchmaking letters as proof of statement. The matchmaker holds the responsibility of the engagement until the wedding day.
The groom decides on the date of the wedding, sent by the matchmaker to the bride. Wedding gowns and suits, and any related materials are being prepared. As the date of the wedding draws near,
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the groom will send a pig and some wine to the bride through the matchmaker. The matchmaker is of course invited to the wedding banquet, but can also be absent. Most matchmakers are indeed relatives or friends of the couple. There are no professional matchmakers. The situation applies to widows, but most relatives and friends are reluctant to perform the role.
After the wedding ceremony, the matchmaker holds no further responsibility. Matchmakers are still used in the villages, but the customs are gradually changing. Some of them only take charge of the introduction part and no longer pick up other matters.
In modern times, although matchmakers so-called exist, they do not get involved with any issues except for hooking up a man and a woman. During the wedding ceremony, a witness is present to officiate the marriage. The marriage certificate is stamped by the wedding couple, an officiant, a clerk and the matchmaker.
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Rare foods
Rumours of some rare foods (not necessarily true) :
(1) The Cantonese are said to have a dish of cooking a cat and a snake together, named as longfudou (fight of a dragon and a tiger).
(2) A Cantonese legend suggests that a live monkey is placed in the cave carved out from the centre of the dining table. While its head is exposed, washed with boiling water, the skull is hammered and the brain is the part to be eaten, paired with wine.
(3) Legend has it that rotten celery is eaten with the maggots grown inside, called rouya (meat sprouts).
(4) The Cantonese are said to have a dish of dipping live mouse with honey. When the mouse is eaten, it cries out pain
that sounds like ‘ji’, so the dish is named miji (honey and the ‘ji’ sound)
(The above are all rumours)
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The following rare foods have been witnessed.
(1) Hashenma (Grease inside the stomach of toads)
Hama (toad) is also known as tianji (frog). The Manchurian cooks it by boiling it in the soup.
(2) Mazha (Deep-fried grasshopper)
Some people in Tianjin fry grasshoppers in oil and roll them in white flour biscuits.
(3) Banhuoxia (Live Shrimps salad)
Some people in Shandong mix live shrimps with soy sauce, vinegar and other ingredients, and eat them while they are moving in their mouths.
(4) Jiulongcong (Nine dragon worm)
Some people feed a black hard-shelled worm day-to-day with valuable herbs such as cinnamon, let it grow to a certain size and eat it alive, which is said to be very nutritious.
(5) Kedou or hamagudu (tadpoles)
(Cooked in water) as a drink for children, believed to be effective in detoxing.
Precious Foods
(1) Yanwo (bird’s nest)
Nests built on rocks by swallows (swiftlets) inhabited on oceanic islands, made of (swiftlets’ saliva), small ocean fish and other materials. The nests are soaked in boiling water, carefully examined, and removed any feathers by tweeters. The cleaned, filtered product is mixed with white sugar in a can, before slowly steamed and boiled in a pot of water, for five to six hours, or two to three hours. It is believed to be very nutritious.
(2) Yin-er (silver mushroom)
Found in Sichuan, Jiangxi and other parts of China.
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Purely white or yellow, this type of mushroom is dried and cooked in the same way as bird's nests, and can be cooked in soup.
Ways of cooking tofu
Everyone eats tofu in China. There are countless tofu recipes. I hereby capture some of them:
(1) Chao doufu (Stir-fried tofu)
Stir-fry tofu in a wok until dry and remove the jiang (water released from tofu). Stir-fry it again with oil, scallion and salt, and is ready to serve. It is a beautiful and aromatic dish and can be paired with white rice. (Cooking time is about three to five minutes)
(2) Zha doufu (Deep-fried tofu)
Fry tofu on both sides in a wok and cut them into small squares by a knife. Then, add scallion, salt and other ingredients and mix everything together into a fine paste. Make tofu cakes and deep fry with oil. Serve right way.
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(3) Ban doufu (Tofu salad)
Cut tofu into small rectangular pieces by a knife, add wine, soy sauce, vinegar, scallion, sesame oil and mix well. Serve right away. (Can be eaten without vinegar, or added with white sugar or xiangchun, fragrant cedar).
(4) Dun doufu (Stewed tofu, also known as Ao doufu Use soft tofu.)
Pre-boiled small amount of water in wok before putting cabbage into it. Add salt, scallion, and cook till cabbage is tender. Cut tofu into matchbox-size pieces, put into wok and cook for approximately 10 minutes. Serve right away.
(5) Zha doufu (Deep-fried tofu. Use soft tofu.)
Cut tofu into matchbox-size triangles, deep fry in oil until they turn yellow. Boil stock in wok, add spinach, cabbage leaves,
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and mushrooms. Put the already deep-fried tofu to wok, wait until it gets tender and serve right away. (This enables the flavour of the vegetables infuses into the soupy tofu. A highly rated recipe.)
(2) Ganchao doufu (Pan-fried hard tofu)
Chop hard tofu into five fen (approximately 1.25cm) long strips, add scallions, wild pepper oil, salt and soy sauce. Stirfry in wok for three or four minutes, add a little stock and is ready to serve. (Some prefer the style of baichao, pan-fry without sauce.)
(7) Dun gandoufu (Stewed hard tofu)
Finely chop mushrooms into small strips, lightly stir-fry in wok, add small amount of stock, salt, scallions and wild pepper oil. When mushrooms are cooked, add the pre-chopped hard tofu strips (each 1.5 inch long).
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Place in a wok and simmer for five to six minutes. (Strips can be substituted by triangles or squares, each half a matchbox’s size)
Ways of cooking Songhualuan (Preserved duck’s eggs)
Songhualuan (Duck’s eggs)
Prepare ingredients, such as:
(7) Mianjian (Flour), one catty and two taels
(2) Yan (Salt), one catty two taels
(3) Huangtu (Loess), one catty two taels
(4) Shihui (Lime or calcium oxide), one catty two taels
(5) Muchaihui (Firewood ash), one catty two taels
Mix the above with water and boil in a wok until they show a porridge texture. In a ceramic jar, place a layer of duck eggs on top of thin cypress leaves, add the cooked paste, place another layer of duck eggs and repeat the steps.
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When the jar is filled with layers of eggs, leaves and paste, pour the remaining paste to fill all gaps, and let everything sit for about 100 days. The Songhualuan can be preserved for a very long time.
The Dong'an Market in Beijing
Located outside the Dongmen (East Gate) of Beijing, the Dong'an Market is frequented by customers day and night, estimated to have around 10,000 to 20,000 visitors per day. The volume of crowd is incredibly high in every season, and peak at the New Year or during special festivals. Here is an overview:
Numerous shops
Chemically manufactured accessory shops for women (e.g., chemical ear pendants, flowers, rings, etc.); silverware shops, fruit shops, hat shops, garment shops. men's and women's shoe shops, xiguanzi (theatres); rattan shops, paper shops, candied fruit shops, antique shops (selling Chinese antiques and jade, etc.). Restaurants (Among the three to four famous restaurants in the city, one is Sen Long inside Dongmen, famous for its southern Chinese cuisine, especially the soupy bun-dumpling. The other one, Wu Xiang Zhai, specialised in Yangzhou cuisine, famous for its tofu shreds and soupy bun-dumpling.); cigar shops, cafés, toy shops, bookstores (where novels are read out for customers), fortune tellers, ballgame rooms (where people play football and snooker); dim sum shops (specialised in Chinese dim sum) and foreign dessert shops (specialised in western dessert);
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confectionery shops, tea houses (with vocal sessions performed by men and women), canning shops, porcelain shops, bookstores with new and used books, woodwork shops; bamboo ware shops (all sorts of utensils weaved from bamboo), women's cosmetic shop, watch and clock shops. There are many fabric shops and shops selling men's and women's boots and shoes, as well as foreign goods (many kinds of commodities such as boots, gloves, shoes, cosmetics, clothing materials, foreign fashion, collars, ties, cufflinks, ceramic jars, bowls, dishes, and many other daily necessities wellcovered). There are also engraving shops. Another example of restaurants is Dong Lai Shun (third floor). For theatre, Ji Xiang Xi Yuan (Auspicious Theatre) occasionally plays films when there are no stage-performances.
Information of the Dong'an Market is outlined above.
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Chinese script styles of Zhuan (Seal), Li (Clerical), Cao (Cursive) and Kai (Regular)
Xiaozhuan (Small Seal Script)
Sheng (sound), Shu (writing), Yin (rhyme) Qin, (Chinese musical instrument), Xiang (fragrance), Cha (tea)
Li (Clerical), Sheng (sound), Shu (writing), Yin (rhyme) Qin, (Chinese musical instrument), Xiang (fragrance), Cha (tea)
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Kai (Regular)
Sheng (sound), Shu (writing), Yin (rhyme) Qin, (Chinese musical instrument), Xiang (fragrance), Cha (tea)
Cao (Cursive)
Sheng (sound), Shu (writing), Yin (rhyme) Qin, (Chinese musical instrument), Xiang (fragrance), Cha (tea)
The Huangdi (Yellow Emperor) Period
The characters created by Cang Jie were written in tadpole script. From the time of the Yellow Emperor to the Zhou dynasty of the three dynasties (around 2,000 years ago), all textual records were written in tadpole script.
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Since King Xuan of the Zhou (over 2,700 years ago) appointed Taishi (court historian) Zhou to create dazhuan (large seal script), kedouzi (tadpole script) from the ancient times were immediately transformed into zhuanshu (seal script). When the Qin Emperor unified China (over 2,100 years ago), he ordered politician Li Si to modify dazhuan into xiaozhuan (small seal script) by omitting the strokes of the characters. The construction of the Great Wall and the Epang Palace caused high frequency of recruitment and surge of lawsuits, officer Cheng Miao was assigned to introduce lishu (clerical script) as a replacement to xiaozhuan, marking the birth of such script which increased the efficiency of official writing. Later, calligrapher Wang Cizhong of the Western Jin dynasty (about 1,600-700 years) created kaishu (regular script) that replaced lishu.
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Towards the end of the Han dynasty, calligrapher Liu Desheng designed xíngshu (semi-cursive script). In the Tang dynasty, caoshu (cursive script) became the most popular scripts of the period. Renowned calligraphers Huaisu and Zhang Xu are praised as ‘Saints of caoshu’.
Above is a brief description of the four styles of Chinese calligraphy namely zhuan, li, kai and cao, for your reference.
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Famous Fruits in China
In the vast lands of China, abundant types of fruits are found due to the subtle difference in weather and soil across geographical conditions.
Beijing:
1. Baili (white pear, very sweet, thin-skinned and juicy); 2. sangshen (mulberry, a black type and a white type, very sweet); 3. hongyitao (red cherry); 4. baiputao (white grape, also known as mayan putao, horse-eye grape); 5. xiangjiao (banana); 6. meigui putao (rose grape, purple and round); 7. yali (duck pear, very sweet, thin-skinned and juicy); 8. hongxiaoli (red pear, slightly sour); 9. qiuli (autumn pear. Put in a bowl, add an herb called beimu with a little white sugar, place in a cage steamer and cook slowly.
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Ready to serve once steamed. A very tasty dish which also serves medical function such as removing phlegm and getting rid of coughs. Most elderly’s favourite food); 10. hongse zheliu (red pomegranate) and baise zheliu (white pomegranate);
11. shizi (persimmon, some like to let frozen outdoor during winter and eaten cold); 12. xiaoshizi (small persimmon, especially sweet); 13. hongzao (red dates, home-grown by some); 14. ou (lotus root); 15. lingjiao (caltrop); 16. lianzi (lotus seed); hulache (popular fruit in Beijing, similar to but smaller than apple, very tasty); 18. binzi (betel nut, sour); 19. pingguo (apple, very sweet and delicious); 20 xing (apricot, famous in Beijing); 21. lizi (plum, sweet); 22. beizao (black dates); 23. cishi (fox nut, also known as laojitou, can be cooked); 24. biqi (water chestnut, sweet and delicious);
25. xianhetao (fresh walnut); 26. pipaguo (loquat); 27. wuhuaguo (fig); 28. shaguo (crab apple, smaller than hulache, very tasty); 29. haitangguo (begonia fruit); 30 shanzha (hawthorn berry, can be cooked with white sugar); 31. xiaosuanli (small sour pear); 32. jingxing baili (‘golden star’ white pear, small pear with tiny yellow spots, very tasty); 33. shuilobo (water radish, very large and very sweet); 34. xianggua (melon); 35. xigua (watermelon); 36. zipingguo (small apple, a local speciality in Beijing, very delicious)
Xishan (Western Hills), near Beijing:
1. Biangangertao (a type of peach)
Shiwo in Xishan near Beijing:
1. Damitao (large peach, the most famous local produce, very sweet, tasty and juicy)
Dong Simu, near Haidian,of Beijing:
1. Baitao (white peach, the most famous local produce, very sweet)
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Hebei Province:
1. Jingbaili (Beijing white pear, sweet and juicy); 2. baiputao (white grape); 3. meiguiputao (rose grape); 4. dashizi (large persimmon); 5. pingguo (apple); 6. hongyingtao (red cherry); 7. zheliu (pomegranate); 8. hutao (or hetao, walnut, best eaten boiled or fried with sugar and butter); 9. jixinzao (‘chicken heart’ date); [Tianjin]: 10. dabaitao (large white peach); 11. wuhede hongzao (seedless red date); 12. shanzha (also known as shanlihong, hawthorn berry, can be eaten boiled with sugar); 13. wuhede baiputao (seedless white grape); 14. [Shenzhou]: mitao (peach, very famous fruit, extremely sweet and juicy, thin-skinned); [Tianjin]: 15. tao (peach); 16. yaguangli (round pear)
Henan Province:
1. Qingmei (green plum); 2. baiguo (gingko, can be eaten boiled); 3. baili (white pear)
Jehol Province:
1. Shizi (persimmon); 2. Rehe zao (Jehol date); 3. pingguo (apple); 4. putao (grape); 5. xing (apricot); 6. zhenxing (‘real’ apricot); 7. Rehe shizi (Jehol persimmon, flat, round, with skirt)
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Liaoning Province:
Dalian: 1. meigui xiangputao (rose grape); 2. hongkui pingguo (rose apple); 3. xuguang pingguo (‘sunbeam’ apple, sour); 4. zhuguang pingguo (‘blessing light’ apple, sour); 5. hongyu pingguo (Spitzenburg apple, red, small and sweet); 6. guoguang pingguo (Ralls Janet apple, green, small and sweet); 7. huangyu yingtao (Rainier cherry, yellow and sweet, chess-sized); 8. richu yingtao (‘sunrise’ cherry, greenish yellow, small chess-sized, seeded, sweet); 9. meigui xiangputao (rose grape, purple, long and pointy, sweet, with rose flavour); 10. tao (peach); 11. xing (apricot); 12. yangli (also known as datouli, ‘western’ pear, yellowish-white, gourd-shaped, fine-textured and sweet); 13. shanzha (hawthorn berry); 14.
zao (or mayazao, date, red and sweet); [Jinzhou]: 1. xiangjiao pingguo (‘banana apple’, yellowish-green, tastes like banana); 2. huahong pingguo (‘flower-red’ apple, small, oval-shaped, golf ball-sized, red, sweet and sour); 3. qiuzi pingguo (?apple, golf ball-sized, lime green, sweet and sour); 4. hongzi pingguo (red apple, golf ball-sized, red, sweet and sour); 5. yuanshuai hongpingguo (Red Delicious apple, also found in Dalian, large, round, red and sweet); 6. Napolun yingtao (Napoleon cherry, excellent quality, red, apricot-sized, seeded and sweet); 7. dazi yingtao (large purple cherry, purple, flat, chess-sized, seeded, sweet); 8. dazhenxingzi (big apricot, reddish-yellow, seed edible, i.e. almond); 9. daxingmei (big apricot plum,yellowish-green, peach-sized, sweet); [Pulandian]: meilong pingguo (‘melon’ apple, yellowish-green, sweet as melon); [Jinzhou]: 10. zidianxiang putao (grape, blackish-purple, sweet); 11. ?yupingguo (type of apple, red front and yellow back, sweet)
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[Shenyang/ Fengtian]: 1. binlangqiu putao (‘betel nut’ grape, white, large and sweet); [Liaoyang]: 1. longyan putao (‘longan’ grape, light-red, round and juicy); 2. xiangshuili (‘perfume’ pear, yellowish-white, perfume-flavour); 3. nanguoli (Nanguo pear, red, slightly smaller than hongxiaoli, tastes like jingbaili, sweet) pear, slightly smaller, tastes like white pear, sweet); [Laohuyu, (Liaoning)]: 1. honghua pingguo (see previous); 2. qiuzipingguo (see previous); [Xiongyuecheng]: 1. hongyuanxin putao (‘red-heart’ grape, flat, light-red, sweet and sour); 2. lizi (plum, greenish-purple); 3. hongli (red pear, light-red front and light yellowish-white back, juicy and sweet); 4. baili (white pear, yellowish-white, sweet); 5. yangli (‘western’ pear, also known as datouli, gourd-shaped, yellowishwhite, fine-textured and sweet); 6. jixin putao (‘chicken-heart’ grape, lime-green, resembles the shape of a chicken's heart); 7. pingguo (apple); [Qianshan]: 1. lizi (plum); 2. qiubaili (‘autumn white’ pear, yellowish-white, fine-textured, sweet); 3. hongxiaoli (‘sky red’ pear, reddish-yellow, light black spots-covered, sweet and sour, delicious); [Guangning, Jinzhou]: 1. hongxiaoli (‘sky red’ pear); 2. yali (‘duck’ pear, white, sweet, very juicy); 3. huagaili (‘flower-covered’ pear, yellow with black spots, sweet); 4. shilixiangli (‘ten-mile fragrance’ pear, round, walnut-sized, yellow and sweet); 5. qiubaili (‘autumn white’ pear, yellow, sweet and juicy);
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[Salibao, Jinzhou]: shuimitao (peach)
Hebei Province: [Nankou]: 1. shizi (persimmon)
Shandong Province: 1. laiyangli (Laiyang pear, green with black spots, flat, fist-sized and sweet); 2. shizi (persimmon); 3. putao (grape); 4. zheliu (pomegranate); [Qingzhou]: 1. pingguo (apple); [Jinan]: 1. shizi (persimmon, pointy front and rounded back, without skirt); [Zhifu]: 1. shizi (persimmon, oblong, with skirt); [Feicheng]: 1. damitao (big peach, the most famous type of peach in China, large, very sweet, very juicy, thin-skinned and yellow)
Jiangsu Province: 1. juzi (orange); 2. wuhuaguo (fig); 3. qingmei (green plum); 4. tao (peach); [Shanghai]: 1. shuimitao (peach)
Zhejiang Province: 1. ganzi (tangerine, yellow, thick-skinned, sweet and sour); 2. youzi (pomelo); 3. chengzi (orange); 4. pipaguo (loquat); 5. migan (mandarin); 6. lingjiao (water chestnut); [Xihu]: 1. lianzi (lotus seed); [Ningbo]: 1. juzi (orange)
Guangdong Province: 1. juzi (orange); 2. lizhi (lychee); 3. binlang (betel nut); 4. xiangjiao (banana); 5. ganlan (olive, i.e., qingguo); 6. ganzhe (sugar cane); 7. guiyuan (dried longan)
[Xinhui]: 1. chengzi (orange, well-known in China, yellow and very sweet)
[Hainan Island]: 1. yezi (coconut)
Fujian Province: 1. ganzhe (sugar cane, excellent quality); 2. pipaguo (loquat); 3. xiangjiao (banana); 4. juzi (orange, most famous, red and sweet); 5. migan (mandarin)
Sichuan Province: 1. pingguo (apple); 2. youzi (pomelo); 3. guiyuan (dried longan); 4. tao (peach); 5. yingtao (cherry); 6. xingzi (apricot); [Chongqing]: juzi (orange)
Fujian Province: 8. lizhi (lychee); 9. guiyuan (dried longan)
Hunan Province: [Dongting Lake]: 1. hongjuzi (red mandarin);
Hunan Province: 1. pipaguo (loquat); 2. xiangjiao (banana)
Hubei Province: 1. qingmei (green plum)
Tibet: 1. ganlan (olive)
Taiwan: 1. youzi (pomelo); 2. ganzi (tangerine); 3. xigua (watermelon); 4. xiangjiao (banana); 5. meilonggua (melon); 6. mangguo (mango); 7. ganzhe (sugar cane); 8. chengzi (orange); 9. migan (mandarin); 10. yuzi (orange); 11. fengli (or bolo miguo, pineapple)
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12. lizhi (lychee); 13. guiyuan (loquat)
Above are some general examples based on my knowledge. I apologise for not being able to include everything.
Kite Flying
Kites, fengzheng or zhiyuan in Chinese, has a very long history in China. I remember that the earliest written records of kites can date back to the Han dynasty (more than 2,100 years ago). Little was recorded about the kites’ sizes and decorations in ancient times; therefore, I will only provide a brief account of their development in modern times.
Legends claim that kiting can improve children’s eyesight if they practice the activity in the first month of the Chinese New Year. In fact, it is used as a motivation for children to increase their outdoor exercises when the weather permits.
1) Types – Shayan-er (‘sand swallow’), also known as heiguodi (‘black-base pot’), the most common and inexpensive kites, in the shape of a swallow decorated with the bird’s features. Its simplicity gives the product the lowest price tag comparing to the others. Next is Nezha, named after the protection deity in Taoist folklore Nezha, in the shape of the its conventional image. As seen in the illustration here, it has a more complex design than Shayan-er, and is decorated with various colours, so it is pricier.
Laoyaoying (old sparrow hawk), a more costly type of kite comparing with the previous two, as it requires more manufacturing procedures.
Wugong (centipede) is made of bamboo stick that is bent to form a circle, on which paper is glued and painted with the image of a centipede. Their bodies made with paper or even fine silk bodies for wealthy families, this kite is several zhang (3⅓ meter) long, or a shorter version with several feet long. Their general outlook is illustrated here. Hudie (butterfly) has soft wings and is also made of paper or silk. These kites are easier to fly than the hard-winged ones, and are more popular.
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(Its internal structure as shown, Hudie has a bamboo frame glued with paper or silk, decorated with various patterns.)
The bagua (the eight diagrams) and feiji (airplane) shapes are also popular among kite players.
A bagua kite illustrated here.
There are also kites made in the shapes of laohu (tiger), xianhe (crane) and other kinds of animals and birds, as well as meiren (beautiful women) and furthermore.
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There are also two special accessories that are worth mentioning.
(1) Musical accessories
I. Gongxian (bow and string), a bow-shaped device, as illustrated here, made with a bamboo bow and strings of two thicknesses. When flown in the air, kites installed with such device will release a musical tone.
II. Xiaoluo (small gong), made of 'brass' and a small drum made of bamboo and thin animal skin. It is also a sound device that produces tones of drums and gongs, must be placed on a large kite.
(2) Xiankuangzi (String holder)
An essential accessory for flying this type of kite as illustrated, a holder of the string.
(3)
Songfan’er de (‘To accompany your meal’)
A butterfly-shaped device installed at the end tip of the kite string. A pouch filled with multicoloured confetti is attached to the string that goes upward to the kite. When the wings flap like a butterfly, the confetti beautifully fall on the ground in a flurry.
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(4) Kiting contest
Not only for children, this long-established game is also enjoyed by adult players. During the contest, two kites fly towards each other and intersect like a cross, until a rubbed string is broken. In order to guarantee a victory, tricky
participants would place broken glass on the string in advance. These contests often lead to fights between the two parties.
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Mingyi (Paper clothing burned for the use of the dead)
In the old days of China, the ritual of burning offerings made of paper for the dead was generally regarded as an essential part in the customs of ancestor worship. The papier-mâché objects for such use are called zhihuo, and the stores specialised in these items are called mingyipu (mingyi store).
Mingyi refers to the clothes and other commodities used by the deceased in yinjian (arena of the netherworld) or yincao (ministry of the netherworld). Traditionally, people believe that through burning in fire, the offerings would be sent to the dead in the netherworld. For such reason, the busy minyipu makes good business.
There are numerous types of mingyi and sometimes the complexity is difficult to be described. Basically, any kinds of daily commodities used in the human world can be reproduced in the paper format. The creative mingyipu merchants adopt diverse ways and materials in the manufacture, such as bamboo, wood, paper and so on.
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Examples are wearables such as hats and clothes include single-layer tops, lined garments, cotton wear, leather wear, etc., footwear such as boots, shoes and socks; wenfang sibao (four treasures of the studio) include bi (writing brush), mo (ink), zhi (paper), yan (ink slabs), bijia (brush stands), bichuang (brush trays), bitong (brush pots), mohe (ink boxes), zhenzhi (paperweights), yanshuihu (water jug for ink), etc.; furnitures include zhuo (tables), yi (chairs), bandeng (stools), canzhuo (dining tables), yigui (wardrobes), maojia (hat stands), chuang (beds), beiru (quilt and blanket), zhentou (pillows), jingtai (dressing tables), shuzhuangzhuo (dressing tables), pingfeng (screens), etc.; vehicles include mache (carriages), qiche (cars), renliche (rickshaws), zixingche (bicycles), huoche (trains), ma (horses), niu (cows) and zhu (pigs), etc.; zhiren (paper humans), in addition to animals like quan (dogs), mao (cats), yang (sheep), lu (donkeys) and luo (mules); other vehicles include chuan (boats), jiao (sedans); antique objects include huaping (flower vases), guopen (fruit trays), tanping (broomstick vases), jade carvings and other kinds of antiques; everyday objects such as chahu (teapots), chawan (tea bowls), chabei (teacups), jiuhu (wine jars), jiubei (wine glasses), fanwan (rice bowls), dao (knives), cha (forks), chi (spoons), kuaizi (chopsticks), yashua (toothbrushes), tantong (spittoons), soukouyu (mouthwash cups), mahe (‘horse boxes’), yehu (chamber pot), xinianpen (facewash basins), muyupen (bathing basins) and others; ornaments include jinyin zhuozi (gold and silver bracelets), shoujiezhi (rings), erhuan (earrings), xianglian (necklaces), zanzi (hairpins), zanhua (hair clasps), maohua (hat embellishment, made of gemstones), etc.; special items such as
yapian qiju (opium tools), maque pai (mahjongs), shaizi (dices), guopai (dominoes), baohe (treasure boxes), etc., and others. In addition to these, there are items made from pine trees leaves and branches such as songshu tinzi (pine pavilions), songshu jiaozi (pine sedans) and songshu shizi (pine lions), which can all be cremated.
Moreover, I would like to further elaborate the zhiqian (joss paper) according to different types as follows.
P68 1) Zhiqian (Joss paper, paper money)A circular white paper of four-inch diameter with a pierced opening in the centre for a string to be passed through, as illustrated here. Same as the previously mentioned zhihuo, zhiqian is prepared for the use of the dead in the netherworld. Besides incineration, some is kept for the use of passing through bridges and city gates, held by staffs of the gangfang (funeral homes).
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A stack of zhiqian is thrown high to the sky, fluttering like flying butterflies before profusely landing on the ground. Some believe that zhiqian can serve as the mailuqian (cash paid for protection on journey from robber gangs) given to other ghosts as the dead passes through bridges and city gates.
(2) Jinyinguo (Gold and silver ingot)
Some people use paper with jinpo (grained gold foil) or yinpo (grained silver foil) for folding into the shape of a yuanbao (ingot), or buy the pre-folded ones from the joss paper stores. These paper ingots are incinerated for the dead who would spend as money in the netherworld.
(3) Fengdu City (Sichuan Province)
Fengdu banknotes. Printed by the minyipu, these imitation banknotes are offered for the souls of the dead. Why is the bank named Fengdu Bank? According to an ancient Chinese myth, Fengdu is the capital of the netherworld, synonymous with hades and inferno.
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Legend says that in this capital city, a large bank was built to issue banknotes for the dead to use in the netherworld. This is how the Fengdu Bank was founded. The bank issues only big notes with enormous amount, in the denominations of 1,000 yuan or 10,000 yuan or over 30,000 yuan. Low value notes such as one yuan or 10 yuan are not known.
Types of whips and fireworks
In order to understand this topic, first of all, we must trace the origins of whips and firecrackers. In the very beginning of the ancient China, firecrackers were already known to exist. In the Song dynasty, a poem written by politician Wang Anshi for the New Year celebration, has a line of Baozhu shengzhong yisuichu (The sound of firecrackers kicks off the New Year).
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This quote acts as evidence of the existence of firecrackers in the old days. I’m confident to say that before the Song dynasty, perhaps even prior to the Tang dynasty, firecrackers had already been known to exist.
Why are firecrackers called baozhu in Chinese? Based on my personal opinion, before the invention of huoyao (gunpowder), dried bamboo poles were used for burning. While burnt, a banging and sizzling sound is produced, hence the phrase bao (to explode) and zhu (bamboo). But this is just my speculation.
How about bian (whip)? Again, according to my own guessing, when a whip is used to strike something, a sound of ‘ba’ (bang, sounds close to ‘bian’) is made. This is why bian was chosen to be used.
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As for pao (gunfire) of bianbao (a string of firecrackers), we can almost visualise its meaning. Pao comes with a larger size than bian, with a higher volume of flash powder filled inside, and so the sound it makes is naturally louder. It is called pao also because it’s noisy as firing a pao (cannon). Furthermore, there is a type of pao called maleizi. Thick and short, it comes with a large capacity for flash powder that creates a massive sound when fired. The principle of its construction is similar to that of the modern weapon penyijinpao When lit, a ci, ci (puffing) sound occurs, while the crackers shoot up into the air like a straight arrow, which is especially favoured among children. To operate it, you just need to hold it in your hand and let go. It will then fly straight into the sky.
Jinpen Luoyue (Moon landing on the Golden Dish)
Similar to paozhang (baozhu, as noted above), a reed stick is placed horizontally underneath.
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When the fire is lit on the dish, the cracker spins towards the air, resulting in a spectacular visual image.
Feitian shixiang (Flying with Ten Bangs) and Feitian shuangxiang (Flying with Two Bangs) are slightly larger in size but do not come the reed stick at the bottom. After lit, just like the previous types, both of these crackers fly up into the air and bang crisply, for shuangxiang (twice) or shixiang (10 times).
Paoda Xiangyangcheng (Firecracker hitting the Xiang Yang City)
A box made of thick paper paste in the shape of a castle, filled with various kinds of huapao (cannon ‘flower’). When the fire is lit at the fort gate, the crackers fly in a flurry and the castle looks as if it is in flames.
Taipinghua (World Peace Flower)
The overall height of the firework is over one zhang (10 feet) A can-shape container of eight to nine inch long, made of foreign iron with flash powder placed in the interior, this type of cracker releases a sound resembling the wind and the rain, as countless radial lines are sparked in shinning golden colours, which is extremely spectacular.
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Huahezi (Flower Box, see previous picture)
Regarded as the most beautiful of all huahuo (firework), it is in the shape of an octagonal box of five to over 10 tiers, each placed with flash power. Fire is lit from the bottom, and the tiers fall off from the base to the top. Using orchard as a simile, the first tier of the cracker is a grape-arbor. Upon the first fall, the second tier continues one after another, exposing a patch of grapes. The third, fourth and even the tenth tiers are off and shown with flowers and fruits. It gleams
so extraordinarily that as if an orchard scene is portrayed in a landscape painting. Variations of sparkling patterns include the appearance of people, birds, animals, fish, flowers, wood, words and beyond can be made. For example, the Paoda Xiangyangcheng model is ignited from the ‘ground floor’ and upwards, while a banging and sizzling noise is made from the ‘city of fire’, the collapse of the first two tiers reveals a theatre, followed by a park and groups of sightseers on the third tier, celebratory words for the New Year from the fourth tier and exotic wild life and natural sceneries from the fifth tier,
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then comes the sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth and tenth tiers all displaying unique scenes of distinguished light and colours. The utmost beauty of this cracker means that they are very costly.
Sanjiehua (Three-tier Flower)
Upon ignited, the banged and sizzled cracker ejects the deng’er (or denghuo, multi-colour luminescence), followed by another burst of firelight. The second-tier repeats, followed by the third tier, which is why the name sanjie (three tiers) is picked.
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Shoubahua (Handheld Flower)
Designed for children, the flame is ejected directly from the tube-like cracker that is held by hands. Since it does not hold a high volume of flash powder, the effect has a rather short duration.
Denghuapao (Flower Bang)
A beam of glare is tiggered before a banging sound, putting together the deng (light), hua (‘flower’, referring to the firelight) and pao (cracker), thus the name of denghuapao.
Paodadeng (Crackers hitting the Lightbulbs)
A banging and sizzling sound is released, at the same time many dengqiu (lightbulbs) are ejected into the air, forming a brilliant picture of firework as the ceaseless noise and dazzling light surge.
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Jinyindie
(Gold and Silver Butterfly)
Instead of the commonly seen vertical emission, this cracker spins horizontally, with golden light on one side and silver light on the other side, most favoured by children.
Dilaoshu (Mouse on the Ground)
A children’s favourite, this cracker is shaped like a big, grey poop of the mouse. Upon ignition from one tip, it spins on the ground, thus the name di (ground) and laoshu (mouse).
Ertijiao (Two-step Foot)
This cracker can be held in the hand or placed on the ground. What makes it special is that the yaonian (fuse) is equipped at the lower end. When the lower part is ignited, the tube-like cracker bangs and bounces upwards. Upon reaching the sky, it pops another loud noise, that can be imagined as an erti (two-step).
The above is a brief introduction to Chinese fireworks and firecrackers.
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Yuzhuo Ji (The Jade Bangle. Written in the Song dynasty over 800 years ago)
In the Song dynasty, there was a powerful Fanwang (fanwang feudal prince.) who was also a big landlord of innumerable fertile farmlands, prized gardens and extravagant houses. A brutal marquis of avaricious nature, he was always harsh on his people, carrying out only callous and exploitative policies. Having a lot of concubines, however, Fanwang did not have any sons. Instead, he fathered two daughters. The elder Xianzhu was born with beautiful face and exceptional intelligence. Passionate in learning and innovative in thinking, she was especially cherished by her father since a little girl. Highly privileged but unadorned, she did not display any ostentations and never indulged in the material life. As she grew up, she became doubtful and uncomfortable with her father's treacherous conducts and was mentally irritated. She had used all sorts of methods to persuade him not to oppress the people,
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hoping that he can regard people’s happiness as his own one, learn to approach them kindly and accept their opinions. Refused to listen, Fanwang rebutted, ‘Kid, you don't know anything about ruling a state.’ With each passing day, Xianzhu matured academically and became more knowledgeable on many subjects. Her discontent with him gradually grew stronger. The frequency of her persuasion multiplied in an increasingly critical and aggravated tone. As a result, Fanwang despised Xianzhu and the two became more estranged from each other. At the end, the loathsome feelings of the angry father turned into resentment towards the strong-minded daughter. He decided to restrict Xianzhu from speaking on the feud, the people, family reforms and so on.
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At this time, she had a lover named Yu Ming. A handsome, brave and innovative nature, Yu was a good match for Xianzhu. The rapport and growing fondness they had towards each other gradually led to an intimate relationship. The couple was so intensely in love that they see each other as the Mister Right and Miss Right. One day, Xianzhu told her father about the fiancé and asked for his approval to the marriage. In the conservative and authoritative society of the old times where arranged marriage was a custom, a parent must resort to dictate the child’s marriage with absolutely no concession. Moreover, this dictator father deeply detested liberal-minded young men. The proposal was obviously turned down by Fanwang who made a strong statement, ‘There is no shortage of handsome and wealthy men. Why should you choose someone from a poor family? I will find you a rich, well-educated candidate with prestigious family background.
You don't have to talk further. I have made up my mind. I will pick the right husband from the upper class for you and will never allow you to move on with Yu.’ After multiple requests, Xianzhu was firmly rejected and was eventually forced to give up the relationship with Yu Ming. Fanwang strictly instructed all the servants to forbid Yu from entering the house. Desperate and hopeless, Xianzhu felt as though she was put under a house arrest. Fearing that her daughter would not forget the disapproved man, the father despicably arranged for a rich man Zhu Liang to be Xianzhu’s husband. Ugly, stupid and jobless, the spoiled Zhu Liang, son of an extremely rich landlord family only cared about gambling and seeing prostitutes. As the wedding day approached, Zhu’s family delivered many gifts to Xianzhu’s home.
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Fanwang finally told Xianzhu about the secret arrangement. The shocked and devastated Xianzhu helplessly cried and screamed, as she resolutely refused to the proposal. Indeed, one can easily understand that, having grown up from a corrupted, authoritarian family, a vulnerable girl like Xianzhu can hardly resist the adversity and fight for her own rights. Confined in the grim reality, Xianzhug could not do anything but cry.
One evening, after hearing about Xianzhu’s news, Yu Ming decided to risk a chance of seeing his love for the last time. He broke in by jumping over the walls of the feudal palace and furthered his way to the windows of Xianzhu’s bedroom. Knowing that there was nobody inside, Yu whistled to Xianzhu who then quietly stepped out to meet up. The two moved to a quiet place and told each other about their plight. Yu comforted Xianzhu on the one hand, but thought to himself in despair on the other hand, ‘My family situation will not make our marriage possible.
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My presence has caused her intense pain. I should just……’, on the other hand. At this moment, he took out a white jade bracelet and placed it in Xianzhu’s hands, asking her not to be distressed by their forbidden love. ‘Go with the flow and obey your father.’ Yu Ming could not afford to buy Xianzhu a decent present, so he offered the family heirloom, a jade bracelet, as a parting gift for his true love. The speechless Xianzhu broke down in tears. While the inseparable pair were struggling for a solution, Fanwang suddenly rushed in with a group of servants. They kidnapped Yu Ming and took him to the court. Yu was imprisoned. How did Fanwang learn that Yu Ming had broken into the palace? It was because the maids reported to him in panic as soon as they found Xianzhu missing. The team subsequently located the couple in a hidden spot. Knowing that Yu was caught and sent to prison, Xianzhu was utterly heartbroken.
Years had passed and there were only three days to Xianzhu’s wedding ceremony. She faced two choices at the crossroads. First, to obey her father and marry the hideous Zhu Liang.
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Second, to die! To give in or to perish, the resolute Xianzhu was determined to choose the latter. She wrote her last words and asked her father to bury the jade bracelet in the coffin. In a silent night, the tragic woman ended her life by swallowing gold.
Although Fanwang was extremely disappointed with Xianzhu’s decision, he was inevitably saddened as a father. Not knowing that the jade bracelet was a gift from Yu Ming, he placed it in the daughter’s coffin, putting an end to Xianzhu’s ill-fated romance.
Later, the court ordered to arrest and convict Fanwang of tyranny and bribery. He was deprived of his political title and eventually died in the prison.
As Fanwang’s crimes were unveiled, the newly appointed governor retrialed and acquitted Yu Ming. Yu returned home and wrote a poignant prose about the tragedy with Xianzhu, detailing their love story, his imprisonment, her suicide and Fanwang’s consequence. He especially illustrated how he offered the jade bracelet to the parting lover, and vowed not to marry for the rest of his life.
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He stated that every year on the anniversary of Xianzhu’s passing, he would pray at her grave, until the end of his life. He was determined to do so, and added at the end of the writing that he intentionally hid the name of her notorious father, and only included her life story, in order to protect his lover’s dignity.
Yu Ming inscribed the prose on a stone tablet and erected it as Xianzhu’s tombstone. Several hundred years later, the tomb was excavated and the jade bracelet was unearthed. The inscriptions hinted that white jade must have been placed under Xianzhu’s clothing, and over the years, discoloured with black and red markings perhaps due to the corpse’s blood and flesh!
The above is a brief summary of the tale based on Yu Ming's inscribed text on the tablet.
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Transcription and explanation of the inscribed poem on a white jade snuff bottle
Original text in classical Chinese:
Yaowei yingxian taiyanchun, biecai laobi xiehuazhen.
Luoyang ri’nuan fenghehou, bisi Liujia weizulun.
Interpretation in modern language:
Line 1 – Yellow and purple peonies are often deemed too bright and colourful in spring.
Line 2
Separately, hold an old brush to draw the true spirit of the flowers.
Line 3 – It reminds me of the days with a warm breeze in Luoyang.
Line 4 – Even the Liu family (who most adores peonies) is matchless with the beauty of the carved flowers on the white jade.
Definition of words or phrases:
Line 1 – Yao (yellow); Wei (purple); yingxian (always feel like); taiyan (too bright and colourful); chun (spring);
Line 2
bie (separately); cai (hold); laobi (old brush); hua (draw); huazhen (true spirit of the flower);
Line 3 – Luoyang (famous old town in Henan province); fenghehou (moments with warm breeze)
Line 4
bisi (just like); Liujia (the Lau family who most adores peonies); weizulun (not as good as)
Menshen (Door Gods)
Since the very old days of China, the custom of hanging paintings of Menshen during the New Year have been widely practised. The paintings were hung from the 26th day of the 12th month through the 16th day of the first month (of the lunar calendar). There are two legends about Menshen. First, the divine pair was named Shenshu and Yulu. Second, it is said that during the Zhenguan era ruled by Emperor Taizong of the Tang dynasty, Qin Qiong (courtesy name Shubao) and Wei Chigong (couresy name Jingde) were the most well-known valiant generals. Both bearded, Qin had a white face while Wei had a black face. In order to honour their extraordinary achievements in the wars, their portraits were hung on the wall as a compliment. Later on, such practice became a household tradition for more than a thousand years.