UD4_GuidebookSeminars_EN

Part 1

Sustainable urban transport in the Mediterranean region Summary of 2010-2011 seminars

Provisional version (November 2012) If you have any feedback, please contact: Julien Allaire, Technical Director, CODATU (jallaire@codatu.org)

1

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The following people took part in orienting, devising, writing and rewriting this publication FRENCH DEVELOPMENT AGENCY (AFD): Mr. Xavier Hoang, Transport Project Manager CODATU (COOPERATION FOR URBAN MOBILITY IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD): Mr. Julien Allaire, Technical Director Ms. Laurie Maldera, Ms. Camille Martinet and Mr. Charles Simon, Project Managers CERTU (CENTRE FOR STUDIES ON URBAN PLANNING, TRANSPORT AND PUBLIC FACILITIES): Mr. Thierry Gouin, International Project Manager CETE MÉDITERRANÉE (TECHNICAL STUDY AND ENGINEERING CENTRE): Ms. Marine Millot, Head of Urban Planning, Safety & Lighting (AUSE) Department Mr. Benjamin Fouchard, Urban Integration Project Manager PLAN BLEU: Mr. Sylvain Houpin, Cities Project Manager MEDCITIES: Mr. Gabriel Jodar, FormaPlan Consultant We also extend special thanks to the following people, who, through their constant involvement, have contributed to the UD4 cycle (in alphabetical order): Mr. Xavier Godard (expert); Mr. Alexis Jovignot (CODATU); Ms. Vanessa Kuzay (City of Marseille); Mr. Olivier Lavinal (CMI); Mr. Jacques Legaignoux (ex-CETE); Mr. Joan Parpal (MedCities); Ms. Chantal Picard (CODATU); Ms. Florence Saint-Paul (ex-CETE); Ms. Jocelyne Vauquelin (AFD); Mr. Bernard Videau (French Ministry of Ecology, Sustainable Development and Energy) Thanks also to the many speakers, participants and partners who have helped make a success of each meeting in the “Sustainable Urban Transport in the Mediterranean” cycle held by the Marseille Center for Mediterranean Integration (CMI).

2

PREAMBLE This publication summarises the work produced as part of the “Sustainable Urban Transport” programme of the Marseille Center for Mediterranean Integration (CMI). The purpose of the programme is to develop a comprehensive, integrated approach with a view to planning, managing and developing policies and systems for efficient, sustainable urban transport.

It has been compiled not only to strengthen the Mediterranean network of expertise in this field but also to help create a toolkit with concrete and methodological instruments suited to Mediterranean cities. The programme has also been designed to foster a common sustainable mobility culture in the Mediterranean basin, to develop international partnerships, and to disseminate best practices [CMI, 2011].1 The “Sustainable Urban Transport” programme is steered by the French Development Agency (AFD), which organises, seeks funding and implements it with support from CODATU and the specialist expertise centres of the scientific and technical network of the French Ministry of Ecology (CERTU, CETE Méditerranée et Sud-ouest) and of the Plan Bleu. The AFD’s other partners in this programme have been the World Bank, the European Investment Bank (EIB) and the cities and countries that have hosted the various events.

Within this framework, several workshops were held between 2010 and 2012. A first conference to kick off the programme was held in Damascus on 11-13 April 2010 on the theme “Urban mobility and sustainable development”. The second meeting was held in Marseille from 29 November to 1 December 2010. It focused on “travel to and in the old town centres and medinas”. Then, on 17-20 October 2011, participants gathered in Barcelona to work on “tools to support changes of sustainable urban mobility in the Mediterranean”.

This publication therefore draws on the many scientific contributions, case studies and expert dossiers presented during the events, and purposely devotes much space to the experiences presented during the various workshops.

Unfortunately, this document cannot reproduce all of the presentations and discussions that nourished discussion between experts from the various Mediterranean countries. To make it more interactive, all of the presentations in the workshop cycle are directly accessible via the internet links in the footnotes.

Greater detail is available in the following guides:

1



CODATU, French Ministry of Ecology, the World Bank, KNA-MENA, MedCities: “Les déplacements urbains en Méditerranée. Guide de Recommandations. Travaux issus du Séminaire Régional sur les Déplacements Urbains en Méditerranée – Skhirat, janvier 2008” (Urban transport in the Mediterranean region. Guidance and recommendations. Product of the Regional Seminar on Urban Transport in the Mediterranean Region – Skhirat, January 2008).



AFD, French Ministry Of Ecology, CODATU: “Qui paie quoi en matière de transports urbains?

Guide de bonne pratiques”, (Who pays what for urban transport? A handbook of good practices). November 2009.



AFD, French Ministry of Ecology, French Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs, CODATU: “L’action internationale des collectivités territoriales en matière de déplacements urbains.

See: http://www.cmimarseille.org/FR/Urban-transport.php

3

Guide Méthodologique” (International action by territorial authorities in the field of urban mobility. Guide to methodology). October 2010. 

CMI, AFD, BEI, the World Bank, CODATU, Transitec – Urbaplan: “Accessibilité des Médinas.

Guide des bonnes pratiques à l’intention des décideurs” (Medina accessibility. Best practice guide for decision-makers). To be released soon.

4

INTRODUCTION In the coming decades, the cities on the southern and eastern rim of the Mediterranean will witness a demographic boom. Driven by strong demographic growth, Turkey and the countries of North Africa and the Middle East will see their urban populations double, and even triple. This “urban transition� will likely be fed by an economic-growth dynamic that is already under way in certain countries bordering the Mediterranean.

These prospects for urban development raise many economic, social and environmental questions: -

What urban economic activities will there be (jobs, trade, asset creation, etc.)?

What living conditions will people have (homes, access to essential services, quality of life, etc.)?

What environmental consequences will there be (preservation of farmland around urbanised centres, energy consumption, air quality, etc.)?

At the intersection of all these questions are the issues of transport, accessibility and mobility.

Economic development and improved social conditions generate flows of goods and people. The outlook for cities on the southern and eastern rim of the Mediterranean heralds an explosion in urban mobility. However, this is particularly tricky to forecast and organise.

Urban mobility is a complex system comprising simple elements, but these evolve quickly and simultaneously. According to Xavier Hoang (AFD), the system can be broken down into seven subsystems: multi-space, multi-function, multi-modal, multi-stakeholder, multi-funding, multi-effect and multi-time.2 Each city and country must find a system to fit its own context and specific features.

Following the same pattern as many northern rim countries, populations with rising incomes aspire to own their own car; indeed, this wish is sometimes facilitated by certain public policies to promote mass car ownership. But this ownership dynamic generates congestion, road-safety and pollution phenomena counter to the community’s common interest.

In the cities in the south and east of the Mediterranean region, car ownership rates are currently below 150 per 1,000 inhabitants, i.e. three to four times lower than in the north.

The history of car ownership in northern rim cities is highly instructive. After a phase of rapid car development, local governments sought to control use of this transport mode in favour of public transport and active modes. In recent years, public policies have included measures that seem perfectly applicable in southern rim countries.

Indeed, the lesser car ownership rates of developing cities seems to be an asset in helping structure urban areas around public-transport modes and in developing multimodal practices among inhabitants.

Here, we therefore propose to survey the situation of southern and eastern rim cities and to study whether they can adapt public policies to their area without recourse to a predominance of private vehicles.

2

Comments made at the closing session of the Barcelona workshop in October 2011.

5

In Part One, we propose a survey of the situation in the Mediterranean rim countries and of the core trends in public policies to establish sustainable mobility. None of the solutions mentioned here is intended to fit every situation, but they can all be adapted to the local context.

In Part Two, we present the experiences of the various metropolitan areas in the north, south and east of the Mediterranean region. These were all presented during the workshops, and address various themes listed in the table.

6

CONTENTS

PART ONE: CONTEXTUAL ELEMENTS FRENCH DEVELOPMENT AGENCY (AFD): ................................................................................................ 2 CODATU (COOPERATION FOR URBAN MOBILITY IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD): ......................................... 2 CERTU (CENTRE FOR STUDIES ON URBAN PLANNING, TRANSPORT AND PUBLIC FACILITIES): ......................... 2 CETE MÉDITERRANÉE (TECHNICAL STUDY AND ENGINEERING CENTRE):...................................................... 2 PLAN BLEU: ........................................................................................................................................ 2 MEDCITIES: ........................................................................................................................................ 2

CHAPTER I DYNAMICS OF URBAN DEVELOPMENT, CAR OWNERSHIP AND MOBILITY ........10 1.

2.

URBAN DEVELOPMENT IN THE MEDITERRANEAN REGION ..................................................................... 10

1.1.

STRONG URBANISATION DYNAMIC IN SOUTHERN RIM COUNTRIES ................................................. 10

1.2.

METROPOLISATION DYNAMIC AROUND THE MEDITERRANEAN RIM ............................................... 12

1.3.

STRONG ECONOMIC GROWTH.................................................................................................. 13

1.4.

CAR OWNERSHIP ON THE RISE .................................................................................................. 15

TRANSFORMATION OF PERSONAL MOBILITY....................................................................................... 17 2.1.

A DECLINE IN WALKING ........................................................................................................... 18

2.2.

PUBLIC TRANSPORT IN CRISIS ................................................................................................... 18

2.3.

OWNER-DRIVER TRANSPORT ON THE RISE ................................................................................. 18

3.

GROWTH IN GOODS TRAFFIC ........................................................................................................... 19

4.

CONSEQUENCES OF CAR OWNERSHIP ................................................................................................ 19

5.

4.1.

CONGESTION: A SYMPTOM OF RAPID RISE IN NUMBER OF CARS .................................................... 19

4.2.

ROAD SAFETY ........................................................................................................................ 20

4.3.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS ..................................................................................................... 22

NEED FOR TRANSPORT POLICIES TO REDUCE CAR DEPENDENCY AND ITS CONSEQUENCES ........................... 22

CHAPTER II GOVERNANCE AND PLANNING FOR SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY .........................24 1.

GOVERNANCE MODELS APPARENTLY UNABLE TO MEET THE REQUIREMENTS OF SUSTAINABLE URBAN MANAGEMENT ...................................................................................................................................... 25 1.1.

GOVERNANCE TO PROMOTE SUSTAINABLE URBAN TRAVEL, AND AUTHORITIES TO LEAD URBAN

TRANSPORT POLICIES .......................................................................................................................... 25

1.2.

2.

LONG-TERM FUNDING TO ENSURE PROPER OPERATION OF SUSTAINABLE URBAN TRANSPORT POLICIES 26

DEFINING PLANNING AND OBJECTIVES .............................................................................................. 30 2.1.

CHANGES NEEDED IN URBAN MOBILITY PLANNING ...................................................................... 31

2.2.

CITIZEN PARTICIPATION: INVOLVING THE PUBLIC IN THE DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF URBAN TRANSPORT POLICIES .......................................................................................................................... 31 7

3.

4.

2.3.

GENERAL COMMUNICATION TO THE PUBLIC TO RAISE AWARENESS ON SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY ......... 32

2.4.

MONITORING PLANNING DOCUMENTS ...................................................................................... 34

GUIDELINES FOR URBAN STRATEGIES ................................................................................................ 35 3.1.

THE ROLE OF MASS TRANSPORT PROJECTS IN MOBILITY PLANNING ................................................ 35

3.2.

OPTIONS FOR URBAN MOBILITY PLANS ...................................................................................... 36

TOOL KIT ...................................................................................................................................... 37

CHAPTER III HOW TO ORGANISE AND MANAGE TRANSPORT SYSTEMS .............................40 1.

2.

THE REGULATION OF CAR USE .......................................................................................................... 40 1.1.

TIERED ROAD NETWORK BASED ON FUNCTIONALITIES .................................................................. 40

1.2.

PARKING POLICY ADAPTED TO TYPES OF USE .............................................................................. 41

1.3.

TRAFFIC RESTRICTIONS IN THE CITY-CENTRE TO ENCOURAGE USE OF OTHER MODES ......................... 41

MORE EFFICIENT PUBLIC TRANSPORT ................................................................................................ 42 2.1.

TIERED COVERAGE OF THE TRANSPORT SYSTEM .......................................................................... 42

2.2.

AN INTEGRATED OFFER THROUGH PRICING POLICY, INFORMATION AND TRANSIT HUBS .................... 42

2.3.

INTEGRATION OF OWNER-DRIVER TRANSPORT IN THE MULTIMODAL MIX ....................................... 43

3.

PROMOTION OF WALKING AND CYCLING ........................................................................................... 44

4.

ORGANISATION OF URBAN LOGISTICS ............................................................................................... 45

5.

TOOL KIT ...................................................................................................................................... 47

PART TWO: FEEDBACK AMMAN : TRANSPORT AND MOBILITY PLANNING .................................................................................. 50 ALEPPO: URBAN MOBILITY PLANNING PROJECT .................................................................................... 54 ATHENS: RESTRUCTURING THE TRANSPORT NETWORK FOR THE OLYMPIC GAMES ........................................ 59 DAMASCUS : PROVIDING SAFE AND EASY ACCESS TO THE MEDINA ............................................................ 66 ESKISEHIR : REDUCING TRAFFIC AND DEVELOPING ALTERNATIVES IN A CONSTRICTED CITY CENTER .................. 71 FERRARA: A COMPREHENSIVE POLICY TO PROMOTE CYCLING ................................................................... 75 ISTANBUL : URBAN PLANNING IN A MEGACITY ....................................................................................... 80 IZMIR: AN EFFICIENT , INTEGRATED TRANSPORT SYSTEM ......................................................................... 85 CAIRO : RENWING THE TAXI FLEET TO FIGHT AIR POLLUTION ................................................................... 91 MILAN: IMPLEMENTING AN ENVIRONMENTAL URBAN TOLL SCHEME ......................................................... 96

8

Part 1

CONTEXTUAL ELEMENTS

9

CHAPTER I

DYNAMICS OF URBAN DEVELOPMENT, CAR OWNERSHIP AND MOBILITY

The demographic growth and economic development of the cities on the southern and eastern rim of the Mediterranean are causing an explosion in mobility needs. Following the same pattern as many northern rim countries, populations with rising incomes aspire to own their own car; indeed, this wish is sometimes facilitated by certain public policies to promote mass car ownership.

The car population is therefore expanding strongly because of markets opening up, a limited modal offering, more widespread access to driving licences, rising incomes in some segments of the population, etc.

But this ownership dynamic generates congestion, road-safety and pollution phenomena counter to the community’s common interest. It is therefore becoming necessary to develop mobility policies that make it possible to regulate, organise and plan urban transport.

1. URBAN DEVELOPMENT IN THE MEDITERRANEAN REGION 1.1. STRONG URBANISATION DYNAMIC IN SOUTHERN RIM COUNTRIES Although some southern and eastern rim countries have urbanisation rates similar to those of countries in the southern European Union, the urban transition is not complete in most countries. On the one hand, there is often high demographic growth in urban areas; and in some countries, such as Egypt, Syria and Morocco, the urbanisation rate is still very low.

Figure 1 - Annual rate of urban population growth (UN data).

10

Figure 2 - Urbanisation rate in Mediterranean rim countries (UN data).

During the 2010-2015 period, the rate of urban population growth is estimated at 1% a year in European Union countries, and maybe less in Italy and Greece. But in the other countries – except for Lebanon, which is already heavily urbanised – growth rates are between 1.5% and 2.5%. The projections for 2050 show a drop in these growth tempos, which will slip below the 1% mark in most countries. By this date, only the growth rates of Egypt and Syria – which, together with Morocco, are the least urbanised countries – are expected to still exceed this level.

These two countries have particularly young populations. In 2010, more than 40% of their populations were aged under 20: 41% in Egypt, 48% in Syria. Of the countries studied, only Jordan, which is more urbanised, exceeded 48%. The other southern and eastern rim countries tend to be in the 30%-40% range, while in European countries less than one-quarter of people are aged under 20.

11

Figure 3 - Percentage of urban population and forecast in 2009 (UN data).

Between 2000 and 2050, the number of urban inhabitants in most southern and eastern rim countries is expected to double, and even triple in the cases of Egypt and Syria. Whereas the northern rim cities will total 170 million people, the urban population on the other rims will be about 300 million.

1.2. METROPOLISATION DYNAMIC AROUND THE MEDITERRANEAN RIM Urban growth in the countries on the Mediterranean’s southern and eastern rims is occurring as a process of metropolisation. Metropolisation combines two inseparable processes: on the one hand, conurbations are becoming part of a global network of metropolises; and on the other hand, they are restructuring themselves and also extending their perimeter. The outskirts of large conurbations are becoming urbanised, and thus absorbing the towns near the metropolitan centre.

This process, which is directly linked to globalisation, is characterised by the rising influence of the largest conurbations in every country’s urban hierarchy; at the same time, these areas are enlarging their urbanised area. The United Nations forecasts that, by 2025, there will be more than 25 metropolitan areas with a million or more inhabitants on the southern and eastern rims.

12

Figure 4 - Development of Mediterranean conurbations with more than 750,000 inhabitants (UN Statistics Division).

This growth of urban areas, which is occurring mainly along the coast and main roads, is still largely unplanned. “Depending on the country and metropolitan area, between 30% and 70% of urban dwellers can only build a home using informal channels� [Sylvain Houpin – Plan Bleu, 2010]. In many countries, there are no local authorities able to regulate this phenomenon. The scope of action is generally larger than that of local authorities, and coordination remains limited. In addition, despite the decentralisation laws that these countries may have passed, the State and its deconcentrated agencies retain authority over city governance. The growth of the big Mediterranean conurbations is thus challenging metropolitan governance models.

1.3. STRONG ECONOMIC GROWTH Levels of gross domestic product (GDP) vary greatly around the Mediterranean. In 2010, European Union countries had GDP levels higher than $25,000 per inhabitant at purchasing power parity.

Lebanon, Turkey and Syria are close to $10,000 per inhabitant, while the other countries studied have a GDP of less than $5,000 per inhabitant.

13

Figure 5 - GDP per inhabitant (UN Statistics Division).

The economic crisis had a big impact on the eurozone countries’ economies in 2009 and 2010, whereas the southern and eastern rim countries seem to have withstood it better. But the revolutions in Tunisia and Egypt, and the political instability in Libya and Syria, will likely have a serious impact on these countries’ growth dynamics.

14

Figure 6 – GDP per inhabitant (UN Statistics Division).

1.4. CAR OWNERSHIP ON THE RISE Road construction is commonly viewed as a development driver. On the one hand, it helps to open up areas, and offers new economic opportunities by improving accessibility. On the other hand, it is viewed as an economic growth engine because of its weight in terms of investment and consumption.

In many countries, there are political initiatives to support consumption (and therefore economic growth) by promoting the acquisition of consumer durables (access to credit, control of fuel prices, etc.). One example is the “cars for the people” programmes launched in Tunisia and Morocco in the 1990s.

The correlation between GDP per inhabitant and car ownership is shown in the graph below. The issue of economic development in southern and eastern Mediterranean rim countries prompts a question about this dynamic: will they catch up with the European Union countries?

15

Figure 7 - Car ownership and GDP per inhabitant (UN data, 2009).

Fuel prices play an important role in car ownership growth. Several countries in the region are oil producers: Algeria, Libya, Egypt and Syria. They keep prices low, which encourages the use of motorised vehicles. Some importing countries, meanwhile, can actually subsidise fuel prices to reduce the impact of rising international prices on purchasing power.

Figure 8 – Fuel prices in the Mediterranean region (source: http://gasoline-germany.com, 2011 data).

16

On this subject, Turkey’s policy is worth emphasising. Its pump prices are the highest in the region, but the level of taxation, which is higher than in European Union countries, does not seem to be impairing the country’s economic impetus. This policy decision automatically makes alternative modes more attractive. It is probably a factor in explaining why Turkey sits below the GDP-car ownership correlation curve shown above (figure 7).

Figure 9 - Car ownership in Mediterranean countries in 2009.

2. TRANSFORMATION OF PERSONAL MOBILITY Demographic growth, urban development and economic growth generate a big rise in the number of urban journeys. In developing cities, each person makes 0.6-1.2 journeys a day. This is a particularly low level compared to European cities, where the average is more than three. Too few studies are being conducted in southern and eastern rim conurbations to be able to assess the trends, but the economic outlook suggests an increase in reasons to travel. Furthermore, car ownership and expanding public transport service are creating more opportunities.

In addition, the metropolisation dynamic is producing a delinkage of employment and living areas, which is significantly lengthening journey distances. This phenomenon is giving an advantage to flexible, motorised transport modes. Cars and minibuses are thus establishing themselves in the new urban configurations.

17

2.1. A DECLINE IN WALKING In all southern and eastern rim cities, walking is still the dominant travel mode among urban populations. Its modal share is 30%-50% depending on the conurbation. However, it is being hit hard by motorisation. Firstly, pedestrian accessibility is being reduced by increasing journey distances caused by metropolisation. Secondly, active modes are often overlooked by the public authorities in charge of urban transport. Newly-built routes rarely have secure crossings, and few crossroads give pedestrians right of way.

Pedestrians are therefore simply left to adapt to motorised vehicle flows – at their own risk. The concentrated flows in built-up areas increase the risk of road accidents. The most common casualties are people with the lowest incomes, who travel long distances on foot to save money.

2.2. PUBLIC TRANSPORT IN CRISIS In many Mediterranean cities, the quality of urban public transport is not high enough to attract city dwellers. The institutional public transport systems are unable to meet mobility demand that is far more dispersed, owing to urban expansion and fragmentation. On some routes, public transport capacity is becoming inadequate because of demographic growth. Overcrowded vehicles are reducing the appeal of networks that are typically used by travellers with no alternative.

In peripheral areas, public transport cannot develop a sufficiently flexible offering to meet residents’ needs. In addition, buses are the mode hit hardest by congestion. Stuck in traffic, they can offer no guarantee in terms of journey time or frequency of service. In this context, bus companies’ finances are constantly worsening. Some of them, unable to manage the change, have simply closed down.

Public transport therefore has a negative image, and its use is limited to captive populations.

2.3. OWNER-DRIVER TRANSPORT ON THE RISE The deficient public transport service and “spontaneous” urbanisation observed on the outskirts of southern and eastern rim cities have fostered the development of owner-driver collective transport.

According to Xavier Godard, “Owner-driver transport refers to the operation of public transport on an individual vehicle scale, with fragmented ownership, i.e. shared between numerous owners.

Operation can adhere to collective rules of varying restrictiveness, drawn up by trade bodies. There may be a certain concentration of ownership, so that the core of the definition must be based on the modalities of operation of the vehicles, responsibility for which is largely assigned to the driver, who thus appears as a field manager in the many cases where the driver is not the owner.”

This private-sector transport mode is typically run with low-capacity vehicles: cars used as individual taxis, motorbike taxis (1-2 seats), tricycles (3-8 seats), collective taxis (4-6 seats), microbuses (9-15 seats), minibuses (16-25 seats), midibuses (25-45 seats).

18

However, given the number of vehicles involved, this mode represents a very large offering in developing conurbations. It meets the mobility needs of people who cannot afford to buy a vehicle.

In some cities, it provides more than 50% of motorised journeys. Owner-driver transport is defined mainly by the mode of operation of the vehicles for which the driver is assigned responsibility.

Vehicle ownership is often fragmented, whereas coordination between drivers can be handled through trade bodies.3 For cities, this activity is a key socio-economic sector. But it contributes to rising traffic and to congestion. These vehicles, which are often decrepit, also produce a substantial share of pollutant emissions.

3. GROWTH IN GOODS TRAFFIC Economic development mechanically generates the movement of goods, which is part of a logistics chain comprising operations that vary in number and in degree of codification: transfer of information, stock management, product packaging, transport from A to B, consolidation and splitting, removal of residual waste, etc.

The motorisation of goods transport contributes to economic growth, but the urban environment constrains journeys and causes congestion and pollution problems. According to Daniel Boudouin, Director Jonction / CRET-LOG, 4 “vehicles that carry goods (including privately-owned vehicles) represent about 20% of road occupancy”. Any increase in constraints boosts this proportion, and weakens shops in old city centres.

In total, activities related to goods movement account for 6%-8% of jobs. These are a big factor in urban vitality, and a quarter of them are linked directly to serving dense areas.

Traffic due to goods transport is a major issue for Mediterranean cities. In most large conurbations, port activity heightens the challenge of organising urban logistics, particularly in historic centres. Any flow organisation scheme must take account of goods transport.

4.

CONSEQUENCES OF CAR OWNERSHIP

4.1. CONGESTION: A SYMPTOM OF RAPID RISE IN NUMBER OF CARS Growth in the motorised vehicle population very quickly generates congestion phenomena.

Congestion is a symptom of the mismatch between road supply and road use. The urgent response is generally to build new infrastructure that relieves the saturated routes for a time. But these, in turn, soon suffer traffic jams.

As shown in the graph below, high car density is not the only cause of chronic congestion. Of the featured cities, Barcelona has a car density six times higher than in Algiers or Istanbul, but its traffic jams are not six times worse.

3

Xavier Godard (2008).

Daniel Boudouin, Director of Jonction / CRET-LOG, “Quelle prise en compte de la question de la logistique urbaine ?” (Taking account of urban logistics issues), Marseille workshop.

4

19

Figure 10 – Car density: comparison of seven Mediterranean cities

Congestion results from inefficient road management, which can have multiple causes: a poorlystructured street network, which produces bottlenecks; poor management of car traffic; poorly organised road sharing between modes; drivers who do not respect traffic laws; an absence of traffic laws; owner-driver taxis that stop in a chaotic manner; poor accident management, etc.

Some large conurbations are seeing a double digit rate of vehicle population growth. At national level, in the period 2005-2010, every country in the south and east of the Mediterranean region saw its car population grow by more than 6% a year; in Syria, the growth rate was actually 16%. The soaring number of vehicles on the roads requires traffic organisation and a wider management of mobility.

4.2. ROAD SAFETY The graph below presents the road safety data collected by the United Nations. It shows that the southern and eastern rim countries which have the lowest rates of car ownership, have the highest rates of fatal accidents relative to vehicles on the roads. On this point it is noteworthy that, in European countries, alcohol consumption plays an important role in fatal accidents (in 27% of cases in France); this is not the case in the southern and eastern rim countries.

Other factors are therefore implicated: speed, traffic organisation, compliance with the highway code, and wearing a helmet on two-wheeled vehicles and a safety belt in other vehicles.

20

Figure 11 – Accident rate and motorisation rate (2007 data: “UN Global Overview on Road Safety”).

The most vulnerable street users, i.e. pedestrians and riders of bikes (motorised or not) are the main casualties of accidents. “The absence of appropriate infrastructure for these users, and noncompliance with traffic laws by drivers as much as by pedestrians and riders of two-wheeled vehicles, are among the most significant factors” (CODATU and partners, 2008).5 Non-compliance by unmotorised street users establishes a vicious circle: people take their car to travel safely, thus increasing traffic and reducing road safety, which prompts more and more people to take their car.

Safe travel is a major concern that cannot be neglected.6 It is one of the major components of a sustainable mobility policy: continuous secure infrastructure for active modes promotes a preference for them in a context of modal choice. Choosing public transport is also made easier by creating routes to stops and stations, where travellers’ waiting areas must also be safe.

In addition, for the community, a lack of safety entails: -

-

An economic cost: medical costs (healthcare-transport and first-aid service, cost of care, funeral costs, etc.); material costs (damage to vehicles, damage to the public domain, material damage, etc.), additional fuel costs, policing and judicial costs, loss of current or future production by those killed or incapacitated, loss of productivity, etc.

An environmental cost: damage to the environment, pollution due to traffic congestion following an accident.

A time cost: dealing with an accident can slow or stop road traffic or dedicated-lane mass

5

CODATU, French Ministry of Ecology, The World Bank, KNA-MENA, MedCities: “Les déplacements urbains en Méditerranée. Guide de Recommandations. Travaux issus du Séminaire Régional sur les Déplacements Urbains en Méditerranée – Skhirat, janvier 2008” (Urban Transport in the Mediterranean Region. Guidance and Recommendations. Product of the Regional Seminar on Urban Transport in the Mediterranean Region – Skhirat, January 2008) 6 The various costs due to poor road safety come from: http://www.val-demarne.equipement.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/cout_SR_cle2193cd.pdf

21

-

transport (congestion, impaired service, claims to be processed by the relevant authorities, etc.).

A social cost: emotional distress, loss of household income, unemployment, etc.

Simple solutions can be implemented to improve safety. The first is to reduce traffic speed (the speed limit in built-up areas is 60 km/h in Morocco and Egypt; and 50 km/h in the other countries).

Next, part of the public space must be dedicated to pedestrians by creating pavements; but also to cyclists, by developing a network of bike lanes. Lastly, traffic management requires giving pedestrians right of way over other transport modes, which makes all traffic flows smoother.

4.3. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS The spatial conditions of the Mediterranean region present a set of factors that favour ozone formation (land relief, hot dry climate, proximity to desert, calm anticyclonic weather liable to create a pollution dome, etc.) and aggravate local pollution.

Over the long term, numerous health problems may arise in populations not previously considered fragile (onset of allergies, increase in incidence of asthma, etc.) and may aggravate problems in already fragile populations: hospitalisation for respiratory and cardiovascular causes, bronchitis, asthma attacks, etc. The impacts on health increase according to pollutant concentrations and exposure time. However, awareness of the health issues related to air quality and the concentration of fine particulate – emitted by fossile fuel engines – is still limited in southern and eastern rim cities.

The decrepit car, bus and collective-taxi fleets in Mediterranean cities are aggravating factors in pollutant emissions. Improvements are being observed through the gradual replacement of vehicle fleets, notably through the adoption of strict standards (examples: Istanbul has adopted the European EURO emission standards; Cairo is encouraging taxis to run on natural gas; Algeria’s buses are slowly switching to LPG, etc.). Nevertheless, technological progress cannot be the only lever used in public policies to reduce pollution caused by urban transport.

Besides local pollution, fuel consumption contributes to climate disruption. To date, only the industrialised countries have committed to reductions as part of the international climate agreements. But this issue is increasingly topical for decision-makers and funding agencies. In many countries, transport is becoming one of the most worrying sectors, and the expected impacts in the Mediterranean region should be a wake-up call for populations and public authorities.

But cities are faced with a lack of available data on greenhouse gas emissions. If the data exist, they often do not cover the entire relevant area; nor are they produced regularly. It has been noted that local practitioners typically lack the core elements of knowledge when designing and evaluating sector-specific plans and programmes.

5. NEED FOR TRANSPORT POLICIES TO REDUCE CAR DEPENDENCY AND ITS CONSEQUENCES

22

As explained by Marc Le Tourneur during the Marseille workshop,7 from the 1950s to the 1970s there were attempts to adapt European cities to the private car, with heavy investment in the name of progress and economic development (urban motorways through the city centre, ring roads, car parks, etc.). Deteriorated public transport systems were “abandoned” in favour of cars; others were removed by vast closure and dismantling operations. In France and Spain, practically all tramway networks had disappeared by the end of the 1970s; only a few big Italian cities have kept theirs.

Since the 1980s the same cities, which had abandoned their public systems, have been reversing their decisions and redesigning their urban fabric to incorporate high-capacity lines (tramways, Bus Rapid Transit) and infrastructure for eco-friendly modes, again with heavy investment. Sustainable development policies are continuing this trend, by giving ever greater space to unmotorised modes and public transport, while regulating car use as best possible, particularly in urban centres, where mobility policies often mesh with those for heritage conservation. These policies are slowly bearing fruit in conurbations, especially in those that initiated this shift in direction.

As in the recent history of northern rim conurbations, the motorisation dynamic could trap southern and eastern rim cities in a vicious circle of car dependence: the city is structured through the dynamic of mass motorisation; the urban area becomes dispersed and areas undergo pro-car development; the appeal of public transport and active modes is reduced.

Conversely, sustainable mobility policies aim to permit efficient urban organisation and a certain balance in the use of travel modes. These policies make it possible to structure the city around sustainable transport modes and to regulate car traffic. From an economic perspective, the challenge for developing cities is to optimise their investments in the coming decades by avoiding a phase of excessive motorisation as seen in Europe.

Northern rim cities have long since been applying mobility policies that are now of interest to their southern counterparts. Cultural and geographic proximity in the Mediterranean region must facilitate the transfer of knowledge, so that southern cities can develop their own sustainable mobility approach. Furthermore, some experiments by southern cities demonstrate the feasibility of implementing a transport policy tailored to local contexts.

7

Marc Le Tourneur: “Évolution des transports urbains dans le cœurs des villes françaises des années 1950 à nos jours”, (Development of urban transport in French city centres from the 1950s to the present day). 2010.

23

CHAPTER II

GOVERNANCE AND PLANNING FOR SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY

Public policies on mobility thus raise many questions touch on all the challenges of sustainable development: how can cities be made more accessible and less congested? How can pollutant emissions and pressure on natural resources be reduced? How can public health and quality of life be protected? How can social-cohesion questions be taken into account? How can public space be improved?

But before seeking answers, it is necessary to define the conditions under which urban mobility can be properly governed. Which is the competent authority for governing urban travel, and what therefore is the correct scope of public action? What travel modes are involved, and what relations should be maintained with the multitude of stakeholders? What resources are made available and what powers should the authority possess, particularly in the field of town planning?

The success of Mediterranean countries’ urban mobility policies depends on the governance models thus put in place to meet the challenges of sustainable urban development.

The strategic planning approach that combines long term outlook and medium term objectives presupposes the existence of a recognised institutional entity to lead it. Moreover, coordination is required between the territorial tiers (city, conurbation, region) to ensure effective transport planning in accordance with local remits. Big public transport projects are essential in the implementation of planning. However, their development must be aligned with the urban development strategy and fit into a comprehensive scheme to develop the public transport system.

24

1. GOVERNANCE MODELS APPARENTLY UNABLE TO MEET THE REQUIREMENTS OF SUSTAINABLE URBAN MANAGEMENT

The governance models of southern and eastern rim cities and their urban area, like some on the northern rim, do not always seem able to meet the requirements for managing sustainable urban mobility. In many conurbations, there is no institution able to execute a transport policy that makes it possible to plan the development of a transport system and to organise metropolitan-scale travel.

The explanatory factors, which vary from case to case, are:



Central government intervention is still too high in Mediterranean cities, despite a gradual process of decentralisation.

 

The administrative organisation is disconnected from how the area actually operates.



A lack of inter-municipality cooperation to form a metropolitan political unit, although urban sprawl overreaches the boundaries of the central municipality.

  

Coordination bodies with no or inadequate powers to exercise their authority.

There is a multiplicity of public or private institutions whose remits sometimes overlap, resulting in poor regulation of the sector. This generates conflicts beween professional cultures, leading to divergences in intervention and competition strategies.

In some instances, no urban transport perimeter.

Transport infrastructure is dominated by operational and technical approaches on a microlocal scale, and not by a territory-wide and pro-integration approach to promote sustainable urban management.

Most Mediterranean conurbations need to set up an urban transport authority. In the region’s cities, urban transport clearly needs to be organised and regulated.

1.1. GOVERNANCE TO PROMOTE SUSTAINABLE URBAN TRAVEL, AND AUTHORITIES TO LEAD URBAN TRANSPORT POLICIES

Restructuring existing governance models and/or creating a new transport authority may prove difficult and encounter a number of serious political, institutional or judicial obstacles. “Decisionmakers must consider many questions if they wish to create an effective transport authority with a well-defined mission that is compatible with the local historical and socio-economic context of the city, region or country in question,” says Mohamed Mezghani (UITP).8 “Autonomy is a prerequisite for the effective handling of local or regional problems, and is obtained through a sufficient degree of decentralisation. The transfer of powers and responsibilities in local or regional matters from central government to local or regional authorities will promote understanding and assimilation of the situation, while instilling a sense of responsibility in local or regional stakeholders, who are naturally the most concerned with mobility in their area. At the local level, it is important to endow the transport authority with the requisite autonomy and power to protect it against major political and structural shifts, and to perpetuate it.”

8

Mohamed Mezghani (UITP): “Quelles autorités pour porter les politiques de transports urbains ?” (Defining authorities to lead urban transport policies). 2011.

25

According to Safak Hengirmen (SUMPA-MED) and Bernard Cornut (ADEME),9 having a transport authority make it possible to:  Develop a comprehensive long-term vision of mobility.  Conduct metropolitan-scale planning that reaches beyond basic administrative boundaries.  Coordinate actions between the various administrative levels.  Develop an integrated transport system or the coordination of bus, tram, metro, rail service, etc. to permit fare integration and multimodal information.  Implement an appropriate parking policy.  Develop balanced service across the metropolitan area.  Create a linkage between travel policy and urban development policy.  Develop legitimate project ownership, with sufficient and long-term financial resources to achieve a good level of technical expertise in-house and to enjoy authoritative status in the eyes of private partners.

The diagram below shows the various transport related issues. All of these different responsibilities can be assigned to a transport authority. A public authority can thus be set up simply to regulate public transport service; this can be extended to the coordination of the entire metropolitan-scale service. But this institution can also be given a role in managing all mobility; and, beyond that, the function of planning mobility and creating the linkage with urban development policy.

10

Figure 12 – Areas of responsibility for transport authorities (Mohamed Mezghani - UITP).

Some countries have recently set up institutions to govern urban mobility. In Lebanon, several parliamentary bills have been drafted with a view to creating a national transport authority, with branches in the big conurbations. But these branches have limited and controlled autonomy. In Jordan, a Public Transport Regulatory Commission has been set up, based on a law enacted to organise urban and inter city transport.

1.2. LONG-TERM FUNDING TO ENSURE PROPER OPERATION OF SUSTAINABLE URBAN TRANSPORT POLICIES 9

Safak Hengirmen (SUMPA-MED) and Bernard Cornut (ADEME): “Local transport authorities in Turkey, Jordan and Syria: situations & perspectives”. 2011.

10 Mohamed Mezghani (UITP): “Testimonials from International Association of Public Transport (UITP)”. 2011.

26

A transport authority must have substantial resources to acquire a good level of expertise in order to plan transport policy, coordinate stakeholders and govern transport systems.

A public transport system requires substantial investment to meet demand for travel (investment policy) and sufficient financial capability to fund the operation, maintenance and replacement of infrastructure and rolling stock. It is therefore essential to guarantee a long term funding model.

According to Rami Semaan (LEB),11 a lack of allocated resources leads to a chronic funding imbalance that favours individual modes and to a lack of investment in long-term structural projects.

Also, in the cities of the southern and eastern Mediterranean rim, fare revenue does not cover the operating costs of public transport operators. This operating deficit is due primarily to inappropriate pricing, coupled with business sectors making no financial contribution, and to inefficient management. Subsidies typically serve to balance operating budgets, but they are presented as social spending, which reinforces the negative image of public transport. Lastly, private operators run the profitable lines, thus further complicating the development of a metropolitan-scale “network” logic.

The example of the northern rim countries gives the public authorities the role of an essential contributor in funding urban public transport. But this funding, through a tax on households and businesses, must not be the only financial resource for transport authorities. Mateu Turro (Polytechnic University of Catalonia) and Géraldine Bonnet (CERTU)12 have proposed various funding options for Mediterranean transport authorities. For more details, please refer to the CODATU publication.13 Firstly, the contribution paid by public transport users is essential in funding the system. This means having a pricing policy that can incorporate a social dimension (with reductions for low-income households, the disabled, the elderly, students, large families, etc.), and a commercial dimension (to attract new customers by its quality of service and by developing the service, etc.). To be effective, the pricing policy must be coupled with a fight against ticket fraud. The examples of certain Latin American cities presented by Jorge Rebelo of the World Bank14 show that system operating costs can be covered solely by users’ contributions.

By soliciting employers to fund their employees’ travel, it is possible to enhance the system’s financial accessibility. In France, companies must reimburse 50% of their staff’s public transport passes. In Brazil, the “Vale Transporte” vouchers used in public mass transport are paid for by companies for their lowest-paid employees (see box 1).

11

Rami Semaan (LEB): “Planification des Transports Urbains” (Urban transport planning). 2011.

Mateu Turro (Polytechnic University of Catalonia) and Géraldine Bonnet (CERTU): “Comment financer le transport public urbain ? Quelles nouvelles sources de financement mobiliser ?” (Urban public transport funding and deploying new sources). 2011.

13 CODATU: “Qui paie quoi en matière de transports urbains ? Guide de bonnes pratiques” (“Who pays what for urban transport? A handbook of good practices”). 2009.

14 Jorge Rebelo (World Bank): “Financing with new taxes on car use: The Latin America Experience”. 2011.

12

27

BOX 1: “VALE TRANSPORTE” VOUCHERS IN BRAZIL Introduced in 1975, these vouchers are a benefit provided by employers to their poorest employees, i.e. whose home-to-work journey costs more than 6% of their gross basic pay. There is no minimum distance above which the employer is bound to provide the Vale Transporte. The employee’s sole obligation is to use urban, inter-city or inter-state public transport of any form. This excludes selective and special transport.

A recent survey by Brazil’s national federation of urban transport operators (NTU - Associação Nacional das Empresas de Transportes Urbanos) shows that these vouchers are used to pay for 39% of journeys on public transport. However, only 20% of the population uses them. An estimated twothirds of the survey respondents do not receive this support because of their precarious situation (unemployment or informal job) or because employers are in breach of the law.

For employers, the advantages are reduced absenteeism and thus higher employee productivity; the vouchers are not part of salary, so there is no extra tax on salary.

For employees, the advantages are guaranteed home-to-work transport that does not impact on pay; their purchasing power is not affected by rising public transport fares; and if their Vale Transporte smart card is stolen, damaged or lost, they can recover their credit.

Furthermore, using the public transport system can be promoted to other economic stakeholders.

Advertising (at stations and stops, and on vehicles) can generate extra revenue.

Next, public transport systems can be funded by users of individual motorised transport modes.

Introducing taxes can help contribute to the development of public-transport systems while dissuading people from using their car. Such taxes can be based on fuel consumption (the option adopted in Syria, where a 5% tax on fuel is devoted to funding public transport). In Asia, there are other options: taxes on car registration and on the import, purchase and ownership of vehicles.

Another source of funding could be infrastructure or urban tolls (see the Milan example). Parking policy can also be harnessed to fund networks. Parking revenue can amount to a significant resource (in Montpellier, a portion of parking revenue goes to fund its public transport system). In Paris, the regional transport authority (STIF) actually receives the revenue from parking fines.

28

BOX 2: FRANCE’S TRANSPORT TAX ON EMPLOYERS15 The Versement Transport (transport tax) was introduced in 1971 in the Paris region to fund public transport. Two years later, it was extended to big cities elsewhere in France.

The VT is a tax based on gross wage bill, paid by public and private employers with more than nine employees, located within an urban transport perimeter. When the taxe professionnelle, a local business tax, was reformed, the VT became one of the main locally-levied tax resources. VT rates vary according to a conurbation’s size and whether or not it has a project for dedicated-site public transport (i.e. metro, tramway or bus with high level of service). Transport authorities with fewer than 100,000 inhabitants can levy up to 1.1% of the wage bill; those with more than 100,000, up to 2.6%.

Since the VT was introduced, it has helped strong development of local public transport systems and ensured a certain level of service quality, particularly through investment in new transport modes and the maintaining of attractive fares. But in all big cities, it no longer suffices to cover systemoperation deficits.

Transport authorities can benefit from a rise in land values in the vicinity of public transport routes.

The simplest method is to anticipate the acquisition of land plots; the authorities can then plan these out and have utilities installed before selling them to property developers.

The Greater Amman Municipality, for example, generates most of its resources from building-permit fees. In addition, leasing business premises in stations can be a resource for transport authorities or network operators. In Istanbul, the metro maintenance centre was funded by the construction of a shopping centre. Mechanisms to levy taxes on property capital gains can also provide substantial resources. The “Grenelle 2” law in France implemented such a mechanism.

15

Based on Christian Bourget (French Ministry of Ecology): “Le ‘modèle’ français d’organisation des transports urbains – caractéristiques et limites” (The French model of urban transport organisation: its characteristics and limitations). 2011.

29

Figure 23 – Organisation and possible funding resources

Combining several funding sources can make it possible to keep fares at an affordable level while also developing new mass transport projects. Having a dedicated resource, as with the VT contribution in France, is a major asset for transport policy (see box 2). The transport authority enjoys a guaranteed level of funding, which avoids “either/or” budget decisions whose consequences on the transport system could lead to a project being dropped or services being closed.

2. DEFINING PLANNING AND OBJECTIVES Transport is an important component in the workings of urban areas, but not the only one. Urban planning covers environmental, economic and social issues that are wider than those related to transport alone.

A strong linkage between transport planning and urban planning is thus necessary. Transport systems shape cities’ development. Transport system performance depends on the form of cities.

Since the 2000s, “strategic planning” has appeared in developing cities. This approach is embodied, for example, in the City Development Strategies drafted by Cities Alliance to help cities define economic and urban strategies in concert with all local stakeholders.

Strategic planning enables metropolitan scale coordination of a city’s stakeholders. It seeks to set clear objectives that serve as a reference; it must ensure that these are not compromised by a profusion of contradictory local actions; and lastly, it must enable the coordination of operational projects.

“Strategic planning prefers schemes that are simply structured and comprehensible, in order to achieve a consensus on objectives and resources between public and socio-economic stakeholders.

Through concrete action plans, it can then target sites and projects with the greatest possible leverage for the convergence of public and private investment. But the ‘urban projects’ approach 30

should not replace the strategic approach, which must be the true urban backbone that justifies and expresses them.”16 Although the guidelines for territorial development over a long timescale must be clearly defined, schemes must also retain some flexibility between intangible objectives and those adaptable to the current context. To do this, it is necessary to establish indicators and periodic appraisals with a view to adjusting and implementing policy documents.

With strategic planning, the challenge is to create a linkage between the political project, strategy and its execution, not forgetting monitoring and appraisal. It fits into a continuous process of adaptation and of ongoing consultation with all metropolitan stakeholders.

2.1. CHANGES NEEDED IN URBAN MOBILITY PLANNING Given the rapid growth in the Mediterranean region, anticipating the future is a crucial challenge.

Although there are planning initiatives in most large conurbations, they have often been conducted without incorporating financial constraints, and are therefore projected over the long term.

Within the scope of strategic planning, the objective is to articulate long term planning: this is necessary to align actions requiring long term investment with actions executed over shorter timeframes of 5-10 years, whose funding is assured.

Urban planning in North Africa differs from country to country; mobility plans are not always coordinated with urban planning schemes: in Algeria, planning is led by the central government, with various plans and schemes depending on territorial scale. In Tunisia, power is more decentralised; there are urban transport plans, urban planning regulations and strategic projects. In Morocco, regional schemes co-exist with Wilayah (province) master plans, strategic projects, urban planning regulations and transport plans.

According to Éric Huybrechts, planning in Mediterranean cities is evolving from emergency planning to integrated planning of transport, as per the following typology:    

“Emergency” planning to resolve a “crisis”, with spontaneous construction of transport infrastructure at the risk of creating urban disconnects.

“Catch-up” planning with major infrastructure driven by land development opportunities and existing infrastructure.

Anticipatory planning (urban extensions and transformations) with transport planning that guides urbanisation (densification, centrality, urban extensions).

Integrated and participative planning, with a process of drawing up urban mobility plans that incorporates the promotion of active modes, parking, a tiered road system and management, public transport, pricing and intermodality, goods transport and delivery, road safety, and mobility management.

2.2. CITIZEN PARTICIPATION: INVOLVING THE PUBLIC IN THE DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF URBAN TRANSPORT POLICIES

What is the current state of citizen participation in developing and executing urban mobility policies and projects? How can the public be involved? What kind of communication is required? (based on 16

http://www.fnau.org/file/news/FNAUfran%C3%A7aiscomplet.pdf

31

questions by Thierry Gouin, CERTU).17 To quote Jean-Charles Crochet (World Bank),18 “experience shows that consulting the general public and involving them in the design and implementation of urban mobility policies is a necessity”. This is because, although quantitative surveys are useful in providing knowledge of current situations, such surveys poorly address the qualitative dimension of urban travel. City dwellers, who deal with the reality on a daily basis, can provide knowledge that is lacking in urban mobility policies.

“Nevertheless, consultation and participation are difficult and can easily fail,” warns Crochet. This is because there will always be divergences between situations and the various groups of the population (retailers, residents of a neighbourhood, an association of disabled people, etc.). These groups will seek to defend their own interests before the common interest.

Another cause of failure may arise from proponents of urban mobility projects themselves, by giving the general public inadequate information on urban transport.

Consequently, projects and issues are most often poorly understood and assimilated: protests against projects, complaints, criticisms, etc. It is therefore preferable to communicate on the project cost / benefit ratio in order to raise general awareness, and on the technical analysis to provide an overview which is more comprehensible for the public.

2.3. GENERAL COMMUNICATION TO THE PUBLIC TO RAISE AWARENESS ON SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY Communicating after urban mobility projects have been executed is also essential to present new arrangements (new organisation of parking, opening of green routes, new transport lines, etc.) and to raise awareness among potential but unconvinced users.

Communication and awareness-raising can take various forms (poster campaign, workshops, etc.) and be deployed in various locations (schools, workplaces, in the street…). Several agencies have concluded that children assimilate messages better than adults, and can lead them to adopt best practices.

17

Thierry Gouin (CERTU): “Citizen, taxpayer, user, customer: How to involve the people in the definition and implementation of urban transport policies?”. 2011.

18 Jean-Charles Crochet (World Bank): “Citoyen, contribuable, usager, client, opérateur: comment associer la population à l’élaboration et à la mise en oeuvre des politiques de transport urbain ?” (Citizen, taxpayer, customer, operator: how to involve the people in the definition and implementation of urban transport policies).

2011.

32

Figure 34 – Poster from the "Autopatch" campaign (STAR, Greater Roanne, ADEME)

But to ensure the public retains the message, it is advisable to raise awareness with “hard-hitting” communication that could involve a campaign of violent images, as seen in road-safety operations, or by light-hearted awareness-raising, as in the “Autopatch” campaign.

This campaign is inspired by the claims of nicotine-patch advertising. It “aims to humorously raise drivers’ awareness of public transport use, and to highlight the benefits they can expect. […]

Throughout the campaign, Autopatch nurses and doctors handed out free packs of ‘Autopatch chewing-gum’. The list of ingredients were ‘savings, serenity and ecology’, to be taken as a supplement to the bus-based medication” (ADEME, 2011).19 BOX 3: QUITO: INFORMING CITIZENS AND INVOLVING THEM IN FUN ACTIONS TO PROMOTE BETTER URBAN MOBILITY20 Quito, the capital of Ecuador, is located at 2,850 metres altitude and has nearly two million inhabitants. Urban growth is based on an expansionist model, heavily influenced by the constraints of the mountainous terrain, which means that Quito has low population density of 100 inhabitants / hectare and a very uneven distribution of services across the conurbation.

“Three north-south BRT lines serve the city, with a feeder network of urban and inter-city buses centred on the multimodal hubs. Despite the efforts made, […] there are difficulties achieving accessibility for disadvantaged users in a city which, apart from its historic centre, is geared to the needs of car users,” explains Sandra Bonilla. “It was in this context, in 2007, that the municipality revised its Transport Master Plan, which dated from 2002. The focus now is no longer transport but mobility. The planning process incorporates environmental and citizen-participation issues when considering the transport of people and goods.”

Besides citizen participation via consultation, participatory management of the mobility plan, and 19 20

Source: http://observatoire.pcet-ademe.fr/action/fiche/49 Source: Sandra Bonilla, Quito Metropolitan District (DMQ).

33

participation in public debates, Quito offers its residents events on mobility alternatives to the car: for example, the “mobility week” in 2009 or the “car-free day” in 2005, when the curious could take part in workshops.

In addition, every Sunday the main north-south road is dedicated to eco-friendly traffic with activities for cyclists, rollerskaters, etc. open to children and adults. These activities are supplemented by cycling lessons for children from the age of five; courses aimed at secondary school and university students; and home-to-work cycling caravans for employees. The objective is to encourage a modal switch through guided practice.

These concrete actions are backed by a policy to raise public awareness through flyers, posters, etc.

2.4. MONITORING PLANNING DOCUMENTS Once planning has been implemented, it is advisable to conduct evaluations to understand the results in relation to the stated goals. To quote Benjamin Fouchard – CETE Méditerranée, 21 “Evaluation means setting goals and measuring progress towards those goals.” By monitoring the effects of a public policy, we can measure the results, judge its worth and compare forecasts with reality.

Figure 15 - "What should be evaluated?" (diagram B. Fouchard – CETE Méditerranée)

For an evaluation to be meaningful, it must be backed by reliable statistics to measure quantifiable elements. Qualitative elements should not however be neglected. To achieve this, the evaluation must be done in partnership with stakeholders. It is also important to communicate about the evaluation in order to capitalise on both the planning tool and on the evaluation process.

21

Benjamin Fouchard – CETE Méditerranée: « Évaluer pour évoluer : comment suivre et évaluer les documents de planification » (Evaluate in order to evolve: how to monitor and assess planning documents) and « Conclusions de la session » (Session conclusions). 2011

34

3. GUIDELINES FOR URBAN STRATEGIES 3.1. THE ROLE OF MASS TRANSPORT PROJECTS IN MOBILITY PLANNING Many cities of the Mediterranean basin have launched mass transport projects to meet ever-growing demand for mobility, to reduce congestion and improve the urban environment.

According to Alicia Casart,22 mass transport means a commitment to the quality of life; it is a tool for urban planning and a source of pride from a technological perspective. It is also a key element in restructuring the urban transport system. Investment in a mass transport network serves as a catalyst for other processes of innovation and improvement (greater frequency, price integration, new technologies, etc.). Each mode must however be adaptable to the type of demand, topography, urban context, etc.

With a fixed budget amount, a city cannot build as many kilometres of a metro line as it can a tramway or BRT line. Furthermore, the various modes differ in passenger capacities and operating costs. To avoid over- or under-investment, it is important to calibrate transport supply with demand by assessing the situation beforehand and coordinating urban development plans with the roll-out of these transport networks.

Given their symbolic importance, these major projects weigh heavily on the political scene. But it is important to consider them as projects within the broader framework of urban planning. Sometimes, mass transport lines are absolutely necessary in a master plan for mobility but this may engender significant difficulties in terms of integration and complementarity with existing networks.

Building a tram, metro or BRT line can nonetheless facilitate and accelerate the implementation of certain measures included in the urban mobility plan, which might not have been accepted without the mass transport project.

The mass transport line is thus part of a more comprehensive goal to link the periphery to the centre, the urban hubs to newly developed areas (offices, housing, universities, stadiums, etc.), and to improve the living environment by redesigning public spaces and landscaping, while reducing the space allocated to cars.

Major transport projects contribute to preserving the city and keeping cars away from the centre, thanks to coordinated redevelopment and planning: traffic plans, bypasses, ring roads, traffic restrictions (reduced-speed zones, pedestrian zones, gathering points, restricted-access zones, etc.).

Frédérique Hernandez - IUAR Aix-Marseille University,23 warns that mass transport is not a virtue in and of itself. In France, the tramway is often associated with the catchwords “modern”, “ecofriendly”, “urban”, etc. But a mass transport network must be integrated with other projects in the framework of comprehensive mobility planning.

22

Alicia Casart – ALG-EP: « Le point de vue du consultant: Quels besoins vis-à-vis des documents de planification pour les projets de transport de masse ? » (Consultant perspective: what is needed in planning documents for mass transit projects). 2011 23 Frédérique Hernandez – IUAR Aix-Marseille University: « Le tramway : projet de transport de masse et outil stratégique de la planification urbaine » (Tramway: mass transit project and strategy for urban planning). 2011

35

3.2. OPTIONS FOR URBAN MOBILITY PLANS For Mediterranean cities with remarkable heritage assets, the revitalisation of city centres is a genuine challenge. Creating a sustainable urban transport system contributes to preserving the city’s heritage and developing the economy in that part of town. There are however certain risks. If the mix of populations and functions is not preserved, mobility policies may produce unwanted transformations such as the flight of people and jobs to the periphery, worsening the urban sprawl already driven by the growth in population and car ownership. They can also be detrimental to alternative modes of transport. The transformations include:



Gentrification: the economic and social make-up of city centres evolves in favour of higher classes than those currently in place (rising living standards). As has already occurred in certain cities of the northern rim, the tendancy is for the lower classes of the population in southern and eastern-rim cities to migrate to the periphery.



Or, on the contrary, neighbourhood decay: low-quality housing becomes dominant. City centres of the southern and eastern rim have in recent years suffered from economic and social decline which leads to marginalisation and loss of attractiveness. This occurred in the historic centres of northern-rim cities after WWII. Contrary to gentrification, it is the higher classes of the population who flee from the centre.



Specialisation of activities: “museum-city” specialised in tourism, dominance of retail activities tending towards up-scale or specialised shops and the classic trio of culture / leisure / restaurant businesses).

According to Patrice Berger – URBALYON,24 if a city is experiencing a spread of the urban population, it is still possible to organise the periphery into poly-centric hubs (large secondary centres) and to connect them to the main urban centre with one or more mass transport corridors.

Marc Le Tourneur of Greater Montpellier25 explains that the priorities of local urban mobility planning are:



The densification of housing and essential activities along the main public transport routes, in dedicated lanes (control urban development and give priority to transport alternatives, rather than to the private car).



A pricing policy for parking which is advantageous for residents but discourages commuting by car, while favouring fast rotation (in shopping areas, reduced space for cars, etc.).



The development of active modes of mobility by creating pedestrian zones in historic centres, bike-sharing programmes (free of charge for public transport pass-holders; attractive prices for non pass-holders, etc.), long-term bike rental for students and companies, and guarded bike pens in car parks.



Addressing the issue of goods transport. The business activities of a city create transport needs (urban logistics): tradesmen at work, delivery of supplies to companies, construction sites, delivery of purchases to customers, etc. not to mention emergency vehicles

24

Patrice Berger – URBALYON: “Comment décongestionner le centre ancien ?” (Reducing congestion in historic centres). 2010 25 Marc Le Tourneur: “Les transports à Montpellier : planification et cadre institutionnel” (Transport in Montpellier : planning and institutional framework). 2010

36

(ambulances, fire engines, police, utilities) and trash collection.

Organising urban logistics is a huge challenge for cities due to the large number of stakeholders in the private sector (transporters, warehouses, industries, retailers, etc.), public sector (elected officials, agents, police, chamber of commerce and trades, etc.), as well as local residents affected by deliveries (availability of goods, home deliveries, noise, etc.).

4. TOOL KIT To conclude this section on urban governance and transport planning, we propose a method to help decision-makers in southern-rim cities to adapt these policies to their territory. The two diagrams below and the list of key questions can help them in the preparation of their transport policy.

Figure 16 presents the methodology used by international experts to identify the challenges in the effort to control energy costs in the transport sector. The equation shows the underlying factors of energy consumption: population, number of journeys per person, distance per journey, modal split, occupancy and energy consumption per mode.

Growth in mobility on the southern and eastern rim of the Mediterranean is due to demographic growth, the number of journeys and the modal shift to private transport modes with generally low occupancy. Three main options are proposed to reduce energy consumption: avoid journeys, shift journeys to the lowest-consuming modes, and improve the energy efficiency of travel.

Figure 16 – “Avoid/Shift/Improve� method for meeting the challenges of the transport sector.

Figure 17 shows the modal split for three types of modes: active, private and public. For transport planners, this diagram draws attention to the desired urban form and the goals for modal share in the urban area.

37

Figure 17 – Urban form according to modal share (M. Replogle, 1992)

In addition, we suggest this list of questions to help those in charge of transport to evaluate the situation in their territory in view of developing areas for action.

KEY QUESTIONS ON GOVERNANCE AND TRANSPORT PLANNING

1.

Who has authority for managing transport systems and in which territory? Which institutions, for which systems, in which territory?

2.

What human resources are devoted to each area of authority? Political steering? Technical departments? Sufficient local expertise? Outsourcing?

3.

What financial resources are devoted to each area of authority (taxes and duties, subsidies, ticket revenue)?

4.

How is coherence between transport networks ensured?

5.

Who has authority for mobility planning? For which territories? For what timescale?

6.

How are major transport projects prepared? How do they fit in with the planning process?

Do they lead planning? Are they drivers or obstacles?

7.

Who has authority for urban planning? For which territories? For what timescale?

8.

What is the link between mobility planning and urban planning?

38

9.

What is the extent of policy evaluation in the field of urban mobility? Are studies conducted before and after policy implementation? Is there a monitoring system? How are issues of sustainable mobility integrated in policies?

10.

Is there a structure for pooling or capitalising on knowledge, data and expertise in the field of urban mobility? At the local or national level?

39

CHAPTER III

HOW TO ORGANISE AND MANAGE TRANSPORT SYSTEMS

In addition to coordinating town planning and transport, sustainable mobility policies implemented in countries on the northern rim of the Mediterranean are generally built on four pillars:



The regulation of private car use: by reducing accessibility to certain zones, slowing traffic speed, strengthening parking policy, rendering the cost of use higher, etc.



The development of attractive transport alternatives to the private car: lower cost of use, rapid modes, accessibility, guaranteed journey time, high frequency of service, long opening hours, etc.



The development of multimodal transport: by creating park & ride facilities, improving pedestrian accessibility and pro-pedestrian urban design, developing cycling infrastructure and bicycle services, etc.



The organisation of urban logistics: this fourth pillar is less developed and yet the organisation of deliveries and utility vehicle traffic is a key element for ensuring sustainable mobility.

The first three policy pillars need to be coordinated to foster multimodal mobility among residents.

The fourth pillar is essential to ensuring better usage of the road and to reduce traffic congestion, air pollution and accidents in the city.

1. THE REGULATION OF CAR USE Regulating private car use is the first challenge to move towards sustainable mobility. The first stage for cities on the southern rim of the Mediterranean is to organise traffic and parking so as to restrict them to defined portions of the public space. In addition to measures for organising traffic, it may also be necessary to find ways to slow the development of car use in order to reduce congestion, air and noise pollution and to save on investments. These measures require strong political commitment on the part of the city authorities.

1.1. TIERED ROAD NETWORK BASED ON FUNCTIONALITIES The aim of a tiered road network is to facilitate overall traffic management in order to improve urban traffic conditions. Traffic management plans define the priority routes for the various modes of transport. This generally consists of three types of flows:

  

Transit flow: crossing the metropolitan area without any connection to sectors of the city.

Exchange flow: connections between the metropolitan area and outlying areas.

Internal flow: within the metropolitan area, connecting to industrial zones, preservation of local life, etc.

Structuring the road network in tiers is therefore based on the functions one wishes to assign to the different parts of the urban area. The road types and traffic speeds can be adapted according to the 40

types of flow desired, favouring motorised or non-motorised modes of transport as the case may be.

A mix of transport modes is most suited to areas where streets are designed to favour local life and where space is limited, such as historic centres. This cannot be achieved without lowering the speed limit for motorists. In dense traffic areas, road space must be shared, with each mode having a defined corridor. As a general rule, in urban areas, the allocation of space requires reducing car traffic lanes to make room for alternative transport modes.

It is important, however, to take into account certain points: managing the interface between the different modal corridors; enforcing proper use of the corridors; setting aside reserved delivery zones.

1.2. PARKING POLICY ADAPTED TO TYPES OF USE The ease or difficulty of parking one’s car at destination is an important criterion for choosing one’s mode of transport. Studies have shown that offering free parking at the work place is the main contributor to private car usage by commuters.

On the northern rim, in urban centres, parking policies generally distinguish three types of users:   

Residents who need to park their car for the night (and perhaps day) near their home.

Employees who come to work by car and need parking during the day.

Visitors, especially shoppers who want to park as close as possible to their destination, for a short or medium-length stay.

When there is a credible public transport alternative, the authorities offer attractive prices for passes so that residents can leave their cars at home and take the bus, metro or tram. Parking rates are designed to allow visitors to do their shopping for a limited time but they discourage employees from parking in the centre all day, inciting them, rather, to take public transport.

For such a parking policy to be efficient there must be appropriate enforcement and fines. It also requires the creation of park & ride facilities to allow intermodality for commuters.

1.3. TRAFFIC RESTRICTIONS IN THE CITY-CENTRE TO ENCOURAGE USE OF OTHER MODES The concept of Limited Traffic Zones (LTZ) started in Italy in 1987, with the aim of protecting urban heritage assets from pollution caused by a growing number of vehicles, while maintaining the commercial activity in the historic centre. The zone must cover several hundred hectares to provide proper conditions for active and public modes of transport. In this zone, motorised vehicles are not totally prohibited. A permit is issued for traffic deemed vital to activities in the historic centre: residents in the zone, emergency vehicles, public services, transport for the disabled, etc.

This type of regulation does not require specific redevelopment of public spaces. Access points and restrictions must be clearly identified by markings and signs (authorised vehicles, times, etc.).

41

Maurizio Tira of the University of Brescia26 advises, however, the installation of electronic access control systems. For example, in Padua, the Zona Blu (LTZ) was implemented in 1988 and, since 2008, has been equipped with video surveillance cameras at each access point. They read the license plates of entering vehicles and a software system checks the status of the vehicle’s authorisation. Some 250 infringements are detected daily and the vehicle owner is fined €90. The amount of fines collected quickly paid for the cost of the equipment and now constitutes revenue for the city. The automated system requires monitoring by only two people. Thanks to this traffic-limiting measure, the modal share of active transport has grown significantly: 20% of travel is now done by bicycle.

Implementing such measures must be accompanied by the development of other modes of transport. It has been noted in certain cities of the northern rim, where public transport was insufficient, that car restriction measures resulted in more use of two-wheel motorised vehicles (more prone to the risk of traffic accidents), as demonstrated in the paper by Angel Lopez of the City of Barcelona.27

2. MORE EFFICIENT PUBLIC TRANSPORT Public transport service is most efficient when designed as a network of hubs connected to each other by links. This means that all modes of public transport (rail modes, buses, owner-driver transport, etc.) must be coordinated in relation to their zone of operation in order to offer service which is as comprehensive, coherent and optimised as possible for the territory.

2.1. TIERED COVERAGE OF THE TRANSPORT SYSTEM Improvements to the public transport system should be organised around the creation of one or several main routes with the highest level of service. Located on the most-travelled routes, these main service lines must be designed in synergy with the other lines of the system. Connections to these main routes are handled by lower-capacity lines feeding in from less densely-occupied areas.

Depending on the size of the urban area, there may be up to six tiers in the structure of the systems found in the northern rim countries (ranging from regional trains to ring & ride transport). A system structured in this manner allows for greater coverage, serving the entire territory in an economically efficient way.

2.2. AN INTEGRATED OFFER THROUGH PRICING POLICY, INFORMATION AND TRANSIT HUBS An integrated pricing policy for urban public transport helps to reduce transfer time and cost by avoiding the need for passengers to pay again when they change lines. This savings of time and

26

Maurizio Tira – University of Brescia: "Italian experience of the Restricted Traffic Zone (ZTL).” 2010.

Angel Lopez – City of Barcelona: “Les deux roues motorisées – Défis et opportunités” (Two-wheeled motorised vehicles: challenges and opportunities). 2010 27

42

money means greater perceived comfort for passengers. According to Xavier Rosellò of ATM,28 this perception can lead to growth in ridership for public transport by attracting new users. However, integrated tickets must be limited to a set duration and/or number of trips (this does not include unlimited-use passes) to ensure sufficient revenue for the transport authority. For example, thanks to the integrated pricing implemented in 2001, ATM (Barcelona transport authority) saw 24% growth in ridership between 2001 and 2008.

In addition to a comprehensive pricing policy to promote access for all to the urban transport system, providing a good level of information for users helps attract new passengers and thereby strengthens the system thanks to growth in revenue and a better image. Information needs to be available for users to prepare their trip and in the course of the journey (name of the stop, waiting time, technical incidents, etc.). This may be combined with campaigns to raise awareness among potential users: presentations in schools, in companies, etc.

An integrated service also requires the creation of multimodal transit hubs. A hub can serve three functions:



Transport function with connections to other modes. Depending on how it is designed, a transit hub can be perceived as an advantage or a constraint.



Urban function in which the transit hub is a gateway to the urban area.



Service function by grouping companies and administrations accessible to passengers and residents of the district: shops, medical services, post office, etc.

The proper organisation of transit hubs is essential to ensure that public transport users can make their transfers in the shortest and easiest manner.

2.3. INTEGRATION OF OWNER-DRIVER TRANSPORT IN THE MULTIMODAL MIX Owner-driver transport offers mobility for many segments of the population who can’t use mass public transport. This form of transport accounts for a large number of jobs in economies with high unemployment. 29 In this respect, any initiative aiming to regulate and integrate owner-driver transport into an organised urban transport system, must take into account the considerable economic, social and political challenges.

What methods can help reform transport systems without excluding local operators? In answer to this question, Alain Descamps – Veolia Transdev – proposes six types of methods:30 

There are multiple ways of integrating local operators. This requires understanding the goals

28

Xavier Rosellò – ATM : “Présentation de l’ATM, Autorité du Transport Métropolitain de Barcelone” (Presentation of ATM, the transport authority of Barcelona). 2011 29 Xavier Godard : “Transport artisanal, esquisse de bilan pour la mobilité durable” (Owner-driver transport: a partial assessment for sustainable mobility). 2008 30 Alain Descamps – Veolia Transdev: “Point de vue de l’opérateur Améliorer l’efficience des Transports Urbains au Sud de la Méditerranée avec les opérateurs locaux - Veolia” (Operator’s perspective on ways to improve the efficiency of urban transport in the South Mediterranean, with local operators). 2011

43

of the operators and their ability to adapt, based on their operational resources (according to the level of service desired) and financial capacity. With this information, the transport authority must then make the choice of a single operator or multiple operators. 

The transport authority must define the degree of regulation and monitoring in proportion with the authority’s genuine operational capability and in line with the policy aims. However, the more complex the system, the more complicated and time-consuming its management.

The transport authority is therefore advised to fully inform its potential partners of the authority’s requirements so that these elements may be contractualised with the chosen operators.



The owner-driver sector can represent an opportunity and not an obstacle, on the condition that the number of owner-drivers is limited by means of incentives to consolidate (economic interest group) and encouraging the weaker ones to cease operations by offering a termination bonus. Once the consolidation is complete, work should be allotted among the groups based on operational capacity and geography (batches of routes) or type of service (zone-based, feeder line, etc.). It remains essential however to impose specifications and monitor service to ensure proper functioning of the system. Other complementary measures include a bonus mechanism to reward good service (by means of financial aid, for example), “progress contracts,” aid for vocational training, etc.



The contract sets out the relationship between the operator and the regulator. It must respect certain principles, in particular: the contract must be adapted to the mission and the assigned targets, while allowing for changes over time, in the framework of genuine negotiations. In general, if the starting situation is of poor quality, it is advisable to implement modular contracts which take into account progress achieved by the operator, rather than setting overly ambitious targets. These contracts should be monitored with a view to implementing corrective measures (to make progress), rather than imposing sanctions.



Monitoring performance not only helps to evaluate progress, it also helps improve management (indicators, evaluation meetings, integration of IT systems, etc.).



The modernisation of a transport system is a long process requiring specialised skills developed thanks to the training of staff employed by the authority and by the operators.

Integrating owner-driver transport in the overall system is a policy choice which requires a stringent methodology on the part of the transport authority to assist operators through this transition and to improve the quality of service.

Like cities of the northern rim seeking to develop transport-on-demand service to connect peripheral zones with the urban transport system, cities such as Cairo have developed ways of using ownerdriver transport to offer better coverage throughout the territory, with a good match between supply and demand, and an efficient organisation to feed into the main transit lines.

3. PROMOTION OF WALKING AND CYCLING 44

Cities of the north rim of the Mediterranean have noted that redesigning public spaces for the benefit of non-motorised modes serves to boost their usage. This strategy must be part of a tiered urban road system to best determine the proper balance between public space, buildings and the various modes of transport. According to Martin Stucki – Transitec,31 there are several phases to redesign urban spaces: 

Analyse the current situation in order to set out clear objectives.



Decide on the sharing of space and time for different users, depending on the tier of the roadway (shared roadway, priority at traffic lights for public transport, restricted zones, twoway bike lanes, etc.).



Prioritise optimised functioning of existing infrastructures.



Aim for a multimodal approach to integrate all modes of transport, in particular the most vulnerable.



Ensure coherence between development and operation.

This type of approach has resulted in improved accessibility, mobility and safety, a positive impact on air, noise and visual pollution, as well as a better allocation of resources for projects to redesign traffic flows. In addition, improved urban spaces and more attractive landscaping encourage the choice of active modes of transport when possible.

Opportunities to redesign public spaces in the city-centre may however be rare (lack of space, high cost, etc.). But walking and cycling do not entirely depend on the requalification of urban spaces.

Curtailing motorised traffic is also an important factor. Other measures include: 

A communication campaign about sharing the road among the different transport modes, road safety, etc.



Signs and markers for pedestrians indicating walking time, rather than distance (less discouraging?).32



Signs for walking and cycling routes for visitors to encourage sustainable tourism.



Bike-sharing stations such as those found in Lyon (Vélo’V) and Ferrara (Bike Bus Key).



Parking for individual bicycles in locked pens near transit hubs.

4. ORGANISATION OF URBAN LOGISTICS Studies on urban travel practices often focus on individuals. However, urban logistics represents a 31

Martin Stucki – Transitec: “Les déplacements dans les cœurs de ville : quel traitement de l’espace urbain ? – Illustrations à travers le guide d’aménagement et d’exploitation de l’espace public urbain au Maroc” (Mobility in city centres: the role of urban space design – examples from the Moroccan plan for urban space development and operation). 2010. He also gives recommendations on redesigning public spaces.

32 Example of a city map showing walking times, for an average speed of 5 km/hr: http://www.villegeneve.ch/fileadmin/public/Departement_2/Plans_pietons/carte-marcher-geneve-2011.pdf

45

serious challenge for all aspects of urban life:33 

Travel modes: merchandise transport vehicles (professional and individual) represent on average 20% of road usage and therefore must be included in plans to organise traffic.



Economy: urban logistics alone represents 3% of the cost of the product. Any additional constraints will raise this percentage and weaken the position of retailers in city centres.



Environment: one third of transport pollution emissions in town comes from urban logistics.



Development: urban logistics requires space for loading and unloading which facilitates the process.



Social aspects: logistics accounts for 6 to 8% of jobs and contributes to urban vitality. One fourth of these jobs are directly linked to serving densely-occupied zones.

Most cities of the northern rim have understood the importance of urban logistics for preserving an attractive and dynamic centre. This requires an efficient system for handling goods so as to avoid dissatisfaction among stakeholders who might be tempted to transfer business, jobs and housing to outlying areas. Two actions have proved useful, when deployed jointly: 

One action is based on constraints to manage city roads, parking areas and delivery points, backed by regulations: authorised hours of operation, types of vehicles allowed in the city, parking reserved for deliveries, etc. For this to work, it requires consultation, information and monitoring.



The other entails the creation of urban logistics facilities to organise loading/unloading points, managed either by the public sector or the private sector, or by a joint action of the two.

New ideas have been developed in some cities. One example is the use of traditional passenger transport vehicles to carry goods (e.g. Amsterdam, in which warehouses outside the city load palettes onto trams to be taken into the city-centre near the shops); the creation of logistics centres combining the logistics function with other urban functions); the use of delivery tricycles for packages and purchases;34 animal-drawn vehicles for trash collection (e.g. the medina of Fes); etc.

33

Daniel Boudouin – CRET-LOG: “La circulation des marchandises dans les centres anciens” (Merchandise transport in historic centres). Undated 34 Example of FREE’DOM: customers purchasing goods from shops on Lyon’s peninsula can have them delivered to their home for a small fee. The deliveries are made by bicycle.

46

5. TOOL KIT To conclude this section on implementing transport policies, we offer this list of questions.

Answering these questions should help those in charge of transport to evaluate the situation in their territory in view of developing areas for action.

KEY QUESTIONS ON IMPLEMENTING TRANSPORT POLICIES 1.

Are there zones to be preserved from motorised traffic (rehabilitation of historic centres, enhancement of specific spaces, etc.)?

2.

Is there a master plan for all modes of mobility? What are the main principles? What are the main axes of traffic? Are public transport modes organised in synergy with each other?

3.

What are the services and what organisation exists for the different modes of transport?

Are there master plans for each mode? What connections are there between modes?

4.

Who is in charge of operating the various transport services? How are private operators regulated? Is there a public operator or is operation delegated to the private sector? A public corporation or private enterprise? What is the distribution of roles? of risks?

5.

What are the policies on parking and deliveries? On-street or off-street? Free or paying?

How is paid parking monitored? Are some areas favoured and others to be avoided?

6.

How is merchandise transport organised? What are the modes of transport? How is traffic managed? deliveries?

7.

What approach is taken to improve safety? What data and tools exist? Reports and analyses? What are the challenges for the types and causes of accidents? Is the chain of events of accidents analysed? How was this approach integrated in earlier policies?

8.

How is public space organised and shared?

9.

What adaptations are needed to control automobile traffic? How is speed monitored (automated or manual), compliance with reserved lanes? Closing of certain quarters?

Reduction of road width? Shift to one-way traffic? Are there dedicated lanes for certain transport modes? lanes for public transport? cycling lanes? pedestrian paths? Is the use of these adaptations monitored?

10.

Is there a system of dynamic traffic control? Centralised management? Coordination of intersections? Dynamic management of lanes?

47

Part 2

Focus on different practice

48

AMMAN TRANSPORT AND MOBILITY PLANNING

Key words: Urban governance; Transport-system integration; Planning; Public-transport projects

Monograph written by Julien Allaire, based on the presentation by Ayman Smadi, Greater Amman Municipality (Damascus conference, 2010).

Latest update: 15/11/2012

49

Amman

TRANSPORT AND MOBILITY PLANNING

Jordan

Amman is the capital of Jordan, and 66% of Jordanians live there. Since 2007, Greater Amman Municipality (GAM) has had the powers necessary to implement a sustainablemobility policy.

It has produced a transport master plan that identifies the challenges facing Amman, its objectives, and how to achieve them.

Population: 6,047,000 hab.

Area: 893,432 sq. km Density: 6.8 inhab. / sq. km Urbanisation rate: 78.50%

Amman Population: 2,400,000 (2007) Area: 1,680 sq. km Density: 1,429 inhab. / sq. km Length of lines: BHLS: 50 km (planning stage)

Annual rate of urbanpopulation growth (20052010): 3.07% GDP / inhabitant: $4,559.9 HDI: 0.698 / 1 Car ownership: 113 vehicles per 1,000 inhab.

Vehicles per kilometre of road: 117 Sources: World Bank – UNDP – Ayman Smadi

Key words: Urban governance; Transport-system integration; Planning; Public-transport projects Based on the presentation by Ayman Smadi – Transport and Traffic Management Director, Greater Amman Municipality (Damascus conference, 2010).

The overall density of metropolitan areas in Jordan is lower than in the other countries in the region. Amman is 2.5 times larger in area than Casablanca but with a similar population (Geopolis, 2011). The Jordanian capital has a young population: 53% of people are aged under 25. Amman’s population is expected to reach 6.4 million inhabitants by 2025.

2025 is the completion timeframe chosen by Greater Amman Municipality (GAM) for its urbandevelopment strategy. This strategy centres on four objectives: -

A city where it is pleasant to live.

A densification policy.

A balanced, multimodal transport system.

Development along major public-transport corridors.

To develop this planning work in greater detail, Greater Amman Municipality published a Transport and Mobility Master Plan in March 2010. This document, produced with support from the French 50

Development Agency (AFD), is based on the study of journeys made by residents of the Jordanian capital (10,000 households were surveyed). It proposes modal-mix targets to be reached by 2025, and lists the public-transport investments required in order to achieve them.

Traditionally, investment focused mainly on roads. As the price of fuel was relatively low, car ownership is rising very quickly. The vehicle stock in Amman is growing by 10% a year.

Public transport is characterised by a fairly mediocre quality of service. It represents only a 15% share (taxis included) of the modal mix. The largely captive customer base must accept many transfers. Most public transport is provided by the owner-driver sector.

To achieve its targets, GAM wants to develop a structured and integrated transport system based on: - Rail infrastructure: 40 km of metro and suburban-train lines.

- An efficient bus system built around three main routes: three lines totalling 50 km of BRT. - A multimodal network offering integrated fares and a good quality of service.

These networks will be developed in two phases. From 2009 to 2015, $1.5 billion is allocated for construction of BRT and rail networks and upgrading of the bus network. In phase two (2015-2025), $1.1 billion will be invested to supplement the network.

The stated objectives are: - To increase public transport’s modal share to 40% by 2025, by limiting journey times to 30 minutes. This objective must be supported by suitable urban organisation. By 2025, 40% of jobs must be located less than 2 km from a network station.

- To maintain pedestrians’ modal share at its current level, by making walking safer. In 2008, more than 200 people died on the streets of Amman; 60% were pedestrians. Echoing the national road-safety programme, GAM named 2010 pedestrian safety year.

- To reduce greenhouse-gas emissions (currently estimated at 600 kg of CO2 per inhabitant) and energy consumption. The transport sector represents 38% of the country’s energy bill.

In Amman, $750 million is spent on fuel yearly.

- To fight congestion, which represents an estimated annual cost of $850 million.

This planning is primarily based on a new institutional organisation. The November 2007 transport law gave GAM the necessary powers to create a suitable organisation; develop effective regulations and policies; assess mobility-related problems and needs; improve the quality of services; develop mass-transport networks; and restructure the network. GAM is responsible for urban planning and spatial usage; traffic control and management; parking; roads and other transport infrastructure. A transport department with all these powers was set up in 2009.

51

GAM has its own budget, funded mainly by revenues from building permits and property development. The plan is to delegate transport services to private companies under contractual mechanisms, while subsidising the system to ensure affordable fares.

The main challenges are: - From an institutional perspective: secure the requisite resources and the processes.

- From the stakeholders’ perspective: coordinate the respective services and departments.

- From a technical perspective: successfully integrate the infrastructure into the built environment.

- From a financial perspective: cover infrastructure costs and provide for public contributions to the transport companies’ budget.

- From a social and political perspective: give public transport a positive image.

Ayman Smadi’s conclusions: “The plans are good, but they must be practical in order to be implemented. Having accurate data and forecasting models helps win the trust of decision-makers.

We must then quickly offer improvements to travellers in order to show the projects’ utility. We must find the right message to convey to the public, and adapt it to the various stakeholders. Lastly, a plan must be reassessed and revised constantly.”

52

ALEPPO URBAN MOBILITY PLANNING PROJECT

Key words: Planning; City-centre regeneration

Monograph written by Camille MARTINET et Julien ALLAIRE Latest update: 15/11/2012 53

Aleppo With 1.7 million inhabitants in the city and more than three million in the metropolitan area, Aleppo is the second most populous city in Syria after the capital Damascus.

Located in the middle of the Fertile Crescent, Aleppo, one of the world’s oldest cities, is today more modern and Westernoriented than Damascus.

It is thus established as the capital of northern Syria.

URBAN MOBILITY PLANNING PROJECT

Syria Population: 20,447,000 Area: 185,180 sq. km Density: 110.4 inhab. / sq. km Urbanisation rate: 54.90%

Aleppo Population: 3,087,000 (2010) Area: 170 sq. km Density: 18,159 inhab. / sq. km Forecast population of metropolitan area in 2025: 4,244,000

Annual rate of urban-population growth (2005-2010): 3.97% GDP / inhabitant: $2,892.7 HDI: 0.632 / 1 Car ownership: 30 vehicles per 1,000 inhab.

Vehicles per km of road: 20 Accident rate: 1.41 fatal accidents per 10,000 inhab.

Sources: World Bank – UNDP – Lyon Town Planning Agency (AUL)

Key words: Planning; City-centre regeneration

STRONG DEMOGRAPHIC GROWTH The city of Aleppo, in northern Syria, is located 50 km south of the border with Turkey. It is one of the world’s oldest inhabited cities. In 1986, the old city of Aleppo was placed on the UNESCO World Heritage List. 35 Its historical monuments (citadel, grand mosque, palace, etc.) give the city a unique and harmonious character. The city is now threatened by a rapid increase in its population.

The metropolitan area is seeing strong demographic growth: 2.7% per year.36 In recent years, many Iraqis have migrated to Syria because of the political context in their own country. This demographic growth is causing a big rise in the daily number of cars and in the rate of road accidents.

35 36

http://whc.unesco.org/fr/list/21/ Lyon Town Planning Agency (AUL).

54

“SPONTANEOUS” URBAN DEVELOPMENT Since the 1970s, “spontaneous” and illegal urbanisation has developed along the city’s main roads.

Aleppo was not prepared to accommodate more and more inhabitants, and homes were therefore built illegally. This phenomenon of so-called “spontaneous” housing has resulted in urban sprawl. In 1980, this sprawl covered 945 hectares and accommodated 30% of Aleppo’s population. Today, about 22 informal districts have developed, covering 3,500 hectares, or 21% of the city area, with 40% of the population.

Town Planners Without Borders (USF) is conducting studies to compare these districts with similar districts in other Arab cities. The aim is to find technical and financial solutions in order to rebuild and upgrade these districts’ roads and utility networks. USF is also reflecting on transport and traffic in order to establish an Urban Travel Plan for Aleppo to promote the development of public transport.37

TRANSPORT IN ALEPPO Traffic is a major problem in Aleppo, owing to the traditional nature of its historic centre. This is characterised by narrow and dead-end streets, an aggregation of buildings, and a concentration of business activity in the heart of the city. Access is difficult for cars and goods delivery.

In the old city of Aleppo, car and van access is strictly controlled (duration, size, residents only, etc.). In the residential areas of the city centre, parking is generally free, and few of the existing car parks are saturated. Motorists know that they can park easily, Figure17: Driving in an alley of the and therefore do not hesitate to use their car. old city.

Few Aleppo residents own a car. However, in recent years and with the country opening up economically, the car population has grown steadily. In 2008, car ownership in the metropolitan area was 88 vehicles per 1,000 inhabitants. Every day 300,000 motorists drive through Aleppo, with annual growth of 70,000 vehicles.

Despite the existence of a public-transport offering (600 buses operate in Aleppo, and there are some dedicated lanes),38 most journeys are made by taxis and other owner-driver modes. In 2006, the mix of motorised modes was as follows:39 15% for private cars, 8% for public transport, 60% for taxis and 17% for other owner-driver modes (minibuses). The predominance of the owner-driver sector is due to the deterioration of the public transport run by the municipality, and the absence of oversight for licence-issuance. Private owner-drivers have therefore entered the sector. They represent about 2,300 minibuses and 15,000 taxis. This high number of vehicles, coupled with the

37

http://usf-f.org/spip.php?article5 (in French) Lyon Town Planning Agency (AUL) 39 The Blue Plan: urban mobility and sustainable development in the Mediterranean region.

38

55

growth of individual car ownership, is causing congestion problems, a fall in the speed of public transport, and more accidents.

The traffic plan currently in force aims to ease flows and promote car traffic by: creating crossroads, building bridges and tunnels, introducing traffic lights, widening the road portion of certain routes, and building paid parking structures. At first glance, car use is therefore favoured over public transport, and no sustainable-mobility policy has been implemented. Four bus lines are currently delegated to the private sector, and there is no integrated fare policy across the various companies.

However, the municipality wants to develop public transport in order to reduce congestion, improve residents’ quality of life by cutting environmental and sound nuisance, and meeting the needs of people with no access to a private car. A study funded by the EU-backed Municipal Administration Modernisation (MAM) project is currently being conducted on the main public-transport routes. This project consists of laying the foundations of a process to decentralise powers to the local level and to strengthen capabilities in various urban processes.40 A project for sustainable urban-mobility planning adapted to the Mediterranean countries (SUMPAMED) has been set up as part of the EU’s CIUDAD project. Syria, and Aleppo in particular, will receive funding to develop integrated transport that better respects the environment.

SUMPA-MED PROJECT The SUMPA-MED project aims to promote sustainable urban-mobility policies in Jordan and Syria.

It is funded as part of the EU’s Cooperation in Urban Development and Dialogue (CIUDAD) programme. The programme was signed in Gaziantep, Turkey, on 25 December 2009 for a three-year term (2010-2012).

The project’s eventual goal is the creation of a network of professionals to discuss their respective experiences on sustainable transport modes and organisational systems.

For Aleppo, the project’s main long-term measure is to “introduce public transport systems to relieve growing congestion. These will need to be well-organised and environmentally-friendly. Clear timeframes and detailed planning will be required”.41 The main challenge is to make the old city cleaner: its narrow streets are much visited, and it contains many archaeological sites and business and tourist activities. An old-city mobility plan must be drawn up: a pedestrian route, car parks outside the old town, and creation of connections with the city’s other districts, while maintaining the old town’s appeal and accessibility.

To successfully execute this project, there are plans to: - Help Aleppo to assess current transport conditions, to define its needs and to implement long-term solutions.

- Develop the municipality’s capability to analyse data, model traffic, and enable the planners 40 41

www.eurojar.org www.ciudad-programme.eu

56

to assimilate best practices, etc.

- Hold training workshops and improve the skills of selected experts.

- Update the authorities’ legal status and role.

CONCLUSION In Aleppo, the deterioration of public transport, the steady increase in the number of vehicles and the predominance of the owner-driver sector are all factors contributing to congestion, which is reducing air quality and increasing noise pollution and journey times. The Syrian city needs transportsystem strategies in order to find long-term solutions.

This is why Aleppo has joined the SUMPA-MED project (planning of urban mobility adapted to Mediterranean countries) in order to receive funding to develop integrated transport systems that better respect the environment.

57

ATHENS RESTRUCTURING THE TRANSPORT NETWORK FOR THE OLYMPIC GAMES

Key words: Transport-system integration; Planning; Environmental politics; Public-transport projects

Monograph written by Camille MARTINET and Julien ALLAIRE, based on the presentation by Zo誰 CHRISTOFOROU, OASA / UNTA (Damascus conference, 2010).

Latest update: 15/11/2012

58

Athens

RESTRUCTURING THE TRANSPORT NETWORK FOR THE OLYMPIC GAMES

Greece

Athens hosted the 2004 Olympics. The Games’ return to Greece, cradle of the ancient Olympics and of the first modern Games, enabled the metropolitan area of Athens, which produces nearly half of national GDP, to implement an urban requalification project.

Athens

Population: 11,316,000 inhab.

Population: 4,000,000 inhab.

Area: 131,957 sq. km

Area: 400 sq. km

Density: 85.8 inhab. / sq. km

Density: 10,000 inhab. / sq. km

Urbanisation rate: 61.40%

Length of lines: (2010) Metro: 55 km Tramway: 27 km Modal mix: Private cars: 53% Public transport: 37% Active modes: 10%

Annual rate of urban-population growth (2005-2010): 0.56%

GDP / habitant: $26,606.9 HDI: 0.861 / 1 Car ownership: 455 vehicles per 1,000 inhab.

Vehicles per km of road: 55 Accident rate: 1.49 fatal accidents per 10,000 inhab.

Sources: World Bank – UNDP – Zoï Christoforou – UrbanRail.net – EPOMM

Key words: Transport-system integration; Planning; Environmental politics; Public-transport projects Based on the presentation by Zoï Christoforou – OASA / UNTA (Damascus conference, 2010).

In 2004, during a 16-day period, 301 events were held in the Greek capital and 3.6 million spectators attended the Olympic Games. To host this occasion, the city implemented a vast urbanrequalification programme: housing construction and refurbishment, heritage enhancement, transport-infrastructure development, and the creation of new sporting amenities.

Urban-infrastructure issues were central to preparations for the Olympics. The success of the major sporting events depended on the construction and reliability of the infrastructure. The Games therefore served as an ultimatum for the Athens authorities.

Athens saw very rapid urban growth in the second half of the 20th century. Since the 1960s, the metropolitan area had extended to the north and south without reference to any planning document, and often illegally. It is estimated that one-quarter of the buildings in Athens were built illegally. Until the second half of the 1990s, and Athens’ decision to host the Olympics, planning documents were generally unsuccessful.

59

Since 1970, car ownership has risen strongly in this capital city. In 2009, according to Eurostat,42 the rate in the Athens area was 650 vehicles per 1,000 inhabitants. Very early on, the national and local authorities tried to fight the atmospheric pollution caused by car traffic. The Nefos – a cloud of sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide and ozone that hangs over the city, which is located between sea and mountains – makes the metropolitan area one of the most polluted in Europe.

To reduce pollutant emissions, an alternate traffic scheme called dactylio was introduced in 1982. In a 23 sq. km area of the city centre, cars could only be driven on odd or even dates depending on their registration plate. However, this measure did not have the expected results in terms of improving traffic flows and air quality, owing to: a sharp rise in the number of taxis and two-wheeled vehicles authorised to drive in the area; a fast increase in car ownership in households located in the area, so as to have two cars with “odd” and “even” plates; inadequate public-transport provision; and practically no parking controls.43

Figure 48: Modal mix in Athens.

ORGANISATION OF THE PUBLIC TRANSPORT SYSTEM In Athens, the public transport system comprises seven transport modes: suburban bus, taxi, suburban train, fuel-engine bus, trolleybus, metro and tramway. The suburban buses and the taxis are operated by the private sector; the other modes are attached to the Ministry of Infrastructure, Transport and Networks via Hellenic Railways and the Athens Urban Transport Organization (AUTO).

AUTO has the power to plan, organise, oversee and provide services of all public-transport modes, above and under ground.

The improvement and modernisation of Athens’ public transport for the Olympics was conducted under the “Attica SOS” plan launched in 1994 by the Ministry of the Environment. The ministry implemented many measures to improve air quality: creating bus lanes, opening 17 km of metro line, 42

http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics_explained/index.php/Vehicle_fleet_statistics_at_regional_level/fr 43 http://www.cairn.info/article.php?ID_ARTICLE=ECOPO_029_0053

60

renewing the bus fleet, developing trolleybus lines, controlling car traffic, etc. The transportmodernisation programme was expected to reduce atmospheric pollution, increase road safety, and introduce new travel habits.44 The transport infrastructure required to host the Games was therefore incorporated into the restructuring of the transport system of the whole of Attica (the region including Athens).

UNPRECEDENTED DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURE Public transport development, though a core element of planning projects for more than 50 years, had never actually materialised until Athens was chosen to host the Games. The summer 2004 Olympics were the biggest-ever challenge faced by the Athens transport system.

The entire transport system was modernised: 9.6 km of new metro lines, 23 km of tramway lines (two new lines) and 32 km of suburban-rail network entered service for the occasion. At the same time, 120 km of new roads were opened and 90 km of existing roads were upgraded.3 Development of the metro network Athens’ metro network comprised three lines, the first of which had been built in 1869 and only served a small part of the city. The metro network had to be upgraded for the Games. A vast programme was launched, aiming to: increase speed, upgrade the signalling system on the busiest routes, upgrade the safety and telecommunications systems, and refurbish the stations.

In addition, extension projects to link the city centre with the Olympic sites north of the capital were essential. These satisfied the Games’ needs by serving the entire Attica region as well as Athens International Airport.

Building the extensions was problematic: archaeological sites were discovered, and it was also necessary to destroy many illegal constructions, a move that prompted legal action by residents. All of this continually slowed down the works, which cost about €2 billion.

The lines opened before 2004 carried about 530,000 users per working day. The extensions added 150,000 extra daily users. Public transport users saved considerable travel time. Launched in 1991, the works continued until 2007, when the final line extensions entered service. The network is currently 55 km long and has 52 stations.

44

http://thema.univ-fcomte.fr/IMG/pdf/These_Adeline.pdf

61

In addition, a suburban regional train linking Piraeus (to the south) with Athens central railway station, then the airport (to the east), was built for the occasion.

Figure 19: Athens transport system.

The tramway The tramway was created to serve the capital’s southwest suburbs, where several Olympics sports venues were located. It shortened the journey to the coast to 22 minutes, instead of two hours previously. Its average speed is 25.5 km/h, whereas that of cars and taxis in Athens is 10 km/h. Two lines were built: one linking central Athens and Glyfada, a coastal resort; the other linking the city centre with Phaedra Bay, where two of the main sports complexes are located.

The first stage of construction ended by summer 2004. Some 23 km of lines were built for the Games (owing to construction delays, the tramway was shortened by one station near the city centre). Over the longer term, this network will serve central Athens more extensively.

The tramway, which had been closed down 50 years ago, is now one of the transport modes the city is relying on to resolve its congestion problems. Its construction is one of the investments supported by the European Union’s Community Support Framework.

62

At the same time, a semi-ring road was built to link the east and west of the metropolitan area, while bypassing central Athens. The road, about 50 km long, now rings the northern half of the city, from Venizolos International Airport to the east. This piece of infrastructure required a budget of €950 million.

With the execution of the projects, AUTO improved coordination between the various modes, thus reducing travel times. The authority also rolled out an integrated ticketing system and a joint operations centre. To develop multimodality, park-and-ride facilities were created at five metro stations and efforts were made to improve information for travellers.

BENEFITS OF NEW INFRASTRUCTURE DURING AND AFTER THE GAMES

Figure 20: The tramway in Athens.

During the Games, emphasis was placed on the quality of service provided by the public transport system. A fleet of buses was dedicated to Olympic participants, and these enjoyed exclusive use of some bus lanes.

In parallel, Athens put in place traffic management measures using video surveillance, coordination of traffic lights at crossroads, and parking and traffic restrictions near the Olympic sites. Deliveries and waste collection were allowed at night only, on designated routes.

During the Games, public transport performed particularly well, representing more than 73% of journeys: 1.6 million out of a total of 2.17 million.

The Olympic Games enabled the Greeks to launch the big reforms necessary for urban policy in the capital. The event structured development of the metropolitan area, and developed the public transport offering needed for a conurbation of this size. In this respect, the Athens authorities drew inspiration from the example of Barcelona.

In Zoï Christoforou’s view, the Olympics offered Athens a new urban-mobility culture as well as infrastructure and an integrated fare system. Some traffic restrictions have been maintained, and some express bus lines have continued to run.

63

Between 2003 and 2006, urban public transport gained 10% modal share, exceeding 35% in 2006.

Since 2004, the metropolitan area has continued to develop projects: extending dedicated bus lanes, city-centre tramway lines, and metro lines to the suburbs. The bus fleet was renewed, and the implementation of a zonal fare system was explored.

The Games were therefore a positive catalyst for the Greek capital, making it more functional for residents and more attractive to tourists. The development of a transport offering for the 16-day event gave a structure to long-term urban planning.

Transport infrastructure improvement, modernisation and construction created a new organisation, which in turn influenced the urban area by improving services and accessibility for certain areas of Athens, thus giving a new structure to the Attica region.

According to Greek writer Alexis Stamatis, “the Olympic Games were a godsend: a unique opportunity for the city to change its face ‌ and the Greeks did not miss their chance.â€?

64

DAMASCUS PROVIDING SAFE AND EASY ACCESS TO THE MEDINA

Key words: Planning; Public-transport projects; City-centre regeneration

Monograph written by Charles SIMON and Julien ALLAIRE, based on the presentation by Abdullah ABOUD and Amal HADDAD, City of Damascus (Marseille conference, 2010).

Latest update: 15/11/2012

65

Damascus

PROVIDING SAFE AND EASY ACCESS TO THE MEDINA

Syria

Considered one of the world’s oldest cities, Damascus today has about 3 million residents.

The Syrian capital, in the west of the country 80 km from the Mediterranean coast, is bordered to the north and west by mountainous regions.

Damascus, which has been on UNESCO’s World Heritage List since 1979, has managed to preserve an Old City with high heritage value. The city authorities are striving to make it safe, accessible and attractive.

Damascus

Population: 20,447,000 inhab.

Area: 185,180 sq. km

Population: 2,600,000 inhab.

Area: 840 sq.km

Density: 110.4 inhab. / sq. km Urbanisation rate: 54.90%

Density: 3,100 inhab. / sq. km Forecast population of metropolitan area in 2025: 3,534,000 inhab.

Medina Population: 30,000 inhab.

Area: 1.3 sq.km

Annual rate of urbanpopulation growth (2005-2010): 3.97% GDP / habitant: $2,892.7 HDI: 0.632 / 1 Car ownership: 30 vehicles per 1,000 inhab.

Vehicles per km of road: 20 Accident rate: 1.41 fatal accidents per 10,000 inhab.

Sources: World Bank – UNDP – United Nation – Medina Guide

Key words: Planning; Public-transport projects; City-centre regeneration Based on the presentation by Abdullah Aboud and Amal Haddad – in charge of Traffic and Transport, City of Damascus (Marseille conference, 2010).

In the late 1990s, Syria embarked on a process of integrating with the global economy. Its capital, Damascus, was divided into 17 administrative areas under the Grand Master Plan of 1999.

The medina of Damascus covers an area of 1.3 sq. km and is home to about 30,000 residents; it is surrounded by a wall with various entry points. This ancient centre has retained a coherent and functional urban form. Besides its residential function, the medina plays an important economic role,

66

hosting several large markets and a shopping street (Hamidiyeh Street). The city’s authenticity and rich heritage give it considerable tourist appeal.45 However, between 1955 and 2005, the decrepit state of some housing prompted about 20,000 people to leave the medina for more modern homes. In parallel, the city’s economic shift caused a rise in the number of restaurants and other retail activities, to the detriment of residential functions and particularly of the poorest residents. A process of gentrification began, with a risk that the quarter would lose its identity.

Figure 21: Gateways to the medina.

The city centre is mainly accessed by taxis and private cars. Besides working to regenerate the built fabric, the Governorate of Damascus has set itself the objective of resolving the problems relating to car traffic and parking in the medina. A Damascus Transport Plan was produced in 1999 by the Japanese International Cooperation Agency (JICA). The plan was partly updated in 2004 and 2008 with studies by Egis Bceom International46 and SYSTRA47 respectively. The Damascus metropolitan master plan drawn up by JICA in 2008 updated the Damascus Transport Plan, but this revision was not approved. Currently, the Paris Region Urban Planning & Development Agency (IAU-IDF), supporting the local consortium General Company for Engineering Studies and Consulting (GCEC), is conducting a study on the master plan of Damascus, its inner suburbs and metropolitan area. This study, intended to produce a diagnosis and planning orientations, is not yet complete.

MEDINA-RELATED TRAFFIC ISSUES At present, access to the Damascus medina is mainly by private car and taxi, through one of 14 routes in and out. The 16 public bus and minibus lines that serve the edge of the Old City do not 45

The medina of Damascus contains many of the city’s main historic monuments: the Umayyad Mosque, the Citadel, Azem Palace, etc.

46 A consulting and engineering group in the fields of transport, urban affairs, construction, industry, water, environment and energy.

47 An urban- and rail-transport engineering group.

67

adequately meet users’ needs. Furthermore, the only transport line through the Old City, from east to west, was recently discontinued.

The situation as described above poses traffic and safety issues inside the medina. The flows of taxis and private vehicles congest the Old City, and generate conflict between pedestrians and drivers, who currently share the roads in the medina. Car parking is not regulated, and is therefore random, to say the least. Congestion is further exacerbated by the fact that this area is a transit zone for motorised vehicles. Pedestrians thus face very real difficulties in moving around.

Figure 22: The future transport system.

PROGRAMME OF ACTION To better serve the Old City, the Public Transport Master Plan being prepared includes creating four new high-capacity bus lines to link the medina with the rest of the metropolitan area. These lines will also be connected by a circular boulevard. The governorate also plans to build a metro line (in green on the map) about 17 km long. Two of its 17 stations will be near the medina, again promoting links with the rest of the conurbation.

However, construction of the metro line is proving problematic. The project was halted when the new five-year plan (2011-2015) was adopted, because of funding difficulties.

The stated objective is to substantially reduce traffic jams and nuisance caused by chaotic parking.

The Public Transport Master Plan also covers traffic management in the medina: - Ban on motorised vehicles entering the medina.

- Creation of dedicated pedestrian routes.

68

- Creation of six car parks near the medina (three are already open, with capacity for 1,000 cars). This scheme will be supplemented by the development of regulated road parking.

- For medina access, vehicles must be electric. Charging stations are due to be located near the medina (in car parks, on roadsides).

- Creation of a circular transport line (bus or tramway) linking the medina gates.

The religious and commercial dimension of the Old City is compelling the governorate to make certain exceptions, to avoid conflict with the residents: - Loading/unloading for the markets will be restricted to 5-7am and 8-10am every morning.

- Deliveries to hotels and restaurants, and of fuel, gas and construction materials, etc. will be made from 5-7am daily.

- School buses must stop at medina gates.

CURRENT SITUATION The decision to ban motorised vehicles and to provide electric vehicles, due in April 2011, was finally not implemented.

As for the metro line, it appears that funding from the sale of public land on a BOT (Build Operate Transfer) basis is being considered. This solution will not please certain transport professionals, who think the operator is running too big a risk. Another solution, further to the studies done for the Governorate of Damascus, would be to create a Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) prior to construction of the metro line.

However, given the current Syrian context, infrastructure projects are not a priority.

69

ESKISEHIR REDUCING TRAFFIC AND DEVELOPING

ALTERNATIVES IN A CONSTRICTED CITY CENTRE

Key words: Transport-system integration; Non-motorised modes; Planning; Public-transport projects; City-centre regeneration

Monograph written by Camille MARTINET and Julien ALLAIRE based on the presentation by Erhan ENBATAN, ESTRAM (Marseille conference, 2010).

Latest update: 15/11/2012

70

Eskisehir

REDUCING TRAFFIC AND DEVELOPING ALTERNATIVES IN A CONSTRICTED CITY CENTRE

Turkey

Eskisehir, the 12thlargest city in Turkey, located 230 km west of Ankara, is experiencing considerable industrial expansion. Rapid growth in vehicle numbers has exacerbated environmental and congestion problems. To mitigate these, the municipality has built two tramway lines. It has also redesigned its transport system to give pedestrians and cyclists more space.

Eskisehir

Population: 72,752,000 inhab.

Area: 783,562 sq. km

Population: 670,000 inhab.

Density: 92.8 inhab. / sq. km

Density: 49 inhab. / sq. km

Urbanisation rate: 69.60%

Length of lines: Tramway: 15 km (2004)

Area: 13,650 sq. km

Annual rate of urbanpopulation growth (20052010): 1.93% GDP / inhabitant: $10,094.1 HDI: 0.699 / 1 Car ownership: 95 vehicles per 1,000 inhab.

Vehicles per km of road: 29 Accident rate: 0.62 fatal accidents per 10,000 inhab.

Sources: World Bank – UNDP – Erhan Enbatan – FEDRE

Key words: Transport-system integration; Non-motorised modes; Planning; Public-transport projects; Citycentre regeneration Based on the presentation by Erhan Enbatan – general manager, ESTRAM (Marseille conference, 2010).

Eskisehir is a rare example in Turkey. To solve its traffic problems, the city chose not to develop road infrastructure but rather to adopt a sustainable-mobility policy by building two tramway lines and pedestrianising the city centre.

This Turkish city’s mobility policy is based on three principles: diversifying the transport offering (bus, minibus, collective taxis, tramways, bicycles); reducing motorised traffic in the city centre by pedestrianising the streets; and improving public transport systems.

A TRAMWAY PROJECT AND THE IMPLEMENTATION OF AN INTEGRATED TRANSPORT SYSTEM In July 2002, the city began constructing two tramway lines. These lines, totalling about 15 km in length, entered service in December 2004. The project, which was completed in two years, earned the city an award from the International Association of Public Transport (UITP) for its commitment to tramways.

71

Figure 23: Decongesting the city centre with a tramway.

Funding came from Swedish export credits and from loans from Scandinavian and European investment banks. The ESTRAM (Eskisehir Tramway) project involves deploying a mass transit mode connected to the city’s three existing public transport modes.

ESTRAM is designed to carry up to 120,000 passengers a day.48 The two lines, which share a section of city-centre track, link the city centre with the universities, railway station, hospitals, cultural and leisure districts and bus station. According to ESTRAM data, in seven years (2005-2011) ridership has grown by 19.2%.49 On average, the tramway lines are used by 94,000 passengers daily. The city has developed an integrated transport system, based on the transport master plan that links the bus and minibus lines and the collective taxis with the ESTRAM framework. Investment in a ticketing system allowed fare integration across the various modes. Daily passenger numbers are 90,000 for buses, 60,000 for minibuses and 12,500 for minibus-taxis.

According to Erhan Enbatan, opening the tramway reduced city-centre traffic as well as the concentration of airborne toxic gases.

Figure 24: City of Eskisehir transport system.

48 49

http://www.bombardier.com/ http://www.estram.com.tr/eng/statistics.php

72

TRANSFORMING THE CITY: CITY-CENTRE PEDESTRIANISATION, AND THE WILL TO DEVELOP ECOFRIENDLY MODES While the tramway was being built, the city was reorganised. In the early 2000s, streets were pedestrianised and dedicated tramway routes were adopted in the city’s transport plan. The main shopping thoroughfares were pedestrianised, and the embankments of the river Porsuk, which flows through the city centre, were transformed.

Eskisehir is one of only a few Turkish cities to have restricted road traffic in favour of pedestrian zones. Other cities’ authorities think that restricting access may have a negative effect on local retail activity.

The city centre has become more attractive for tourists, shoppers, and students of the city’s two universities. Several cafés and restaurants have opened. The pedestrianised streets soon turned into a leisure district that transformed the city centre’s image. Indeed, the pedestrianisation of Eskisehir was cited as an example on ELTIS, the European Local Transport Information Service portal.

Pedestrians and shopkeepers are satisfied with the results, and actually favour extending Eskisehir’s pedestrian zone. The transport plan proposed to fully pedestrianise the city centre. In 2011, only part of the centre had been pedestrianised. Given the positive results of the initial phase, an extension of the pedestrian zone was planned.

The municipality, which wanted to develop eco-friendly modes, launched a self-service bike system.

These bikes are located near the city centre and tramway and bus stops, in order to promote intermodality. When introduced, the system consisted of 288 bikes at 24 stations.

In July 2009, a river-shuttle system entered service. And in the summer months, horse-drawn carriages offer city-centre rides along specific routes.

CONCLUSION The municipality has set itself the objective of creating a transport system that is fully integrated in the city. To do this, it plans to: -

Extend the tramway lines.

Increase the share of public transport in the overall transport mix.

Improve river-based transport.

Upgrade roads, signage and traffic-light systems.50

The city has shown that a pedestrianisation plan can revive a city centre and have a positive influence on the local economy. In Turkey, the Eskisehir pedestrianisation project is seen as a definite success.

It has been presented many times in transport policy speeches and meetings. Unfortunately, no other Turkish city has so far been brave enough to implement such a project.

50

http://www.eskisehir-bld.gov.tr

73

FERRARA A COMPREHENSIVE POLICY TO PROMOTE CYCLING

Key words: Non-motorised modes; Planning; City-centre regeneration

Monograph written by Camille MARTINET and Julien ALLAIRE based on the presentation by Alberto CROCE, City of Ferrara (Marseille conference, 2010).

Latest update: 15/11/2012

74

Ferrara

A COMPREHENSIVE POLICY TO PROMOTE CYCLING

Italy

Ferrara is an Italian city located halfway between Florence and Venice. In the mid-1990s, two factors prompted the municipality to rethink its transport policy: the city was placed on UNESCO’s World Heritage List, and Italian cities with more than 30,000 inhabitants were required to introduce an urban travel plan. The municipality wanted to increase accessibility in order to preserve its heritage and develop tourism. The policies adopted by Ferrara have made this city a Mediterranean model for cycling policies.

Ferrara

Population: 60,483,000 inhab.

Area: 301,336 sq. km

Population: 135,000 inhab.

Area: 405 sq. km

Density: 200.7 inhab. / sq. km Urbanisation rate: 68.40%

Density: 330 inhab. / sq. km Bike paths: 86.1 km (2007) Modal mix: Private cars: 56% Public transport: 5% Active modes: 39%

Annual rate of urbanpopulation growth (20052010): 0.71% GDP / inhabitant: $34,075.1 HDI: 0.874 / 1 Car ownership: 596 vehicles per 1,000 inhab.

Vehicles per km of road: 80 Accident rate: 0.96 fatal accidents per 10,000 inhab.

Sources: World Bank – UNDP – Albert Croce – Pietro Osti – EPOMM

Key words: Non-motorised modes; Planning; City-centre regeneration Based on:

-

A presentation by Alberto Croce – consultant and former City of Ferrara transport director (Marseille conference, 2010).

The 2010 brochure by Pietro Osti – “Ferrara by bike”.

-

The municipality of Ferrara consists of a medieval centre, where two-thirds of its population live, and 42 surrounding villages of widely varying size. To enhance its tourist appeal, Ferrara restricted motorised-vehicle traffic back in the late 1960s. The old city was closed to cars and motorbikes in favour of pedestrians and cyclists51. Car traffic was allowed outside this pedestrian zone (about 6.5 ha), but with many restrictions, within a 130 hectares area.

In Italy, under the revised 1992 version of the Highway Code, cities with more than 30,000 inhabitants were required to implement an urban transport plan. Starting in the mid-1990s, Ferrara devised a comprehensive strategy to reduce car traffic in the city and promote a switch to active modes of transport. The Limited Traffic Zone, a central zone subject to access control for motorised vehicles, was extended and LTZ access rules were hardened to favour cleaner vehicles: 51

http://ec.europa.eu/environment/archives/cycling/cycling_en.pdf

75

- A charging access through a pre-paid “admission permit” was introduced. The fee varies according to the type of vehicle, level of emissions, and profile of the permit-holder (resident, owner of an off-street parking place, visitor, small shopkeeper, delivery driver).

- A more efficient system to enforce the access to the LTZ (encompassing 16 “gates” on the LTZ boundary) was introduced in April 2011, based on ANPR (automatic number plate recognition) technology, pioneered in Italy since 1995 in the neighboring town of Bologna with electronic scanning of the registration plate of vehicles entering the city centre.

In addition to this LTZ, extensive on street parking charging was applied throughout the city centre, and 8 parking facilities were built on the edge of the old city (by the ramparts) for a total amount of 2.530 car places (880 are free of charge). High-frequency shuttle services were launched to provide a link with the city centre. In addition, about 80% of the urban bus fleet was converted to natural gas.

Next, company travel plans were drawn up for public establishments, the hospital, city council departments, etc.

But the city’s flagship policy in terms of sustainable mobility is the promotion of bicycle use. Today, Ferrara is a Mediterranean model in terms of the modal share of cycling. The topographical characteristics of the city, which is situated in the plain of the river Po, are not the only reason for the popularity of biking. Its development stems from several local initiatives and policies to encourage this mean of transport.

THE BICYCLE’S PLACE IN THE CITY - In 1995, the municipality introduced the BICI Card, which lets tourists leave their cars in a car park and borrow a bike and visit museums, all free of charge, enjoying discounts in the city’s hotels, restaurants and shops.

- In 1996, a special office (“Ufficio biciclette”) was set up to promote bike use. It was the first of its kind in Italy. Since 2005, as part of Local Agenda 21 initiative, this Office does the work of coordinating the network of the Italian cities that have created a similar office and now has grown up to include 30 cities.

- In 2000, a Biciplan was rolled out. This is the operational planning instrument for the development of bike use in the Ferrara metropolitan area. It was incorporated in the Urban Traffic Plan (PUT, 2004) and forms an essential pillar of the mobility policy adopted by the city of Ferrara within its newly released PUM Piano della Mobiltà Urbana (PUM, 2009), with the following main goals: o Create optimal conditions for bike riding in the dense urban zones. To increase the appeal of biking and walking in the old town, the former cobbles have been replaced by flatter and wider paving stones. o Create a number of reserved bike paths – running alongside trunk roads connecting the city with the other regional poles – in order to offer an improved and safer accessibility from the majority of the 42 villages located in the outskirts of Ferrara. o Guarantee a high level of operation of the cycle paths network, sustained over time. o Ensure maximum safety of all routes, to convince all user categories to cycle. For example, to reduce the risk of accidents were introduced bicycle reserved routes 76

(bridges and underpasses) along with devices to slow down car speed or to separate bike and motorized traffic, etc. o The creation of services for cyclists: appropriate parking (free, supervised parking), public tyre pumps, bike network map, information on repair centres, etc. In terms of the local economy, the popularity of bikes allows roughly 30 repair outlets to coexist52.

The basic concepts that the city of Ferrara has implemented to promote cycling practice were selected as example of best strategy among the "cycling policies" recommended by the authoritative GRACQ Belgian Association; they were also considered as a very effective tool by the UNECE (Organization of UN environment) in its Guidelines presented at the 5th Ministerial Conference (Kiev, 2003) and have raised the interest of the Environmental Policy Committee of the OECD for their value and effectiveness (Paris, 2010).

The Biciplan programme, which was revised in 2011, tripled the bike path length and financed the construction of eight under/overpasses. The total investment was €25 million, or €20 per inhabitant per year.

The measures accompanying this bike plan also included fighting theft. In Ferrara, bike theft is the second most frequent offence after car/home vandalism: 7.1% and 7.4% of families respectively are affected. Ferrara promoted the numerical marking of bikes throughout Italy, with a microchip and a bike listing on the Italian Bicycle Register.

In 2001, a free of charge self-service bike rental system, Bike Bus Key, was launched. Once registered, people can use a public bike free of charge, by means of a special key. The 15 bike retrieval stations (hosting 140 cycles in total) are mainly located near transport interchanges (car parking, the two rail stations, suburban /urban bus interchanges) in order to promote intermodality.

Figure 25: Bike Bus Key station in Ferrara.

Although bikes’ modal share is particularly high in Ferrara, cars still provide strong competition. The city has one of the highest car-ownership rates in Italy: 620 cars per 1,000 inhabitants (in 2009)53.

Cars remain the most-used means of transport (56%)54. In spite of this, bikes’ modal share has placed permanently above 20% for 25 years, thanks to pro-bike policies; their share even reached 27% in 2008 out of all mode total urban trips. The city has managed to develop high multimodality among its residents: 89.5% regularly ride their bike55.

52

http://ec.europa.eu/environment/archives/cycling/cycling_en.pdf See statistics of the Italian region of Emilia-Romagna: car ownership in households.

54 2008 survey in the province of Ferrara.

55 Stefanati, 2009.

53

77

As a conclusion, Ferrara has designed a holistic strategy to organise the city’s traffic; it aims to integrate the various modes of transport, so as to ensure and increase city-centre accessibility. The municipality applies measures to encourage bike use, but also measures to restrict personal car use in the core of city centre. According to Alberto Croce, “Bike use is not a residual form of transport. It plays an efficient role in reducing the negative impacts of car use; it drives improvements in health and quality of life; and lastly, it makes savings for both the municipality and households.�

78

ISTANBUL URBAN PLANNING IN A MEGACITY

Key words: Transport-system integration; Management modes; Public-transport projects

Monograph written by Charles SIMON and Julien ALLAIRE based on the presentation by Mustafa ILICALI, Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality (Barcelona conference, 2011).

Latest update: 15/11/2012

79

Istanbul

URBAN PLANNING IN A MEGACITY

Turkey

Istanbul, a megacity with more than 12 million inhabitants, is definitely Turkey’s engine: its political, business and demographic capital. Straddling Europe and Asia, Istanbul has developed along 100 km of the Marmara Sea coast. This internationalclass metropolitan area is now highly congested. To address these problems, several projects have been undertaken to develop the city’s urban rail system.

Population: 72,752,000 inhab.

Area: 783,562 sq. km Density: 92.8 inhab. / sq. km Urbanisation rate: 69.60%

Annual rate of urbanpopulation growth (20052010): 1.93%

Istanbul Population: Metropolitan area: 12,600,000 inhab. (2007) Area: 5,390 sq. km Density: 2,338 inhab. / sq. km Length of lines: Metro: 20 km Tramway: 22.3 km Modal mix: Private cars: 15.7% Public transport: 35% Active modes: 49.3%

GDP / inhabitant: $10,094.1 HDI: 0.699 / 1 Car ownership: 95 vehicles per 1,000 inhab.

Vehicles per km of road: 29 Accident rate: 0.62 fatal accidents per 10,000 inhab.

Sources: World Bank – UNDP – Blue Plan – UrbanRail.net

Key words: Transport-system integration; Management modes; Public-transport projects Based on the presentation by Mustafa Ilicali – Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality (Barcelona conference, 2011).

Since the 1950s, Istanbul has witnessed particularly strong demographic growth: its population has tripled in 30 years. Its urban growth has now stabilised at about 3.3% a year, but this rate is nevertheless the highest in the metropolitan areas of OECD countries.

To cope with this demographic growth, Istanbul has had to manage a discontinuous space (uneven land, split in two by the Bosphorus Strait). This geographical complexity has prompted the spatial planners to arrange the city polycentrically.

In economic terms, Istanbul is now fully integrated in the global economy and is an urban centre of top international rank. At national level, Istanbul is unquestionably the country’s premier city.

80

Between 1990 and 2000, the metropolitan area of Istanbul produced more than 20% of Turkey’s annual GDP.56 Because of these dynamics, Istanbul has had to deal with strong urbanisation and resulting higher demand for mobility. The first difficulty was to coordinate the city’s planning. The Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality (IMM) comprises 32 districts and 73 municipalities. The IMM is the urban transport authority but must achieve a compromise with the 73 municipalities as well as cope with planning-related decisions, which are taken at various levels and by various institutions. Here we will only mention the two main stakeholders: UKOME (transport coordination centre)57 and AYKOME (infrastructure coordination centre).58 The various institutions and bodies sometimes have similar powers and scopes of action, which makes urban planning more complex. However the IMM, in partnership with the Japanese International Cooperation Agency (JICA), was able to prepare a Transport Master Plan for Istanbul 2023.

Figure 26: Diagram of institutions in the urban-mobility governance system.

56

Sylvain Houpin, “Mobilité et développement durable en Méditerranée: diagnostic prospectif régional” (“Mobility and sustainable development in the Mediterranean region: regional prospective diagnosis”), Les Cahiers du Plan Bleu, issue 9, 2010 57 Coordinates the transport sector with the authorities and bodies involved in planning.

58 Supplements UKOME by coordinating the rail and underground networks.

81

ISTANBUL’S TRANSPORT OFFERING Demand for mobility has risen considerably: in 2004 there were 11 million journeys daily; in 2011, 23 million. This explosion in mobility entailed a big increase in the number of private vehicles. Mustafa Ilicali, of the IMM, estimates that 600 more cars join Istanbul’s streets every day. Residents’ high dependency on cars, and more widely on the road network, causes near-permanent congestion in central Istanbul.

Even so, the Turkish capital has an extensive and varied public transport system. The rapid development of this system has increased passenger numbers while reducing average journey time, which between 2004 and 2010 shortened from 53 to 49 minutes.

The bus and minibus offering is particularly well developed, with 591 bus lines and 123 minibus lines.

These services are operated by the public company IETT and several private operators. They are now the most-used public-transport mode, with 83% of all system journeys in 2010. Istanbul’s Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) project (phase one launched in September 2007) helped to improve bus service. In 2011 – when phase three, extending BRT network length to 41 km, was completed – passenger numbers rose to 700,000 a day. Journey times for all users have shortened significantly.

The rail network (total length: 138 km) comprises a metro (8.5 km), a light metro (19.3 km), five tramways (36 km), two funiculars (1.2 km) and a suburban railway (72 km). The rail network currently represents 13% of daily journeys. Ridership on the rail network has been growing fast: in 2004 it accounted for only 8.6%, a share expected to rise to 31% by 2014, to the detriment of buses.

82

The Transport Master Plan for Istanbul 2023 focused mainly on developing this transport mode in order to begin decongesting Istanbul.

Some 52 km of metro lines are under construction, and the rail network will total more than 230 km.

A 13.5 km rail tunnel is being built to make crossing the Bosphorus easier: the Marmaray project, costing about $2.8 billion. This project, totalling 77 km, will connect to the rail network at 10 points.

In addition, eight monorail lines (total length: 48 km) are planned.

The sea-transport offering amounts to 3% of daily journeys, and is trending downward. This mode is mainly used to cross the Bosphorus.

From a financial perspective, the projects presented here are economically viable and well-rated by the international ratings agencies. Istanbul has received substantial funding from various institutions.

The Levent – Ayazaga – Haciosman metro line project is a perfect example: it is funded by the French Development Agency (AFD) and the European Investment Bank (EIB) for a total of ₏340 million. But Mustafa Ilicali points out that several contraints may apply to projects: respect for the environment, respect for heritage (requirements are tougher if it is listed by UNESCO), etc. These constraints may lengthen the credit-approval process, and even cause contract cancellations (if, for example, credits are not used within the negotiated timeframes).

Figure 275: Seyrantepe multimodal hub.

To secure its transport infrastructure funding model over the long term, the municipality of Istanbul conducted valuations of land and property around the stations. The Seyrantepe multimodal hub, which serves the Galatasaray stadium and a hospital, is expected to host many activities, including a maintenance centre (42,000 sq. m) and a depot (44,000 sq. m). In addition, the hub, which is near a motorway, will offer 136,000 sq. m of parking. Furthermore, there are plans to build retail and office space above the hub. Leasing this space should earn substantial revenue for the transport authority.

83

IZMIR AN EFFICIENT, INTEGRATED TRANSPORT SYSTEM

Key words: Urban governance; Transport-system integration

Monograph written by Camille MARTINET and Julien ALLAIRE, based on the presentation by Aysin NALĂ‚N YETMEN, Izmir Metropolitan Municipality (Barcelona conference, 2011).

Latest update: 15/11/2012

84

Izmir

Izmir, located in western Turkey on the Aegean Sea coast, is the country’s thirdlargest metropolitan area by population. Served by several railway lines, it is the country’s second-largest port after Istanbul. To relieve road congestion in this fast-growing city, the municipality has decided to implement a major project to integrate its transport systems.

AN EFFICIENT, INTEGRATED TRANSPORT SYSTEM

Turkey Population: 72,752,000 inhab.

Area: 783,562 sq. km Density: 92.8 inhab. / sq. km Urbanisation rate: 69.60%

Izmir Population: 4,000,000 inhab. (2010) Area: 11,810 sq. km Density: 340 inhab. / sq. km Length of lines: Metro: 14.2 km

Annual rate of urbanpopulation growth (20052010): 1.93% GDP / inhabitant: $10,094.1 HDI: 0.699 / 1 Car ownership: 95 vehicles per 1,000 inhab.

Vehicles per km of road: 29 Accident rate: 0.62 fatal accidents per 10,000 inhab.

Sources: World Bank – UNDP – Aysin Nalân Yetmen – Urbanrail.net

Key words: Urban governance; Transport-system integration Based on the presentation by Aysin Nalân Yetmen, Head of Transport Planning Department, Izmir Metropolitan Municipality (Barcelona conference, 2011)59.

In Turkey, there is no national agency in charge of coordinating urban transport.60 Each municipality has its own development and management responsibilities. Frequently, the same public agency is both the direct operator of public transport and the authority that oversees private-sector transport.

AN EARLY FARE-INTEGRATION PROCESS Since the early 1990s, Izmir’s strategy has been to put in place a fully-integrated transport system.

This began in 1991, when private minibuses were restricted to serving rural areas only.

The ticketing system did not integrate the various modes of transport and was inefficient: users had to buy single-use paper tickets for bus journeys, and tokens for ferry journeys. This meant a high cost for users; there was no fraud prevention; and journey data could not be collected. In 1999, a system 59 60

Integrated public transport in Izmir – Aysin Nalân Yetmen.

Economic affairs office of the French embassy in Ankara – 2008.

85

for electronic payment of transport services was introduced. This is controlled by ESHOT (Izmir’s public agency for transport) and the general management of Izmir Metropolitan Municipality.

Once operational, the “Kentkart” card allowed users to travel by bus and ferry with preferential fares compared to those of paper-ticket users. Most passengers used it to receive discounts on multi-stage journeys. This fare integration preceded the launch of a vast programme to transform the transport offering, which coincided with the opening of a new metro line.

TRANSPORT TRANSFORMATION PROGRAMME In 2000, the municipality of Izmir launched its “transport transformation” programme, geared to restructuring public-transport service and thus increasing use. Over the past 10 years, private cars have taken up increasing space in this Turkish city: between 1998 and 2005, the number of motorised vehicles grew by 52%.61 Car ownership in Izmir is higher than the Turkish average: 126 cars per 1,000 inhabitants in 2008, compared to 95 nationally. 62 This has obviously exacerbated congestion.

The programme aimed to improve integration between the various transport modes and to make public transport – particularly by rail and sea – attractive in order to relieve the road network.

In phase one of the programme, buses and ferries were integrated into Izmir’s public transport system. The Kentkart also covered these two modes. In addition, bus fares were revised. The price is no longer fixed, but based on the distance travelled across up to four zones (long-, mid- and shortdistance bus, and connection buses). The connection buses offer a low-cost journey and link the transit hubs between the centres of activity, universities, shopping centre, new metro stations and ferries. In the sea-transport sector, the ferry fleet was expanded, and new wharfs and park-and-ride facilities were built.

These reforms heralded the entry into service of a first light-metro line in May 2000. This section, 11.5 km long, is the first phase of the project being run by the city, which wants to build 50 km of lines.63 This first line, which can carry up to 17,700 passengers an hour in each direction, soon beat the initial forecast of 40,000 journeys a day. In April 2011, the metro was used for 53,000 journeys daily. The project was funded by export credits from the United Kingdom, Sweden and Germany, and by commercial loans from international banking consortia. When the metro entered service, it was immediately covered by the Kentkart.

In 2004, the paper bus tickets used by occasional travellers were discontinued permanently and were replaced by the “onboard card”. But this card created other problems. Because the bus driver was handling money, vehicle operation speed and safety were reduced.

In the same year, ESHOT’s scope was extended. More Kentkart retail outlets were opened across the 61

www.turkstat.gov.tr Tüik Izmir, Directorate of Izmir Region.

63 Bombardier designed and built tunnels, viaducts and stations; and installed and commissioned the entire system. http://www.bombardier.com/fr/transport/produits-et-services/systemes-de-transport/systemes-devehicules-legers-sur-rail/izmir--turquie?docID=0901260d80014594 62

86

city, and on/in bus platforms and terminals. Users entitled to free travel (the elderly, public-sector workers, disabled people, etc.) must also use an electronic Kentkart so that their travel data are processed.

In October 2008, a new fare policy was introduced. After a first journey at the full rate, connecting journeys cost half-price for 90 minutes. In August 2012, a single ticket is enough, the fare policy changed again: city-centre travellers, having initially punched their ticket, enjoy unlimited use of the whole system for 90 minutes. However, if transferring to a provincial bus, after paying a provincial ticket price, they pay less then provincial ticket price and they did not pay city center.

In 2010, suburban trains were integrated into the system and joined the Kentkart scheme. This meant the entire public-transport system of Izmir was now unified. Multimodal hubs have since multiplied. There are five connecting stations for ferry/bus, four for bus/metro, and 16 for bus/suburban train.

On 30 March 2012, the metro-line extension (2.3 km) entered service. This has enabled the launch of phase two of the “transport transformation� project. The bus network has again been redesigned in order to optimise integration of all modes.

In parallel to these operations, ESHOT regularly runs campaigns to communicate on the benefits of public transport.

Aysin Nalân Yetmen lists the advantages of an integrated public transport system: -

Less bus traffic, so less urban pollution.

Cheaper transport.

A faster, higher-quality service.

Shorter waiting times for passengers.

Savings for citizens, thanks to distance-based fares.

Higher productivity and rising operation speed.

87

- Far more efficient transport and more intense mobility.

- Increased revenue (+47%).

- The Kentkart allows us to collect travel data and, once they have been processed, to provide statistics that are useful for the future planning of the whole system.64

PROJECTS According to the metropolitan transport master plan for the period up to 2030,65 Izmir plans to extend its suburban train network by 108 km and then to connect all industrial and all tourist sites.

The upgrade of a suburban train line running from north to south of the conurbation is also under study.66 This line will be integrated into the future urban express network. The line already in operation, which carries some 550,000 travellers daily, is scheduled for extension – at present, there is only one suburban train line (see network map).

The municipality also plans to develop a modern tramway in order to reduce the number of buses on the roads. New embarkations will also be created to make the ferries more efficient.

In addition, the municipality plans to upgrade bus stops with smart systems; integrate minibuses (in 2012) and the tramway (2015); and integrate taxis into the whole system.

As shown in the table below, the rail network is set to become one of the main modes of motorised travel, by winning customers from urban buses and minibuses. In addition, the municipality is also aiming to reduce the share of cars in the modal mix.

Figure 28: The modal mix of transport in 2005, and the modal shares targeted by the “Transport transformation” project.

64

Eltis – Faciliter les transports publics à Izmir: la carte de transport « Kentkart » (“Facilitating public transport in Izmir: the ‘Kentkart’ travel card”).

65 http://www.izmir.bel.tr/en/projelerb.asp?pID=84&psID=0 66 The European Investment Bank provided €150 million of project finance – Economic affairs office of the French embassy in Ankara – 2008.

88

CONCLUSION The development of an integrated transport system and an appropriate fare policy increased the number of public transport users by 14% between 1999 and 2003. In 2003, 36 million people used the metropolitan system.67 Except for buses, which saw a temporary drop in use due to intensive network restructuring, the number of passengers in other modes has seen steady growth.

67

Eltis – “Transformation in transportation” in Izmir.

89

CAIRO RENEWING THE TAXI FLEET TO FIGHT AIR POLLUTION

Key words: Planning; Environmental policy; Owner-driver transport systems

Monograph written by Charles SIMON and Julien ALLAIRE based on the presentation by Kawthar HEFNY, EEAA (Damascus conference, 2010).

Latest update: 15/11/2012

90

Cairo

RENEWING THE TAXI FLEET TO FIGHT AIR POLLUTION

Egypt

Located by the river Nile, the metropolitan area of Cairo, more commonly called Greater Cairo, has a population of more than 16 million inhabitants and a total area of 1,492 sq. km.

The Egyptian capital is the fourth most densely populated city in the developing countries.

Pollution levels due to traffic are particularly high.

A programme to renew the taxi fleet has begun.

Population: 81,121,000 inhab.

Area: 1,002,000 sq. km Density: 81 inhab. / sq. km Urbanisation rate: 42.80%

Annual rate of urbanpopulation growth (20052010): 1.99% GDP / inhabitant: $2,698.4

Cairo Population: 11,001,000 inhab.

Area: 290 sq. km Density: 37,934 inhab. / sq. km Forecast population of metropolitan area in 2025: 13,531,000 inhab.

Length of lines: (2012) Metro: 70 km

HDI: 0.644 / 1 Car ownership: 33 vehicles per 1,000 inhab.

Vehicles per km of road: 37 Accident rate: 1.63 fatal accidents per 10,000 inhab.

Sources: World Bank – UNDP – Sylvain Houpin: Les cahiers du plan bleu 9 – UrbanRail.net

Key words: Planning; Environmental policy; Owner-driver transport systems Based on the presentation by Kawthar Hefny – General Manager, Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA), (Damascus conference, 2010).

Cairo is the biggest conurbation in Africa. And with nearly 39,000 inhabitants/sq. km, it is one of the world’s most densely populated cities.

From the 1980s onwards, the Greater Cairo area wanted to restrict demographic pressure in the centre of the metropolitan area by developing business zones in the peripheral governorates and by building new towns. These towns, which were intended to create new urban poles, had limited success. Cairo has remained one of the world’s most densely populated cities, with a rate 10 times higher than the Paris region. However, this spatial reorganisation increased the number and distance of commuter journeys.

Cairo generates nearly 20 million motorised journeys a day; two-thirds are on public transport.

91

PUBLIC TRANSPORT SERVICE STRUGGLING TO MEET NEEDS Cairo was the first city in Africa to have a metro: a regional line opened in 1987. When the second urban line entered service in 2000, the metro was carrying more than 1.5 million passengers daily on 80 km of lines. Cairo’s metro is one of its most efficient transport modes.

Figure 29: Map of Cairo.

The metro lines are operated by the Egyptian Company for Metro (ECM), overseen by the Transport Ministry. But the city’s tramway and bus networks are run by the Cairo Transport Authority (CTA), a public company with more than 40,000 employees.

The tramway is a legacy of the colonial era, with only a small modal share. The bus network, meanwhile, has seen use of its scheduled lines fall significantly over the past 10 years, from a 40% share to 20% today.

OWNER-DRIVER TRANSPORT In Cairo, this mode covers taxis, collective taxis and minibuses. Minibuses’ share has been trending downward since the early ‘70s. Conversely, the share of taxis and collective taxis has risen strongly, from 6% in 1987 to 37% in 2011.

Figure 30: Taxis operating in Cairo.

The falling popularity of buses is due partly to the metro’s success, but the main reason is their deteriorating service. Traffic conditions are reducing the network’s appeal, and the conurbation’s expansion has not been matched by a redeployment of bus service to its peripheral areas.

92

Taxis have capitalised on the deficiencies of over-ground public transport in order to grow their modal share. Their adaptability makes them faster than buses and allows them to serve peripheral areas.

However, taxis are largely responsible for traffic congestion, and are a big factor in the deterioration of air quality.

CHRONIC CONGESTION AND AIR POLLUTION The number of motorised vehicles in Greater Cairo has been growing constantly since the ‘70s. More than 1.5 million vehicles are currently driven in the Egyptian capital. Although car ownership is still low, at 84 vehicles/1,000 inhabitants, traffic conditions are considered the world’s worst owing to an absence of traffic management. The average traffic speed is 11 km/h. Walking remains the dominant mode of travel, but is suffering from this situation. It is increasingly dangerous to walk in the city.

The pollution caused by Cairo’s dense traffic is problematic. Motorised vehicles produce 90% of particulate emissions, 90% of carbon-monoxide emissions and 50% of nitrogen oxide. The health and environmental risks have prompted the national authorities to monitor air quality more closely, and to adopt policies to cut pollutant emissions by meeting the following objectives: -

Renew the fleet of old taxis in Greater Cairo.

Cut emissions from motorcycles.

Ban two-stroke engines.

Run public transport buses on natural gas.

NATIONAL CAMPAIGN TO LIMIT THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF BUSES AND OWNER-DRIVER TRANSPORT In 2008 a traffic law stipulated a ban, starting in July 2011, on operating any public transport vehicle or taxi more than 20 years old. A National Taxi Replacement Scheme (NTRS) was immediately started to help taxi drivers comply. In 2011, the authorities conducted a census and recorded 85,000 taxis and 30,000 minibuses, half of which were more than 25 years old.

To promote the purchase of a new natural gas vehicle (NGV), economic incentives were introduced:68 -

Exemption from sales tax on vehicle purchases.

Payment of a subsidy if the owner handed over the old vehicle to a recycling centre.

Exemption from taxi-licence fees for several years.

Free public transport pass for one or two years.

25% of the vehicle price is paid by the owner, who receives a six-year loan with an annual interest rate of 7.5%.

68

Natural gas fuel for cars. Containing 97% methane, it produces 25% less CO2 emissions than petrol and practically no particulate emissions.

93

The Cairo authorities thus planned to replace 13,500 taxis and 4,500 minibuses a year for three years. This was expected to cut annual emissions by 4,926 tons of nitrogen oxide, 30,359 tons of carbon monoxide, and 244 tons of particulate. Although the total cost of the programme is estimated at EÂŁ1.2 billion, the expected benefits are valued at EÂŁ638 million.

ONGOING RESULTS In the first eight months of 2012, 14,000 taxis out of 37,000 were replaced. The new, white taxis are relatively recent models and manufactured locally. They have a meter and air conditioning. These results are satisfactory, especially as the context is particularly difficult. However, these good results do not apply to minibuses.

94

MILAN IMPLEMENTING AN ENVIRONMENTAL URBAN TOLL SCHEME

Key words: Environmental policy; City-centre regeneration

Monograph written by Camille MARTINET and Julien ALLAIRE, based on the presentation by Edoardo CROCI, IEFE, Bocconi University (Damascus conference, 2010).

Latest update: 15/11/2012

95

Milan

IMPLEMENTING AN ENVIRONMENTAL URBAN TOLL SCHEME

Italy

Milan is the economic capital of northern Italy and one of the country’s most densely populated cities. Car ownership even if lower than Italian average is very high compared to other European cities: 570 vehicles per 1,000 inhabitants. 69 Poor air quality and congestion problems have prompted the authorities to adopt a policy of sustainable mobility.

In this context, the city introduced its environmental toll scheme, Ecopass, in January 2008.

Population: 60,483,000 inhab.

Area: 301,336 sq. km

Density: 200.7 inhab. / sq. km

Urbanisation rate: 68.40%

Annual rate of urban-population growth (2005-2010): 0.71%

Milan Population: Municipality: 1,308,000 inhab.

Metropolitan area: 3,900,000 inhab.

Area: Municipality: 182 sq. km Metropolitan area: 2,000 sq. km Density: Municipality: 7,190 inhab. / sq. km Metropolitan area: 1,950 inhab. / sq. km Length of lines: Metro: 75.5 km Tramway: 211.4 km Modal mix: Private cars: 41% Public transport: 27.5% Active modes: 31.5%

GDP / inhabitant: $34,075.1 HDI: 0.874 / 1 Car ownership: 596 vehicles per 1,000 inhab.

Vehicles per km of road: 80 Accident rate: 0.96 fatal accidents per 10,000 inhab.

Sources: World Bank – UNDP – Edoardo Croci – Paris Region Urban Planning & Development Agency (IAU-IdF) – Milan agency for mobility and environment (AMA)

Key words: Environmental policy; City-centre regeneration Based on the presentation by Edoardo Croci – Centre for Research on Energy and Environmental

Politics and Policy (IEFE), Bocconi University (Damascus conference, 2010). 70

69 70

IAU-IdF. Edoardo Croci – IEFE: “Sustainable mobility in Milan: the pollution charge case”, 2010.

96

Lombardy is among the European regions with the poorest air quality. Life expectancy in this part of Italy is thought to be reduced by 9-36 months owing to a high concentration of PM10 and PM2.5, according to the European Environment Agency. This particulate is thought to cause 10-30 premature deaths per year per 10,000 inhabitants. In the Milan conurbation, thresholds for nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and ozone (O3) are also often exceeded. The city’s location, in the Po valley surrounded by mountains, adversely affects particulate dispersion. Road traffic is responsible for 69% of PM10 emissions.

Every day, more than a million people enter the city and 250,000 leave it. The municipality of Milan contains two million inhabitants during working hours.

Every day, more than five million journeys are made in this area: - 50.3% of them are between the city and periphery. In this case, 67% of journeys are made by car or motorcycle, and 33% by public transport.

- 49.7% of journeys are made within the city. In this case, the modal shares are 36% for cars and motorcycles, 35% for public transport, 24% for pedestrians, and 5% for bikes.

Given the air quality challenges facing Milan, the city wanted to go further in regulating car traffic and fighting air pollution, specifically the concentration of fine particulates.

In 1992, Italian law introduced Limited Traffic Zones (LTZ) to allow municipalities to better regulate traffic. The access and circulation in ZTL can be limited to the payment of a toll.

ECOPASS: IMPLEMENTING AN ENVIRONMENTAL URBAN TOLL SCHEME

Figure 36: “Less traffic, more clean air”.

Since January 2008, an urban toll ring called Ecopass has restricted access by the most polluting vehicles to the historical heart of Milan. The 8.2 sq. km zone is about 5% of the city’s total area.

Restrictions apply from 7.30am to 7.30pm, Monday to Friday. The zone was defined according to the high level of congestion and the existence of alternatives to private car use. The zone has a high concentration of public transport services, with 28 overground and three underground lines.

Milan is the first Italian city to introduce such a toll scheme. Its objective is to reduce congestion, discourage the use of most polluting vehicles and to encourage citizens and commuters to travel by public transport, bike or foot.

Where Ecopass differs from the toll schemes of London and Stockholm is its pricing policy. The cost of entering the zone varies according to the level of pollutant emissions. Low-polluting vehicles (Ecopass class I and II), corresponding to half of circulating vehicles, can enter the zone free of charge; the others pay a daily rate ranging from €2-€10. City-centre residents – about 80,000 people 97

– enjoy a 90% reduction through reduced yearly passes. Multi-day tickets are also available. Public transport vehicles, two-wheel vehicles, vehicles of people with reduced mobility, can also enter free of charge. Class II vehicles could be subject to a toll in future in order to tighten the system.

There are 43 zone electronic entry gates with a system for automatic recognition of plates. It detects classes of vehicles and payment of tolls. Payment can be made by telephone, internet and automatic teller machines. Fines range from €70-€275.

This environmental toll scheme had three objectives: cut PM10 traffic emissions in the zone by 30%; ease traffic flows by reducing the number of vehicles entering the zone by 10%; and reinvest the profits to develop sustainable mobility.

Figure 32: Ecopass zone in Milan.

RESULTS One year after the Ecopass was introduced, the review conducted by the Milan mobility and environment agency showed that the number of vehicle entries into the zone had fallen by 14.4% (i.e. 22,000 vehicles) while traffic outside the zone had dropped by 3.4%. Among drivers of polluting vehicles (Ecopass class III, IV and V) who renounced to enter the area to avoid paying the toll, nearly half had changed their travel mode; a third changed their route; and the others switched to a less polluting vehicle.

In parallel, the emissions of fine dust in the zone fell by 19%, and an improvement in air quality was also observed across the metropolitan area.71 In 2008, total toll revenue was €12 million, while fines were double that figure. Operating costs were €6.5 million. Toll revenues were fully reinvested in creating new services and improving public transport.

In 2009 toll revenues began to fall, the main reason being changes in cars owned. Many people had bought less polluting cars. In early 2011, 80% of vehicles were entering the Ecopass zone free of charge because they met the required standards.72 Lack of political resolution didn’t allow tightening the system, so original rules were confirmed after the first year of experimentation.

71 72

http://www.iau-idf.fr/detail/etude/ecopass-le-peage-urbain-ecologique-de-milan.html http://www.eltis.org/index.php?id=13&study_id=2955

98

CONCLUSION Although the benefits in terms of reduced social costs were below forecast, implementing Ecopass resulted in the first year in: - Reduced congestion: the congestion index fell by 4.7%.73 - Improved road safety: a 10.5% drop in accidents and a 13.5% drop in accidents with injuries in the toll zone.

- Higher bus operation speed: +0.5 km/h on average.

- More people using public transport: since the toll was launched, public transport has carried 6% more passengers into the zone.

- Reduced polluting emissions and improved air quality: in 2008, there were 111 days when the PM10 concentration threshold was exceeded, whereas the annual average during the 2002-2007 periods was 148. European standards accept a maximum of 35 days beyond threshold limits.

The main success of Ecopass has been to change the profile of vehicles entering the zone. Before Ecopass, nearly half were in the most polluting Ecopass categories III, IV and V (i.e. paying fees); in 2009, they only represented 14% of traffic in the zone. The average PM10 emissions per vehicle passed from 32 mg/km in 2008 to 18.6 in 2009.

Ecopass was also cited as a best practice by the World Bank and OECD in 2009. Milan’s urban toll won an honourable mention at the 2009 Sustainable Transport Awards held by the Institute for Transportation & Development Policy (ITDP), and was selected as a best practice by UN Habitat in 2008.

The application of Ecopass has prompted intense public and political debate. Even if it was in the program of Mayor Letizia Moratti, opposition to the measure came from parties of her coalition and from part of retailers.

At the end of 2009 Deputy Major for mobility and environment, Edoardo Croci, who had conceived the system and asked for its reinforcement, resigned and promoted a public referendum under municipal rules to extend the toll to all vehicles, excluding zero emission ones, and to progressively enlarge the toll area. The proposal was approved by a large majority (80%) of voters in June 2011 and applied from January 2012. Its application by the new administration halved traffic in comparison with pre-Ecopass baseline74.

Pollution remains an important political issue in Milan and a main concern for public health despite relevant progress. Further improvements depend also on coordinated action with regional and national policies.

73 74

Vehicle flow / road capacity ratio. www.milanosimuove.it

99

LIST OF ACRONYMS AND WEBSITES

AASQA : Associations Agréées pour la Surveillance de la Qualité de l'Air (France) ADEME : Agence de l’Environnement et de la Maîtrise de l’Énergie (France) ADERE Fès : Agence pour la Dédensification et la Réhabilitation de la médina de Fès AFD : Agence Française de Développement AGAM : Agence d’urbanisme de l’agglomération marseillaise ALG-EP : Transportation, Infrastructure & Logistic – Europraxis AMB : Aire Métropolitaine de Barcelone AMT : Azienda Municipale di Trasporto (Italie) AO (TU) : Autorité Organisatrice (des Transports Urbains) ATM : Autoritat del Transport Metropolità AUAT : Agence d’urbanisme de l’Agglomération de Toulouse AYKOME : Altyapı Koordinasyon Merkezi (Infrastructural Coordination Department of Istanbul) BEI : Banque Européenne d’Investissement BRT : Bus Rapid Transit (Bus à Haut Niveau de Service – BHNS) CERTU : Centre d'études sur les réseaux, les transports, l'urbanisme et les constructions publiques (France) CETE : Centre d'Études Techniques de l'Équipement (France) CMI : Centre de Marseille pour l’Intégration en Méditerranée CNRS : Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (France) CO2 : Dioxyde de carbone CODATU : Coopération pour le développement et l’amélioration des transports urbains et périurbains (France) CRET-LOG : Laboratoire Universitaire de Recherche en Sciences de Gestion spécialisé en Logistique (France) DCE : Dossier de Consultation des entreprises DMQ : Municipio del Distrito Metropolitano de Quito DSP : Délégation de service public 100

EEAA : Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency EMT : Entitat Metropolitana del Transport ENTPE : École Nationale des Travaux Publics de l’État (France) EPAU : École Polytechnique d’Architecture et d’Urbanisme (Alger) ESTRAM : Eskişehir Light Rail Transportation System (Turquie) ETUSA : Établissement de Transport Urbain et Suburbain d’Alger FGC : Ferrocarrils de la Generalitat de Catalunya FUBicy : Fédération française des usagers de la bicyclette GES : Gaz à Effet de Serre GPL : Gaz de Pétrole Liquéfié IEFE : Centre for Research on Energy and Environmental Economics and Policy (Italie) IETT : Istanbul Electricity, Tramway and Tunnel IEVP CT-MED: Instrument européen de voisinage et de partenariat pour a Méditerranée IMM : Municipalité Métropolitaine d’Istanbul INRETS : Institut National de Recherche sur les Transports et leur Sécurité (France) ISTAT : Istituto nazionale di statistica (Italie) IUAR : Institut d'Urbanisme et d'Aménagement Régional (Aix-Marseille Université) KNA-MENA : Knowledge Networks Agency for the Middle East and North Africa LAURE : Loi sur l’Aire et l’Utilisation Rationnelle de l’Énergie (France) LOTI : Loi d’Orientation sur les Transports Intérieurs (France) MEDDTL : Ministère de l’Écologie, du Développement Durable, des Transports et du Logement (France) NTU : Associação Nacional das Empresas de Transportes Urbanos (Brésil) OASA : Athens Urban Transport Organisation P+R : Park and Ride ou parking-relais PACA : Région Provence-Alpes-Côte d’Azur PDU : Plan de Déplacements Urbains PIB : Produit Intérieur Brut 101

PLU : Plan Local d’Urbanisme PM10 : Particulate matter 10 PMR : Personnes à Mobilité Réduite PPA : Plan de protection de l’atmosphère (France) PPP : Partenariat-Public-Privé PRQA : Plans régionaux pour la qualité de l’air (France) PTU : Périmètre des Transports Urbains PUM : Plan Urbain de Mobilité RATP : Régie Autonome des Transports de Paris RER : Réseau Express Régional (d’Île-de-France) RFR : Réseau Ferroviaire Rapide de Tunis RSS : Rich Site Summary (Flux) SCoT : Schéma de Cohérence Territoriale SF : Secrétariat des Finances (Colombie) SNCF : Société Nationale des Chemins de Fer (France) SNCFT : Société Nationale des Chemins de Fer Tunisiens SNTF : Société nationale des Transports Ferroviaires TAD : Transport à la demande TAM : Transports de l’Agglomération de Montpellier TAN : Transports de l’Agglomération de Nantes TCSP : Transport Collectif en Site Propre TCU : Transport Collectif Urbain TGM : Tunis-Goulette-Marsa (ligne ferroviaire) TGV : Train à Grande Vitesse TMB : Transports Metropolitans de Barcelona TRANSTU : Société des transports de Tunis TRANSUB (entreprise publique de transport collectif public à Alger)

102

UITP : Union Internationale des Transports Publics UKOME : Centre de coordination des transports pour Istanbul UNESCO : United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization ZTL : Zone à Trafic Limité

103

LIST OF PRESENTATIONS ABOUD Abdullah and HADDAD Amal – City of Damascus: “The accessibility of the Old City of Damascus.” 2010 AGARWAL O.P. – World Bank: “Structuring the Transit System – Examples from India.” 2010 AIT MHAND Aicha – City of Casablanca: “Politique des déplacements et intégration urbaine – cas de Casablanca” (Mobility policy and urban integration in Casablanca). 2010 AWADA Fouad – Urbamed and CHALLITA Charbel– Egis: “Pour une accessibilité apaisée – Cas de la Médina de Tripoli – Lybie” (Restoring accessibility: the medina of Tripoli, Libya). 2010 BAOUNI Tahar – ENSA Alger: “Perspectives de la multimodalité à Alger” (Outlook for multi-modality in Algiers). 2010 BEN YOUSSEF Chibeb – TRANSTU: “Quelle desserte du centre-ville de Tunis par les transports publics, quelle connexion entre réseau TP et portes de la vieille ville ?” (Options for transport service in the city-centre of Tunis, PT connections with the gates to the old city). 2010 BONILLA Sandra - DMQ: “QUITO, EQUATEUR : La prise en compte des circulations douces” (Quito, Ecuador: integrating sustainable transport). 2011 BOUDOUIN Daniel – CRET-LOG: “La circulation des marchandises dans les centres anciens” (Merchandise transport in historic centres). Undated.

BOUHRIZ Nadia – Casa Tramway: “Transport Planning in Casablanca.” 2011 BOURGET Christian – French Ministry of Ecology: “Le ‘modèle’ français d’organisation des transports urbains – caractéristiques et limites” (The French model of urban transport organisation: its characteristics and limitations). 2011 BRUNNER Christian – AGAM: “Semi-piétonisation du Vieux port” (Semi-pedestrianisation of the old port). 2010 CARLES Patrick – SARECO: “Métropoles émergentes et stationnement – La limitation des flux automobiles vers les centralités” (Emerging metropolitan areas and parking: limiting car flow to main centres). 2010 CASART Alicia – ALG-EP: “Le point de vue du consultant: Quels besoins vis-à-vis des documents de planification pour les projets de transport de masse ?” (Consultant perspective: what is needed in planning documents for mass transit projects). 2011 CERTU: “Plans de Déplacements Urbains : présentation générale” (An over view of urban mobility plans). 2003 CHRISTOFOROU Zoï – OASA/UNTA: “Urban transport performance and lessons learned from the Athens Olympic Games.” 2010 CORNUT Bernard – ADEME: “Back to Sustainable Urban Mobility? A few images as a practical introduction”. 2010 104

CROCE Alberto – City of Ferrara: “Une politique globale pour promouvoir la pratique du vélo en ville – 15 ans de planification de la mobilité à Ferrara” (A comprehensive policy to promote bicycle use in town: 15 years of mobility planning in Ferrara). 2010 CROCHET Jean-Charles – World Bank: “Citoyen, contribuable, usager, client, opérateur : comment associer la population à l’élaboration et à la mise en oeuvre des politiques de transport urbain ?”

(Citizen, taxpayer, user, customer: How to involve the people in the definition and implementation of urban transport policies). 2011 CROCI Edoardo – IEFE: “Sustainable mobility in Milan: the pollution charge case.” 2010 DE LA FOURNIERE Nathalie – Greater Toulouse Town Planning Agency: “Évaluation et suivi du PDU l’exemple de l’Observatoire du PDU de l’agglomération toulousaine” (Evaluation and monitoring of the urban mobility plan: the Toulouse Observatory). 2011 DE YZAGUIRRE Clara – Municipality of Barcelona: “Le Pacte pour la Mobilité de Barcelone comme instrument de participation citoyenne dans la gestion de la mobilité” (Mobility Agreement of Barcelona: an instrument for citizen participation in mobility management). 2011 DESCAMPS Alain – Veolia Transdev: “Point de vue de l’opérateur Améliorer l’efficience des Transports Urbains au Sud de la Méditerranée avec les opérateurs locaux - Veolia » (Operator’s perspective on ways to improve the efficiency of urban transport in the South Mediterranean, with local operators).

2011 ENBATAN Erhan – ESTRAM: “Sustainable urban transport in Eskisehir / Turkey.” 2010 FOUCHARD Benjamin – CETE Méditerranée: “Évaluer pour évoluer : comment suivre et évaluer les documents de planification” (Evaluate in order to evolve: how to monitor and assess planning documents) and “Conclusions de la session” (Session conclusions). 2011 GODARD Xavier: “Transport artisanal, esquisse de bilan pour la mobilité durable” (Owner-driver transport: a partial assessment for sustainable mobility). 2008 GOUIN Thierry – CERTU: “Citizen, taxpayer, user, customer: How to involve the people in the definition and implementation of urban transport policies?.” 2011 GUERIN Pierre-Dominique – Greater Lyon: “Plan Presqu’île” (Presqu’île peninsula plan). 2010 HEFNY Kawsar – EEAA: “National project for old Taxi replacement.” 2010 HENGIRMEN Safak – SUMPA-MED and CORNUT Bernard – ADEME: “Local transport authorities in Turkey, Jordan and Syria: situations & perspectives". 2011 HERNANDEZ Frédérique – IUAR Aix-Marseille University: “Le tramway : projet de transport de masse et outil stratégique de la planification urbaine” (Tramway: mass transit project and strategy for urban planning). 2011 HOUPIN Sylvain – Plan Bleu: “Les déplacements dans les cœurs de villes : Quel traitement de l’espace public ?” (Mobility in city centres: adapting public spaces). 2010 105

HOUPIN Sylvain: “Mobilité et développement durable en Méditerranée : diagnostic prospectif régional” (Mobility and sustainable development in the Mediterranean region: regional prospective diagnosis). Les Cahiers du Plan Bleu, issue 9, 2010 HUYBRECHTS Éric – Institut d’Aménagement et d’Urbanisme d’Ile-de-France: “Planification urbaine et transport dans les métropoles du Maghreb méditerranéen” (Urban planning and transport in Mediterranean Maghreb cities). 2011 ILICALI Mustafa – Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality: “Example of financing an infrastructure of urban transport by land value : The case of Istanbul.” 2011 JODAR Gabriel – FormaPlan / MedCités: “Traits de la politique multimodale des déplacements urbains de la ville de Barcelone : enjeux et résultats” (Characteristics of urban multimodal mobility policy in Barcelona: challenges and results). 2010 KHATOUI Nawel: “Les Autorités Organisatrices de Transports publics Urbains en Algérie, analyse et perspectives d’évolution” (Urban transport authorities in Algeria: analysis and outlook). ENTPE, 2011 LARIA Silvia – Plan Bleu: “Urban Mobility and Sustainable Development challenges in the Mediterranean Countries”. Workshop on Urban Mobility in Istanbul, 2008 LASSALLE Christine – TAN: “Les transports nantais exemples d’interaction entre le public et les acteurs” (Transport in Nantes: examples of interaction between the public and the authorities). 2011 LE TOURNEUR Marc: “Évolution des transports urbains dans le cœurs des villes françaises des années 1950 à nos jours” (Development of urban transport in French city centres from the 1950s to the present day). 2010 LE TOURNEUR Marc: “Les transports à Montpellier : planification et cadre institutionnel” (Transport in Montpellier : planning and institutional framework). 2010 LOPEZ Angel – City of Barcelona: “Les deux roues motorisées – Défis et opportunités” (Two-wheeled motorised vehicles: challenges and opportunities). 2010 MARTI ESCURSELL Josep-Maria – Moventis: “Presentation of MOVENTIS.” 2011 MARTINEZ Pelayo – AMB: “Planificación y gestión del transporte dentro de un área metropolitana: el caso de Barcelona” (Transport planning and management in a metropolitan area: the case of Barcelona). 2011 METEYER-ZELDINE Françoise – French Ministry of Sustainable Development: “Qui paie quoi en matière de transports urbains ? Guide de bonnes pratiques” (Who pays what for urban transport? A handbook of good practices). 2009 MEYER Vincent – City of Montpellier: “L’accès au centre-ville de Montpellier” (Access to the citycentre of Montpellier). 2010 MEZGHANI Mohamed – UITP: “Testimonials from International Association of Public Transport (UITP).” 2011 106

MEZGHANI Mohamed – UITP: “Quelles autorités pour porter les politiques de transports urbains ?”

(Defining authorities to lead urban transport policies). 2011 MILLOT Marine – CETE Méditerranée: “Multimodal organization.” 2010. “Technical monographs”.

2010 NALAN YETMEN Aysin – Municipality of Izmir: “Integrated Public Transport in Izmir (TUR)”. 2011 NEHDI Yosr – Autonomous Region of Sardinia: “Presentation of the cross-border cooperation program in Mediterranean IEVP CT MED of the EU”. 2011 NOUHA Hassan – Moroccan Ministry of the Interior & Jean-Charles CROCHET – World Bank: “Transports publics urbains : l’expérience du Maroc” (Urban public transport: the experience in Morocco). 2011 PELAEZ DE LOÑO Luis – TMB: “TMB, Transports Metropolitans de Barcelona : Vers un nouveau réseau de bus à Barcelone (Bus à Haute Niveau de Service – BHNS)” (TMB, transport authority of Barcelona: creating a BRT network). 2011 Plan Bleu: “Enjeux de développement durable en Méditerranée. Les perspectives du Plan Bleu à 2015” (Challenges for sustainable development in the Mediterranean: forecasts by Plan Bleu for 2015). 2009 REBELO Jorge – World Bank: “Financing with new taxes on car use: The Latin America Experience”.

2011 RIVALTA Bernard – Sytral: “Face à des opérateurs en évolution, comment assurer une exécution efficace et cohérente du service de transport public ?” (Ensuring efficient and coherent public transport service in a context of change among operating companies). 2011 ROBIN Dominique – Atmo PACA: “Modélisation de la qualité de l’air, pour l’intégration de nouveaux outils d’aide à la décision sur les aires métropolitaines marseillaises et niçoises” (Modelling air quality to integrate new decision-making tools for the Marseille and Nice metropolitan areas). 2010 ROSELLÒ Xavier – ATM: “Présentation de l’ATM, Autorité du Transport Métropolitain de Barcelone” (Presentation of ATM, the transport authority of Barcelona). 2011 ROUSSET Jacques – BEI et partenaires: “MEDINAS 2030 – Étude documentaire préliminaire” (Medinas 2030 – preliminary review of documentation). 2010 SAINT-PAUL Florance – CETE Sud-Ouest: “Planification des déplacements, Expérience des villes européennes du bassin méditerranéen” (Mobility planning: the experience of European cities of the Mediterranean basin). 2011 SAUVANT Alain – École des Ponts Paris Tech: “Le partenariat public privé dans les projets de transports” (Public-private partnerships for transport projects). 2008 SEMAAN Rami – LEB: “Planification des Transports Urbains” (Urban transport planning). 2011 SERRHINI Fouad – ADER Fès: “L’organisation de la circulation dans la Médina de Fès entre nécessités et possibilités” (Traffic organisation in the medina of Fes, balancing necessity with feasibility). 2010 107

SMADI Ayman – City of Amman: “Amman Transportation Strategy from Planning to Implementation”.

2010 STUCKI Martin – TRANSITEC: “Les déplacements dans les cœurs de ville : quel traitement de l’espace urbain ? – Illustrations à travers le guide d’aménagement et d’exploitation de l’espace public urbain au Maroc” (Mobility in city centres: the role of urban space design – examples from the Moroccan plan for urban space development and operation). 2010 TIRA Maurizio – University of Brescia: “Italian experience of the Restricted Traffic Zone (ZTL).” 2010 TURRO Mateu – Polytechnic University of Catalonia, and Géraldine BONNET – CERTU: “Comment financer le transport public urbain ? Quelles nouvelles sources de financement mobiliser ?” (Financing urban public transport: new sources and options). 2011 VIZCAINO Francisco Javier – Barcelona Tram: “The conditions for the private sector participation to finance infrastructure in urban transport. The case of the Tramway of Barcelona”. 2011

108

Part 1

109