THE COSMOS WE KNOW, NOT OURSELVES by Prof.-Dr. Benjamin Gal-Or

Cosmos we Know, Not Our Mind D A R K E

Preface

"This is a great book, and an exciting book; readable, worth reading and enlightening." Sir Karl Popper, the Greatest Philosopher of Science "I do not know a better modern expression of science, philosophy and classical humanism than that of Gal-Or’s book." HaAretz, Israeli News Paper "We are all Gal-Orians ! "

Editor, Foundations of Physics

"Gal-Or launches a new spirit of inquiry by his excellent and thought provoking writings. I would recommend awarding a prize and would hope that this would serve to focus attention on a most important subject.” Gold Award by N.Y. Academy of Sciences "Evokes a person heart !! Has generated a large number of responses from around the world, some declaring that it has turned them into “Gal-Orians”. Since the thought presented by this book is so rich, translators of our country should recommend this book with all their intellectual power." Chinese Academy of Sciences "A Master Piece. The well-known author bases his philosophy on a very sound knowledge of present-day scientific theories. " Indian Journal of Physics

"The works of scientists like Gal-Or, Bohm, and (Noble Prize-Winner) Prigogine provide important resources. Prigogine's formalisms do not really tell us how irreversible change emerges from reversible [mathematics]. (in this Gal-Or is superior)." The Crisis of the Sciences "Einstein's time-symmetric tensor was elevated by Gal-Or’s “New Astronomical School of Unified Thermodynamics” to the status of the source of “Master Asymmetry” controlling not only irreversible thermodynamics, but all physical and biological phenomena! Gal-Or calls “GRAVITISM” (his philosophy) that gravitation is the prime cause of structures, irreversibility, time, geo-chemical and biological evolution -- that the expansion of the universe is the cause of the second law of thermodynamics -- that microscopic physics, and thermodynamics in particular, cannot be understood without reference to cosmology. He ties “irreversibility” to the “expansion of space itself”, i.e. as far as space is expanding, the contribution of all kinds of radiation in space is weakened “irreversibly” due to the expansion phenomenon itself. Such loss, or “degradation” of energy in the depth of inter-cluster expanding space, may then be considered as a universal sink for all the radiation flowing out of the material bodies in the expanding universe.” Advancement of Physics "Gal-Or’s “beauty” has always been the object of science, which, he lyrically observes as “a most fundamental aesthetic frame of mind, a longing for the run-away horizons of truth and symmetry that we always try to reach.” Order Amidst Chaos, Enlightenment Aesthetics Recommended by Encyclopedia Britannica, "Nature, Philosophy of" "This is one of the most beautiful books that I have read." Outstanding Books List

"Tour de force. A magnificent and sustained piece of work! Gal-Or’s net is widely cast – it reaches as far as science policy and political philosophy." A. Cottrell, V. Chancellor, Cambridge University "Appeals to scientists of all disciplines who are prepared to open their minds. Shines a welcome light in some dark corners of science. Sir Karl Popper, in a Foreword, correctly describes it “a great book”. New Scientist Magazine AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICS: “Gal-Or's remarkable book sees and seizes the world whole. He emphasizes that all scientists operate under some set of philosophical prejudices, and that failure to acknowledge this is self-delusion. Furthermore, he argues that a failure to attend to the philosophical base of physics leads to an empty scientism. His work is challenging on many levels, constituting a review 'with derivations' of general relativity 'as applied to cosmology', thermodynamics, the current state of theoretical particle physics, astrophysics, as well as a summary history of western philosophy, 'especially the philosophies of time and mind' and critiques of western society, the intelligentsia and the relationship between academic science and government. One 'and perhaps the central' theme explored, is that of the interplay between symmetry and asymmetry. His primary interest is not in the recent progress in the unification of forces in gauge theory, although he finds support in it for his Einsteinian outlook, but is rather time, time's arrow, and the asymmetry between past and future. Around time are accumulated discussions, both mathematical and philosophical, of thermodynamic reversibility, time reversibility, the nature of causality, and the use of advanced and retarded solutions to wave equations. The second major theme is that of gravity and its overwhelming domination of the actual form of the universe, at all scales. The combination of these themes is not accidental; they are point and counterpoint to his thesis that the time asymmetries are connectable to and perhaps even determined by the master asymmetry given by the gravity of general relativity: the remorseless cosmological expansion.

He argues that only the expansion can provide the unification of time asymmetries. The expansion provides, among other things, an unsaturable sink for radiation, which, in turn, permits the establishment of gradients in temperature and density, which provide the basis for the physical process that leads to life. He also criticizes the sloppy and improper use of the concepts of entropy 'and the related notions in information theory' and quantum indeterminism, especially as covers for an inadequate understanding of temporal asymmetries. Taking an Einsteinian position on the interpretation of quantum mechanics, he looks forward to revitalization of Einstein's quest for a deterministic interpretation of quantum events. The value of this book lies in the challenging combination of ideas which Gal-Or presents, which goes far beyond what can be sensibly described in a review. [This] work may be too large to digest as a text in these days of the decline of academic institutions "as Gal-Or describes them", but that will be the loss of both the faculty and the students.” AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICS “One of the best books on the totality of the sciences & the universe. It was one of the favorite books of Sir Karl Popper. It looks at physics and the universe as a totality of the mathematical philosophical understanding. It also combines the physical concept of time with human psychological perception and brain understanding of languages.” Robin forumhub.com/expr/@202.54.92.222 “I have in the meantime studied your book, with great interest, and made pages of notes on it. I feel as if I had been on numerous walks and talks with you on the great questions, and know that would be great to go on with them! Who cannot be impressed by your love for the great men of all times and all countries, by your phrase “working back and forth between theory and fact”, by your belief that philosophy is too important to be left to the philosophers, by your concern for where thought and language lie in the scheme of things – and by so much more!

I continue to reflect, again and again, on your central thesis that expansion is the origin of all asymmetry in time. What an ingenious phrase is your, “smuggle irreversibility in without declaring the contraband”! I regard your book as seeking to accomplish two tasks – and being two books – at the very least One is the exposition of your central thesis, with clarity, and careful mustering of every argument pro and con that can lead to testable consequences. I don’t see how it is possible to do proper justice to a thesis of such importance by mixing it in with the other great task. That is to give students an appreciation of the unity of philosophy and modern physics. You do both tasks far better than I could hope to. I give you my personal thanks for putting the two books into a pacackage that I personally have found most thought-provoking.” Prof. John Wheeler, Inst. Of Advanced Studies, Princeton University "Most astrophysicists, cosmologists and astronomers agree that the biblical account of cosmic evolution, in stressing `a b eginning´ and the initial roles of `void,´ `light´ and a `structureless´ state, may be uncannily close to the verified evidence with which modern science has already supplied us" Scientific American; Victor F. Weisskopf from MIT, also quotes Volume I “Lecture one [in Volume I] affirms that the stress placed by Genesis on ‘beginning’ and the initial roles of ‘void’, ‘light’ and a ‘structure-less’ state, “may be uncannily close to the verified evidence with which modern science has already supplied us.” Christian Apologetics Journal

Lecture XIV

Academic Decline? Until around the mid-Thirties of the previous century, Core Cultural-Curriculum Courses (in Europe!) were made as ‘scientific’ as possible, and science propped up its foundations by turning to philosophy. This attitude was in part motivated by the desire to appropriate the sciences with the great ‘prestige’ of philosophers, and for the philosopher the fast-growing ‘status’ of science. Hence, European professors vied with one another in presenting science based on high philosophical grounds, and philosophy as a ‘science among sciences’, or even as the ‘sum of the other sciences’.

A ‘PhD’ was then a bona fide Philosophy Doctor, a person of advanced core knowledge and eloquence outside his specialism. Western academia has since withdrawn from the game.

Empty specialism has since gained the highest prestige; no longer do professors need borrow it from philosophy, nor to teach a bona fide CCCC. Indeed, contemporary professors today vie with one another in presenting fragmented lectures devoid of interconnected content, for they can no longer hope to achieve popularity by injecting updated core knowledge into what has gradually become an ever narrower, disciplinary professionalism.

This turn of events has resulted in overvaluation of technical professionalism, empty academicism, absolutation of ever-narrower disciplines, and the common inclination to reject bona fide core knowledge from the class. A pity. For these trends only push the young into cynicism, nihilism and feelings of emptiness in education and society at large.

The Current Crisis in Education is not subsiding. More than ever before it demands answers,

re-assessments,

revised

philosophy and acts: How to administer mutual

interactions

instead

linear

Assertion 1 With hope of finding the grand outlook of a spacecraft, students enter our universities. Entering the temples of knowledge they settle for that of an eagle, but what they find is that of a specialist gopher.

causality; structured complexity instead of summation of

events; structured

historical buildup of facts, instead of summation of isolated events and narrow academic Departments.

Assertion 2 Although most academic teaching and research must be distributed amongst various Schools and Departments of a university, there is an objective need to regenerate an old tradition that cannot be associated with any specialism, because the ideas with which it deals are common to all studies, or not involved in any.

Assertion 3

Without a guiding-structuring-unifying methodology aimed at gaining an allembracing, interconnected knowledge that crosses frozen disciplines, any Core Curriculum Cultural Course [CCCC] is nothing but a pity encyclopedia displayed by a specialist nominated by “Organizers” as the “CCCC-Coordinator” who remains helpless in teaching the alluring beauty of mathematics, physics, astronomy, history, the life sciences, and comparative religions, but fails to perceive their profound educational implications as a whole.

Modern skepticism is usually the negation of a core, interconnected, educational methodology. Not so with Einsteinian

skepticism. Einstein advocated the removal of imposed borders between traditional disciplines and university departments and faculty; stating that knowledge is one; its division is human weakness.

Assertion 4 Structuring an all-embracing Core-Outlook is a matter entailing far more ambiguity than the technicalities of the application of any disciplinary course and its “Academic Credit Regulations”.

The Western crisis, today more than

ever

repaired

before, by

Einsteinian

may

resorting

vision,

high-

schools and constantly upgraded and updated for undergraduate and graduate schools. Such a methodology interconnected

leads

Literary intellectuals at one pole – at the other scientists, and as the most representative, the physical scientists. Between the two a gulf of mutual incomprehension – sometimes (particularly among the young) hostility and dislike, but most of all lack of understanding.

fertilization

C. P. Snow, The Two Cultures Cambridge University Press

between the most promising kernels

fundamental

knowledge, and, thus, to the potential to rejuvenate the “system”.

Assertion 5 Students are often discouraged by their professors and mentors from asking fundamental, interdisciplinary questions in class, as a result of which inconsistent, or outright incorrect premises, are given a better chance of perpetuating themselves.

The Temples of Knowledge Yesterday, Today

Literary intellectuals, the people of the arts, and most educators, are currently ignorant of modern advances in the ‘exact sciences’, of their mathematical formulations, experimental, observational and verification methods. They are likely to resort to a priori or superficial answers to complex problems whose detailed implications are beyond them. Similarly, faculty, ‘experts’ and professionals in the “exact sciences”, via their past, ever-narrowing, disciplinary education, are currently ignorant of the wide-span knowledge, literature, arts and history that are needed to share their thinking and aspirations with other thinking persons.

The resulting gap can hardly be bridged despite the fact that our globe is currently an interconnected village, internationally linked by what might be expected to bridge old gaps between traditional cultures, languages, religions, political systems and a unified educational philosophy of humanity. Yet, the facts are that deep divisions keep deepening and deserts of narrow specialism keep spreading more than ever before.

Empty "Thinkers" What was a twosemester half-life of a textbook is today one day or less. Sources of studies are millions of online blogs with uneven quality and little or no reliable references. A-million-a-day posts confuse the 16

young; generating one-line thinkers; a tsunami of Tower-of-Babel Kalthure; a kalthure where scholars secure same weight as one-line thinkers; Eulogies are heard over the smoking ruins of the classical temples of knowledge – new layers of ruins on top of the destroyed Academy-Library of Alexandria. [Lecture 6].

Limitations of Theories and Definitions There is something provisional about all scientific theories They must be re-confirmed by fresh verified information from any sub-field of science, hence, are subject to constant revision and even replacement; -- in this, each succeeding generation takes a measurable step beyond the position of its predecessors. Closely related to the unrestricted content of modern science is its unrestricted questioning of all earlier convictions in light of verifiable evidence that refutes extant axioms, definitions, assertions, outlooks and theories. Thus, every item of carefully recorded experimental or observational information is a proper object for analysis. A drive towards novelty and discovery impels inquiry to explore all corners of the universe. These tenets are the central pillars of Gravitism. But there is more to it. The outlook includes constant re-assessments of the theory --

of any theory -- and analysis of the errors involved as one updates and improves it.

Tarski's Indefinability Theorem

ccording to this theorem no sufficiently powerful language is strongly-

semantically-self-representational. For instance, any arithmetical truth cannot be defined by arithmetics. According to Smullyan [42], Tarski's Indefinability Theorem is somewhat superior to the famous Gödel's Incompleteness Theorems, which are more related to mathematics and less to philosophical, scientific, and linguistic issues. Tarski's theorem is not directly about mathematics but about the inherent limitation of any formal language that is strongly-semantically-self-representational when it contains predicates and function symbols defining the semantic concepts specific to that language.

Gödel's Incompleteness Theorem

ödel [34-43] has demonstrated that conventional mathematics, which we tend

to consider as our supremely logical and consistent system, involves paradoxical, self-referential statements about itself, i.e., a conventional mathematical system, say, the mathematics of flat space in the Euclidian geometry -- an ‘absolute stage’ upon which Newtonian gravity and physics stands, can be incomplete because one has not discovered all its necessary axioms. In other words, no matter how many

physico-mathematical issues theoretical physicists solve, there always will be other issues that cannot be solved by any known laws of physics; and since these laws constitute a finite set of rules, and are based on mathematics, Gödel's theorem restricts them. Even in computer science one cannot create a complete and consistent finite list of axioms, or an infinite list. Each time one adds a statement as an axiom; there are other correct statements that cannot be proved, even with the new axiom. Moreover, if the system can prove that it is consistent, it is not. As might have been expected, this idea has been much debated by mathematical philosophers:

v How can a theory be both correct and unprovable? v Is mathematics a loop of our mind? v Is the mind a self referential loop? Gödel's first incompleteness theorem shows that any system that allows one to define the natural numbers is necessarily incomplete: it contains statements that are neither provable correct, nor provably false. Some scholars therefore argue that this refutes the logicism of Gottlob Frege and Bertrand Russell, who had aimed to reduce/define the natural numbers in terms of logic.

Not all axiom systems satisfy these hypotheses, even when these systems have models that include natural numbers as a subset. For example, there are axiomatizations of ‘flat’ space that do not meet the hypotheses of Gödel's theorems.

Another limitation applies only to systems that are used as their own proof systems. Gödel's theorem has another interpretation in the language of computer science. Theorems are computably enumerable: one can write a computer program that will eventually generate any valid proof. One can then ask if it has the stronger property of being recursive: v Can one write a computer program to definitively determine

if a statement is true or false? Gödel's theorem says that you cannot. His theorems, however, are confined to sufficiently strong axiomatic systems, i.e., that a theory contains enough arithmetic to carry out the proof of the incompleteness theorem. Some scholars claim that Gödel's incompleteness theorems have provided a deadly blow to David Hilbert’s program towards a universal mathematical formalism. Nevertheless, the essence of these issues is much more complicated, as indicated below.

Undecidable Statements: A statement is neither provable nor refutable. Hence, some scholars resort to the concept "independent". However, that concept is also ambiguous.

Meta-Language: A sufficiently developed language cannot represent its own semantics. Any meta-language includes primitive notions, axioms, and rules absent from an object language. Theorems provable in a meta-language are not provable in the object language.

“Truth”: Some of the aforementioned theorems may presuppose that mathematical "truth" and "falsehood" are well-defined in an absolute sense, rather than relative. If an axiomatic system can be proven to be consistent and complete from within itself, then it is inconsistent.

Minds and Machines: Gödel's incompleteness theorems may also reflect on human intelligence. While Gödel's theorems cannot be applied to humans, since they make mistakes and are, therefore, inconsistent, it may be applied to the domain of science.

Sets of expressions are considered as coded as sets of numbers. For various syntactic properties (such as a formula, a sentence, etc.), these sets are computable. And any computable set of numbers can be defined by some arithmetic formula. There are various additional theorems and sub-theorems 34-49. I do not intend to expand on them in these pages, for these pages are mainly written for the general reader, without resorting to any mathematics.

We therefore move next to elaborate on some more practical domains in the mined fields of verifiable scientific theories and proofs.

“Pure Mathematics” is human attempt to stay aloof and beyond emotions, traditions and ambitions. It may protect one from making mistakes, prior to and aft writing down any mathematical equation.

ow mathematics -- combined with verifiable observations -- help protect the

human mind from falling into unverifiable traditional dictums of ‘intuitively’ generating mistakes? This may be best demonstrated by the most dramatic event in the history of science; when Einstein lost trust in the most verified gravity field equations of general relativity3.3, the most accepted theory of the universe, which harbors no mistake. To correct sociallly accused ‘mistake’, he had to force on this universal reality an empty, ‘correction factor’, wrongly termed a

"cosmological constant". Luckily his tensorial gravity field equations were flawless, despite the fact that a cult has evolved to demand adding this factor to fit its ulterior needs to operate under some set of philosophical prejudices. Most important, the failure to acknowledge this is not only self-delusion, but a failure to attend to the philosophical base of physics, a failure that leads to

Empty

Scientism..

Space-Time v. Symmetry-Asymmetry T

he essence and fundamental meaning of curved space-time, symmetry-

asymmetry, statistics and probabilities are understood only by a portion of scientists. A much smaller portion, or, in fact, a splendid minority, maintains that probabilities, statistics and quantum postulates provide them with no ‘free will’. [Volume I].

Differential Equations vs. Observations T

time-symmetry, reversibility and the symmetrical laws of physics serve us as

key tools to better understand nature, despite the limitations mentioned above. And it is only by combining (conceptual, reversible, analytic) time-symmetry with (factual, aggregated, observational) time-asymmetry, or by combining reversible equations with a priori known, factual, initial and boundary conditions, that one may, mathematically, arrive at a reliable world outlook in agreement with observations/experimentations. While symbols and analytical concepts may be symmetric, words and sentences (in order, syntax, phoneme, form, sound modulation or other modes), or ‘useful’ physico-mathematical equations, are basically asymmetric. Mathematics, gravitation, symmetry-asymmetry, aggregation, time and meaningful sentences are coupled. While some minor reservations are justifiable, there is an overwhelming "word of evidence", derived from physics, the languages and the

studies of linguistics, cybernetics, information and mathematics that fortifies this contention.

A theory

may be a “set of statements”, some of which are taken as

valid without proof (axioms), and others, the theorems, are taken as valid because they are implied by the axioms. A complete and consistent set of axioms for all mathematics is impossible. "Provable by a theory" means "derivable from the axioms and primitive notions of the theory, using logic.”

The Popperian Falsification Principle Sir Karl Popper, has introduced the Falsification Principle about the ability of mankind to establish what is science and what is non-science, in addition to what might be ‘true’ within the domain of a given theory, or a set of ‘facts’, axioms or definitions. [Lecture 4]

Applied mathematics

often

used

unverifiable covers to advance subjectivistic claims, ‘proofs’ and ‘theories’. Lectures 3 and 4, and this one, illustrate how -- by a priori selecting only the timeasymmetric mathematics, or time-asymmetric mathematical solution that fits with their desired ‘proof’ – scientists easily fool themselves, and others. Applied mathematics is the key tool of the ‘exact sciences’. It constitutes a special kind of 'intelligent thinking’ that is integrated with its ‘universal grammar' -- a sort

of critical thinking which has been partially developed to safeguard our minds from prejudices and inconsistencies. Yet, consistency, by itself, is a two-sided issue.

‘Pure mathematics’

is often developed for its own

sake, without a priori harboring intentional applications, although they may be ‘un-covered’

According to Einstein, when we predict the behavior of a specific or confined set of natural phenomena, we usually mean that we have found a ‘constructive theory’ covering this set.

When we find that other sets of phenomena are incompatible with that theory, we tend to either generalize or modify it, or failing that, seek an alternative one.

To this ‘constructive’ category Einstein opposes the socalled “theories of principles” (exemplified, according to Einstein, by thermodynamics and the general theory of relativity), whose point of departure and foundation are not hypothetical constituent, but empirically observed general properties from which mathematical formulae are deduced so as to apply to every case of observation which presents itself.

Thus, according to Einstein, the merit of “constructive theories” lies in their comprehensiveness, adaptability, and clarity for a given set of phenomena, while that of the “theories of principles” -- in their logical ‘perfection’ and universality and in the vast observational spectrum of their formulation at any scale and time. Yet, Einstein did not trust some semi-hidden aspects of his own general theory of relativity2.5. Two such events are described next: The failure of statistical mechanics (both classical and quantum) to deduce and explain the origin of irreversibility, time-asymmetries, cosmic and local structuring, generation of order and what is called “entropy growth” -- as well as its philosophical and applicative limitations and lack of large-scale universality -- has been explained in footnotes 2.5, 3.4 and 3.5 as well as in Volume I. (See Table of Contents,). Einstein had not suspected that his general theory of relativity already

incorporates

another

‘theory

principle’:

Thermodynamics, especially the so-called Second Law of

Thermodynamic. Namely, the foundations of thermodynamics should NOT be a separate, stand-alone, theory of science; it should NOT be fragmented from the rest of physics. It constitutes an integral part of gravity-induced, interconnected, unified physico-philosophical knowledge.

L 3 ecture

TERMINOLGY 3.1 Electromagnetic-Weak Force incorporates (at high energies) the long-range electromagnetic field-force-interactions (see below), with the Weak Force, which is a short-range force-field that is behind some radioactive decay processes. The electromagnetic force is at the base of chemistry, biology, medical sciences, communication, electronics, electron-microscopy, telescopes, astronomy, etc. It binds atoms together to form molecules, including bio-molecules like DNA,. It is about hundred times weaker than the strong force.3.2 Field-Force-Interactions are postulated to emit and absorb massless, point-like, field particles like photons of light and other field particles3.2 . Gluons are postulated to mediate the strong force3.2; while specific bosons ‘mediate’ the weak force. [Gravitons have been proposed by some theorists to ‘mediate’ the gravitational force-field3..3.] Sheldon Glashow (b. 1931), Abdus Salam (1926-1996) and Steven Weinberg (b.1933) won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1979 for developing the electroweak theory that

unifies the electromagnetic and week interactions. Inter alia it predicted the existence of the W and Z BOSONS at very high energies: About 82 Gev/c2 for W [verified later at 80.4 Gev/c2 ] and about 93 Gev/c2 for Z [verified later at 91.2 Gev/c2 ]. According to their theory both interactions have about the same strength at very high energies. The combination of the electroweak theory with Quantum Chromodyamics [QCD] for the strong interactions is termed THE STANDARD MODEL, which, however, does not include the gravitational field-Force3.3 and it has not explained, say, why the point-like photon has no mass, while the W and Z bosons do. The origin of the masses of W and Z has been treated by Higgs Boson, which, has been verified experimentally. [added]

3.2 The Strong Force is an attractive force between sub-atomic nucleons. It is a very short-range force-field-interaction. Its magnitude is negligible in ranges greater than about 10-15 meter. (about the size of the atomic nucleus). It increases with separation distance and is ‘mediated’ by massless field-particles called Gluons.

Gluons ‘mediate’ the strong force that binds/confines quarks (see below) inside protons and neutrons. I.e., each quark in a proton or neutron is continuously emitting and absorbing gluons. The energy of a gluon can generate quark-anti-quark pairs, like the creation of electron-positron pairs. When a quark emits or absorbs a gluon, the quark’s color charge (see below) may change.

Hadrons are sub-atomic entities that are not massless field particles like the photon and the gluon. These are sub-atomic particles that interact through the strong force. A hadron is a complex particle that has size and structure. It is a composite system of sub-atomic particles. Hadrons are, therefore, ‘non-elementary-particles’. They are composed of Fermions (Quarks) [see below] and antiquarks.

Hadrons are of two types: Baryons [Fermions], that have masses equal to or larger than that of the proton, and Mesons [Bosons] [having 0 or 1 spin]. They interact via all forces. Hadrons have quantum numbers: Spin, parity and mass. In addition they

carry “flavor” quantum numbers such as isospin (or G-parity) and a ‘property’ called strangeness. Hadrons are single excitations in Quantum Electro Dynamics (QCD), which predicts that quarks and gluons interact weakly. This ‘property’, which is called ‘asymptotic freedom’ has been experimentally confirmed at large energy levels between a GeV and a TeV.

Leptons have no inner structure, or size; namely, they are point-like field-particles of quantum physics; a lacuna that some hope to be resolved by string theories4.6-4.11 All leptons have spin ½ and do not interact through the strong force. The following types are considered in quantum physics: Electrons, muons, taus and three types of neutrinos.

Messons are the Kaon, Pion, Eta; Baryons are the Proton, Neutron, Omega, Lambda, Sigma, Delta Xi. The kaon, lambda and sigma particles exhibit unusual ‘properties’, e.g. are produced in pairs when created or decayed very slowly, hence are called ‘strange particles’.

The Quark Model. Strong interaction that binds subatomic particles together is described by QCD. Quark gluons are gauge bosons of QCD. According to it quarks have a ‘property’ called color charge and the force between quarks is the strong force or the color charge, which may be due to gluon exchanges between hadrons.

Quarks are dividable into six flavors: up, down, strange, charm, bottom and top, and their antiquarks. Quarks harbor fractional electric charge and are NOT found free in nature. The up, charmed, and top quarks have electric charges of +2/3 that of the proton. The down, strange and bottom quarks have charges of –1/3 that of the proton. Protons consist of 2 up and 1 down quarks, whereas neutrons consist of 2 down and 1 up quarks. Quarks are also identified by three ‘colors’: red, green, and blue. The masses of the heavy charm and bottom quarks are obtained from the masses of hadrons containing a single heavy quark and 1 light antiquark, or 2 light quarks. Particles with the same color charge repel, while the ones with opposite color charge attract. A collection of, say, red, blue and green quarks attract each other to form

baryons. Every baryon contains three quarks. A residual force between them is the force that binds protons and neutrons to form the atomic nuclei.

3.3 The Gravitational Field-Force [Gravity in short] reigns superb in cosmology, astronomy, astrophysics and all macro systems. It controls the structuring and thermodynamics of galaxies, stars, supernova explosions4.1, planets, moons black holes4.3 and quasars4.14. It is expressed by the deterministic13.1, Einsteinian, tensorial, field equations, known also as Gravity Physics, or General Relativity.

General relativity is the best verified theory of gravitation in modern physics. Its gravity-induced phenomena in the entire cosmos, at any time and place, as well as in everyday life on earth, serve as the basis of the Central Theme and World Outlook that is gradually presented in Volumes I, II and, in short, here.

Gravity penetrates everything. It is produced by any aggregated massenergy, which, in turn, curves space-time4.3; 4.13; 4.14. i.e.,gravity bends the path of light and of other entities3.1 so that the greater the mass-energy, the greater is the degree of bending. This bending is the manifestation of curved space-time.

General Relativity is based on the principle of equivalence between gravity and acceleration, and on the axiom that all laws of nature are exactly the same for any observer. The laws of nature must therefore be expressed as tensors [to be defined later] and remain invariant for, say, observers at rest, rotating, accelerating and standing on a small or a massive star. The greater the mass of a star, the greater is the curvature of space-time. Therefore, magnifying gravitational lens are used in modern astronomy when the incoming radiation to the telescope has, on its way to earth, passed through a collection [cluster) of massive galaxies and/or stars. Such gravitational lens have been recently used to

observe the “dark age” in astronomy, namely, when the age of the universe was about 300,000 to 500,000 sun-earth years; an important age during which the universe had become transparent for the first time, and gravity-induced structures had first been seeded. (I.e., when proto-galaxies and very large hydrogen-helium gas masses have first started to condense into very large stars.).

Time as treated by general relativistic cosmology, is slowed down by large galaxies and massive stars. This time effect is in addition to the time effects treated by special relativity.

Special relativity rules superb in probabilisic quantum physics. The theory is limited, however, to non-accelarating, non-gravitating systems. Unlike quantum physics, both special and general relativity are strictly deterministic.

Newtonian gravity is included in general relativity as an approximation in relatively weak gravitational fields, like that on earth. Newtonian gravity rules superb in controlling tides, geological strata, generation of mountains, valleys, rivers, lakes, ponds, oceans, city and village structures, transportation systems, the solar system, and many human concepts. It also explains how gravity controls the solar system3.1 and the structure of planets, moons and smaller objects. While most writers, mentors, teachers and professors stress the low strength of gravity on earth (in comparison with that of the strong force3.2), it is much stronger in massive stars4.1, in black holes2.3, and in some galactic centers4.5. In such massive systems the gravitational force overcomes the strong force3.2 by crushing all atomic and sub-atomic structures4.1; 4.2.

General Relativistic Cosmology explains why the expansion of the universe4.4 is restricted to inter-cluster space-1 and why the observed universe is finite, expanding and boundless, as, say, in curved, 2-space dimensions and one time dimension of the surface of an inflating-expanding balloon (see Analogy I below), whose surface size is finite but boundless, i.e., its surface harbors no edge in curved

two-dimensional space. It also explains the cooling of the remnant cosmic black body radiation2.12 that it contains.

Analogy I: Imagine ‘a two-dimensional, educated creature’ capable of living only on the 2-dimensional surface of an inflating-expanding balloon on whose expanding surface super-clusters of galaxies are marked as small, localized, closed shapes. The sole conclusion of that educated creature: All super-clusters of galaxies are receding away “from me”, no matter where I stand. For that creature, the balloon-universe has no edge. It is finite in surface area, but boundless. And it is not expanding "into" any extant space outside the balloon. For this educated creature the surface of the balloon is the whole universe, and nothing more. His universe therefore admits infinite paths of light in all directions. In our familiar three-dimensional universe there is also no space into which the universe is expanding. Other motions, rotations and changes in which we participate are briefed in footnote 3.2

Analogy II: The Raisin Bread Analogy. Imagine each super-cluster of galaxies as a raisin. The raisins are spread evenly throughout a raisin bread dough that expands when heated in the oven. As the bread expands “an educated observer” located on each raisin sees all other raisins moving away from “his” raisin while his raisin remains at the same place and size. In a simplified analogy to the observed universe, one may urther imagine that the bread has no edge, like in the balloon analogy, and is finite in total “size”; a size that is increasing with the age of the universe (the expanding Space-1). There is no clock other than that increase in size. Our sun-earth time is therefore totally irrelevant and misleading prior to the formation of the solar system. To replace it I use Table I.

Analogy III: The Home Bath. Imagine that your bath-tub is made from a highly elastic rubber and that it is constantly being inflated and increasing its volume. (In analogy to the expanding SPACE-1, [Fig. 1]). Imagine further that your bath-tub expands faster than it is filled up with hot water. (In analogy to expanding SPACE-1, which is expanding at a faster rate than it is filled up with radiation energy streaming out of shining stars and galaxies like the one shown on the right.). Now, if you had started inflating your bath-tub from a high hot water-level mark – in analogy

to the hot initial state of SPACE-1 -- that water level would go down with the expansioninflation. Under such conditions your bath-tub cannot be filled-up. (Space-1 temperature, or radiation energy density [Diagram], cannot but decrease, as is the temperature of the cosmic black-body radiation2.12). This expanding bath-tub represents the dark-cold night sky that you can observe by stepping out of your home at a non-cloudy night. Since SPACE-1 is UNSATURABLE to streaming-in radiation, no inflowing mass-energy from nearby and far away clusters or super-clusters of galaxies can fill-it-up, as far as it keeps expanding fast enough, and so it does, as proved by the 2.7 deg. K of the background black-body radiation4.12 and the dark-cold night sky. It also causes electromagnetic irreversibility and the electromagnetic arrow of time. [Volume I] In case the inflation-expansion of your bath-tub stops, the water level (the temperature of the background black-body radiation4.12) would start rising and the bath will be filled up (the night sky would become hotter and hotter until, eventually, it can reach the maximum fusion temperature2.2 of the interiors of stellar objects like the sun, or the galactic system4.5

VOIDS/Space-1-Expansion was first discovered by Hubble in the 1920’s and has since been re-affirmed by the 1964 black body radiation discovery4.12, by observations made by the Hubble Space Telescope, as well as by independent methods described in details by VOLUME I. Mathematical derivations of both special and general relativity are provided in Volume I, which also describes key measurement methods of astronomical distances as used in modern astronomy, namely, how the detection of radiation that had emitted from past/far-away objects is used to establish distances to such objects.

3.4 Asymmytery-Symmetery. Fundamentally, all ‘exact’ sciences can be reduced to Physics and all physics to basic forces “of nature”: The electroweak3.1, the strong3.2 and the gravitational3.3. In turn, these are expressed in terms of the mathematics of curved space-time in which there is no distinction between any

direction (a plus or minus coordinate) in space and in time, namely, all basic equations of physics (except one, see below) are strictly symmetric in time and space (space-time) coordinates. (Volume I and string theories4.6 – 4.11) To rise to the status of a reliable theory in science, any must be compared with observations. Nevertheless, in the actual (macro) world, there is a clash between the aforementioned symmetry and the time asymmetries of nature, since all processes are asymmetric in time, irreversible and pointing (an imaginary) ‘arrow’ from past to future, and never in reverse.

The ‘Arrow of Time’ is a fundamental expression of the second law of thermodynamics. Hence, the three symmetric fundamental forces, and the entire world that is constructed on ‘top’ of them, are always subject to thermodynamics when a comparison with fact is needed in the macro world. Moreover, thermodynamics is not confined to physics. It is a key fundamental tool (‘theory’ according to some) in engineering, cosmology, geology, ecology, linguistics, physiology, brain-mind perception, aesthetics, economics, population, etc. Therefore, in the ‘exact’ sciences, the 2nd law constitutes a-stand-apart ‘fact-of-nature’ that controls all physical manifestations (observations) of the first and third fundamental forces, and some key concepts of all three forces (symmetry-asymmetry, symmetry-breaking, supersymmetry4.6-4.11; 3.2). There

are

different

time

asymmetries:

The

cosmological,

thermodynamic,

electromagnetic, linguistic and other gravity-induced asymmetries (arrows of time). Despite many claims for success, none has yet succeeded to prove the origin of irreversibility in nature – of time asymmetry -- from the symmetric mathematical equations of statistics, probabilities, where prediction

and

from

symmetric

partial

retrodiction is symmetric to differential

equations,

say

electromagnetism3.1 (see also Reference to Einstain-Ritz controversy [1]) and their integro-differential equations only in the positive time direction, namely,

using

INITIAL

CONDITIONS

and

priori

rejecting

FINAL

CONDITIONS (ending ‘up’ with retarded solutions in electromagnetism, which agree with observations of emitter vs. absorber), while rejecting, or intentionally avoiding, the ADVANCED SOLUTIONS (which do not agree with observations). This a priori mental act, wish or will is what I call SMUGGLING THE RESULTS THAT THE SCIENTIST WANTS WHILE NOT THE DECLARING THE CONTRABAND. In Volume 1 (and earlier publications) I had replaced these smuggling acts with space-1-expansion as the origin and cause of irreversibility and time asymmetries in nature, while basing (unifiying) this origin and all irreversible processes in nature, on general relativistic cosmology, which, in turn, is based on general relativity, which, in turn, accepts no static cosmological solution (a symmetric fundamental force-field interaction that contains time asymmetry when applied to cosmology, namely the proper home (mother) for thermodynamics) Our CENTRAL THEME is therefore THERMODYNAMICS, TIME

ASYMMETRIES and IRREVERSIBILITY ARE BASED ON SYMMTERIC GENERAL RELATIVITY AND ARE THUS UNIFIED WITH THE REST OF PHYSICS. Moreover,

CLASSICAL,

STATISTICAL

and

PROBABILISTIC

THERMODYNAMICS (and Information theories that are based on them) are history. No attempt to rescue the falling status of the aforementioned failed ‘proofs’ has succeeded in the last 30 years or so, including at least one that has been awarded the Nobel Prize for a false ‘proof’. The main reason for these failures is outside physics. It may be rooted in the will to prove prior to writing the first key mathematical

equation. In fact, using endless ‘procedures’ that are so selected by those who wish to prove what they want have all failed irrversibly.

L 4 ecture

Can The Foundations of Science Be Deductable From General Relativistic Cosmology? It is my belief that philosophy must return to cosmology, and to a simple theory of knowledge. There is at least one philosophical problem in which all thinking men are interested: The problem of understanding the world in which we live; and thus ourselves (who are part of the world) and our knowledge of it. All science is cosmology, I believe, and for me the interest of philosophy, no less than of science, lies solely in its bold attempt to add to our knowledge of the world, and to the theory of our knowledge of the world.

Sir Karl R. Popper All reality is one in substance, One in cause, One in origin

Attributed to Giordano Bruno The hypotheses with which (a development in modern science) starts, becomes steadily more abstract and remote from experience. On the other hand it gets nearer to the grand aim of all science, which is to cover the greatest possible number of empirical facts by logical deduction from the smallest possible number of hypotheses or axioms. Meanwhile, the train of thought leading from the axioms to the empirical facts of verifiable consequences gets steadily longer and more subtle.

Albert Einstein

Verifiable knowledge grows with historical time, as is illustrated by our widespread success in applying it in practice. The greatest advances in human endeavors are made when specialists maintain a fresh dialogue with each other; when our potential for multi-disciplinary thinking is a multi-dimensional intersection of free traffic in the ever-refreshable search for new outlooks.

4.1

Assertion 4.1 No belief, or a ‘well-established’ theory, is too sacred, to prevent reevaluation of its soundness on any scale of observation. A serious scientific attitude premises willingness to admit new hypotheses, even those that seem to contradict intuitive, traditional, religious, popular or anthropocentric theories.

Astronomy, astrophysics and cosmology -- unlike local physics,

chemistry and the life sciences, are observational rather than experimental sciences, since they deal with objects at such enormous distances as to be beyond the reach of direct, man-made experimentation. Moreover, until now these observations have been too scarce, and the ratio of speculation to fact too high, for cosmology to qualify as a "hard science." Discoveries in astronomy, especially by advanced uses of distant supernovea4.1-4.2 to verify the accelerated expanding universe4.4 and gravitational lens 4.4, have transformed the situation by yielding solid new data and drastically circumscribing both speculations and physicophilosophical outlooks in science and theology.

Moreover, the discoveries of new distant supernovea4.1, active galaxies, binary X-ray sources, slight variations in the uniformity of the cosmic background black-body radiation4.12, neutron stars, pulsars, quasi-radio sources and the possibility of black holes4.3 in the centers of some galaxies4.5 -- have stimulated greater than ever interest in astrophysics, general relativity, relativistic cosmology, remote planetary systems, the formation of stars, supernovae, galaxies, clusters and super-clusters of galaxies.

The Hubble Space Telescope (left) helps prove that SPACE-1 expansioncooling is not just a prediction of Einsteinian gravity theory. It is the well-verified, central fact of our life, and, therefore, the Central Theme presented here. Was it not expanding and cooling, no galaxies and stars can shine. Without it we would not had come into beings. Part of this transformation is due to the NASA Hubble Space Telescope (picture), new infrared, radio and X-ray techniques and other active telescopes, including the study the ‘dark-age’ epoch of the cosmos when it was just a 300,000 to 500,000 years old.4.4

Indeed, of late, we have witnessed a new revival of astronomy, general relativistic cosmology and astrophysics, a renaissance sustained by an almost daily inflow of verified empirical information on the dynamic universe around us.

To deny today the central role of astronomy and cosmology in re-assessing the very foundations of modern science is to deny the very methodology of science, and to reject a large portion of its empirical evidence. There is something provisional about all scientific theories. They must be re-confirmed by fresh information from any sub-field of science, hence, are subject to constant revision and even replacement; -- in this, each succeeding generation takes a measurable step beyond the position of its predecessors. Every item of carefully recorded experimental and observational information is a proper object for analysis. A drive towards novelty and discovery impels inquiry to explore all corners of the universe. Moreover, the whole structure of interconnected and fundamental knowledge is not dissociated

from

detailed

inquiries

astronomy,

astrophysics,

biophysics, biology, archeology, brain-mind perception and psychology. Closely related to the unrestricted content of modern science is its unrestricted questioning of all earlier convictions. Geocentric, or rather anthropocentric conceptions are as common today as they had been in the times of Copernicus (who dethroned “The Earth” and paid for that with his life), Shapley (who dethroned “The Sun” and survived), and Baada (who dethroned our “Milky Way” galaxy, but hardly anyone cared anymore for galaxies are “too-far-away-from-us” to affect us here on earth). And such distances and deep-rooted attitudes make deepspace cosmology, astronomy and astrophysics difficult intellectual subjects not only to religiously-inclined people, but to mature and even leading scientists.

(above) a gigantic explosion of a massive star (supernova4.1) that throws into Space 2 or 3 (Diagram) the chemical elements generated inside the star (left) during fusion4.2. These debris are the building blocks of life.

4.1

Supernova is one outcome of a collapse-implosion of a massive star at

the end of its fusion process4.2. That collapse-implosion leads to the formation of a neutron star, a black hole4.4; 4.14 or a gigantic supernova explosion. (The explosion follows a bouncing back of the implosion of a massive star after it has consumed all its ‘hydrogen-helium fuel’ during nuclear fusion4.2.) All active (shining) stars generate the heavier chemical elements at the very high temperature-pressures that gravity generates in their interiors. But the massive stars (see below) arrive to that ‘End-of-life stage’ earlier than smaller ones do. But that ‘End-of-life stage’ may be the ‘Beginning-of-life-stage’ when the supernova debris (ashes) form orbiting planets around stars, as is the case with the solar system5.1.

Massive stars, due to their much-higher, gravity-induced, inner-core pressures-temperatures, are much faster to exhaust their available ‘hydrogen-helium fuel’ (nuclear fusion4.2) in comparison with smaller stars, like the sun. The higher pressures-temperatures cause faster releases of fusion energy in the interiors of these stars.) When much iron is formed in the interiors of stars (generation of iron reverses exothermic energy generation into an endothermic one) the massive ones end their life via a collapse-implosion that leads to a neutron star, or a black hole4.3, or a supernova explosion.

Supernova explosion throws into Spaces 3 or 2 (Figs. 1 to 3) their interiors in the form of glowing debris and gases that are much more brighter than any other star in their home galaxy. Hence they may also serve in astronomy as ‘distance candles’ to mark-calibrate distances to far-away galaxies via the luminosity (brightness) method discussed in Volume I. Supernova unusual bright glow has been detected and studied since 1054, starting from the Crab Nebula. At its center there is a neutron star spewing energy and elementary particles into SPACE-2 [Diagram]. 4.2

Nuclear Fusion is one of the most important process in all active stars4.1.

According to both Einsteinian and Newtonian physics3..3, the bigger the mass of a star, the higher are its inner pressures and temperatures and faster are the nuclear fusion processes in its interior4.1. Fusion process transforms hydrogen plasma into ‘heavier elements’ like carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, phosphore, iron, etc. [Data in Volume I]. Hence, the sun, and all active stars, generate in their interiors almost all the heavier elements in nature, beyond hydrogen and helium. All active stars produce energy through such nuclear fusion. Fusion is also the cause of hydrogen-bomb explosion, (not fission as in atomic reactors and ‘regular’ atomic weapons). On both fusion and fission scientists know much. When much iron is formed in the interiors of active stars4.1, endothermic reaction replaces the exothermic reaction (the exothermic reaction generates energy in the stars, while the endothermic one consumes it.)

Three options are possible at this stage in massive stars: Cooling-Collapse of the entire star structure into a neutron star, or a black hole4.3, or a supernova explosion.4.1

4.3

Black holes are believed (not yet direct proof) to be concentrated gravity

fields, which are so strong that nothing, not even light, can escape them. General relativistic cosmology3.3 predicts them as localized, one-way sinks in space-time. Some are associated with what is observed and term quasars4.14. Within a black hole all atomic and sub-atomic structures had already been crushed to become nothing but geometrical curved space-time caused by extremely strong gravitational fields3.3. The cause of that total ‘break down’ of all structure is the extremely strong gravitational field in massive stars4.1; 4.2. The result is that even electromagnetic radiation (e.g., light) cannot escape its extremely strong-concentrated attractive gravity force. Black hole is a region in expanding [inter-cluster] Space-1 (Figs. 1 to 3), or in nonexpanding [interstellar] Spaces 3 and 2 (Figs. 1 to 3). Its outer boundary is called the event horizon [Volume I]. Black holes, as their massive dead parents2.1, are only possible to exist by gravity and the expansion of unsaturable inter-cluster Space-1 (Fig. 1). They act as additional unsaturable sinks to that caused by the expansion of Space-"1". Like stars and galaxies, black holes cannot be formed without Space-1-expansion.4.4 Astrophysicists expect to find black holes ranging between roughly the mass of a few suns to ten billion times greater. Such super-massive ones are exist in the center of extremely bright galaxies, including the ‘Milky Way’.4.5

Quasars/Black-Holes. See Quasars4.14. 4.4

Expansion of the Universe. Interpretations of a few different

theoretical models of relativistic models of the universe vs. the well-verified fact that Space-1 expands have confusted many, including some reputed scientists. There are a few reasons for this confusion. One has been illustrated in the opening Diagram via

the different dynamics and roles of Spaces 1, 2 and 3. The secondtype of confusion is briefly treated next.

Hubble’s astronomical obsrevations in the 20’s were the first to reveal the expansion of Space-1. What Hubble has observationally proved beyond any doubt, is that all clusters, or super-clusters of galaxies, are moving away from each other with speeds that are proportional to their distance from earth.(Diagram). Further observations, including the 1964 discovery of the microwave black body radiation4.12, have also directly proved that the expansion of Space 1 is the same in all directions (isotropic) and is also homogeneous.

Later discoveries of isotropic distribution across the sky of distant gamma-ray bursts and of supernovae4.1 have provided additional evidence. It is, therefore, only in some theoretical interpretations of different general relativistic cosmological models that some issues cause confusion. All such interpretations are based on Einstein’s general relativity field equations3.3, on whose validity and universality practically all scientists currently agree.

Einstein’s general relativity is expressed in terms of the (local) meteric tensor [Volume I]. Distances deduced theoretically can thus be determined locally between two infinitisimally close points in curved space-time3.3. It is therefore an unresolved problem to determine, in theory, within the framework of which model, how to evaluate a distance between two distant points in each model. Namely, for debating the validity of each model, one must specify the space-time-curvature -- the curve-path-of-light that connects two such cosmic-apart points. Unfortunately, for the theoretician who wishes to gain support for his own specific model, that determination depends on HIS OWN selected model. In the Comoving Distance Model, for instance, comoving distances cannot be fixed at all. In practice, the distance of distant objects are measured by their luminosity -- which is reduced by the square power of the distance to the radiation emiiter (Volume I) – and by the redshifts of their incoming electromagnetic radiation.

4.5

Galactic Centers. The center of our galaxy is called Sagittarius A. It

is a very compact source of radio waves that originate from gas and dust heated to millions of degrees K as they are postulated to “fall” into the galactic center, which is further postulated to contain a super-massive black hole4..3. Galactic centers of other galaxies, may also contain such a supermassive black hole, which may contain a huge amount of matter [mass] in the range of hundreds of thousands to tens of billions of the mass of the entire solar system. 4.6

String Theories. Current experimental techniques in science cannot

provide direct verification below about 10-19 meter, which is more than 15 orders of magnitude above any direct verification scale of string theories, or of any theory. Moreover, all string theories4.6 - 4.11 have failed to converge into a single acceptable formulation, and no string theory version has made any prediction that differs from those made by other theories. Whatever the future holds for string theories, they have become an active branch of theoretical physics, that, in part, had originated from Einstein’s search for a unified field theory of gravity3.3 and quantum physics.3.2 The first to add a fifth spatial dimension to Einstein's general relativity were

Theodor Kaluza (in 1919) and Oskar Klein (in 1926). These attempts attracted Einstein’s attention in his attempts to develop a unified field theory. But Einstein died prior to being successful in this domain. The current proponents of string theories claim, inter alia, that on very small subatomic scales, all fundamental field-forces 3.1-3..3 consist of vibrating strings or membranes of energy. See below. The spectrum, or zoo, of subatomic particles3.2 then emerges (mathematically) as small vibrating strings that by altering their mode of vibration transform, say, an electron into a neutrino, a quark, or other particles3.2, while causing space-time to curve around these entities so as to give rise to Einsteinian relativistic gravity3..3.

Despite three decades of intensive attempts to provide experimental proof of string theories, as conducted by armies of physicists, there is not a single, direct verification test that the theory is correct. And none is expected.

While the various equations of string theories have survived mathematical challenges, each solution represents an entire set of unverifiable predictions; a mysticism of scientists, which, when combined with the fundamental issue of a priori smuggling into these theories what is to be proved, makes them what they are. Einstein’s antiprobabilistic views remain un-falsified. Similarly, the much acclaimed “Theory of Everything” is misleading.

Some of the string theories proponents claim that prior to Genesis a pre-Genesis world contraction had turned into a black hole4.3, 4.14 that, at the moment of Genesis, had created many WHITE HOLES, namely, our observable universe is just one of them – indeed a mystic science but a beautiful mathematical music to the brain-mind. 4.7

Hidden variables are postulated in string theories as extra [beyond 3

space and one time dimensions] 6, 7 or higher spatial dimensions. Postulated by David Bohm, these ideas are now driving string theories. They, inter alia, by-pass the embarrassing point-like feathers of ‘particles’ in quantum theories3.2. Such variables also allow theorists to get closer to Einstein’s dream of a deterministic world outlook of general relativity3.3 that is unified with quantum physics 3.2; 13.1. Investigating how a string theory may include fermions led to the concept of supersymmetry4.11, a mathematical collection of ideas relating bosons and fermions3.2 (every particle has superpartner that is not observable. Superpartners are called squarks, selectrons and gluinos. 4.8

M-Theory is one group of string theories that postulates ‘Landscapes-

Inside-landscapes’ in 10, 11 or 26 space dimensions so as to harbor a large number of hidden variables4.7, different vacua and endless other universes4.6; 4.10. The theoretical limit of the M-theory infers that protons, electrons, neutrons and their antimatter counterparts, may be converted to photons and then converted to other particles, i.e.,

to particles such as protons that may be changed to other particles, such as electrons. It is not yet a fully understood theory. (Other footnotes4.6-4.7; 4.9-4.11 apply.)

D-Branes are membranes of different spatial dimensionality. The

4.9

membranes are postulated to be gravitational sources, so that one may end-up with a modified gravitational theory within the framework of string and quantum theories13.1. They may emit and absorb closed strings and are postulated to emit gravitons3.3 and also to emit charge3.2 since they emit closed strings, which are gauge bosons3.2. The pre-supposed (hidden variables tiny entities are postulated to contract to minimize their potential energy. But conservation of energy prevents them from disappearing. Instead they are postulated to oscillate-vibrate. By pre-assuming the reality of vibrating strings, one may deduce different vibrational modes that are further postulated to represent different sub-atomic particles. Such postulated strings may split and combine, which may resemble particles emitting and absorbing other particles, as in quantum interactions between sub-atomic particles3.2. Quantum strings are also postulated to harbor tension, like regular strings of a violin; a tension that is related to their size and shape. A closed loop string, left to move without external forces, will contract into a smaller loop. But it is further postulated that it would not shrink to a zero-sized point.

Open Strings have two distinct end-points, while closed strings are joined to make a complete loop. The two types may allow speculations about two different spectra of ‘elementary-particle’. For example, one of the closed string modes is the graviton, and in the open string mode it is a photon3.1 4.10

‘Landscapes-Inside-landscapes’, (worlds-inside-worlds) in 10,

11 or 26 space dimensions are postulated in string theories4.6-4.11 to harbor a large number of hidden variables, different vacua and endless other universes. theories are also being postulated to be the theoretical limit of the M-theory

4.11

4.8

Such

RECAP: Symmetry-Asymmetry: All laws of physics,

except those of thermodynamics, are space and time symmetric, namely, there is no

distinction between any direction in space and in time. However, the 2nd law of thermodynamics, in its fundamental form, states that in using the time coordinate one can only proceed from past to future and never in reverse. Accordingly, some theorists claim, in contradiction with thermodynamics, that if the universe is eternal into the future, it must be eternal into the past. Hence, they claim, prior to creation [the “big-bang”] there was a symmetrical world contraction into an all-containing black hole4.3; 4.14.

As the density “had” increased during that pre-creation contraction4.6, gigantic black holes had been formed, and, at the instant of maximum contraction, they all switched to expnasion, the interior of one of them has become “our universe”.

Such claims encounter endless debates. Yet, their proponents hope that upcoming observations by the Planck Sattelite and the ground-based LIGO and VIRGO observatories, may reveal slight variations in gravitational radiation that might be detected by their effect on the polarization of the cosmic black body radiation4.12; perhaps a supportive evidence.

4.12

Cosmic Black-Body Radiation. is one of the direct proofs that

Space-1 has expanded during 13.7 billion sun-earth years (less the 6 ‘Days’ of Table I). It is isotropic [the same in all directions]. Yet, slight variations in it are being measured to increase our knowledge on the beginning of gravity-induced structures during the 7th Day. This is the 1964-discovered, remnant left-over radiation glow that has expanded with Space-1 and cooled down from the end of ‘Day-6’ at about 4,0003,000 K.

4.13

Clusters & Super-Clusters of Galaxies

Our local group cluster of galaxies (nominally containing 30 galaxies5.5) may be counted as a ‘member’ of the Virgo, Hercules and Coma super-cluster.

The shapes of gravitationally-bounded super-clusters of galaxies vary considerably; from that of Virgo, Hercules and Coma to long filaments. (Schematically shown in Fig. 1 only as Clusters I and II). 4.14

Quasars are assumed to be supermassive forms of black holes . 4.3

Hundreds of them were recently detected by two telescopes that are used to discover such Quasars/black holes: NASA's Spitzer space telescope, which measures infrared light, and Chandra, which measures the X-ray emissions. Thet were detected in young (far-away) galaxies, and may be surrounded by relatively high-density of gas and dust, which emit X-rays as they are sucked-accelerated into a one-way sink of a massive black hole. Quasars and black holes form local sinks, in addition to the universal-uniform sink generated by Space-1-expansion [Figs. 1 to 3]. X-rays, are detectable even when the quasars themselves cannot be seen.

9 to 10

Billion Years Ago when the age of the universe was between 2.5 to 4.5 billion years, many "supermassive" black holes had been formed inside large galaxies in the far reaches of the universe, i.e., during their initial stages. 4.15

Adiabatic wall is a physical or imaginary surface that is a barrier to any

or to a net energy flow. Such a surface may be a solid insulating wall, or an imaginary surface through which no NET energy flows. Here I employ the non-physical surface when considering ‘No net flow across a given geometrical boundary’. Energy still flows through this surface in opposing directions but the values of these opposing flows are equal.

Lecture 5 Star-in-a-Cage v. Super-Galaxy-in-a-Cage The telescope at one end of his beat, And at the other end the microscope, Two instruments of equal hope … Robert Frost If you can look into the seeds of time, And say which grain will grow and which will not, Speak then to me … William Shakespeare

The ‘Solar Wind’5.3 is the most important agent between us and deep space. Yet, its dynamics and thermodynamics are not easy to grasp, as

Unlike the planets, the sun generates its own energy by atomic fusion and, 4.2

thereby, emits the so-generated energy as the ‘solar wind’5.3. This ‘wind’ spreads in all directions and, as we shall see below, is eventually, dissipated in Space-1. (Figs. 1 to 3) On its way to Space-1, this ‘wind’ engulfs earth and the other solar planets. Its incoming radiation, however, is not dissipated in the earth atmoshepre, as many

wrongly assume, but is partially reflected immediately by our upper atmosphere to outer cold-dark space. The rest of of the ‘solar wind’ enters our atmosphere, and following complicated thermal-ecological-hydrological cycles is also dissipated irreversibly in the ‘nearby’ outer cold-dark space, but, eventually, in Space-1. (it also includes a small extra outgoing energy: a small amount of radioactive radiation from the earth’s interior). The ‘solar wind’ proceeds from Spaces 3 and 2 to SPACE 1 for a reason; -- the unsatuarable, limitless, universal sink for all the radiation pouring into it from all stellar and galactic sources. (Diagram) Conclusion: The ‘solar wind’, as well as ‘similar winds’ from other, nearby stars, first spread in SPACE 3, forming there glowing or non-glowing boundaries that encage each star. Energy can flow in opposite directions through any of these inter-stellar, shock-wave-based boundaries, but the direction of each net energy flow depends on the location of the star inside the its galactic structure vis-à-vis the closest direction to the lowest energy level in Space-1. (Diagram). A net flow of energy is then established between the shining sources and Space1; It is mainly driven by radiationenergy-gradients in Spaces 3 and 2; gradients that drive energy from active shing sources to the lowest energy density of expanding Space 1. (Figs. 1 to 3). Each

galaxy,

super-cluster

Assertion 5.1 It is always gravity and Space-1 expansion that control the selection and orientation of structures; from stellar and galactic structures, to the generation of all chemistry and biology building blocks through succession of massadditions in pre-supernova explosions4.1 where the heavier elements; oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, silicon, etc. are generated from simple ones: Hydrogen and helium, like that in the sun5.1. Then in controlling geological strata and phenomena, the development of skeletons, the digestive system, etc. and, eventually, of key, gravity-induced human concepts.

galaxies, is therefore encaged by a boundary, or galactic-cluster-in-adiabaticenvelope.4.14 That (invisible) boundary is not spherical, or of any standard shape. It assumes the shape (frequently as long filaments) of the shapes of super-cluster of galaxies that it encages adiabatically.4.14 But unlike a star-in-a-cage, and due to the almost complete isotropy of Space-1 expansion (as evidenced, say, by the cosmic black-body radiation2.12), these intercluster boundaries allow only equal amounts of energies to flow in opposite directions from one cage to another, (adiabatic boundaries4.14), thereby generating billions of isotropic, adiabatic, galactic-cluster-in-adiabatic-envelope throughout the universe. Thermodynamically and fundamentally, each one of such cages represents the entire universe, namely, we do not need to study all these cages. By studying just a single one of these billions of adiabatic cages4.14, we completely understand what are the processes throughout all of them; -- throughout the entire isotropic universe. Hypothetically, if Space-1 (Fig. 1) stops expanding tomorrow, then, beyond some time, its temperature would rise, eventually reaching that of the sun’s interior. The same would happen with other energy-matter sources in our Milkyway galaxy5.4, in its center5.5, and in ALL super-cluster of galaxies. When such ‘stop-expansion thought experiment’ functions for a long time, the sun and all other shining sources would stop to emit their fusion-based4.2 energy. Life on earth would then come to an end. All irreversible processes in the entire universe would stop. ‘Thermal Equilibrium’ would then rule over the entire universe. But much earlier, when the solar wind rate of dissipation in Spaces 3, 2 and 1 begins to slow down, the temperature of the earth’s atmosphere would rise a thousand degree and we all would be roasted to death. This Space-1 expansion is, therefore, at the very foundation of our astrophysical thermodynamics, and at the base of our general-relativistic, cosmological World Outlook. Unlike short-range, quantum-based world outlook1.2 to which the majority of scientists subscribe, gravity-based physics is scale-free1.3 The gravitational field penetrates all

physical and biological structures. It affects all cells in our body-brain, as well as all microorganisms and human, animal and plant activities in everyday life. Moreover, the origin of life, orientation of plants and animals and many key human concepts are gravity induced. Indeed, gravity controls all ecological systems and constitutes the origin of growth, “natural selection’, “natural orientation”, diversity and performance of the living organisms.

5.1

Where We Came From ?

All of us are ashes of dead stars, the remnants of a

DEAD MOTHER

supernova2.1 that had exploded billions of years ago and its debris and gases were scattered in Space-3 (Figs. 1 to 3) and were later captured by the sun to form the Solar System 3.1. The key point is that the universe has already passed more than half of its present age: 13.7 billions years, when the solar system was created. That creation was not of any special importance in the universe as a whole. There was yet neither life here, nor mortals that believe and act as if they are the center of the universe.

Assertion 5.2 Gravity is the only 'suitable' force that can build all the elements in the periodic table and in our body, by successively adding (fusion xxx), in the interiors of active stars, small increments of mass and electric charge in selected combinations that are controlled by its force (pressure-Temperature in the ineterior of the star). Thus, the building blocks of life had been originated by gravity, and the entire evolution of life has since been SELECTED by it.

Except hydrogen and helium, all the chemical elements in our body had been originated inside pre-supernova star interiors4.1.

The massive stars sin was to convert their light chemical elements to heavier ones much faster than do smaller stars, like our sun.

Following gravity-induced collapse of a massive star (supernova4.1), the newly formed chemical elements were spread as hot debris and cooled by Spaces-1,2 and 3 integrated effects. The first local "aggregates" of matter in the solar system3.1 had already contained atoms and simple molecules. Again it was gravity that stratified these compounds in ‘horizontal’ layers according to their “specific gravity”. Indeed, the geological strata of layers of rocks composed of one material, e.g., shale or limestone, lying between rock beds of other materials are generated by the

"selective force of gravity”. The scientific concept “Natural selection” should be replaced by our Gravity SelectionOrientation

concept,

Gravity-Diversification.

(“

Natural

selection” implies that there is a being that “selects”, an anthropomorphic concept that is outside the domain of science. We are not at the center of the universe, for there is no such center and we are not that important. Nor has life been feasible during most of the structuring-expansion of the universe. That first epoch included neither humans nor their faith concerning their central role in the world. To know wherefrom we had come one must look not only deeper into space, but into the earliest world history, namely, before the solar system had come into being, starting from the invariant, remnant ratio of neutrons to protons in the entire universe.

5.1

The solar system extends far beyond the farthest planets, asteroids,

comets, rocks and dust in ‘our’ galaxy5.4. It is located inside non-expanding Space 3 (Figs. 1 to 3), which engulfs our galaxy. Its glowing boundary in deep space is where the solar wind5.3 clashes with other winds emerging from nearby stars. That clashing surface is where the solar wind forms a gigantic shock wave that is the glowing boundary of the solar system called the heliosphere. The solar system is composed of our sun with its orbiting planets, moons, asteroids, comets, rocks and dust, all bounded together by the COMBINED attractive gravitational field of the sun, ‘our’ galaxy5.4, ‘our’ local group of galaxies5.5 ‘our’ super-cluster of galaxies AND that of the gravitational field of all the masses in the rest of the universe.

The Sun, like all active stars in the universe, is a self-gravitating massive sphere of sub-atomic particles in a state of very hot plasma that is pressed-heated by the attractive force gravity. It accounts for about 99% of the solar system total mass. Its diameter is about 1.392 million km and is slightly larger than of an average star in ‘our’ Milky Way galaxy5.4. About 74% of the sun’s mass is hydrogen, with about 25% helium. The rest is composed of heavier elements generated by its gravity-induced thermo-nuclear reactions (fusion)4.2. Earth may not be the sole habitatable planet in the universe accessible to our (‘relatively close-range’) observations: So far more than two hundred planets have been discovered orbiting other stars in the ‘nearby community’, with at least one harboring liquid water. 5.2

Net motion in space of earth is about 400 km/sec. The direction of

the earth’s net motion lies in the same plane as its orbit around the sun and at angle of 61degrees tilted upward [northward] from the plane of the disk-like Milkyway.5.4 The earth travels around the sun at about 30 km/sec. These speeds should not be confused with the recession speed of super-cluster galaxies away from each other, i.e., R(t) [Diagram]

increases with time. Combining all these velocities, our galaxy5.4 is deviating from the cosmological uniform expansion motion by about 600 km/sec. 5.3

The Solar Wind is the most important agent between us and deep space.

Unlike the planets, the sun generates its own energy by atomic fusion4.2 and, thereby, emits the so-generated energy as the ‘solar wind’. This ‘wind’ spreads in all directions and is eventually, dissipated irreversibly in Space-1. (Figs. 1 to 3) On its way to Space-1, this ‘wind’ engulfs earth and the other solar planets. Its net incoming radiation, however, is not irreversibly dissipated in the earth atmoshepre, as many wrongly assume, but is partially reflected immediately by our upper atmosphere to outer, cold, dark Space-1 (Figs. 1 to 3). The rest of of the ‘solar wind’ enters our atmosphere, and following complicated thermal, ecological and hydrological cycles, is also dissipated irreversibly dissipated in outer colddark space, namely, in Space-1. (it also includes a small extra outgoing energy: A small amount of radioactive radiation from the earth’s interior). The ‘solar wind’ proceeds from Spaces 3 and 2 to SPACE 1 for a reason; -- the unsaturable, limitless, universal sink for all the radiation pouring into it from all stellar and galactic sources. The ‘solar wind’, as well as similar ‘winds’ from other, nearby stars, also spreads in SPACE 3, forming (visible or non-visible) boundaries that encage each star. Energy still flows in opposite directions through any of these inter-stellar, shock-wavebased boundaries, but the direction of each net energy flow depends on the location of the star inside the its galactic structure vis-à-vis the closest distance to the lowest energy level in Space-1. (Fig. 1). Consequently, a net flow of energy is then established between stars and Space-1; It is driven by inter-stellar Spaces 3 and 2 gradients that lead energy to the lowest energy density of expanding Space 1. (Fig.1).

Each cluster of galaxies, like our local group5.5, or super-cluster of galaxies, is, therefore, encaged by such a boundary, or

galactic cluster-in-adiabatic-envelope. Yet, it is

fundamentally different in comparison with the ‘star-in-a-cage’. Unlike a star-in-a-cage, and due to the almost complete isotropy of Space-1 expansion (as evidenced, say, by the cosmic black-body radiation4.12), such inter-cluster boundaries allow only equal amounts of energies to flow in opposite directions from one cage to another, (adiabatic boundaries4.14), thereby generating many (galactic) cluster-in-adiabatic-envelope cages throughout the universe. Each such cage then represents the entire universe, namely, by studying its dynamics and thermodynamics we understand what are the processes throughout the isotropic universe. Hypothetically, if Space-1 stops expanding tomorrow, then, beyond some time, its temperature would rise, eventually reaching that of the sun’s interior. The same would happen with other energy-matter sources in our Milkyway galaxy5.4, in its center4.5, and in ALL super-cluster of galaxies3.5. When such ‘stop-expansion thought experiment’ functions for a long time, the sun and all other shining sources would stop to emit their fusion-based4.2 energy. Life on earth would then come to an end. All irreversible processes in the entire universe would stop. ‘Thermal Equilibrium’ would then rule over the entire universe. But much earlier, when the ‘solar wind’ rate of dissipation in Spaces 3, 2 and 1 begins to slow down, the temperature of the earth’s atmosphere would rise a thousand degree and we all would be roasted to death. This Space-1 expansion is, therfore, at the very foundation of our astrophysical thermodynamics, and at the base of our general-relativistic, cosmological World Outlook. 5.4

Milky-Way is the name of our galaxy. It contains billions of star-bodies like the

sun, all bounded together through gravity. Most stars are formed in the dilute regions of the rotating inter-stellar SPACE-3 [Fig. 3]. Our galaxy is almost 100,000 light-years5.6 in diameter at its disk-like, longest spiral arms. It is in the form of an almost flat spiral disk like the one shown in the opening page. Its average thickness is about 1,000 light-years. It is a member of our local group5.5 and of our super-cluster of galaxies (Virgo)5.5.

5.5

Local Group of Galaxies. The local group nominally includes 30

gravitationally-bounded galaxies, the largest of which are Andromeda and our galaxy 5.4. It is about 10,000,000 light-years5..6 in diameter, about 100 times the size of our galaxy. The local group of galaxies is a ‘member’ of the Virgo Super-cluster of galaxies, which includes M31, M49, M58, M59, M60, M61, M84, M86, M87 and M89. Andromeda (M31), the closest large galaxy, is characterized by a similar spiral structure and diameter as the Milky-Way5.4. It is located about 2,200,000 light-years5.6 away from us. X-ray studies reveal the presence of large amounts of intra-galactic gas. This gas may emit X-rays and other types of radiation3.1. The shapes of super-clusters of galaxies vary considerably; from that of our local group to long filaments. (Schematically shown in the Diagram only as Clusters I and II) Space-1 is the vast space between clusters and super-clusters of galaxies. It does not include the galaxies themselves 5.6

Light-Year is the distance an electromegnetic wave, like light

(photons), travels in ‘empty’ space during one year. Since the speed of light in ‘empty’ space is 300,000 km/sec, we multiply it by 60 seconds per minute, 60 minutes per hour, 24 hours per day and 365 days per year. The result is 9,461,000,000,000 km (9.41x1012km). Examples: The diameter of our galaxy, the Milyway5.4, at its longest spiral-like disk, is about 100,000 light-years. 5.7

Distances to our neighbors in the local group5.5 may be referred to by

using Milky-Way diameters. Local group distances are ranging from about 1.6 to 17 MilkyWay diameters. Distances to far-away astronomical objects are measured by various methods that are explained in Volume

WARNING Against Fooling Yourself and Others by

Nobel Laureate Feynman

“The first principle is that you must not fool yourself – and you are the easiest person to fool. So you have to be very careful about that. After you’ve not fooled yourself, it’s easy not to fool other scientists. You just have to be honest in a conventional way.”

“ ou should not fool the layman when you’re talking as a scientist."

Figure 2: All dark, cold, expanding VOIDS located between all super-clusters of galaxies, some marked in pink, encounter fast, incoming inter-galactic/interstellar [Fig. 4] radiation jets. An

Figure 2: The biggest portrait of the visible universe [NASA, etc.] records dark, cold, expanding VOIDS, a few marked in pink, located between all super-clusters Matter

Figure 1: FACTUAL PROOF that dark-energy claims are WRONG. Taken from the book COSMOLOGY, PHYSICS and PHILOSOPHY (Volume I) Springer Verlag, 1981, 1983, 1987. [Published Reviews on Volume I are reproduced at this Booklet End].Volume I also proves that claiming that Einstein's Gravity Field Equations of General Relativity are WRONG, that his "reality" should include a "cosmological constant" that supports their claim that the

universe

filled

with

mysterious DARK MATTER and ENERGY are a hoax or Chimera.

arked in Fig. 1 is EXPANDING, UNSATURATED,

SPACE "1". It represents typical

cosmic voids located between all super-clusters of galaxies. Figs. 2 & 3. Each void encounters fast incoming "RADIATION FLOWS/JETS" [Fig. 2], which clash about midway inside it. By rocket-type reaction law of physics, the jets entering from all directions [Figs. 2 and 3], push back the "walls" of non-expanding, super-clusters of galaxies around them, causing acceleration of the left-over EINSTEIN-HUBBLE expansion inertia. Wrongly the detected acceleration is claimed as caused by mysterious dark energy that "fills the universe", thus 'requires' correcting a mistake in Einstein Field Equations.

Fig. 2: Matter inside these billions of galaxies does not expand. Expanding are only the voids between all super-clusters of galaxies shown. The voids are interconnected as SPACE "1". [Fig. 1]. Einstein's General Relativity [his Gravity Physics], contains no mistake as claimed by armies of false scientists that demand change of his well-proven field equations, a change by adding an artificial, "cosmological constant", which, as proved below, is nothing but a "social-religious constant" added at WW-II-end, and then removed as by Einstein as his biggest "blunder".

Each dark, cold void encounters entering intergalactic/interstellar-jets. . [Fig. 3] . These are flowing in from all directions [yellow arrows].

By two laws of physics

these cause (a)

rocket-type push-back of the "walls" of all super-cluster of galaxies, thus, adding acceleration to (b) left-over EINSTEIN-HUBBLE expansion inertia of the entire universe (left-over from the "Big-Bang").

Said acceleration was detected about 18 years ago. False scientists had started then to claim that said detected acceleration is caused by mysterious dark matter-energy that fills the entire universe and associated,

and, therefore, 'requires' correcting Einstein Field Equations. No detection of the claimed mysterious dark energy-matter is ever expected, yet the media and the public are treated as this is a well-accepted fact, which is, in fact,

nothing but CHIMERA.

Figure 3: SPACE-"2"

wraps all non-expanding galaxies [Fig. 1] and all non-expanding SPACE-"3" where super-fast, interstellar winds, flow out to SPACE-"2" and next, irreversibly dissipate in cold expanding SPACE-"1", composed of cold, dark, expanding VOIDS located between all Super-Clusters of galaxies. [Figures 1 to 2]. All images from author's books & Wikipedia.

Hawking Fooling Festival with the Media at the Cost of Honesty Hawking in particular is dishonestly pushing the image of science far into mysticism and a misleading populism that exploit the layperson ignorance of what verifiable science is based on and what is chimera or lying.

Armies of theoretical physicists now support and even exploit such abuses of verifiable science. Without their support the media editors would have failed to make an icon out of this false prophet; may at least resort to the audacity of truth: The entire Hawking festival does not even rise to the level of being wrong in the domain of verifiable science. [1] __________ [41

The journal Nature was among the first to publish a review on my Volume I, Cosmology,

Physics and Philosophy, Springer Verlag 1981, 1983, 1987, which contains strong criticism of his theories as lacking verification and some are not his but of J. D. Beckenstein. That review was written by Hawking, who hinted there that instead of my not-easy-to-understand book [incorporating, inter alia, hundreds of general relativity and classical physics mathematical equations he would write a popular one with jokes for the masses, which he next did, while

adopting much of the book’s general approach and omitting all mathematical equations, but adding mysticism and personal opinions. Some key Hawking's claims were first ridiculed by professor Yuval Neeman, Department of Physics, Tel-Aviv University, Israel. Published on Nov. 12, 2010 by “NOT EVEN WRONG” website maintained by P. Woit, following the publication of his famous book “Not Even Wrong: The failure of string theory”. New York: Basic Books (2006).