FREE ACADEMIC LECTURES by Prof.-Dr. Benjamin Gal-Or

Cosmology, Physics and Philosophy Benjamin Gal-Or, Vol. 4 Free, Core Curriculum Course (CCC), 2008 This is a great book, and an exciting book; readable, worth reading and enlightening. Sir Karl Popper

We are all Gal-Orians. Foundations of Physics (Editor) A Master Piece. Any good library must have a copy of this Classical work. The well-known author bases his philosophy on a very sound knowledge of present-day scientific theories. Indian Journal of Physics This is one of the most beautiful books that I have read. Outstanding Books List Recommended by Encyclopedia Britannica, Nature, Philosophy of Tour de force. A magnificent and sustained piece of work ! Sir A. Cottrell, Cambridge University Chancellor Appeals to scientists of all disciplines who are prepared to open their minds. Shines a welcome light in some dark corners of science. Sir Karl Popper, in a Foreword, correctly describes it “a great book”. New Scientist Evokes a person heart! Has generated a large number of responses from around the world, some declaring that it has turned them into “Gal-Orians”. Since the thought presented by this book is so rich, translators of our country should recommend this book with all their intellectual power. Chinese Academy of Sciences

Gal-Or’s “beauty” has always been the object of science, which, he lyrically observes as “a most fundamental aesthetic frame of mind, a longing for the run-away horizons of truth and symmetry that we always try to reach.” M. Wickman, Order Amidst Chaos: Enlightenment Aesthetics after Post-Modernity I do not know a better modern expression of science, philosophy and classical humanism than that of Gal-Or’s book. Hah-Arretz Daily The works of scientists like Gal-Or, Bohm, and (Noble Prize-Winner) Prigogine provide important resources. Prigogine's formalisms do not really tell us how irreversible change emerges from reversible [mathematics]. (in this Gal-Or is superior). Gal-Or assigns priority instead to general relativity and to gravity which drives the emergence of chemistry, life, and intelligence. Philosophy of Science, Foundations of Social Progress CONTINUES ON PAGE 29

One must always look beyond earth, the 5.1 5.4 solar system , our galaxy and our local 5.5 group of galaxies , while comprehending 4.4 about the dark-cold, expanding Space-1 between galaxies (Diagram below; Fig. 1.2) and assessing its effects on everyday 1.1 life , and its origin. That “Kingdom of Darkness” [‘voids’ in FIG. next page] illuminates some dark corners of science and is more important and interesting than all the shining sources combined.

1.2,

Our universe contains billions of gravitystructured galaxies (upper picture), each (e.g., on the right), containing billions of gravity-structured stars. Only Space 1 expands (Diagram & Figs. 1.1; 1.2 below). Without its expansion no process in the cosmos, including life, is possible (Parts A to D ). Gravity and Space-1-Expansion generate all chemistry and control all evolution, written languages, key sociobiological concepts, natural selection, much of everyday life, time, biological time, plant and animal behavior, brain-mind perceptions, orientation and key concepts in the ‘exact sciences’ and the ‘humanities’. [Chapters 1 to 8] Non-expanding Space 3 wraps our galaxy

Space 1

Space 2

wraps clusters

DIAGRAM: Space-1-Expansion is the UNSATURABLE SINK for all energy pouring into it from all shining sources. This universal sink is composed of adiabatic 4.15 4.13; 5.5 envelopes (a), (b), (c) that wrap all superclusters of galaxies [Fig. 1.2 below]. 4.12 3.4 Gravity and Space-1-Expansion generate all structures , time-asymmetries , written languages and brain-mind perceptions (Parts A to D). This worldwide acclaimed outlook opens new intellectual horizons by crossing frozen disciplines and re-assessing afresh key concepts in the ‘exact sciences’ and the ‘humanities’.

Fig. 1.1: Space-1 Genesis. Expansion of the previously opaque universe (Chapter 1) forms expanding colder [Blue] ‘voids’ [SPACE-1] and hotter matter emitters of radiation [in Spaces 3 & 2], since it had been formed below 3000K (starting at around 3.2 300,000 years post genesis). Photons, neutrinos and anti-neutrinos then escaped from the newly-formed aggregations of [plasma] nuclei, and were irreversibly absorbed in the newly-formed, unsaturable sink: SPACE-1 [Fig. 1.2 below]. About 2 billion years post genesis, these gravity-induced, proto-massive-entities were already condensed and 4.2 heated for nuclear fusion to start. This NASA picture shows that, on a large scale, the universe was isotropic and homogeneous in terms of distribution of cold ‘voids’, 4.1 hot matter-structures-emitters and their maximum temperatures . There had been 4.15 in Space 1. [Cf. Fig. 1.2] no net energy flow across adiabatic envelopes

Fig. 1.2: The largest portrait of the universe. [NASA]. Expanding Space-1 ‘voids’ between shining filaments or clouds of superclusters of galaxies has increased in size. [Cf. Fig, 1.1]. The voids are interconnected inside Space-1. Uniform maximum temperatures, isotropic and homogenous distribution of voids vis-à-vis galaxies (on large scales) are preserved (Cf. Fig. 1.1). There is no net flow of energy from one 4.15 to another. These twisted geometric ‘envelopes’ wrap all adiabatic ‘envelope’ superclusters. Studying one such ‘envelope’ is similar to the more difficult study of the whole universe. As a student, in 1958, I discovered the origin of irreversibility & 3.4 time-asymmetries by examining just one such envelope (Appendix IV).

The telescope at one end of his beat, And at the other end the microscope, Two instruments of equal hope â&#x20AC;Ś

Robert Frost If you can look into the seeds of time, And say which grain will grow and which will not, Speak then to me â&#x20AC;Ś

William Shakespeare Faust: 'Tis writ: 'in the beginning was the Word!' I pause, to wonder what is here inferred? The Word I cannot set supremely high, A new translation I will try. I read, if by the spirit I am taught, This sense: 'In the beginning was the Thought'. This opening I need to weigh again, Or sense may suffer from a hasty pen. Does Thought create, and work, and rule the hour? 'Twere best: 'In the beginning was the Power!' Yet, while the pen is urged with willing fingers, A sense of doubt and hesitancy lingers. The spirit come to guide me in my need, I write, 'In the beginning was the Deed!'

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe Faust I. Transl. Philip Wayne (Penguin Classics, London)

SYNOPSIS I ________________________________________

More than ever before the recent discoveries in astronomy and space research have forced us to re-assess many of our fundamental concepts in most branches of science and philosophy. Nevertheless, the Einsteinian relativistic gravity3.3 and quantum physics3.2 remain two different physico-philosophical world outlooks that are in constant conflict with each other3.5. The fundamental dispute splits physics into two unbridgeable systems of thought, each involving far-reaching implications in general science, philosophy and education.

The key disputes are between Einsteinian gravity physics3.3, 3.5 and quantum physics3.2; 3.5. These may be referred to as Type I Disputes. Type II disputes, especially in regard to string theories4.6 to 4.11, the ‘cosmological constant’2.5;4.16, ‘dark matter’4.17, ‘pre-creation universes’ and the origin of irreversibility and time asymmetries in nature3.4, are mainly between theorists that work within the domains of quantum physics and string theories. The new factual discoveries in physics and astronomy have not resolved any of Type I or Type II disputes. On the other hand, recent astronomical discoveries have generated a revolution in our understanding of some of the most critical roles gravity has played from the early cosmos to the origin of life, language and brain-mind perception of the world. [Chapters 2 to 8] The new discoveries have triggered a fresh world outlook that illuminates some dark corners of science and causes us to re-assess almost everything that we have so far taken for granted, including the apparent conflict between Genesis via Astrophysics, astronomy and modern physics, and Genesis via the Bible. [Assertion S.1]

Assertion S.1 To co-exist, the cosmological Genesis via science, and Genesis via the Bible, may be taught from early to academic education, sideby-side, under the same roof, without diffusing into each other. [Chapter 1] This conclusion emerges from the philosophy of Plato [Chapter 7] and the unconventional cosmological outlook presented in Volume I and in this book. However, the central theme of this outlook is not easy to grasp by non-physicists and astronomers. This book attempts to simplify its understanding without resorting to a single mathematical equation, or complicated physical terms.

In fact, the new discoveries in the remote external world, including those made in bio-satellites and the Hubble Space Telescope, have generated a revolution in our understanding of our external vis-à-vis internal world; a scientific revolution without parallel in the whole recorded history of mankind; a fresh look at nature, which opens up new horizons and generates new needs to reexamine all previous 5

cosmological, biological, behavioral and philosophical convictions. [Assertions S.2 and S.3] At the very core of this ‘external-to-internal’ revolution, we find gravity physics, gravity-biology, gravity-perception, gravity-induced languages, gravity-induced socio-biology, geo-biological clocks and the essence of natural selection in the living and non-living worlds. [Chapters 2 to 8] While Einstein's general relativity3.3, 3.5 remains the cornerstone of modern cosmology and astrophysics; the indispensable theory for understanding most of the new discoveries in astronomy, it is Newtonian gravity (that is included as an approximation in General relativity) that affects much of our everyday life. [Volume I]

Expanding Space-1 [Diagram, opening pages] is composed of expanding ‘voids’ [Fig. 1.2] and adiabatic envelopes4.15 that are interconnected. Chapters 1 to 7 explain and illustrate how all time asymmetries3.4 and irreversibilities in nature are originated and caused by Space-1-Expansion, as the universal, unsaturable sink.

Gravity, combined with updated observations in all fields of science, will guide us in structuring this book; starting from the very large cosmological structures and proceeding to the much smaller subatomic systems in which quantum physics still fails to explain the origin of time asymmetries and irreversibility in nature.

Chapters 6 and 7 explain and illustrate how gravity-induced forces-fields3.3 and Space-1Expansion4.4 affect the origin, growth and behavior of plants, animals and humans. This revolutionary world outlook views afresh the World History since Genesis and other key human concepts1.1. [Chapter I and Appendix VI].

Assertion S.2

This world outlook not only helps unifying physics [Assertion S.3], but extends much beyond it, into the domains of the ‘humanities’.

Can The Foundations of Science Be Deduced From Relativistic Cosmology? Although some of the greatest scientists (from Newton to Einstein) studied cosmology and made substantial contributions to it - until recently it had a rejecting speculative image. Indeed, most scientists used to reject its importance, using such arguments as: Why should we rely on anything based on information that had originated in remote, personally inaccessible regions of space and time? Should not we first complete our local physics before we use strange astronomical data to reexamine the very foundations of science?

To begin with it should be stressed that such geocentric, or rather anthropocentric conceptions, are as common today as they had been in the times of Copernicus (who had dethroned the Earth and paid with his life for that), Shapley (who dethroned the Sun, but was not killed), and Baada (who dethroned our Milky Way, and nobody cared anymore). And they make cosmology and astrophysics difficult intellectual subjects, even to intellectually-mature persons.

Assertion S.3 All attempts to unify the fundamental forces-fieldsinteractions in physics3.1, .3.2, 3.3, 3.4 have, so far, failed3.5, 4.6 to 4.11. The key reason: Unifying attempts have focused on unifying fieldsforces-interactions by resorting to symmetric or asymmetric mathematics3.5, instead of first unifying time symmetries with time asymmetries3.4 based on verified facts. [Footnotes 3.4, 3.5, 4.6 to 4.11, 4.15 and Volume I].

Indeed, astronomy, Part B extends my unification efforts astrophysics and cosmology - beyond physics, as presented in the rest of this book. unlike local physics, chemistry, and biology, are observational rather than experimental sciences, since they deal with objects at such great distances as to be beyond the reach of direct, manmade experimentation. 7

Moreover, until recently these observations have been too scarce, and the ratio of speculation to fact too high, for cosmology, astronomy and astrophysics to qualify as "hard sciences." The recent discoveries in space, however, have transformed the situation by yielding solid new data and drastically circumscribing both speculations and physicophilosophical outlooks and models. This transformation is due largely to NASAâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Hubble Space Telescope, new infrared, radio and X-ray techniques, including the use of gravitational lens to study the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;dark-ageâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; epoch of our cosmos when it was 200,000 to 500,000 years old. The new discoveries of supernovae4.1, quasars4.14 and black holes4.3 in the centers of galaxies4.5, and before, in 1964, the background blackbody radiation4.12, gravitational lens, etc., have stimulated new interest in astrophysics, general relativity, relativistic cosmology, remote planetary systems, the formation of stars, galaxies, clusters and superclusters of galaxies4.13 and Fig. 1.2. Indeed, of late, we have witnessed a new revival of astronomy, general relativistic cosmology and astrophysics, a renaissance sustained by an almost daily inflow of verified empirical information on the dynamic universe around us. To deny today the central role of astronomy, cosmology and astrophysics in modern science is to deny the very methodology of science, and to reject a large portion of its empirical evidence. Most important, gravitation3.3 is the most universal, all embracing, field-force-interaction in nature. Unlike quantum physics 3.2, it is scalefree, namely, it is not confined, or limited to any scale, as quantum physics is3.5. Gravitational Socio-Biology and Brain-Mind Perception Gravity penetrates all space and all physical and biological structures, and affects all cells in our body-brain, as well as plant, animal and human growth, orientation and behavior in everyday life. [Assertion S.1 and Parts A and B of this book] Gravity strongly affects and controls all ecological systems, while also affecting the origin, growth and performance of any living organism. 8

In a sense, as we shall see in the main text, we are the ashes of dead stars, the remnants of a supernovae4.1 that had exploded when the universe has already passed more than half of its present age. Except hydrogen and helium, all chemical elements in the cosmos, and in our body, had been originated inside massive exploding stars called supernovae. The massive stars sin was to convert their light chemical elements, namely, hydrogen and helium, by nuclear fusion4.2, to heavier ones [oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, etc.], more quickly than do smaller stars, like our sun. It is always gravitation that plays the central role in the "selection" of the structures to be produced: First in controlling the cosmic expansion of inter-clusters Space-1 [Diagram opening pages], then in forcing chemical evolution through a succession of specific reactions in which evolution means the development of complex elements from simple ones, i.e., of oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, silicon, etc. out of the hydrogen and helium in the stars4.1. [Hydrogen and helium make up about 99% of all observable matter in the universe.] Here gravitation was the only 'suitable' force that could build all the elements in the periodic table by successively adding, in the interiors of active stars, small increments of mass and electric charge in selected combinations that are controlled by the force of gravity4.2. Thus, the building blocks of life had been originated by gravitation, and the entire evolution of life has since been controlled by it. Following such cosmological expansion and massive stars explosions, the newly formed chemical elements cool and sometimes combine to form molecules in deep space, which is not entirely ‘empty’. In fact, the first local "aggregates" of matter in the solar system already contained atoms and simple molecules, including some based on carbon. Again it was gravity that stratified these compounds in ‘horizontal’ layers according to their specific gravity. Indeed, the geological strata of layers of rocks composed of one material, e.g., shale or limestone, lying between rock beds of other materials were thus obtained by the "selective force of gravity.

Gravity-Induced Biochemistry in Our Body Life is strongly affected and shaped by gravity [Parts A and B of this book]. All its atomic-molecular origins, building blocks and ‘upper’ structures have been the result of time asymmetries induced and controlled by gravity. Even in biological cells some specific organelles and nuclei are "heavier" than the rest of the cell, and serve as prime gravity-orientators. Such gravity orientators-pointers also allow plants to grow "vertically upward". Thus, gravity controls the direction of growth in roots, leaves, branches, etc. It also affects the movement of all animals (in the sense of giving a common reference for orientation, 'balancing', ‘coordination’ 'walking', and space perception. (See also vertigo in the main text.) The response of living organisms to gravity may be initiated by changes in the distribution of pressure on sensitive locations, exerted either by the entire cell content, or by particles (statoliths) heavier or lighter than the surrounding cytoplasm. Gravity perception may also be caused by movements, or reorientation of such particles. Acceleration, by gravity, causes stresses to be set-up in cell membranes or in the organ as a whole, which, in turn, generates a response vis-à-vis the gravity vector. The Origin of Life and of Primitive Learning Since all plants and animals evolved under the influence of gravity, their form as well as their structural development have been strongly shaped by this pointed force. In turn, they have "learned" to exploit it and even to cope with it - learned in the evolutionary as well as in the ontogenetic sense of the development of the individual organism. The sensing devices which plants and animals use for "gravity ("gravity receptors", "g-perception", "bioperception" accelerometers", "gravity-induced biological clocks", etc.) are not yet well understood, even though a voluminous literature has been published on this subject. But what we already know justifies the central role we expect gravity to play in life origin, control, orientation and adaptive processes. 10

For instance, we know that if a growing higher plant is displaced with respect to the "upright" position, some tens of minutes later it will adapt its growth in such a way as to restore its original orientation in coincidence with the gravity. (If it is displaced only briefly and then restored to its original orientation well before the growth response can set in, it still responds to that displacement.) Indirect, gravity-induced orientation-adaptation of an organism may also occur when an organism orients itself by a gradient of density differences or hydrostatic pressure. The connection between gravitation and the origin of life, on the one hand, and between gravitation and form, adaptive structure, growth rate, growth direction, adaptive behavior, navigation, and adaptive space perception, on the other, must therefore be studied. Indeed, a considerable empirical evidence has been accumulated so far on these subjects by biophysicists, biologists, plant physiologists, botanists, zoologists, neuro-physiologists, etc. The Origin of Life, Biological Clocks and Innate Perception The origin of temporal behavior in animals can be traced back in time and out to external physical influences. Even â&#x20AC;&#x153;innate patterns" are frequently associated with simple orientation movement in the field of gravity, i.e., as "up-ward downward" writing of the biological system in reaction to gravity. Thus, gravity and geophysical periodicities emerge as prime sources of ordering, reproduction and simple orientation movements. Animals low on the evolutionary scale have a lesser adaptability to changes in the environment. Consequently, their dependence on heredity-geophysical-gravitational origins is high in proportion to animals high on the evolutionary scale. Arrows of Time It takes us some measurable time 'to read' a word, a sentence, a page, or a book, and even more so to 'comprehend' its meaning. I term this elapsing time, and its pointed direction, the 'Linguistic Arrow of Time' and maintain further that each word and each sentence, generates an irreversible 'Structural Space-Time Arrow' in our mind and/or a 11

'Space-Aggregated-Asymmetric-Picture' which points from the writtentyped, form-configuration, or 'beginning', to their 'end' at the ‘right’ for Greek, Latin and English, etc., at the’ left’ for Hebrew and Arabic and ‘down’ for Chinese. Each letter-symbol, each word and each sentence is, therefore, an aggregated, configuration-boundary, gravity-oriented asymmetry on a page-space or on a computer display. Each generates an aggregated, configuration-boundary, gravity-oriented asymmetry in our brain-mind where it had been irreversibly recorded and associated with a verifiable meaning introduced by the force of social education of a group, tribe, nation, religion or a civilization. Gravity-Induced Space Perception Our perception of space, symmetry, asymmetry and direction are similarly controlled by various gravity detectors. These include displacement of cell parts, or of portions of multicellular structures, and intercellular structures. Much experimental evidence collected in spacecraft proves that there is a loss of orientability in growing seeds under weightlessness ['zero gravity']. Animals are no exception. Each of us is 'conscious' of the common "updown" surroundings, and about "weight" and acceleration1.1. We are born with innate gravity-sensors. Gravity-sensors also tell trees how to grow vertically up even on steep mountain sides. All these are normal external experiences directly controlled by gravity. More specific examples range from inertial changes of the fluid in the vertebrate inner ear to a crystallizing suspension of organic spheres in water. The earth's gravitational field produces an elastic deformation that is readily observed through its asymmetric effect on the evolving crystal structure [Volume I]. These elastic forces play an important part in crystallized virus systems. Hence, the gravitational force provides not only a reference axis, but a useful biological function that excludes foreign particles, such as antibodies, from a crystal [Volume I]. Gravity-Induced Biosphere The gravity-induced life envelope of earth, comprising a very thin layer (surface and lower atmosphere), was created by the "selective force of 12

gravity". It is therefore gravitational selection that puts carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor and lightning at one and the same layer for the generation of the first DNA and the beginning of biological evolution. And it is gravitational selection that protected the early products of this evolution from damaging external radiation by supplying the upper protective layer of ozone. [Volume I] Biological detectors of sound modulation have much to do with sensors for earth gravity; both are special kinds of bio-accelerometers. In other words, gravity, bio-accelerometers and the various ways organisms are affected by vibration are interrelated [Volume I]. Our Brain-Mind Perception As we read this sentence, a corresponding aggregated asymmetry is generated inside our brain-mind. To conform with innate [Kantian-like] and external experiences, and to communicate with our society, we introduce 'grammar' - that which keeps universal 'space-time-order-of actions': What happened first, later, and in a 'universal-future-tense order-of-things'. What is past for one person must be valid, fixed and confirmed by all else. In short; each word and each sentence, is equipped with an 'arrow of time' that 'forces order in our speech and life' and always points 'from past to future', and never in reverse. Gravity generates structures and controls all geological layers and global phenomena ranging from mountain crests, tectonic folds, valleys, village and city structures, transportation systems, oceans and lagoons, to springs, wells, swamps, glaciers and rivers, as well as the ecologicalsystems connected with them. The very evolution of our skeleton, i.e., bones, legs, hips, joints, cartilages, ligaments, femurs, tibia, pelvis, muscles, etc., has been "in response" to the direction of the force of gravity. Nevertheless, the cardinal role gravity plays in the control of biological time, perception and evolution has been largely overlooked by physicists, biologists and philosophers, partly because the role of the gravitational field as the universal generator of asymmetries, form, structure, time, motion, recording, memory, clocks, complexity and organization has not yet been well appreciated.

Synopsis II

How To Use This Book _______________________________________________________ There is hardly any good reason to select a level prior to examining the first pages, Synopsis I and the Assertions in the Introduction below. Level I. This level may be considered as composed of a few simpler sub-levels that follow (i) the local ciltural-educational needs for various ages, (ii) the guidelines presented by Asserssion S.1 [Synopsis I] and Chapter 7. At its higher sub-levels, it may follow the guidelines provided in Homework and Grading (Appendix I), especially if used in ‘AdultEducation’, or in a ‘High-School-CCCC’ [Cultural, Core Curriculum Course]. Readers may range from young pupils to adults interested in updating and advancing their education by self-help [Assertion IN.3]. Reviewing the CONTENT and reading the chapters and the Appendices is recommended, if some of the specific footnotes are avoided. Level II is the ‘Undergraduate Level’. It is suitable for a two-semester course that includes the use of Volumes I and II [Table of Contents). Comprehending the footnotes is recommended. The autodidactive methodology [Assertion IN.3] may best be used when there is no qualified CCC-Coordinator. Following the guidelines provided in Homework and Grading (Appendix I) is also recommended. Level III. The Central Theme of these Series crosses frozen disciplines in both education and research in the domains of the ‘exact sciences’ and the ‘humanities’. [Cf. worldwide reviews, p. 1 and p. 29] For graduate students this level is suitable for a two-semester course that includes extensive use of Volumes I and II, the footnotes and the Appendices. It is in Volume I where one finds mathematically-based theories, refutations of false ‘proofs’, critique of various ‘established’ theories, derivations of Einstein’s Field Equations [general relativity], quantumstatistical thermodynamics, Quantum Chromo-Dynamic [QCD], higher levels of philosophy and re-assessment of the nature of time, time arrows, linguistics and current studies of brain-mind aggregationsperceptions. Volume II: Critique of Western Thought, provides six Lectures, mainly in the domain of the ‘humanities’. The autodidactive methodology is best used when there is no qualified CCC-Coordinator, or when this book is used by faculty, independent scientists, theists, drop-outs, or people of the arts, for themselves. The Following Pages Constitute a More Specific Guide at All Levels

The Origin of the Deepest Crisis in Education This broad subject is introduced in the Introduction and in its 9 Assertions. It traces past educational cultures in order to formulate the aims, scope and foundations of this unified CCC. Pedagogical Features In writing this Volume IV, I continue the effort to abridge and update Volumes I & II and make them more suitable for a wider circle of readers, researchers, faculty and students. For that purpose I include new pedagogical features that help support the integration of this CCC with the new world outlook that begins with the question: Can the Foundations of Science Be Deduced From General Relativistic Cosmology? [Chapter 5]

The 1958 Discovery In 1958, by adopting the Einsteinian minority position as a student, I asserted that proponents of quantum statistical and probabilistic thermodynamics smuggle into their thermodynamic theories the result that they wish to prove, without declaring the contraband.3.4 Similar charges are aimed today against proponents of string theories4.6 to 4.11. [Appendix IV],

The Time Paradox To rise to the status of a scientific theory, a candidate must be supported by verifiable observations. Yet, in the actual world, there is a clash between theoretical, time-symmetric fundamental physics, and time-asymmetries observed in nature.3.4 The ‘exact sciences’ can be reduced to physics, and fundamental physics, at high energies, to just three fundamental forces-fields: The electroweak 3.1, the strong 3.2 and the gravitational 3.3. Over the last 100 years or so many have tried to develop ‘final’ proofs that would bridge these conflicting worlds of science. All in vain. Theorists select only prediction while ignoring the time-symmetric retrodiction, final conditions, etc. Fig. 1.2 shows the expanding, cold ‘voids’ between shining superclusters of galaxies [Space-1, Diagram]. Uniform maximum temperatures, isotropic and homogenous distribution of voids/galaxies (on large scales) are preserved (Cf. Fig. 1.1). There is no net flow of energy from one adiabatic ‘envelope’4.15 to another. Such adiabatic configurations wrap superclusters of galaxies. In 1958 I discovered the origin of irreversibility and time-asymmetries3.4 in nature by examining just one such envelope -- but around a cluster, not superclusters of galaxies, which were confirmed later -- as explained in this book and in Volume I.

Being a student, and, later, an un-experienced professor, none wanted to listen to my central theme and non-conventional, general relativistic world outlook. Most refrained to do that because it was based on general relativity and cosmology, both far beyond their knowledge. That situation has changed in 1969 during the International Conference on Classical and Relativistic Thermodynamics [Pittsburgh, Ref. 13] that I had organized with the participation of some Nobel-Prize winners. Worldwide acclaims started slowly and only after my Science and Nature papers in 1972 and the Gold Medal Award from The New York Academy of sciences.[Ref. 13]. Full worldwide acceptance has been delayed until the 80’s, with the publication of Volume I, and its subsequent editions.

(About Einstein's opposition to probabilistic quantum outlook of the world) Many of us regard this as a tragedy, both for him, as he gropes his way in loneliness, and for us, who miss our leader. Max Born

You sadist. You make people think. Ezra Pound

People are born ignorant, not stupid; It is education that makes them stupid. Ancient Dictum published by Bertrand Russell

Man to the Universe: I Exist ! The Universe to Man: “So what ?”

Do most professors take closest to their heart the money-box? Priority in Parts A & B is assigned to relativistic as gravity physics3.3 applied to cosmology and to determinism over indeterminism. It is an unpopular thesis in which Einstein had been practically left alone. To begin with, I visit his world outlook and use it to assess some new developments such as gravitational lens, new supernovae4.1 and string theories 4.6 – 4.11. String theories are popular but are not science. They cannot even pass Popper’s Putting a Frame Around principle for being part of Does Not Make it a Unified Theory it. They cannot be [From Am. Sci., Sigma Xi] verified by experiment and thus cannot even rise to the scientific status of being wrong. They justify Einstein’s claim: Quantum theory is not a complete theory.

Eventually realizing that Einstein has been right, armies of theoretical physicists work hard since his death to bridge quantum theories with general relativity by inventing various kinds, types and brands of unverifiable string theories4.6 – 4.11. All in vain. The essence of Space-1-expansion [Diagram; Figs. 1.1; 1.2],

and of relativistic gravity cosmology, are not easy to grasp. In Appendix V I shall therefore become a tourist guide of a Quantum Physicists Attack Symmetry virtual deep-space Breaking Discovered in tour aimed at Quantum Kaonic Systems [CPT Breaking] discovering the ORIGIN and CAUSE of radiation-energy gradients around stars, galaxies, clusters and super-clusters of galaxies4.13; gradients4.13 that generate all irreversible processes in nature, including those that lead to life. (subsequent Parts of this book, or in Volumes I and II). In Appendix V, I would search for ‘adiabatic envelopes’4.15 that wrap filaments or clouds of clusters or super-clusters of galaxies, that are like islands of nonexpanding, gravity-bounded aggregations, in expanding, unsaturable sink to which all radiation-energy in the universe irreversibly pours in. Local quasars4.14 and black holes4.3 may form additional, local sinks. Their ancestors, the massive gravitational aggregations4.1; 4.2; 4.5; 4.14, also had come into being by Space-1-Expansion. [Diagram and Figs. 1.1; 1.2]. The universal sink is composed of a large number of interconnected ‘voids’ and adiabatic cells4.15 [Diagram, sites (a), (b), (c,] each imaginary adiabatic envelope ‘encages’ a super-cluster or superclusters of galaxies by no-net-flow of energy across its isotropic and homogeneous, large-scale, geometrical boundaries. [Fig. 1.2] Back to earth I re-assess how gravity and Space-1-Expansion-Induced gradients (Diagram, opening pages) cause not only all irreversible processes and time-asymmetries in nature, but how they control ‘Gravity Selection’ and orientation that, in turn, control plant and animal behavior, languages and key concepts in the ‘exact sciences’ and the ‘humanities’ 1.1 [Appendix V] During the tour I must cross frozen disciplines and bring home the evidence about the MASTER ARROW OF TIME.

What Did van Gogh Imagine When He Painted This Picture? Apparently he did not think that the field of gravitation has generated all. Yet, his painting convey the ‘reality’ that all living and non-living systems are embedded in a 'field of brush strokes’, which, by themselves, in their very shape, direction and rhythm, convey the presence of flux, structure, direction and universal field of force, which penetrates all things and is at one with land, life, sky and the stars.

CONTENTS VOLUME I1 Worldwide Acclaims of the first 3 Editions ……………...……..… ii SIR KARL POPPER, Foreword ……………….…………….…. xx SIR ALAN COTTRELL, Foreword ………………….……….... xxi Preface ……………………………………..….……….….….…... xxii Introduction …………..………………………..………………….

1.1 The Revival of Relativistic Cosmology vs. Modified Concepts in Physics and Philosophy …………………...….… 2 1.1.1 The problem of ordering ……………………...….… 3 1.1.2 How did it all start? ………………………………... 5 1.1.3 The first seven stages …………………………….... 7 1.1.4 The present matter-dominated era …………………….. 11 2.1 The Einsteinian Methodology: A Preliminary Remark . 11 2.2 The Withdrawal of Philosophy From Physics (and of Physics From Philosophy) …………………………….…...… 13 2.3 The Greatest Ambition of Physics ……………………..…...... 16 2.3.1 Unification of initial-boundary conditions first? Unification of fields second? …………………...….... 16 2.3.2 Should unification begin with differential equations? …………………..…….…...… 17 2.4 The Great Physico-Philosophical Gains From The Discovery of the Cosmic Background Radiation ……….. 19 2.5 The Expanding Universe ………………………….…….…... 22 2.6 The 1977 “Aether Drift” Discovery ……………..………....…. 23 2.7 Verification of Physical Laws by Astronomy and Astrophysics ……………………………………….……….… 24 3.1 Some Tentative Assertions …...……………………..…...….. 26 3.2 The Skeptic’s Outlook .……………………...………..…...….. 69 1

Contents of Volumes I, II & III are provided first; of this volume, last, in a blue box.

PART I Preliminary Concepts 1. From Terrestrial Gravitational Structures To Black Holes and Neutrinos in Astrophysics ……...……. 74 1.1 Gravitation, Asymmetry and Structure ……………….…… 80 1.1.1 A fallacy associated with current theories ……..…. 80 1.1.2 Gravity-induced sedimentary structures ………….. 81 1.2 Stellar Structures and the Hertzsprung-Russel Diagram …. 88 1.3 Supernovae, Gravitational Collapse, Neutron Stars, Pulsars ……………………………………. 92 1.4 X-Ray Astronomy, Binary X-Ray Systems, and Gravitational Clocks ……………………………………... 100 1.5 Black Holes …………………………………………….… 106 1.6 Gas, Dust and the Formation of Stars in Our Galaxy ….… 113 1.7 How Are Cosmic Distances Measured? ………………… 116 1.8 Neutrino Astronomy and Astrophysics ………………… 130 1.9 The Emergence of Gamma-Ray Astronomy ……………. 132 1.10 Exploration of Extra-Solar Space By Unmanned Spacecraft ……………………………….. 134 2. From “Conservation” in Classical Physics To Solitons in Particle Physics ………………………..…… 2.1 Aim and Scope …………………………………………... 2.2 Limitations of Theory …………………………………… 2.3 The General Macroscopic Equation …………………….. 2.4 Continuity Equation (Total Mass Conservation) ………... 2.5 Conservation of Linear Momentum and Gravity.………… 2.6 The Navier-Stokes Equations and Gravity ………………. 2.7 Kinetic-Energy Equation and Dissipation Function in Gravitational Fields ……………. 2.8 First Law of Thermodynamics or Energy Conservation Equation …………………………………… 2.9 First Law and Enthalpy ………………………………….. 2.10 First Law In Terms of Temperature Field ……………….. 2.11 Entropy Balance Equation ……………………………….. 2.12 Beyond Classical Physics: Solitons, Antisolitons and Conservation …………………. 2.13 Neutrinos and the Powerful Role Conservation

136 138 140 142 146 147 149 152 154 156 157 159 160 21

Equations Play in Subatomic Processes (Addendum) …… 163 3. From General Relativity and Relativistic Cosmology To Gauge Theories ………………………….……………….. 3.1 Introduction ………………………………………………. 3.1.1 Einstein’s field equations in general relativity ……….... 3.1.2 Confirmation of Einstein’s Theory of Gravitation ……. 3.2 Principles and Formulations of General Relativity and Relativistic Cosmology ………………...………………… 3.3 Observations, The “Age” of the Universe And “Equivalent Local Cells” …………………….…….… 3.4 Timekeeping, Accelerated Observers and the Principle Of Equivalence ………………………………… 3.5 From General Relativity to Unified Field Theories ………

166 167 169 172 181 200 204 205

PART II From Physics to Philosophical Crossroads and Back 4. The Arrows of Time …………………………………..….... 214 4.1 Time and The Arrow of Time: The Most Distorted Of All Ideas? ……………………….. 215 4.2 Asymmetry-Symmetry-Space-Time and The Unification of The Laws of Physics ………………… 216 4.3 Methodology, Aim and Scope …………………………… 217 4.4 Confusing Concepts of Time and Time Asymmetries …… 219 4.5 The Entropic Arrow of Time …………………………….. 222 4.6 Causality, Causation and Time Asymmetries ……………. 226 4.7 Causation and Determinism in Relativistic Theories ……………………………………… 227 4.8 Cosmological Arrows of Time and Cosmic Time ………. 230 4.9 A Few Remarks ………………………………………….. 232 4.10 Time-Reversal Invariance and Irreversibility ………….… 236 4.11 Microscopic Time Asymmetries in “Elementary Particles” ……………………………….. 240 4.12 The Death of Scale-Based Physics ……………………… 242 4.13 The “Dual” Quantum-Geometrodynamical School and “Superspace” ……………………………….. 243 4.14 Tachyons and Causal Violations ………………………… 246 4.15 Macrocausality and Microcausality in Quantum Mechanics 247 4.16 Fading Memory in Classical Physics …………………….. 247 22

4.17 Doubts As To The Universality of Entropy ……………… 249 4.18 Entropy-Free Thermodynamic Arrows of Time …………. 250 5. The Crisis In Quantum Physics …………………………… 254 5.1 Preliminary Review ………………………………………. 255 5.1.1 The effect of gravitation and the outside world on quantum physics …………………………. 258 5.1.2 The three main schools of thought ………………… 261 5.2 Einstein’s Objections to the Uncertainty Principle ………. 262 5.3 The Heresy of a Few Skeptics ……………………………. 265 5.4 Mythologized Concepts of Quantum Physics ……………. 265 5.5 The Failure of Classical and Quantal Statistical Mechanics to Deduce Irreversibility and Time Asymmetries ……………………………………………… 267 5.6 The Emergence of Quantum Chromodynamics And Super-Symmetry …………………………………….. 272 5.6.1 Spatio-Temporal Approach to Quantum Physics …. 272 5.6.2 From Weinberg-Salam Theory to Quantum Chromodynamics ……………………….. 273 5.6.2.1 Conservation laws as symmetry principles; and vice versa ………………………………. 273 5.6.2.2 Global, exact, approximate, isotopic and SU(3) symmetries ……………………… 274 5.6.2.3 From SU(3) to renormalizable gauge theories …………………………………….. 276 5.6.2.4 Quark confinement asymptotic freedom in gauge theories ………………………… 276-1 5.6.2.5 QCD and the search for higher symmetry principles ………………………………… 276-1 5.6.3 From Quantum Field Theories to Super-Symmetry Super-Gravity …………………………………… 276-3 5.6.3.1 On the limits of super-gravity ‘unified field theories’ …………………….. 276-4

PART III From Physics to Cosmological Crossroads and Back 6.

Cosmology, Physics and Philosophy ……………………. 277 6.1 Reduction of Thermodynamics to Gravitation ……… 277 6.1.1 Methodology …………………………………. 277 23

6.1.2

Dialectical gravitism: Definition of the first problems ………………………………… 6.1.3 Gravitation as super-asymmetry …………….. 6.2 The Earliest and Most Universal Asymmetry: Observational Evidence …………………..………….. 6.2.1 Which space expands and which does not? …… 6.3 Gravitation-Asymmetry Principle of Equivalence ….. 6.4 Can Intercluster Space Be Saturated With Radiation? . 6.5 Derivation of the Master Asymmetry From Gravitation Theories …………………………. 6.6 Irreversibility in the New Gravitational Cosmological Thermodynamics ……………………. 6.7 Origin of Dissipation in Newtonian Fluids …………. 6.8 Terrestrial Thermodynamics ………………………… 6.9 Connections With Classical and Continuum Thermodynamics ……………………………………. 6.10 Electromagnetic Irreversibility And the Master Asymmetry ……………………...….. 7. Cosmological Origin of Time and Evolution ……………… 7.1 Time: The All-Embracing Concept ………………….. 7.2 Cosmological Origin of Time ………………………. 7.3 Cosmological Interpretations of Newton’s Laws of Motion …………………………………..…. 7.4 Gravitational Origin of Structure and Evolution .…… 7.5 Gravitation and the Outflow of Energy Into Un-Saturable Space ………………………………… 7.6 Stellar Evolution ……………………………………. 7.7 Terrestrial Evolution ………………………………... 7.8 Some Open Questions ……………………………… 7.8.1 Microscopic T-Violation and the Master Asymmetry: A possible Connection? ………..… 8.

Black Holes and the Unification of Asymmetries ……… 8.1 Introduction ……………………………………….. 8.2 Observational Evidence …………………………… 8.3 Schwarzschild Solution and Black Holes …………. 8.4 Black Holes Mechanics and Entropy ……………… 8.5 Can Black Holes “Evaporate”? ……………………. 8.6 Primordial Black Holes? …………………………... 8.7 Back to the Melting Pot of Unification? …………...

278 279 279 282 284 287 290 293 297 299 301 303 308 309 310 314 316 322 324 325 326 327 329 330 331 332 340 341 341 341 24

PART IV

Beyond Present Knowledge 9.

Havahayism – The Science of The Whole …………..…… 348 9.1 The Futile Quest for Final Answers ……………….. 349 9.2 An Example in Havahayism ……………………..…. 350 9.3 From Cosmology to Irreversible Structures and Memory ……………………………………..…. 365 9.4 The Skeptic Outlook ……………………………..…. 415

VOLUME II

Critique of Western Thought Introduction ………………………………………………….... 420 10. 11.

A Few Historical Remarks on Time, Mind and Symmetry ………………………………………..…

437

The Philosophy of Time & Change: Some Historical Notions …………………….…………

455

12.

Structuralism and the Divided American Thought: A Short Glossary of Terms …………………………….. 467

13.

Policy and Publicity: A Critique ………………………. 483

14.

Thought-Provoking and Thought-Depressing Quotations ………………………………………………. 495

15.

Critique of Western Methodology …………………….. 530

VOLUME III THE FIRST ONLINE DRAFT OF THE FREE CORE CURRICULUM COURSE

Cosmology, Physics and Philosophy Dec. 15, 2007, MSN SCRIBD

1. Introduction ………………………………………..…………… 11 2. From Cosmology to the Foundations of Physics ………..…….. 29 3. Gravity-Induced Brain-Mind Perception Vs. Everyday Life …44 4. How Did It All Start? …………………………………………… 55 5. ‘Gravitational Selection’ Vs. 'Natural Selection' ……….……... 64 6. Condensed World History …………………………………...… 69 7. The Skeptic Outlook ……………………………………….….. 94 8. Beyond Present Knowledge …………………………………… 100 9. CCC Homework ……………………………………………….. 103 References and Further Reading …………………..………….. 122

Benjamin Gal-Or,

Vol. IV

Free, Core Curriculum Course (CCC), 2008

Worldwide Acclaims [Part 1] ……………………..………..….....……

Illustrated Preface ………………………………………………………

Synopsis I ………………….……………………………………….….….

Synopsis II: How to Use This Book ……………………………….... 14 Contents Volume I ……………………………………………………..………………...…. Volume II ……..………………………………………………………………....… Volume III ………………….……………………………………………...…..….. Volume IV ……………………………………….………………………….….…

20 25 24 27

Worldwide Acclaims [Part 2] ………………… …………..….….…..

INTRODUCTION Notes to Readers, Students, Mentors and Professors ….…

Knowledge Is One. Its Division is Human Weakness; The Crisis In Education; The Temples of knowledge; Assertions I.1 to I.9

PART A

From General Relativistic Cosmology to Unified Physics 1. How Did It All Start? General Relativistic Cosmology ……….… 41 The New Astrophysical Time; TABLE I, Figs. 1.1 & 1.2 of the Universe

2. How All Life Would End? ………………………………………… 56 Recent discovery: The expansion of Space-1 is accelerating to a cold death of all life

3. The Greatest Ambition of Physics …………………………….... 61 Gravity, Electro-Weak, Quantum Physics; String Theories; Thermodynamics

From Cosmic Structures to Everyday Life and Back 4. Can The Foundations of Science Be Deduced From General Relativistic Cosmology? ……………………. 71 5. The 1958 Discovery of The Origin of Time-Asymmetries & Irreversibility ……………………………...………………………….. 83 PART C

Language, Brain-Mind Perceptions and Gravity 6. Test Your Mind; Bio-Sociology and Everyday life ……… 90 7. Virtual Deep-Space Expedition To Discover A New World Outlook ………………………………………… 103

PART D The Skeptic Outlook 8. Limitations of Mathematically-Based Theories ………... 107 9. The Biggest Clash between Science and Religion ……… 115 10. Realities in The Arts and Religion ………………………… 121

APPENDICES I:

Homework and Grading ……………………………………..... 125

II:

List of Nobel-Prize Winners by Country ……….….….…...... 127

III: The Pipa Prize to Stephene Hawking ………………………. 162 IV: Lessons Based on Personal Experience ……………………... 165 V: Condensed World History TABLE II …………….………...

171

VI: The Origin of Writing, Time, Religion and Literature … 183

References

….…………………………………………………..….……. 194

Credits …………………………………………………………………… 197

Worldwide Acclaims

CONTINUES FROM PAGE 1

"The Judeo-Christian Tradition” is in accord with Gal-Or’s conclusions states Weisskopf and quotes: "Most astrophysicists, cosmologists and astronomers agree that the biblical account of cosmic evolution, in stressing `a beginning´ and the initial roles of `void,´ `light´ and a `structure-less´ state, may be uncannily close to the verified evidence with which modern science ha already supplied us" V.F. Weisskopf, Scientific American Gal-Or launchs a new spirit of inquiry by his excellent and thought provoking writings. I would recommend awarding a prize and would hope that this would serve to focus attention on a most important subject. T. Gold, Cornell University One noted scientist [B. Gal-Or], even affirms that the stress placed by Genesis, Chapter one, on ‘beginning’ and the initial roles of ‘void’, ‘light’ and a ‘structure-less’ state, “may be uncannily close to the verified evidence with which modern science has already supplied us.” Christian Apologetics, Journal A comprehensive explication of a large area of science which the reader may study in many subjects. Highly recommended to the philosopher of science. Contemporary Philosophy An interesting and original book, easy to read, interesting and fascinating. Nouvo Cimento This book has a wide-ranging scope. Dr. Gal-Or develops a philosophy of Space Science Reviews science which he calls Havahyism. Smithsonian/NASA Astrophysics Data Systems A book like this should be in all libraries and in the hands of many astronomers. Cornelis De Jager, Laboratory for Space Research, Utrecht, The Netherlands, Smithsonian/NASA Astrophysics Data Systems Interesting to read, integrating much of scientific material. Deutsche Literaturzeitung One of the best books on the totality of the sciences & the universe/ It was one of the favorite books of Sir Karl Popper. It looks at physics and the universe as a totality of the mathematical philosophical understanding. It also combines the physical concept of time with human psychological perception and brain understanding of languages. Robin (forumhub.com/expr/@202.54.92.222

Einstein's time-symmetric tensor was elevated by Gal-Or’s “New Astronomical School of Unified Thermodynamics” to the status of the source of “Master Asymmetry” controlling not only irreversible thermodynamics, but all physical and biological phenomena! Gal-Or calls “GRAVITISM” (his philosophy) that gravitation is the prime cause of structures, irreversibility, time, geo-chemical and biological evolution -- that the expansion of the universe is the cause of the second law of thermodynamics -- that microscopic physics, and thermodynamics in particular, cannot be understood without reference to cosmology. He ties “irreversibility” to the “expansion of space itself”, i.e. as far as space is expanding, the contribution of all kinds of radiation in space is weakened “irreversibly” due to the expansion phenomenon itself. Such loss, or “degradation” of energy in the depth of inter-cluster expanding space, may then be considered as a universal sink for all the radiation flowing out of the material bodies in the expanding universe. Advancement of Physics, APEIRON I have in the meantime studied your book, with great interest, and made pages of notes on it. I feel as if I had been on numerous walks and talks with you on the great questions, and know that would be great to go on with them! Who cannot be impressed by your love for the great men of all times and all countries, by your phrase “working back and forth between theory and fact”, by your belief that philosophy is too important to be left to the philosophers, by your concern for where thought and language lie in the scheme of things – and by so much more! I continue to reflect, again and again, on your central thesis that expansion is the origin of all asymmetry in time. What an ingenious phrase is your, “smuggle irreversibility in without declaring the contraband”! I regard your book as seeking to accomplish two tasks – and being two books – at the very least. One is the exposition of your central thesis, with clarity, and careful mustering of every argument pro and con that can lead to testable consequences. I don’t see how it is possible to do proper justice to a thesis of such importance by mixing it in with the other great task. That is to give students an appreciation of the unity of philosophy and modern physics. You do both tasks far better than I could hope to. I give you my personal thanks for putting the two books into a package that I personally have found most thought-provoking. John A. Wheeler Institute for Advanced Studies, Princeton

Gal-Or's remarkable book [Parts A & B] sees and seizes the world whole. He emphasizes that all scientists operate under some set of philosophical prejudices, and that failure to acknowledge this is selfdelusion. Furthermore, he argues that a failure to attend to the philosophical base of physics leads to an empty scientism. His work is challenging on many levels, constituting a review 'with derivations' of general relativity 'as applied to cosmology', thermodynamics, the current state of theoretical particle physics, astrophysics, as well as a summary history of western philosophy, 'especially the philosophies of time and mind' and critiques of western society, the intelligentsia and the relationship between academic science and government. One 'and perhaps the central' theme explored, is that of the interplay between symmetry and asymmetry. His primary interest is not in the recent progress in the unification of forces in gauge theory, although he finds support in it for his Einsteinian outlook, but is rather time, time's arrow, and the asymmetry between past and future. Around time are accumulated discussions, both mathematical and philosophical, of thermodynamic reversibility, time reversibility, the nature of causality, and the use of advanced and retarded solutions to wave equations. The second major theme is that of gravity and its overwhelming domination of the actual form of the universe, at all scales. The combination of these themes is not accidental; they are point and counterpoint to his thesis that the time asymmetries are connectable to and perhaps even determined by the master asymmetry given by the gravity of general relativity: the remorseless cosmological expansion. He argues that only the expansion can provide the unification of time asymmetries. The expansion provides, among other things, an for radiation, which, in turn, permits the establishment UNSATURABLE SINK of gradients in temperature and density, which provide the basis for the physical process that leads to life. He also criticizes the sloppy and improper use of the concepts of entropy 'and the related notions in information theory' and quantum indeterminism, especially as covers for an inadequate understanding of temporal asymmetries. Taking an Einsteinian position on the interpretation of quantum mechanics, he looks forward to revitalization of Einstein's quest for a deterministic interpretation of quantum events. The value of this book lies in the challenging combination of ideas which Gal-Or presents, which goes far beyond what can be sensibly described in a review. [This] work may be too large to digest as a text in these days of the decline of academic institutions "as GalOr describes them", but that will be the loss of both the faculty and the students. AMERICAL JOURNAL OF PHYSICS

Introduction Notes to Readers, Students, Mentors and Professors I.1

The Road to Hell is Paved with Good Intentions

At the beginning of my first professorship position (at the Johns Hopkins University), I was so absorbed in polishing and re-polishing my first lecture, that I completely forgot to go to the classroom and teach it. About 30 minutes past the time, while I was still working hard in repolishing that lecture, a shy student opened the door of my office to politely inform me that 5 minutes ago all students had left the classroom. The whole university laughed. Years ago, I had tried and re-tried to simplify Volume I and adapt it for easier reading by all readers and by students outside the domains of physics and philosophy. Being a prisoner of the style, quest and mission of Volumes I and II, it was almost impossible to simplify and abridge their 300 mathematical equations and 520-pages. That draft was therefore abandoned and forgotten. In December 2007, a shy student informed me that he could not understand the key physico-mathematical themes presented in Volume 1. He, therefore, signed-out of the CCC where it was used. My immediate reaction was to publish, on December 15, 2007, the unfinished draft as a Free, Online Volume III. Six months later this revised version has become the Free Online Volume 4. It has not yet been polished and re-polished, however. Anyway, all mistakes are mine.

Until around the mid-Thirties of the previous century, Core CulturalCurriculum Courses (in Europe!) were made as â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;scientificâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; as possible, and science propped up its foundations by turning to 32

philosophy. This attitude was in part motivated by the desire to appropriate the sciences with ‘prestige’ of the great philosophers, and for the philosopher the fast-growing ‘status’ of science. Hence, European professors vied with one another in presenting science based on high philosophical grounds, and philosophy as a ‘science among sciences’, or even as the ‘sum of the other sciences’.

Assertion IN.1 Knowledge is One. Its division, is human weakness; Its aim, a universal beauty; an aesthetic frame of mind; a longing for the run-away horizons of truth and symmetry that we always try to reach. Modern physics is a picture of reality; not the house-in-itself. It is the painted foundation of the Tallest Temple of Verifiable Knowledge.

A ‘PhD’ was then a bona fide Philosophy Doctor, a person of advanced core knowledge and eloquence outside his specialism. Western education has since withdrawn from the game. Empty specialism has since gained the highest prestige, especially in the U.S.; no longer do professors need borrow it from philosophy, nor to teach Core Curriculum Courses [CCC].

Assertion IN.2 The origin of aspirations to advance interconnected thinking is not known. What we know is that it is not rooted in “well-fenced” traditions and “accepted” disciplinary sciences. The educational challenge is to bridge fragmented courses in academic curriculum, as a whole, and adapt them to the evergrowing needs in the face of narrowing specialism.

Indeed, contemporary teachers and professors vie with one another in presenting fragmented, technical lectures devoid of interconnected content, for they can no longer hope to achieve popularity by injecting updated core knowledge into what has gradually become an ever narrower, disciplinary professionalism.

This turn of events has resulted in overvaluation of technical professionalism, empty academicism, absolutation of ever-narrower disciplines, and the common inclination to reject bona fide core knowledge from the class. A pity. For these trends only push the young into cynicism, nihilism and feelings of emptiness in education and in society at large. I.2

Interconnected Thinking, Teaching and Research

Although most academic teaching and research must be distributed amongst various departments of a university, there is an objective need to regenerate an old tradition that cannot be associated with any specialism, because the ideas with which it deals are common to all studies, or not involved in any. Accordingly, the selection of interconnected kernels of updated knowledge to be included in this book is based on an interconnected approach to what I consider a much needed, simplified CCC book for all. Assertion IN.3 The greatest challenge in aquiring updated, verified knowledge and the ability to be intellectually independent, is self-removal of externally-imposed disciplinary borders while working hard, often alone, as an AUTODIDACT.

The Current Crisis in Education is not subsiding. More than ever before it demands answers, reassessments, a neo-philosophy and acts: How to teach mutual interactions instead of linear causality; structured complexity instead of summation of events; structured historical buildup of facts, instead of summation of isolated events. Modern skepticism is usually the negation of a core, interconnected, educational methodology. Not so with Einstein's skepticism. 34

To start with, Einstein advocated the total removal of borders between traditional disciplines. The current academic crisis, especially in the U.S., may be moderated by using the Einsteinian methodology, at least as properly adapted CCC series provided in high-schools and, on structured higher levels, in undergraduate and graduate schools. Such a methodology may lead to new, interconnected fertilization between the most promising kernels of fundamental knowledge, and, thus, to the potential to rejuvenate educational methodology by resorting to an old-new world-outlook and practice. Assertion IN.5 IN.4 Structuring an all-embracing CCC-Outlook is a matter entailing Without a Guiding-Structuring Theme, or at least a unified World technicalities of the application farOutlook more ambiguity than the for gaining all-embracing, interconnected culture-of any disciplinary coursethat andcrosses its “Academic Credit Regulations”. knowledge frozen disciplines, any CCC is nothing but a pity encyclopedia displayed by a specialist nominated by “Organizers” as the “CCC-Coordinator”, who remains helpless in teaching the alluring beauty of mathematics, physics and the life sciences, and may fail to perceive their profound philosophical implications, as a whole.

Assertion IN.6 Students are often discouraged by their professors and mentors from asking fundamental, interdisciplinary questions in class, as a result of which inconsistent, or outright incorrect premises, are given a better chance of perpetuating themselves. 35

I.3 Our Temples of Knowledge Literary intellectuals, the ‘humanists’, people of the arts and most educators are currently ignorant of modern advances in the ‘exact sciences’, of their mathematical formulations, experimental, observational and verification methods. They are likely to resort to an a priori, or superficial answers to complex problems whose detailed implications are beyond them. Similarly, faculty, ‘experts’ and professionals in the “exact sciences”, via their past, evernarrowing, disciplinary education, are currently ignorant of the wide-span knowledge, literature, arts and history that are needed to share their thinking and aspirations with other thinking persons.

Literary intellectuals at one pole – at the other scientists, and as the most representative, the physical scientists. Between the two a gulf of mutual incomprehension – sometimes (particularly among the young) hostility and dislike, but most of all lack of understanding.

C. P. Snow, The Two Culture Cambridge University Press [33]

Assertion IN.7

Students flood colleges and universities with the hope of finding there the grand outlook of a spacecraft (and a profession). Entering our temples of knowledge they settle for that of an eagle, but what they often find is that of a specialist gopher.

The resulting gap can hardly be bridged despite the fact that our globe is currently an interconnected village, internationally linked by what might be expected to bridge old gaps between cultures, languages, religions and educational disciplines. Nevertheless, the facts are that deep divisions keep deepening and deserts of narrow specialism keep spreading more than ever before. A sad fact. A dark future.

I.4

From General Relativistic Cosmology to Re-Assess The Foundations of Science, or Vice Versa?

In selecting knowledge Assertion IN.8 kernels to be included here, I am simultaneously Large cosmological systems faced with subjectivistic dominate smaller ones, not vice and objectivistic versa. Vindicated by empirical discourses; subjectivistic, data that span a broad range of because all thought is, to modern astronomy, astrophysics, some extent, ordered by physics, biophysics, socio-biology, personal bias; objectivistic, history and archeology, this because all rational assertion is employed empirical knowledge here to arrive at some new singles out regularity and concepts in a fresh world outlook order ranging from the on science and philosophy. objectivistic origins of anything in the world, to the subjectivistic perception of the individual ‘Here-Now’. Nevertheless, the following issues may also need to be encountered: Should this course be directed from ‘innate’, or ‘a priori ideas’ of subjective human knowledge, to ‘external’ objective concepts? Or vice versa? Should a bona fide CCC begin by updated, key, verified facts and discoveries and their origins and vindications by modern empirical knowledge? or by unverifiable string theories4.62.11 that attempt to unify all fundamental forcesinteractions in physics? 3.1-3.3

Assertion IN.9 Thanks to the subdivision of knowledge into fragmented ‘disciplines’ and ‘territories’, we often fail to perceive the interconnectedness between ‘selfcentered’ and conflicting outlooks, to judge their collective importance and to estimate their inherent structure, inner logic and ordering. In trying to overcome this lacuna, I begin this book with cosmology and its distorted image among scientists and laypersons.

Einstein’s failed attempts to unify [deterministic] gravity physics3.3 with [non-deterministic] quantum physics3.2, have played a major role in structuring this book. Both drive the (unpopular) philosophy to rejuvenate and bring closer together interconnected educational methodologies in the ‘humanities’ and the ‘exact sciences’. Conclusion: The guiding philosophy and practice of bona fide CCCSeries are too important to be left to the sole care of disciplinary experts. I.5 Survival of a Civilization and Education Both culture and civilization are precarious. Their survival depends on innovation and inner morality a splendid minority maintains with incalculable effects these have had upon all well-being of academia, government and socio-economic of each country at all times. It is therefore pertinent to investigate how, where and when such rare developments occur or are subdued. The origin of this problem is intimately linked to the noninterconnected moral roles played by some scientists, politicians, large companies lobbyists and law manipulators in our civilization today. A contemporary lobbyist can only deal with problems by applying those disciplinary methods and non-interconnected moral codes that are familiar to him or her through the non-philosophical (and sometimes anti-intellectual) methods of current education. The resulting vicious cycle opens unbridgeable gaps between the ‘professionals’, and, gradually, isolates each. It is this separatism that causes declining standards, empty government and the current crisis in education. Most students today participate in fragmented courses of disciplinary professionalism that leave them with a feeling of inner cultural emptiness in academia. In fact, what they find in the temples of knowledge is bureaucracy, inertia, nihilism, careerism, populism and irresponsibility of the faculty to provide them with what would make them bona fide cultured persons.

Wondering about their lost dream in the temples of knowledge, some promising students ask: Has the Time for Cultured Mentors in Academia Passed? An ambitious student, who commences his/her studies in the firm belief that much of the fundamental-core knowledge of our civilization is comprehended by at least most faculty, is extremely perplexed to discover, sooner or later, that the professors are uncertain about the fundamental, interconnected meanings of what they teach in class. Other, who seek explanations about the world at large in which they live or about the worlds at small that compose the world at large, realize that it entails sub-terrainian links between an undeclared philosophy of fragmented education as adhered to nowadays by most. That mundane philosophy of education is bound to confront intellectually starving students. Sensing that, the intellectuallystarving students often give up, or blame themselves unnecessarily for their inability to grasp what their mentors dismiss as trivial. A splendid minority of bright students dare to continue, by themselves, the interminable search, which calls for questioning, reexamination, screening, and at times radical rejection of ‘accepted’, or ‘established doctrines’ that fail to justify themselves through their own logic, consistency, universality and testability. Int.1

Footnotes presented in this volume are often interconnected. They have been included to detail or illuminate some specific subjects, disputes and issues that are related the Central Theme. But no footnote can be considered as “Introduction to”, “Review of”, or “History of” the “Disciplinary Domain” it deals with, or refers to. Without resorting to any mathematical equation, a few footnotes dealing with specific subjects stand about ‘midway’ between mathematically-formulated concepts provided in Volume I, and the abridged-simplified ones adopted here. Reference to them is marked as: […] 1.1, 1.2, …, 2.1, 2.2, …, or as […]AII.1; AII.2, …, namely, located in Chapters 1, 2, … etc., or in Appendix II, etc., respectively. Int.2

References are minimized for reasons elaborated below. The few provided at book-end are marked as […][1, 2, …] or Ref. 11, etc.. Selection of what to read and what to study, and in what order, depends on the reader’s interests, background and on a qualified CCC-coordinator, if there is one. Adding extensive bibliography may be confusing or misleading; there is always a temptation to be “in” regarding what has recently attracted popular attention. There are also the ‘name droppers’, the ones who wish to impress others, or put them down, if they have not heard about their last

All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008 peer-circle annual meeting, or what the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;name dropperâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; had picked up in a party, committee, a club, or the media.

No science is immune to the infection of politics and the corruption of power.

Jacob Bronowski

PART A

PART A From General Relativistic Cosmology to Unified Physics

Mind, Cosmos, or Clock: Which of Them Generates Time and Time Asymmetries? 1

___________________________________________________

How Did It All Start?

The Bible answers this question in three sentences: In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth. The earth was without form and void, â&#x20AC;Ś And God said, "Let there be light ", and there was light. Genesis 1

Most astrophysicists, cosmologists and astronomers agree today that the biblical account of the beginning of cosmic evolution, in stressing "a beginning" and the initial roles of "void", â&#x20AC;&#x153;light" and a structureless state, may be uncannily close to the verified evidence with which modern science has already supplied us with. In the beginning, according to modern astronomy and empirical relativistic cosmology, the highly curved space-time of the early 41

universe is, in many senses, analogous to a "white hole" in which radiation-dominated (structure-less) pre-atomic medium [Table I], had expanded away from extremely high density and temperature, to end up in the present, matter-dominated era in which the initial structureless medium has gradually developed into the present hierarchy of gravitationally-bounded3.3 galaxies, stars, planets, moons, biosphere and other structures, including the late arrival of mortals. (Appendix V) 1.1 Unified World History: The First Six ‘Days’ Our sun-earth-based time is neither universal nor relevant during the first 9 billion (earth-sun-based) years of the world history; namely, prior to the formation of the solar system5.1. Our traditional time is therefore a misleading concept that must be replaced at least in teaching a CCC.

FIG. 01: The First ‘Six Days’ of our world are marked by seconds [derived from earth-sun-based years[Appendix VI]] (left), temperature [in arbitrary-based degrees Kelvin] (right), or our Astrophysical Stages-Days [Table I].

The old time that is in common use; the second, minute, hour, day, month and (earth-sun-based) year, is not sacrosanct. An hour composed of 60 minutes, and a minute composed of 60 seconds were invented by the first recognizable civilization; -- UR [Appendix VI]. This site is where the first full-fledged written language and Abrahamic Monotheism had originated more than 5000 (earth-sun) years ago. By now we have well-verified evidence that goes back in time to about 99.998% of the history of the universe. (Fig. 1.1 and Table I).

TABLE I ‘Day’

The New Astrophysical Time Vs. Events

Temp. Deg. K

What was God doing before Creation? God has created Hell for those who ask such questions. St. Augustine Did the laws of physics pre-exist? None knows, or ever can. Those who claim, mislead. 3.5; 4.6

to 4.11

All evidence indicates that the laws of physics, irrespective of any wish or claim of any latecomer; DAY - the mortal and his or her faith -- have remained invariant at any place, scale and time since ‘Day-1’. There had been no time prior to ‘Day-1’. 1

>>1011 K

String Orchestra Members, who play vibrating music in the halls of physics with String Theories 43

are Impostors of Verifiable Science [Appendix III]. Their lacuna, as explained there and in footnotes 4.6 to 4.11, is lack of any current and expected verification potential of their popular claims for other universes that may be as big as 10-35m during an eye-catcher pre-creation time, or ‘during’ precreation ‘hot-crunch-contraction’ of ‘multiple universes’ into a black hole4.3. Well-verified general relativity3.3 presents us with nothing ‘outside’ our finite, but unbounded3.3, observable universe, unless one subscribes to the aforementioned mystic cults of string theories4.6 – 4.11 . Accordingly the condensed history of our world during its first six ‘Days’ is described in Fig. 01 and next.

The

totality of our observable universe was extremely dense and hot at the beginning of the First ‘Day’. From that ‘Day’ to ‘the present one’, the universe has consistently being transformed from an initial structure-less state to the current structured one. The verified theory behind that phenomenon is general relativity, the best theory of science on the scale-free, universal gravitational field3.3, or in short, gravity. Direct verification of the first six ‘Days’ of the world has, nevertheless, been banned due to the verified fact that during the earliest epoch it had been totally opaque, as a whole, and any curved space-time3.3 point was in a state of strictly uniform thermal equilibrium (in space). Yet, it was expanding4.4, and, as a result, its contents were undergoing radical changes, from chaos to order, from structure-less state at beginning to the current, GRAVITY-INDUCED, structured galaxies, stars, planets, moons, tides, biosphere, DNA, bioorganism, written languages, books and the reader. The only clock; the sole measurable time 3.3

coordinate in general relativity3.3, or the coordinate marked by the unfolding cosmic irreversible processes during ‘Day-1’, is the universe itself; in fact, by its increase in ‘size’, or decrease in its spatially uniform temperature, or spatially uniform density of energy, or type of processes depicted in Fig. 1.1. Neither other clocks, nor any other measurable time had existed during the first six ‘days’ of the structure-less, opaque universe. Early cosmology releases anyone from the prison of anthropomorphic seconds and years. [Appendix VI] So I begin from the beginning while maintaining demarcation lines between ‘Days’ are flexible.

atoms existed during ‘Day-1’; not even protons, and neutrons3.2. Everything was at complete spatial thermal equilibrium in time. The cosmos as a whole was cooling down with time in terms of degrees K, or seconds, or energy density, or our ‘Days’. Einstein’s General Relativity3.3, combined with what we know today about the (frozen-until-now) neutron-proton ratio [see ‘Day’ 5], quantum physics3.2, the hydrogen bomb and thermonuclear fusion processes4.2 and the remnant, black-body radiation4.12, provide us with a reasonable insight of the pre-atomic processes during the first six ‘Days’; namely, prior to the emergence of neutral atoms and proto-agglomerations of gas-into-stars-into-galaxies, until, eventually, matter had separated from radiation during the ‘7th day’ [see below]. During the 7th’Day matter (gas) first started to aggregate by the force of gravity forming the first proto-stars, then stars and what is called quasars4.14, eventually evolving into galaxies, clusters and superclusters4.13 of them. 45

Out of the single, high-energy, gravitational field3.3 the electroweak3.2 and the strong3.2 force-fieldinteractions separated at about 1028K, thereby two fundamental forces-fieldsforming interactions in the cosmos, instead of one. When the extremely small and hot universe, as a whole, cooled down, quarks3.2, leptons3.2 and their antiparticles emerged. Their emergence had caused further separation into three fundamental forces of nature: The gravitational3.3, electroweak3.2 and the strong3.2. Quarks are then assumed to combine with positively charged strong3.2 field-interactions; protons and the neutrons3.2, and, ‘later’, the neutrons and protons fused4.1 together to form the nuclei of the light chemical elements: Hydrogen, helium, and lithium. As the temperature dropped below about 1015K, (but was still above 1011K), the strong and electroweak fields parted from each other, thereby resulting in the four fundamental fields of nature as we know them today at relatively low energies. ‘Elementary particles’ pairs were ‘generated’ out of DAY the intense gravitational field as the cosmic temperatures lowered further but were still higher than 1011K. Therefore, this ‘2nd Day’ in the world 2 history is termed ‘PARTICLE CREATION DAY’. [FIG. 1.1] rd

The ‘3 Day’ is termed ‘THE DAY OF DAY ISOTROPISATION’ [FIG.1.1]. It is characterized by the roles played by strongly interacting ‘elementary particles’, such as photons, neutrinos, 3 leptons, mesons, nucleons, and their antiparticles3..2. The cosmic temperature now drops to about 100,000,000,000 degrees Kelvin. The cosmos now contain photons, neutrinos, anti-neutrinos, muons3.2, anti-muons, electrons and positrons3.2.

>1011 K

DAY As the temperature dropped further, the neutrinos and antineutrinos decoupled from other ‘elementary 4 particles’: A duration termed ‘NEUTRINO DECOUPLING’. [FIG. 1.1] Electron-positron pairs3.2 began to annihilate each other and the cooling of the neutrinos and antineutrinos3.2 froze the neutron-proton ratio at about 1 to 5, as currently verified by all observations. DAY This epoch is termed ‘HELIUM FORMATION 5 DAY’. [FIG. 1.1]. At lower temperatures photons stop disintegration of the newly formed atomic ‘plasma’; mainly that of hydrogen and helium. Neutrons fused4.2 with protons to form their relative abundances as we observe them today. Further nucleosynthesis (fusion4.2), as it progresses DAY in the interiors of shining-radiating sources, including the sun, forms the nuclei of helium and 6 other heavier elements that we observe today by the methods of astronomy [Volume I]. This duration is termed ‘DEUTERIUM FORMATION DAY’. [FIG. 1.1] On this ‘Friday Night’, the world temperature has already dropped down (by the expansion of the universe as a whole), to 4,0003,000 K, and the 7th ‘Day’ enters the world history.

1011 K 1011K to 109K

109 K to 3000 K

The ‘7th Day’

This

‘Day’ begins with the genesis of expanding Space-1, as evidenced by comparing Fig. 1.1 with Fig. 1.2; It is also the Grand Genesis of the dark-cold night sky, which, with gravity, controls plants, animals and everyday life at anytime and place, as described in the rest of this book and in Volume I.

It is also entirely different from the first six ones. It lasted from the end of ‘Day-6’ to the emergence of the first full-fledged written language in UR (Table II in Appendix V and Appendix VI or until any other time demarcation that is based on verifiable records, or until the cold end of the world [Chapter 2].

Fig. 1.1: Space-1 Genesis. Expansion of the previously opaque univers formed expanding colder [Blue] ‘voids’ [SPACE-1] and hotter matter emitters of radiation [in Space 2], as it was formed below 3000K (starting at around 300,000 years post genesis). Photons, neutrinos and anti-neutrinos3.2 then escaped from the newly-formed aggregations of [plasma] nuclei, and were irreversibly absorbed in the newly-formed, unsaturable, cold sink: SPACE-1 [Fig. 1.2 below]. About 2 billion years post genesis, these gravity-induced, protomassive-entities were already condensed and heated enough for nuclear fusion4.2 to start. This NASA picture shows that, on a large scale, the universe was isotropic and homogeneous in terms of distribution of cold ‘voids’, hot matter-structures-emitters and their maximum temperatures4.1. There had been no net energy flow across adiabatic envelopes 4.15 in Space 1. [Cf. Fig. 1.2]

Fig. 1.2: The largest portrait of the universe, as observed today by NASA [Chapter 1]. The size of expanding, cold ‘voids’ between shining filaments or clouds of superclusters of galaxies has increased [Fig, 1.2]. They are interconnected in multi-dimensional Space-1. Uniform maximum temperatures, isotropic and homogenous distribution of voids vis-à-vis galaxies (on large scales) are preserved (Fig. 1.1). There is no net flow of energy from one adiabatic ‘envelope’4.15 to another. They wrap superclusters at large scales. Studying the dynamics and thermodynamics of one such ‘envelope’ is similar to the difficult study of the whole universe. As a student, in 1958, I discovered the origin of irreversibility & time-asymmetries3.4 by examining just one such envelope, but around clusters. (Appendix IV). Later verifications of superclusters of galaxies have not changed the results.

RECAP: As the entire universe expanded down to about 4,000-4,000 degrees K, atomic nuclei had been formed and radiation was then decoupled from matter, allowing slight variations in density to grow by the force of gravity into the first aggregations of matter, which, consequently, have become denser and hotter than the surrounding ‘gas’. As gravity keeps increasing their inner core temperatures, these early entities become emitters of larger and larger quantities of electromagnetic waves3.1 [radiation energy]. On its way ‘down’ to lower temperatures of the newly formed Space-1 that is composed of cold ‘voids’ and adiabatic surfaces4.15 (a), (b) and (c) [Diagram, opening pages]. The net, uni-directional, flow of radiation energy is partially absorbed and re-emitted from any gravitational entity it encounters on its way to the depth of cold, ever-expanding [Chapter 2] Space-1 [Fig. 1.2]. The temperatures [energy-density] in adiabatic envelopes4.15 (a), (b) and (c) [Diagram] keep decreasing by the expansion-cooling of Space-1. One result is the observed-felt cold-dark night sky that we see today when we look ‘up’ during a clear night, or feel its coldness when walking out at night. The other result is the cosmic microwave black-body radiation discovered in 19644.12. The filaments or clouds formed by gravity-induced super-clusters of galaxies, contain billions of galaxies, each containing billions of sunlike stars. The adiabatic envelopes4.15 are interconnected in Space-1. [‘ly’ in Fig. 1.2

means the distance Light Year5.6]

The Black Body Radiation4.12 and the well-verified abundance of hydrogen and helium since the beginning of this ‘Day’ is a remarkable confirmation of the sequence of events described in Table I, especially the 1:5 frozen-in-ratio of neutrons-to-protons that had emerged from ‘Day 5’. These are some of the time-invariant relics of the First Six ‘Days’ of the world history. Nothing of the incoming sun’s energy remains in this planet. ALL the incoming sun’s incoming energy (plus a small amount of heat from the earth’s interior], is proceeding further into the depths of Spaces 3 , 2 and 1, in that order. [Fig. 1.2] 50

All such energies in all stars and galaxies, are, eventually, irreversibly dissipated in the depth of Space-1 – the limitless, unsaturatable sink of the universe. [Fig. 1.2]. This is the result of complicated thermal cycles in our atmosphere. The outgoing radiation is partially reflected back to space from the upper layer of the atmosphere, while most it, via longer wave-lengths, radiates out to Spaces 3, 2 and 1 after complex processes in the earth’s atmosphere. [Cf, Solar Wind5.3] There are two different radiation energy densities in Spaces-1, 2 and 3. TYPE-I Energy Density This is the spatially uniform remnant, cosmic background radiation4.12 that keeps cooling as Space-1 keeps expanding. It contributes to the total radiation energy density at adiabatic envelopes (a), (b) and (c) (Diagram) that wrap each cluster, or supercluster of galaxies in an adiabatic envelope4.15. Yet, this radiation does not generate any gradients that can drive energy from Spaces-2 and 3 to Space-1, or inside Space-1. [Fig. 1.2] This radiation has been left over from the 7th ‘Day’ when the cosmic ‘soup’ cooled down to around 4000-3000 degrees Kelvin. Then the positively charged atomic nuclei have captured the free electrons. Yet, as proto-stars had started to grow in mass by the attractive force of gravity, their interiors were heated up and electrons and protons separated again inside the shining sources4.2; 5.1; 5.3; 5.4; 4.1. TYPE-II Energy Density This is a ‘SOLAR WIND’5.3 type of radiation that pours into Spaces 3 and 2 from all active, gravity-induced emitters. Its properties include SPACE GRADIENTS that generated by energy-emitting stellar and galactic sources, supernovea4.1, x-ray-glowing gas on its way to a [local] black hole4.3, etc. Eventually this energy is dissipated irreversibly in the depth of the limitless, unsaturable, expandingcooling sink: SPACE-14.4. [Fig. 1.2]. In addition, local black holes act as limitless sinkers. The dynamics and thermodynamics of the gradients of these Solar Winds Types of Radiation illustrate the origin of irreversibility in nature, the Master Time Asymmetry3.4; 4.11 and of all irreversible processes in the vast universe. RECAP II: Matter (gas, plasma), during the first part of the 7th’Day, aggregated by the force of gravity into the first proto-entities, then 51

‘early stars’ and possibly what is called quasars4.14, has gradually been evolved by the force of gravity into shining [radiating] proto-galaxies, galaxies, clusters and superclusters of galaxies4.13 [Fig. 1.2]. On the Possibility of Other Advanced Civilizations No structured (intelligent, or information loaded) electromagnetic radiation spectrum-signatures that can reveal an advanced civilization somewhere in ‘our’ 100,000 light-years max-diameter galaxy5.4, or outside it, has yet been detected by radio telescopes, or by any other detector that searches the sky for such a ‘proof’. The nearest star beyond the sun [Proxima Centauri] is about 40,000,000,000,000 km away from earth. (1 light year5.6 is 9.46x1012 km). It would certainly take much longer time if these signals had originated in ‘our’ local group5.5 of galaxies. If the signal had originated, for instance, in the ‘nearby’ galaxy, M-31, (Andromeda), which is 20,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 km away, it would take it a mere 2,000,000 (sun-earth-based) years to reach us; slightly longer than the expected life span of the reader, unless it had originated about that time earlier. This is not a pessimistic conclusion. It only illustrates how big and vast is our observable universe, even in our local group of galaxies5.5. “Advanced Potential Beings” cannot reach us in person, or by craft, prior to their electromagnetic waves3.1, for nothing can travel faster than light, except in some movies and dreams. The aforementioned fact does not mean that such ‘wave-spectrum-structure-proofs’ had originated in the past from a higher civilization. In such a case the (structured) signals are still underway. Any potential response to such a signal, if would be originated from earth one day, would take the same long time to travel to such a civilization. An undirected information that proceeds with a spacecraft at a speed much slower than that of an electromagnetic wave (as had been done years ago under the leadership of Carl Sagan), would certainly take much longer time.

RECAP III: At the beginning the universe was entirely structure-less, and opaque1.3. During the very first epoch radiation and matter were seamlessly coupled: Electrons scattered photons, etc., and everything was in complete uniformity in the spatial coordinates of the entire world. Separation of matter from matter by gravity during the 7th ‘Day’, had started by slight, local variations in the density of the initial structureless ‘plasma’. This irreversible process had been the seed for the formation of massive agglomerations of matter via the everlasting, Structuring-Orienting force of gravity3.3. All has since been controlled by gravity. (PARTS B, C and D)

1.1

Gravity-Induced Phenomena and Everyday Acts & Concepts. Starting from this Chapter, gravity-induced, interconnected concepts, acts and phenomena may be used for selecting a topic in composing an independent homework assay for grading [Appendix I]. Subjects, words and concepts listed below without a footnote are treated in subsequent Parts of this book, or in Volumes I and II. No footnote should be confused with an ‘Introduction’ to the subject it deals with, or refers to. Nonetheless, most footnotes are interconnected to other footnotes, and, combined, constitute a new supplement CCC for levels II and III. 

Time asymmetries3.4; 4.11, supersymmetries4.11, particle physics3.2, particles as points3.2,, string theories4.6 – 4.11, quantum theories 3.2; 13.1, general relativity3.3; 3.5, relativistic cosmology3.3, unified field theories3.5, geodesics3.3, photon trajectories3.3, solar system5.1, solar wind5.1, moon-planet-stars-rounded shape, our galaxy5.4, local group of galaxies5.5, superclusters of galaxies4.13, expanding inter-cluster space4.4, radiation energy density in intercluster space [Diagram in opening page], supernovae4.1, fusion and heavy elements4.2, thermo-nuclear reaction4.2, the building blocks of life4.1; 4.2, observations-distance-light-year5.6, galactic centers4.5, interstellar space[Diagram, opening pages], planetary system5.1, etc.



Second, minute, hour, day, year, duration, time [Tables I and II in Appendix V], cosmological arrow of time [Diagram, opening pages], the origin of time [Appendix VI; Volume I], cosmic time, electromagnetic arrows of time3.1; 3.4, 3.5, retarded solutions3.4, advanced solutions3.4, UR/Sumer [Appendix VI] clay tokens, numerology, seasonal rituals, calendar, prediction-retrodiction3.4, initial conditions3.4, gravitational field3.3, 3.5, planetary orbits, relativistic astrophysics and astronomy, relativistic transformations, curved spacetime3.3; 3.5, 4.4, quasars 4.13, black holes4.3, neutron stars, red & white dwarfs, gravitational selection-orientation, gravitational lens, pre-genesis [Table I and footnotes 4.6 to 4.11], principle of equivalence3.3, gravitational attraction3.3, gravitational collapse4.1, X-ray sources, proto-galaxies [Chapter I], dwarf planet, dwarf star, dwarf galaxies, biosphere, DNA, RNA, Mitochondrial-DNA, mtn-DNA-based archeology [Table II in Appendix V], tectonic folds, thermodynamics and entropy1..2, information theories, climatology, erosion, wind, wind energy, geo-thermal energy, weather, snow-caps, glaciers, ice-age, paleontology, sediments, bio-geo-chemistry, fractional crystallization [Volume I], geophysical periodicities, fossil fuels, meteors, comets, asteroids, etc. (Cf. subsequent Parts of this book, or in Volumes I and II)



Gravity feeders, diapers, blanket, gate, poles, posts, sunrise, sunset, scuba diving, coral reef, coast-line control, coast guard, border barriers, nationalities; roots, branches, flower or wheat morphology; apical dominance position of a shoot, form (habit) of a plant depends on the orientation of its parts in relation to gravity, production of ethylene by physical stress imposed on the tissue, etc. (Cf. subsequent Parts of this book, or Volumes I and II)

Underpass, overpass, foundations, floor, table, chair, chairperson, chairing, bed, bedding, rugs, walls, doors, windows, curtains, tapestries, chandeliers, candle flame, roof, stairs, stage, dome, arc, shelves, balcony, porch, piers, drainage, water dams, water reservoirs, lava, ladder, lift, elevator, escalator, columns, tides, head, legs, gravity and the organism, etc. (Cf. subsequent Parts of this book, or Volumes I and II)



Oceans, islands, islets, beaches, beach house, reefs, waterfront, dunes, sea level, highland, rivers, valleys, mountains, hills, volcanoes, lakes, ponds, river bank, canals, river flow, river stones, rocks, brooks, waterfalls, birds, snakes, seeds, plants, grass roots, trees, sky, firmament, stars, galaxies, planets, atmosphere, biosphere, ionosphere, stratosphere, specific gravity, dust, rain, clouds, fog, shadows, climate, eco-systems, ozone layer, dark night sky [Appendix IV], black body radiation4.12, seasonal changes, geological depositionslayers, stalagmites-stalactites, temples, geological layers, coral reefs, crust, mantle, lithosphere, mountain crests, tectonic folds, earthquakes, lagoons, springs, wells, swamps, glaciers, city and village structures, downtown, upper town, airfields, aircraft, spacecraft, airports, lots, landslides, septic tank, drainage systems, sewage systems, fields, ports, harbors, railways, highways, path, trail, road systems, transportation systems, structures, bridges, tunnels, ships, light houses, dock view, boats, boat docks, anchors, cable cars, space exploration, etc. (Cf. subsequent Parts of this book, or Volumes I and II)



Van Gogh vs. oriented brush strokes of what penetrates all nature, what controls all life: direction and rhythms; Salvador Dalli vs. surrealism and gravity-induced, down-flowing clocks; Marc Chagall vs. mankind dreams of flying; ‘anti-gravity’ leitmotifs vs. related stories, anecdotes, movies; dadaism, realism, naturalism vs. gravity-induced modern art [Chapter 11]; landscape architecture, landscape gardening, hanging gardens, environmentalism vs. preservation of gravity-induced structures, etc.



Otolith organs [Chapter 7], gravity-sensors, gravity-detectors, biological detectors of sound modulations; bio-accelerometers, biological evolution, gravity perception3.3, gravity receptors, digestive system, spine, skeleton, fingers-arms-legs, cerebellum, motor cortex, spinocerebellar tract, vertigo, bio-accelerometers, brainstem, balancing, coordination, orientation [Chapter 7], movement, motility, vestibular system, cell structure [Chapter 7] visà-vis gravity, geo-bio-systems, structural changes in legs, hands, fingers, knees, neck, throat, intestine, rectum, skeletons, nervous system, skull, hair, location of eyebrows, eyelids, nose nostrils, mouth, orientation-location of the reproduction organs, inability to eat upside down; shoes, slippers, socks, underwear, pants, shirt, coat, necktie, hat, crown, etc. (Cf. subsequent Parts of this book, or in Volumes I and II)



Linguistic asymmetries (Chapter 6 and Volumes I), linguistic symmetries3.4, symbols, syntax, words, sentences, grammar, linguistic arrow of time, gravity axis [Chapter 6], social determinism, bio-social systems and communication, aggregated-oriented entities-symbolswords, oriented verbal thinking, aggregated things-in-themselves, aggregated pictures in the brain-mind, biological cells, bacteria, viruses, membranes, boundaries, boundary conditions3.4, boundary problem3.4, etc. (Cf. subsequent Parts of this book, or in Volumes I and II)



Structural stability, aggregation, symmetry-asymmetry3.4; 4.11, irreversibility3.4, mathematically-based theories, aggregated memory, etc. (Cf. subsequent Parts of this book, or in Volumes I and II); Origin of life, socio-environmental interactions, point of view, maps, clays, pottery, machines that exploit the force of gravity, ocean waves, wind-turbines, etc. (Cf. subsequent Parts of this book, or in Volumes I and II)



Uploading, downloading, uprising, lowly, underlining, underscoring, upright, upbeat, uphold, upgrading, under-performing, underachieving, stand-up, withstand, stand-by, dissipating, declining, breaking down, show down, falling-apart, (physical and conceptual) meltdown, far down, hanging, overcoming, over-reacting, updating, tearing down, downgrading, precipitating, overturning, settling, settling down, settle up, settle upon, steady, steadiness, showdown, bring down, upbringing, upheaval, ascend, descend, upkeep, uplifting,

All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008 lofty, high, low, heavy, earthy, light, upper-class, higher-class, floating, sitting, rising, hanging, plowing, mowing, diving, floating, flying, walking, balancing, jumping, skiing, skilift, ski-jump; taking-off, landing, pouring, deposition, writing down, landslide, flooding, flood insurance, etc. (Cf. subsequent Parts of this book, or in Volumes I and II) 

High-rise cathedrals, heavenliness, heaven-ward, hell, high priest, High Table, kingdom of the sky, underworld, The One who sits in the high sky levels, The One who dissipates the rain, The One who moves mountains, The Creator, The One who lifts the poor, etc.

1.2

Entropy, ‘Noise’, ‘Disorder’ and ‘Information’: Thermodynamics-Information Theories) These concepts are fully treated in Volume I. This footnote is not an Introduction to the subjects. Entropy, ‘Noise’, ‘Disorder’ and ‘Information’ are neither energy nor matter. In fact, they are meaningless in dealing with the observable universe prior to the emergence of life and the thinking mortals. They cannot be seamlessly linked to symmetric physics3.4; 4.11, general relativity3.3 and general relativistic cosmology. Their key fallacy emerges from basing them on our anthropomorphic concepts such as ‘disorder’ -- a ghost outside fundamental science. It is also impossible to define them unequivocally in relativistic transformations. False dictumes that students in the ‘exact sciences’ [including engineering] are trained to think are what the 2nd law of thermodynamics means, e.g.: ‘Entropy of the universe only increases’, ‘disorder in the universe only increases’, falacies proved in Volume I. I have, therefore, been forced to replace what is to be replaced in Volume I: The new, general-relativistic-based ‘Entropy-Free Thermodynamics’. It uses instead the well-verified, universal dissipated energy in unsaturable Space-1, a discovery that seamlessly unifies it with the rest of physics. That revolutionary theory is required in fundamental science in light of the failures of statistical and quantum thermodynamics to do the same. The new theory has been acclaimed worldwide (p. 1 and 20) and is therefore referred to as Unified Thermodynamics, or as Astrophysical Thermodynamics. In contradiction with the old classical, statistical and quantum thermodynamics [Volume I], the unified thermodynamics [entropy-free, gravity-induced 2nd law of thermodynamics], increases structure and ‘order’ in the universe, and NOT increase ‘disorder’ as all students, in any university around the world, in any generation during more than a hundred years, is trained-forced to repeat like a parrot. Those who dare to ask fundamental questions in class are often treated as described in the Introduction and in Appendix IV of this volume IV. The New ‘2nd Law’ can now be presented in class as deduced from general relativity3.3 and the well-verified dynamics and thermodynamics of ‘Space-1-Expansion’ (Diagram, opening pages, and Figs. 1.1 and 1.2). But to fully understand, teach and study the new Unified Thermodynamics one must use Volume I. In teaching and in practice in the domains of engineering, socio-biology, gravitational biology, cell biology, physiology, information systems and economics, the unified thermodynamics, or entropyfree thermodynamics, or the new 2nd law, do not require any modification of, say, entropy maps as widely used in engineering, etc. The new outlook is important ‘only’ in human attempts to ever gain a better understanding of ‘Creation’, the evolution and structure of the universe, galaxies, stars, planets, supernovae, the solar system, the solar wind, asymmetries-symmetries, Space-1-Expansion, etc,, and in improving understanding of how these affect plant and animal behavior and our everyday life on earth as well as current and future foundations of physics in particular, in terms of general relativistic cosmology, and of the foundations of science in general. 1.3

The New World Outlook vs. Religion is fully unfolded in Volumes I. Here, in Volume IV it is briefly repeated in conjunction with what is widely called ‘evolution’, according to which not only life, but the entire universe, prior to and post life, has evolved. Yet, many theists endorse this

All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008 outlook for it co-exists ‘under the same roof’ [Chapter 1, here] with the biblical “Creator” and with other key religious concepts.

2 _______________________________________________________

How All Life Would End?

But as for certain truth, No man has known it. Nor will he know it; Neither of the gods. Nor yet of all the things of which I speak. And even if by chance he were to utter the final truth, He would himself not know it; For all is but a woven web of guesses.

Xenophanes We are only just embarking on a universal quest for knowledge and are still like children playing with pebbles on the seashore, while the great ocean of truth rolls, unexplored, beyond our reach.

Isaac Newton

The end of all life and the end of the world have endlessly haunted humans since the beginning of humanity. But these skeptic issues have finally been resolved by working back and force between theory and facts. Recent measurements of the redshift/magintude of (TypeIa) supernovae4.1 [Volume I] prove that the expansion of Space-1 has been accelerating since the universe was about half its present age: 13.72 (sun-earth) years.

Unlike the popular belief, there would be ‘no end’ to the world -- to the physical universe as a whole. Only all life would end in a cold end. We are not only living in an ever-expanding universe, but under the control and side effects of accelerated-expansion. The universe would not end with a contracting ‘hot crunch’, as many have speculated. Within such speculations, the currently expanding (and cooling) SPACE-1 (Diagram, opening pages, and Figs. 1.1 and 1.2) would stop expanding in the future due to the overall, universal, gravitational attraction3.3 of the entire the mass-energy of its contents. At this reversal point in the expansion the entire universe (expansion of Space-1), according to these speculators, it would start contracting, eventually tracing its evolution back to the initial hot-dense conditions described in Table I, Chapter 1. I.e., hot-dense total destruction of all atomic and macro systems that have been produced during the 7th ‘Day’ [Chapter 1]. This well-verified result constitutes a blow to many theorists that have been writing and lecturing for decades about the hot end and about what they call the “missing matter” – the matter that they need to stop the expansion of Space-1 (Diagram, opening pages, and Figs. 1.1 and 1.2) in their cosmological models and imagination. Readers and students may skip any book, publication or a TV documentary that resurrects missing matter, “dark matter” (unobservable matter) and the cosmological constant4.16; 2.5. It might be a reasonable illustration of many contemporary scientists, including some reputed ones: They have claimed, without evidence, not only that the universe would reverse its 13.7 billion earth-sun years of on-going, observed, verified expansion, but that it must obey their wish to behave that way by containing more matter than has been detected by all astronomers -- their “missing matter” theories and lecturing to the public. (This false claim stands apart from an additional issue: Why is the universe accelerating its rate of space-1 expansion despite the universal force of gravity? Speculations abound about a repelling type of an undetectable matter-field-interaction that fills the entire universe, but this issue remains outside the scope of this volume.) 57

The false ‘vision’ about final contraction and hot end requires that the Radiation Energy Density at adiabatic envelopes4.15 (a), (b) and (c) in the deep inter-cluster SPACE-1 (Diagram, opening pages, and Figs. 1.1 and 1.2) would gradually increase up to the core-temperature/RadiationEnergy-Density of the hottest stellar sources4.1; 4.2. Eventually the universe would end up in a hot dense state, as in its beginning. Some such prophets also envision that the contents of this universe would show up as a ‘white hole’ in another universe, or other universes. The updated, well-verified scenario is, however, the opposite. Space-1 (Diagram, opening pages, and Figs. 1.1 and 1.2) would forever expand and cool. Billions of sun-earth years from now, it would reach a very cold state that is not the end of its physical structure, as claimed by prophets of the ‘hot crunch”, who remind me of the biblical account of Elijah vis-à-vis the other 1000 prophets.  ‘Our’ sun and all active stars and galaxies would gradually consume all their “fuel” by fusion4.2, and, like campfires on a cold mountain, would become as cold as the surrounding, intercluster, dark-cold background: Space-1. The gradients that lead ‘solar-wind’-type of energy from the shining sources to adiabatic envelopes4.15 (a), (b) and (c) would gradually vanish, causing space-1, as a whole, to approach zero absolute temperature (270 degrees C below zero C) by its accelerated expansion.  Spaces 2 and 3, and with them all cosmic structures, would follow the cold path of Space-1, down to zero K.2.1 – 2.3 Nevertheless, the gravitational force of the freezing planets, stars, galaxies, gases and dust, would, forever, function; causing some shining sources to flare up for a longer time than the other. But, eventually, they would all ‘die’, holding hands with each other via the gravitational force that penetrates all and is at one with all structures3.3, forever. The only time, the only physical clock left in our future frozen cosmos, would, as in its beginning, be the increasing size of SPACE1. (Diagram, opening pages, and Figs. 1.1 and 1.2). The whole cosmos, including our remains, would exist forever; would just grow as cold as possible by the escaping radiation into the everlasting, expanding Space-1; the universal sink of all left-over energies. 58

Dark Matter and Black Holes: Phantom (unverified) cosmological theories about “dark matter”2.3 imply that, eventually, as Space-1 expands uniformly4.4, clusters and super-clusters of galaxies, stars, planets, atoms and ‘ordinary’ nuclei, will be destroyed by the dark matter. The generation of local sinks, as additional sinks, such as black holes, would also stop. Speculations about ‘evaporation’ of black holes [Volume 1], if verified, would only delay this merciless end. 2.1

Phantom (unverified) Cosmological Theories About “Dark Matter”2.3 imply that, eventually, as Space-1 expands uniformly4.4, clusters and super-clusters of galaxies, stars, planets, atoms and ‘ordinary ‘ nuclei, will be destroyed by the dark matter.

2.2

Shapes of the universe. A closed universe (positive space-time curvature), a hyperbolic one (negative curvature) or a flat one (zero curvature) are possible in general relativistic cosmology, depending on the total energy-matter density of the universe in the past, ‘present’ and future. (Volume I). Space-time curvature of the entire universe is negative if its avearge total density is less than the so-called critical density; positive if greater, and zero at the critical density, in which case space-time is said to be flat. Yet, small departures from the critical density may grow with time, i.e., the universe in the past, today and in the future may be different in density, overall shape, etc. See also footnotes 4.4. and 2.3.

2.3

Space-1-Expansion vs. “Dark Matter”2.1, 2.4. Some theoretical particle physics models of “dark matter” have been proposed. But no verification has emerged. It has been claimed, however, that only about 30% of the critical density is observed. This leads to speculations about unobserved mater [“dark matter”]. The ‘average’ energy density decreases with the expansion of the universe, but the dark energymatter density,is speculated to remain almost constant as Space-1 expands. Therefore, a universe composed of a larger fraction of the total energy-matter in the past than today, may, in the future, be dominated by dark energy-matter. See also footnotes 2.1, 4.4. and 2.2 and Figs. 1.1 and 1.2. 2.4

The Dark Matter2.1. 2.3, 2.5 Ghost is unverified, unobservable, speculative, hidden form of matter that has surfaced by theorists out of various possible options to explain the cause of the verified accelerated expansion of the universe. [Footnotes 2.5, 4.1]. It is also being claimed to permeate all space-time [55-60] and to be repulsive in nature so as to push-accelerate the expansion anywhere, not to attract its components, as in Einstein’s Field Equations2.5. The ‘dark-energy’ approach and its proponents, only contribute to the speculative image of modern cosmology. Like string theories4.6 to 4.11 and ‘the cosmological constand’ 2.5, these approaches are non-scientific. The dark matter is too dark to be included in this book.

2.5

‘Resurrection of The Cosmological Constant’. During the 1915-1929 events that had started with the publication (1915) of general relativity3.3 (Einstein’s Field Equations [EFE]) and

All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008 Friedmann’s proof that EFE cannot accept any static-equilibrium solution [a stable universe], Einstein lost faith in the mathematical predictions of his general relativity when applied to cosmology. Like the media and most scientists of his time, he could not believe that we live in an unstable universe; nothing expands on a cosmological scale on earth (unless you eat too much), in the solar system, or in our galaxy. To prevent that ‘instability’, Einstein artificially forced on his general relativistic field equations a cosmological constant [vacuum energy] aimed at stopping that ‘unwanted’ expansion [or contraction]. Was Einstein contemplating more about the cause behind the observed dark-cold night sky, he may have reached an earlier different conclusion: That the dark-cold night sky is the simplest and direct proof that the cosmological predictions of his general relativity are right; that there is no need to add an artificial number to stop the (human) unwanted expansion of the cosmos, which at that time was not yet known. In the 20’s, Hubble proved, by using well-verified4.1 astronomical observations, that SPACE-1 expands. [Diagram, opening pages; Table I, Chapter 1; Fig. 1.2] When Einstein was informed about Hubble’s observational verification of the expanding universe, he has admitted that by forcing on his general relativistic field equations, the cosmological constant, he had been driven by human wishes to stop the ‘culturally-unwanted’ expansion, eventually concluding that the addition of this constant has been ‘the worst blunder of my life.’ Einstein’s rejection of that constant from science was a serious blow to many theorists, for they have already piled, with their graduate students and followers, many ‘scientific papers’ that explain the [misleading] deep meaning of that ghost. But that was not the end of this constant. It has resurrected recently by verification of the accelerated expansion of the universe2.4. Suddenly, armies of theorists could link that ghost to string theories4.6 to 4.11 and to another ghost: The ‘dark matter’2.4. As usual, the media, equipped with an embedded greed for higher rating, has embraced debates on dark matter, the cosmological constant, string theories and “Einstein Was Twice Wrong”. The end result: These theorists (i) re-equip cosmology with a rejecting speculative image, (ii) portray a wrong image of science in general. Such un-subsiding attempts resemble a phenomenon that today, more than ever before, may be motivated by an inner desire to deny Einstein’s world outlook and refrain from admitting the need to surrender to his world outlook. What actually drives such ambitions I do not know.

3 ___________________________________________ The Greatest Ambition in Physics

It would be possible to describe everything scientifically, but it would make no sense; it would be without meaning, as if you described a Beethoven symphony as a variation of wave pressure.

Albert Einstein

unknown source that, nevertheless, may be referred to as ‘logical’, ‘aesthetic’, ‘inner wish’, or ‘religious’, is driving human will to unify all fundamental forces of nature and fuse them into ‘unified field equations’, or a single World Outlook that is based on the minimal possible number of axioms while explaining the maximum number of verified facts. Currently, at high energies, these fundamental forces are: The Electromagnetic-Weak (see below and footnotes 3.1) The Strong (see below and footnotes 3.2) Gravity (see below and footnotes 3.3) At low energies the electromagnetic force-field-interaction separates from the weak one, thereby we speak about FOUR fundamental forces of nature. There is, in addition, a tantalizing clash between the theoretical symmetry of the mathematics that describe these fundamental forcesfields-interactions and the actual asymmetry of nature3.4: Asymmetry-Symmetery (see Synopsis, below and footnotes 3.4), 61

Symmetry, as I see it, is conserved in any physico-mathemical equation is irrespective of the mathematical funambulism of its manipulators. The fact is merciless: If anyone starts with symmetric equation the correct result can never be asymmetric. Similarly, asymmetry is conserved. Symmetry cannot result from asymmetry, nor vice versa. These ‘conservation laws’ are very important, as I find during investigations of their origin in nature and in our theories. They have been raised in the SYNOPSIS and are to be treated again later. The Electromagnetic-Weak force-field-interaction is, in short, the electro–weak force. It is at the base of chemistry, biology, medical sciences and appliances, communication, electronics, electronmicroscopy, telescopes, astronomy, radioactive decay, etc. It binds atoms together to form molecules.3.1; 13.1; 13.2 The Strong Force is at the base of subatomic, quantum physics3.2; 13.1 and is being incorporated in various efforts by the proponents of the (unverifiable) string theories4.6 – 4.11. Gravity3.3, a short term for the gravitational force-field-interaction described by general relativity, reigns superb and controls all cosmological, galactic, stellar, planetary, terrestrial, geological, ecological, socio-biological, plants, animal structures-systems and key human concepts, as described in this volume. Despite claims for success, as declared by some proponents of string theories4.6-4.11, the grand unification of the three fundamental forces of nature remains a run-away aspiration beyond the horizon of verifiable science. During Einstein’s lifetime these efforts represented the fact that he had worked hard until his death (1955) in seeking grand scientific unification of all forces of nature (four at his time). He did not succeed however. His dictums reflect his skeptical view: Science is not the complete knowledge of nature, neither of things-in-themselves, nor of the will to will. The will to will is beyond physics. If ‘everything’ and ‘things-in-themselves’ are explained one day by one unified physics, it may not explain the origin of our search for an aesthetic frame of mind; for the run-away horizons of truth and 62

asymmetry-symmetry that we always try to reach. [Assertions IN.1 and 1.1]. For that reason this CCC includes a chapter on realities in ‘the arts’; realities in which all interconnectedness between all branches of human knowledge play a role. I shall gradually return to this key theme. In the meanwhile the reader may wish to consult some preliminary footnotes3.1-3.5; 4.2-4-13; 5.1-5.5;13.1 that may prove helpful in following the next pages.

3.1

Electromagnetic-Weak Force-Field-Interaction. Note: While this is a long footnote, it is not an Introduction to the subject. Beyond it one may consult Footones 3.2 to 3.5 and Volume I, especially for some hot depates and specific disputations in physics.

The subject involves (at high energies) the long-range electromagnetic field-force-interactions (see below), with the Weak Force, as a short-range force-field-interaction that harbors some radioactive decay processes. At low energies it constitutes the fourth fundamental force-field in modern physics. The electromagnetic force is at the base of chemistry, biology, medical sciences, communication, electronics, electron-microscopy, telescopes, astronomy, etc.1.1 It binds atoms together to form molecules, including biomolecules like DNA. It is about hundred times weaker than the strong force.3.2 Field-Force-Interactions are postulated to emit and absorb massless, point-like, field particles like photons of 3.2 light and other field particles . Gluons3.2 are postulated to mediate the strong force3.2, while specific bosons ‘mediate’ the weak force. [Gravitons have also been proposed by some theorists to ‘mediate’ the gravitational force-field3..3.]

Sheldon Glashow, Abdus Salam and Steven Weinberg won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1979 [See List of all Nobel Prize Winners in Appendix II) for developing the electroweak theory that unifies the electromagnetic and week interactions. Inter alia it predicted the existence of the W and Z BOSONS at very high energies: About 82 Gev/c2 for W [verified later at 80.4 Gev/c2 ] and about 93 Gev/c2 for Z [verified later at 91.2 Gev/c2 ]. According to their theory both interactions have about the same strength at very high energies (symmetric). The combination of the electroweak theory with Quantum Chromodyamics [QCD] for the strong interactions is termed THE STANDARD MODEL, which, however, does not include the gravitational field-force3.3 and it has not explained, say, why the point-like photon has no mass, while the W and Z bosons do. The origin of the masses of W and Z has been treated by postulating the existence of a hypothetical Higgs Boson, which, however, has not yet been verified experimentally.

The Strong Force-Field-Interaction. Note: While this is a long footnote, it is not an Introduction to the subject. Beyond it one may consult Footones 3.1 and 3.3 to 3.5 and Volume I especially for some hot depates and specific disputations in physics. The strong force is an attractive force between sub-atomic nucleons. It is a very short-range forcefield-interaction. Its magnitude is negligible in ranges greater than about 10-15 meter. (about the size of the atomic nucleus). It increases with separation distance and is ‘mediated’ by massless field-particles called Gluons. Gluons ‘mediate’ the strong force that binds/confines quarks (see below) inside protons and neutrons. I.e., each quark in a proton or neutron is continuously emitting and absorbing gluons. The energy of a gluon can generate quark-anti-quark pairs, like the creation of electron-positron pairs. When a quark emits or absorbs a gluon, the quark’s color charge (see below) may change. Hadrons are sub-atomic entities that are not massless field particles like the photon and the gluon. These are sub-atomic particles that interact through the strong force. A hadron is a complex particle that has size and structure. It is a composite system of sub-atomic particles. Hadrons are, therefore, ‘non-elementary-particles’. They are composed of Fermions (Quarks) [see below] and antiquarks. Hadrons are of two types: Baryons [Fermions], that have masses equal to or larger than that of the proton, and Mesons [Bosons] [having 0 or 1 spin]. They interact via all forces. Hadrons have quantum numbers: Spin, parity and mass. In addition they carry “flavor” quantum numbers such as isospin (or G-parity) and a ‘property’ called strangeness. Hadrons are single excitations in QCD, which predicts that quarks and gluons interact weakly. This ‘property’, which is called ‘asymptotic freedom’ has been experimentally confirmed at large energy levels between a GeV and a TeV13.3. Leptons have no inner structure, or size; namely, they are point-like field-particles of quantum physics -- a lacuna that some hope to be resolved by string theories4.6-4.11 All leptons have spin ½ and do not interact through the strong force. The following types are considered in quantum physics: Electrons, muons, taus and three types of neutrinos. Messons are the Kaon, Pion, Eta; Baryons are the Proton, Neutron, Omega, Lambda, Sigma, Delta Xi. The kaon, lambda and sigma particles exhibit unusual ‘properties’, e.g. are produced in pairs when created or decayed very slowly, hence are called ‘strange particles’. The Quark Model. Strong interaction that binds subatomic particles together is described by QCD. Quark gluons are gauge bosons in QCD. According to it quarks have a ‘property’ called color charge and the force between quarks is the strong force or the color charge, which may be due to gluon exchanges between hadrons. Quarks are dividable into six flavors: up, down, strange, charm, bottom and top, and their antiquarks. Quarks harbor fractional electric charge and are NOT found free in nature. The up, charmed, and top quarks have electric charges of +2/3 that of the proton. The down, strange and bottom quarks have charges of –1/3 that of the proton. Protons consist of 2 up and 1 down quarks, whereas neutrons consist of 2 down and 1 up quarks. Quarks are also identified by three ‘colors’: red, green, and blue. The masses of the heavy charm and bottom quarks are obtained from the masses of hadrons containing a single heavy quark and 1 light antiquark, or 2 light quarks. Particles with the same color charge repel, while the ones with opposite color charge attract. A collection of, say, red, blue and green quarks attract each other to form baryons. Every baryon contains three quarks. A residual force between them is the force that binds protons and neutrons

All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008 to form the atomic nuclei. Quarks and gluons are assumed to be combined to form baryons such as protons and neutrons, when the universe was dominated by photons3.1 (with a minor contribution from neutrinos). More information is available in Chapter 7. 3.3

The Gravitational Field-Force-Interaction [Gravity in short]. Note: While this is a long footnote, it is not an Introduction to the subject. Beyond it one may consult Footones 3.1 to 3.2; 3.4 to 3.5 and Volume I, especially for some hot depates and specific disputations in physics. General relativity is based on the principle of equivalence between gravity and acceleration, and on the axiom that all laws of nature are exactly the same for any observer. The laws of nature must therefore be expressed as metric tensors and remain invariant [symmetric3.4] for, say, observers at rest, rotating, accelerating and standing on a small or a massive star. It is indisputable today that Einstein’s Field Equations [EFE] of general relativity constitute the single, best, scale-free, universal and verified theory of gravitation that physics has ever provided. EFE are based on the stress tensor and the Riemanian geometry of curved space-time. [Volume I]

Gravitation is a force-field-interaction that penetrates all and controls phenomena in the entire cosmos, at any time and place, as well as in everyday life on earth. It is at the very basis of the Central Theme and World Outlook presented in Volume I and here. Gravity controls the structuring and thermodynamics of galaxies, stars, supernova explosions4.1, planets, moons, black holes4.3 and quasars4.14. It is expressed by the deterministic13.1, Einsteinian, tensorial, field equations, known also as Gravity Physics. Gravity is a long-range force that penetrates everything. It is produced by any aggregated mass-energy, which, in turn, curves space-time4.3; 4.13; 4.14. i.e. gravity bends the path of light and of other entities3.1 so that the greater the mass-energy, the greater is the degree of bending. This bending is the manifestation of curved space-time. The greater the mass of a star, the greater is the curvature of space-time. Therefore, magnifying gravitational lens are used in modern astronomy when the incoming radiation to the telescope has, on its way to earth, passed through a collection [cluster] of massive galaxies and/or stars. Such gravitational lens have been recently used to observe the “dark age” in astronomy, namely, when the age of the universe was about 300,000 to 500,000 sun-earth years; an important age during which the universe had become transparent for the first time, and gravity-induced structures had first been seeded when very large hydrogen-helium gas masses have first started to condense into very large stars that lead to proto-galaxies and galaxies as we observe them today. [Chapter 1, 7th ‘Day’.] Time as treated by general relativistic cosmology, is slowed down by large galaxies and massive stars. This time effect is in addition to time effects treated by special relativity. Special relativity rules superb not only in any (non-accelerating, deterministic) system, but also in probabilisic, quantum micro-physics. The theory is limited, however, to non-accelarating/nongravitating systems. Unlike quantum micro-physics, both special and general relativity are strictly deterministic.

All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008 When first applied to cosmology in 1919, general relativity predicted the expansion [or contraction] of the universe, a phenomenon that was first confirmed by observation in the 20s by the astronomer E. Hubble. (Diagram, opening pages) What Hubble measured is an increase in all distances [Space-1 increase] between clusters (Diagram in the opening pages, and Figs. 1.1 and 1.2) or super-clusters of galaxies4.14. The further the observed cluster, or super-cluster of galaxies, the greater is its speed of recession from us, or from any place in the cosmos. (Diagram, opening pages). Newtonian gravity is included in general relativity as an approximation in relatively weak gravitational fields, like that on earth. Newtonian gravity rules superb in controlling tides, geological strata, generation of mountains, valleys, rivers, lakes, ponds, oceans, city and village structures, transportation systems, the solar system, and many human concepts.1.1 It also explains how gravity controls the solar system3.1 and the structure of planets, moons and smaller objects. While most writers, mentors, teachers and professors stress the low strength of gravity on earth (in comparison with that of the strong force3.2), it is much stronger than the strong force in massive stars4.1, in black holes2.3, and in some galactic centers4.5. In such massive systems the gravitational force overcomes the strong force3.2 by crushing all atomic and sub-atomic structures4.1; 4.2. Volume I, and this book, explain why the expansion of the universe4.4 is restricted to inter-cluster space-1 (Diagram, opening pages, and Figs. 1.1 and 1.2), and why the observed universe is finite, expanding and boundless, as, say, in curved, 2-space dimensions and one time dimension of the surface of an inflating-expanding balloon (see Analogy I below), whose surface size is finite but boundless, i.e., its surface harbors no edge in curved two-dimensional space. It also explains the cooling of the remnant cosmic black body radiation2.12 and TYPE II of radiation energy that it contains. [Chapter 1, 7th ‘Day’] Analogy I: Imagine ‘a two-dimensional, educated creature’ capable of living only on the 2dimensional surface of an inflating-expanding balloon on whose expanding surface super-clusters of galaxies are marked as small, localized, closed shapes. The sole conclusion of that educated creature: All super-clusters of galaxies are receding away “from me”, no matter where I stand. For that creature, the balloon-universe has no edge. It is finite in surface area, but boundless. And it is not expanding "into" any extant space outside the balloon. For this educated creature the surface of the balloon is the whole universe, and nothing more. His universe therefore admits infinite paths of light in all directions. In our familiar three-dimensional universe there is also no space into which the universe is expanding. Other motions, rotations and changes in which we participate are briefed in footnote 5.2. Analogy II: The Raisin Bread Analogy. Imagine each super-cluster of galaxies as a raisin. The raisins are spread evenly throughout a raisin bread dough that expands when heated in the oven. As the bread expands “an educated observer” located on each raisin sees all other raisins moving away from “his” raisin while his raisin remains at the same place and size. In a simplified analogy to the observed universe, one may further imagine that the bread has no edge, like in the balloon analogy, and is finite in total “size”; a size that is increasing with the age of the universe (the expanding Space-1). There is no clock other than that increase in size. Our sun-earth time is therefore totally irrelevant and misleading prior to the formation of the solar system. To replace it I use Table I in Chapter 1. Analogy III: The Home Bath-Tub. Imagine that your bath-tub is made from a highly elastic rubber and that it is constantly being inflated and increasing its volume. (In analogy to the expanding SPACE-1, [DIAGRAM]). Imagine further that your bath-tub expands faster than it is filled up with hot water. (In analogy to expanding SPACE-1, which is expanding at a faster rate than it is filled up with radiation energy streaming out of shining stars and galaxies, like the ones shown in the Diagram.). Now, if you had started inflating your bath-tub from a high hot waterlevel mark – in analogy to the hot initial state of SPACE-1 -- that water level would go down with the expansion-inflation. Under such conditions your bath-tub cannot be filled-up. (Space-1 temperature, or radiation energy density [Diagram], cannot but decrease, as is the temperature of the cosmic black-body radiation4.12). This expanding bath-tub represents the dark-cold night sky

All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008 that you can observe by stepping out of your home on a non-cloudy night. Since SPACE-1 is UNSATURABLE to the streaming-in radiation, no inflowing mass-energy from nearby and far away clusters or super-clusters of galaxies can fill-it-up, as far as it keeps expanding fast enough, and so it not only does, but is accelerating. (Chapter 2). The 2.7 deg. K of the background blackbody radiation4.12 and the dark-cold night sky are part of this verifiable facts. (Chapter 1). Space-1 expansion also causes electromagnetic irreversibility and the electromagnetic arrow of time. [Volume I] In case the inflation-expansion of your bath-tub stops, the water level (the temperature of the background black-body radiation4.12) would start rising and the bath will be filled up (the night sky would become hotter and hotter until, eventually, it reaches the maximum fusion temperature2.2 of the interiors of stellar objects like the sun, or galactic systems4.5 (all galactic systems have about the same maximum temperature, therefore, there is no net flow from one adiabatic cell4.15 to another. [Diagram]) Space-1 expansion was first discovered by Hubble in the 1920’s. It has since been re-affirmed by the 1964 discovery of the black body radiation4.12, by recent Hubble Space Telescope discoveries, and by independent methods described in details by VOLUME I. Mathematical derivations of both special and general relativity are provided in Volume I, which also describes key measurement methods of astronomical distances, namely, how the detection of radiation that had emitted from past/far-away objects is used to establish distances to such objects. 3.4

Asymmetry-Symmetry. This footnote constitutes an important branch of footnote 3.5 and of the Central Theme of this book. While it is a long one, it is not an Introduction to the subject. Beyond it one may consult footnotes 3.5, 4.6 to 4.12 and Volumes I and II. There is a great confusion in physics concerning the concepts primitive symmetry, guage symmetry, supersymmetry and time asymmetry in the actual world and symmetry in theoretical physics.

In addition, many theories may be described by Langrangians that remain invariant under certain symmetry operations. When they are invariant under a transformation that is performed at any point in space, they are referred to as harboring a global symmetry, which becomes a local symmetry when fixed in space-time as a generalization of the equivalence principle of Einstein’s general relativity3.3; 3.5. The importance of gauge symmetries may be illustrated by relativistic quantum mechanics of electrons. In quantum physics3.2, symmetry is a transformation between states that preserve the expectation values of all observables. String theories4.6 to 4.11 and some formulations of general relativity, may be expressed as gauge theories. Gauge theories involve renormalisable operations in unified field theories3.5 in which symmetry transformations can be conducted locally as well as globally. Gauge theory also applies to systems described by ordinary differential equations. My central theme, however, is not in guage theories and guage symmetries. It may be stated as follows: All fundamental laws of physics, except the 2nd law of thermodynamics1.2, are space and time symmetric, namely, there is no distinction between any direction in space and in time. However, the central theme of this book is: Observational-based 2nd law of thermodynamics in its fundamental form1.2, shows that in the actual world (‘in engineering practice’) the time coordinate can only extend from past to future, and never in reverse. [Optional false dictumes of the 2nd law of thermodynamics: ‘Entropy of the universe only increases’, ‘disorder in the universe only increases’, a falacy proved in Volumes I to IV]1.2

All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008 All ‘exact’ sciences can be reduced to Physics, and all physics to the electroweak3.1, strong3.2 and the gravitational3.3 forces-fields-interaction. In turn, these are expressed in terms of the mathematics of curved space-time in which there is no distinction between any direction (a plus or minus coordinate) in space and in time, namely, all basic equations of physics (except one, see below) are strictly symmetric in time and space (space-time coordinates). (Volume I and string theories4.6 – 4.11) To rise to the status of a reliable theory in science, any must be compared with observations. Nevertheless, in the actual (macro) world, there is a tantalizing clash between the aforementioned theoretical symmetry and the actual time asymmetries found in nature. This is based on the fact that all processes in nature are irreversible and pointing (an imaginary) ‘arrow’ from past to future, and never in reverse. That ‘arrow of time’ is a fundamental expression of the second law of thermodynamics. In turn, the three symmetric fundamental forces, and the entire world that is constructed on ‘top’ of them, are always subject to thermodynamics in the macro world. There are different time asymmetries: The cosmological, thermodynamic, electromagnetic, linguistic and other gravity-induced asymmetries (arrows of time). Which one is the super-asymmetry that controls all other arrows of time? What is the origin and cause of the aforementioned contradiction? Despite many claims for success, none has yet succeeded to prove the origin of irreversibility in nature – of time asymmetry -- from the symmetric mathematical equations of statistics, probabilities, where retrodiction is symmetric to prediction and from symmetric partial differential equations, say of electromagnetism3.1 (see also Reference to Einstain-Ritz controversy [11]) and their integro-differential equations only in the positive time direction, namely, using only INITIAL CONDITIONS and a priori rejecting FINAL CONDITIONS (ending ‘up’ with retarded solutions in electromagnetism, which agree with observations of emitter vs. absorber), while rejecting, or intentionally avoiding, the ADVANCED SOLUTIONS (which do not agree with observations). I call this common phenomenon SMUGGLING INTO THE ‘PROOF’ THE RESULTS THAT THE SCIENTIST WANTS TO PROVE WHILE NOT DECLARING THE CONTRABAND. In Volume 1 -- and in earlier publications -- I replaced such smuggling acts by general relativistic cosmology Space-1-Expansion (Diagram, opening pages) as the origin and cause of irreversibility and time asymmetries3.4, while basing the origin of all irreversible processes in nature on general relativistic cosmology [Ref. 13; Science, 1972), which, in turn, is based on general relativity, which, in turn, accepts no static cosmological solutions, namely, the universe cannot stay static (thermal equilibrium), i.e., it must expand, or contract, which is what I term the cosmological Arrow of Time, or the MASTER TIME ASYMMETRY. [Volume I] My CENTRAL THEME is, therefore: THERMODYNAMICS, TIME ASYMMETRIES and IRREVERSIBILITY ARE BASED ON THE SYMMETRIC EQUATIONS OF GENERAL RELATIVITY AND ARE THUS UNIFIED WITH THE REST OF SYMMETRIC FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICS. CLASSICAL, STATISTICAL and PROBABILISTIC THERMODYNAMICS (and Information theories that are based on them) are history. Nevertheless, at least one persistent activist in this domain has been awarded the Nobel Prize for such a false ‘proof’. I do not know the origin of such a human will to intentionally smuggle falacies into their theories in order to become famous. (Cf. Retrodiction Vs. Prediction above and in Volumes I.)

Unified Physics & Unified Field Theories. This important footnote is at the base of footnote 4.15 that forms the Central Theme of this book. It is also at the base of Footnote 3.4. While it is a long one, it is not an Introduction to this broad subject. Beyond it one may consult footnotes 1.2, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 4.6 to 4.12 and Volumes I and II.

All attempts to unify the fundamental forces-fields-interactions in physics3.1, .3.2, 3.3 have so far failed. The key reason for all failures is that all past unifying attempts have focused on unifying fields-forces-interactions by resorting to symmetric or asymmetric mathematics3.4, like gauge symmetries3.4, instead of first unifying time asymmetries-symmetries3.4 based on verified facts. [Footnotes 3.4, 4.15 and Volume I]. Einstein was isolated in his attempts to develop unified physics and relativistic unified field theories that harbor what we call gravitation [or gravity for short]. Part of that isolation is due to his consistent claim that quantum theories are incomplete and would, in due time, be replaced by an ultimate unified theory of physics. It is indisputable today that Einstein’s Field Equations [EFE] constitute the single, best, scale-free, universal and verified theory of gravitation that physics has ever provided. EFE are based on the stress tensor and the Riemanian geometry of curved space-time3.3. [Volume I] Following Einstein’s publication (1915) and later verifications of EFA by astronomical observations, Einstein had focused his mind on unification of the gravitational and electromagnetic fields-forces-interactions3.1; 3.3. However, it has turned out that ordinary Riemanian theory cannot exhibit the electromagnetic field-force-interaction as a purely geometric phenomenon. [see also below] During Einstein’s life time the strong field-force-interaction3.2 was not yet formulated as it currently stands. Armies of theorists focus today on a reversed effort: Develop a quantum theory of gravitation, or quantum gravity. So far all these unverified efforts have also failed4.6 to 4.11. Some other reputed theorists, including Erwin Schrödinger, Arthur Eddington, Theodor Kaluza and Herman Weyl, have tried, in vain, during Einstein’s life time, to unify the fundamental forces recognized by the physics of their time. For instance, Erwin Schrödinger investigated pure-affine formulations of generalized gravitational theory, assuming, intially, a symmetric affine connection. But he later changed his efforts to a nonsymmetric mathematics. Nonetheless, skepticism from Einstein discouraged him, and his work has been largely ignored. Einstein continued to work, in vain, until his death, on unified field theories of gravity and electromagnetism, but he became isolated in his efforts that ignored quantum theories. Nonetheless, many contemporary theorists have changed their mind about Einstein’s attitude toward quantum theory, at least by admitting that quantum theories are not complete for they do not incorporate general relativity [gravitation]. This change of mind has led, since Einstein’s death, to numerous efforts to verifiy a single, reliable string theory4.6 to 4.11, all in vain. In the past, to incorporate electromagnetism into general relativity, Weyl generalized the Riemannian geometry by adding degrees of freedom between two points in locally sized measures along a path, in terms of a guage and vector fields, thereby unifying electromagnetic and gravitational fields. Weyl corresponded with Einstein about his theory, which, eventually, has turned out to be nonphysical. Nevertheless, his gauge invariance was later applied in quantum filed theory [Volume I] Kaluza's approach to unification was to resort to a one time and four space dimensions. Riemannian geometry was maintained and the extra dimension allowed to incorporate the electromagnetic field vector into modified EFE. Despite collaboration with Einstein, his theory did not admit a symmetric

All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008 outcome. Yet it influenced Einstein's work and was further developed later by Klein in an attempt to unify relativity with quantum theory.4.6 to 4.11, in vain. Another approach that, however, has not succedded, is termed the Lancelot Law Whyte's unitary field theory. Affine connection is the basis of Eddington’s approach that resorts to parallel transport of vectors from one space-time point to another; assuming it to be symmetric in its covariant form. Since the simplest cosmological model emerging from Eddington’s equations is symmetric, Eddington’s theory has failed in the face of cosmological-astronomical evidence. These attempts eventually centered around treating both the metric tensor metric and the affine connection as fundamental fields. In general relativity, these fields are symmetric, but since electromagnetism appears to many as harboring asymmetry, the co-symmetry was lost. In such field theories sub-atomic particles, the domain of quantum theories, appear as fenced regions in curved space-time in which energy density is very high. Einstein and coworker Leopold Infeld had demonstrated that, in the unified field, singularities may harbor ‘point particles’3.2; 4.6 to 4.11 . However, singularities are points where the equations may not be valid. In conclusion; Einstein believed that in an ultimate unified theory of physiucs the same physical law would apply everywhere-anytime, with particles being soliton-type [Volume I] solutions to the field equations. The Standard Model unifies the description of electromagnetism, weak interactions and strong interactions in the language of gauge theory. Quantum Chromo Dynamics [QCD] is a gauge theory with action of SU(3) on the color triplet of quarks3.2. Non-abelian gauge theories involve asymptotic freedom in strong interactions3.2. The importance of gauge theories is in allowing unification of quantum filed theories of electromagnetism3.1 with the weak and the strong forces in the Standard Model, which accurately predicts experimental observations regarding three of the four fundamental forces of nature.

4 _________________________________________________

Can The Foundations of Science Be Deduced From General Relativistic Cosmology? It is my belief that philosophy must return to cosmology, and to a simple theory of knowledge. There is at least one philosophical problem in which all thinking men are interested: The problem of understanding the world in which we live; and thus ourselves (who are part of the world) and our knowledge of it. All science is cosmology, I believe, and for me the interest of philosophy, no less than of science, lies solely in its bold attempt to add to our knowledge of the world, and to the theory of our knowledge of the world.

Sir Karl R. Popper All reality is one in substance, One in cause, One in origin

Attributed to Giordano Bruno The hypotheses with which (a development in modern science) starts, becomes steadily more abstract and remote from experience. On the other hand it gets nearer to the grand aim of all science, which is to cover the greatest possible number of empirical facts by logical deduction from the smallest possible number of hypotheses or axioms. Meanwhile, the train of thought leading from the axioms to the empirical facts of verifiable consequences gets steadily longer and more subtle.

Albert Einstein 71

Science is relative and varies with historical times, in other words, verifiable knowledge grows with historical time, as is illustrated by our widespread success in applying it in practice. The greatest advances in human endeavors are made when specialists maintain a fresh dialogue with each other; when our potential for multidisciplinary thinking is a multidimensional intersection of free traffic in the ever-refreshable search for new outlooks. 4.1

Assertion 4.1 No well-established scientific theory is too sacred to prevent radical evaluation of its soundness on any scale of observation. A serious scientific attitude premises willingness to admit new hypotheses, even those that seem to contradict intuitive, traditional, religious, popular or anthropocentric theories. This Assertion is used in leading minority attacks against the highwalls of majority-castles in science.

Is General Relativistic Cosmology A â&#x20AC;&#x153;Verified Scienceâ&#x20AC;? ?

The Hubble Space Telescope (left) helps prove that SPACE-1 expansion-cooling is not just a prediction of Einsteinian gravity theory. It is the well-verified fact. Was it not expanding and cooling, no galaxies and stars can shine. Without it we would not had come into beings.

There is something provisional about all scientific theories. They must be re-confirmed by fresh verified information from any sub-field of science, hence, are subject to constant revision and even replacement; -- in this, each succeeding generation takes a measurable step beyond the position of its predecessors. Every item of carefully recorded experimental or observational information is a proper object for analysis. A drive towards novelty and discovery impels inquiry to explore all corners of the universe.

Assertion 4.2 Einstein’s rejection of the socalled Cosmological Constant2.5 from his equations, and, in fact, from science, was a blow to many theorists; a human mistake that has been published after they have piled, with their graduate students and followers, ‘scientific papers’ that explain the ‘deep meaning’ of that ghost. That ghost has resurrected after recent verifications of the accelerated expansion of the universe2.4. Suddenly, armies of bored theorists could link that ghost to (unverified) string theories4.6 to 4.11 and to another ghost: The ‘dark matter’2.4. As usual, the media, equipped with an embedded greed for higher rating, has embraced debates on “Was Einstein Wrong?”. The end result: These theorists reequip cosmology with a rejecting speculative image and portray a wrong image of physics, astronomy and science in general.

The whole structure of interconnected and fundamental knowledge is not verified dissociated from in astronomy, studies astrophysics, biophysics, biology, archeology, brainmind perception and psychology. Closely related to the unrestricted content of modern science is its unrestricted questioning of all earlier convictions in light of conflicting evidence.

(above) a gigantic explosion of a massive star (supernova4.1) that throws into Space 2 or 3 (Diagram) the chemical elements generated inside the star (left) during fusion4.2. These debris are the building blocks of life.

4.2 The Popperian Falsification Principle The greatest living philosopher of science in the last century, Sir Karl Popper, has introduced the Falsification Principle about the ability of mankind to establish what is science and what is not.4.16 Scientific theories, according to this universal principle, can be falsified by new irrefutable evidence. They are, therefore, falsifiable. According to Einstein, when we predict the behavior of a specific or confined set of natural phenomena, we usually mean that we have found a ‘constructive theory’ covering this set. When we find that other sets of phenomena are incompatible with that theory, we tend to either generalize or modify it, or failing that, seek an alternative one. To this ‘constructive’ category Einstein opposes the so-called “theories of principles” (exemplified, according to Einstein, by thermodynamics and his general theory of relativity), whose point of departure and foundation are not hypothetical constituent, but empirically observed general properties from which mathematical 74

formulae are deduced so as to apply to every case of observation which presents itself. Thus, according to Einstein, the merit of “constructive theories” lies in their comprehensiveness, adaptability, and clarity for a given set of phenomena; that of the “theories of principles” -- in their logical ‘perfection’ and universality in the vast observational spectrum of their formulation at any scale and time. Yet, Einstein did not trust some semi-hidden aspects of his own general theory of relativity.2.5 The failure of statistical mechanics (both classical and quantum) to deduce and explain the origin of irreversibility, time-asymmetries, cosmic and local structuring, generation of order and what is called “entropy growth” -- as well as its philosophical and applicative limitations and its lack of large-scale universality is explained in Volume I. Nonetheless, Einstein had not suspected that his general theory of relativity would incorporates another ‘theory of principle’: The second law of thermodynamics1.2, as unfolded in Volume I. Namely, thermodynamics is NOT a separate, or an independent theory; it is not fragmented from the rest of time-symmetric3.4 theoretical physics. 4.3

Introducing Errors To Science By Precise Definitions

According to Plato, everything is connected with everything else. Therefore, any reliable definition, or a theory, must include 'the whole universe' and its history, or fail. I therefore try to minimize the common ‘scientific’ act of 'precise definition' of symbols, words and concepts, for contrary to ‘good intent’, such precise acts may introduce great errors. This means that the human will to define a symbol, word or a concept in the the sciences and in ‘great’ dictionaries erects a ‘fence’ around it. Anything outside that fence is, a priori, rejected, and lost. Indeed, without paying attention to such consequences, scientists carelessly use definitions in academia and in their everyday life.

Supernovae, Redshifts and Measuring Astronomical Distances. Supernovae are not only the originators of all chemistry [by nuclear fusion4.2 (Volume I)], but are ‘distance yardsticks’ [“candles”] on which much of observational cosmology and astronomy are based. A supernova explosion throws into Space 3 its interiors in the form of glowing debris and gases that are much brighter than any other star in its home galaxy. Hence, certain types of supernovae serve in astronomy as max-temp, standard, ‘distance candles’ to calibrate distances to far-away (early) galaxies via the absolute luminosity (brightness) method discussed in Volume I and briefly below. Supernova unusual bright glow has been studied since 1054, starting from the Crab Nebula. At its center there is a neutron star spewing energy and ‘elementary particles’ into Space 3, from which they proceed to Space 2 and, eventually, to Space 1. (Diagram, opening pages) All active (shining) stars generate the heavier chemical elements at the very high temperaturespressures that gravity induces in their interiors. But the massive stars arrive to that ‘End-of-life Stage’ earlier than smaller stars do. That ‘End-of-life Stage’ may be the ‘Beginning-of-lifeProcess’ in case the supernova debris (‘ashes’) gradually form orbiting planets around stars, as is the case with our solar system5.1. Supernovae are general-relativistic, gravity-induced phenomena that astronomers observe in galaxies when a massive star [see below] ends its life by internal collapse-implosion. The collapse begins when the fusion process4.2 that produces energy, ends. That end is reached when a threshold amount of iron is formed in the interior of a massive star (picture in this chapter). At that stage all net energy generation inside the star stops and the process reverses into an endothermic one in which energy consumed. As a result, the core pressure falls and the doomed star cannot anymore support the huge, gravityinduced ‘weight’ of its upper layers. This leads to a gigantic collapse-implosion of the entire star structure. A few general-relativistic options then emerge, depending on the mass and details of the doomed massive star: (i) if the mass of the star is about 1.4 times that of the sun, the star slowly decays into a white dwarf, (ii) if it is larger the formation of an extremely packed neutron star or a black hole4.4; 4.14 is the end result (in which no atomic nuclei structure survives), or (iii) a gigantic supernova explosion follows the collapse-implosion by bouncing back from a central dense body [neutron star]. Type Ia supernovae harbor consistent brightness (absolute luminosity) because their progenitor is accreting mass from a nearby star, always imploding into the central neutron star at exactly the same mass. (the Chandrasekhar limit, Volume I). The Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope Legacy Survey Supernova Program is designed to measure several hundred high-redshifted supernovae. Chapter 2 is partially based on its recent findings. Massive stars: Due to their much-higher, gravity-induced, inner-core pressures-temperatures, the massive stars are much faster to exhaust their available ‘hydrogen-helium fuel’ by nuclear fusion4.2, namely, in comparison with smaller stars, like the sun. The higher pressures-temperatures cause faster releases of fusion energy in the interiors of these stars. From there the energy reaches the outer layers of the star and eventually leaves the star and spreads out in Spaces 3 or 2 (Diagram, opening pages). Supernovae are used in cosmology as key tools to understand the universe and its history. They allow the expansion rate of the universe (and its acceleration) to be measured by examining the relationship between redshif, luminosity and distance to an object via its incoming radiation. [Hubble Law, Diagram, opening page].

All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008 Redshift, Velocity, Distance and Measuring Astronomical Distances. Astronomers measure the redshift, such as the change in the characteristic wavelenght of hydrogen in the radiation arriving from a distant object. They then compare its value with that which is known on earth when the chemical element is not moving [Volume I]. In addition to velocity [Volume I], the distance to the (far-away) radiation source object is determined by the luminosity law [brightness], when its absolute magnitude is known [See Type Ia supernovae below] . Since that ‘absolute’ value decreases by the square root of the distance from the radiating source, the object's distance is calculated by comparing the actually observed brightness with that of the known value. 4.2

Nuclear Fusion is one of the most important processes in massive stars4.1. According to both Einsteinian and Newtonian physics3..3, the bigger the mass of a star, the higher are its inner pressures and temperatures and faster are the nuclear fusion processes in its interior (see picture above)4.1.

Fusion process transforms-fuses hydrogen plasma into ‘heavier elements’ like carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, phosphore, iron, etc. [Volume I]. Hence, the sun, and all active stars, generate in their interiors all chemistry; namely, all the heavier elements that we observe on earth and in our body and brain (beyond hydrogen and helium). All active stars produce energy through such nuclear fusion. Fusion is also the cause of hydrogen-bomb explosion, (not fission as in atomic reactors and ‘regular’ atomic weapons). On both fusion and fission scientists know much. When a certain amount of iron is formed in the interiors of active stars4.1, endothermic reaction replaces the exothermic one (the exothermic reaction generates energy in the stars, while the endothermic one consumes it.) Three options are then possible: Collapse of the entire star structure into a neutron star4.1, or a black hole4.3, or a supernova explosion.4.1 4.3

Black holes are LOCAL, general relativistic3.3 cosmological sinks for all matter-energy arriving-falling into them. They are postulated to be highly concentrated, local gravity-sinks that their gravity field is so strong that nothing, not even light, can escape from them. General relativistic cosmology3.3 predicts them as localized, one-way sinks in space-time. Some are assumed to be in the center of some galaxies4.5. They may be associated with what is observed and termed quasars4.14.

Within a black hole all atomic and sub-atomic structures had already been crushed to become nothing but geometrical curved space-time caused by the extremely strong gravitational field of the black hole3.3. The cause of that total ‘break down’ of all structures is the extremely strong gravitational field in massive stars4.1; 4.2. The outcome is that even electromagnetic radiation3.1 (e.g., light) cannot escape its extremely strong, attractive, gravity force. Black hole is a local object in expanding [inter-cluster] Space-1, or in non-expanding [intergalactic] Space 2, or in [interstellar] Spaces 3. (Diagram in the opening pages, and Figs. 1.1 and 1.2). Its outer boundary is called the event horizon [Volume I]. Black holes, as their massive dead parents4.1, can only come into being by gravity and the expansion of unsaturable inter-cluster Space-1. (Diagram in the opening pages, and Figs. 1.1 and 1.2). They act as additional unsaturable sinks to that caused by the expansion of Space-14.4. Like stars and galaxies, black holes cannot be formed without Space-1-expansion. [Chapter 2] Astrophysicists expect to find black holes ranging between roughly the mass of a few suns to ten billion times greater. Such super-massive ones are postulated to be in the center of some extremely bright galaxies4.5, including the ‘Milky Way’5.4. 4.4

Expansion of the Universe [Addendum]. Discussion of historical and more recently proposed cosmological models are not included in this book; -- some for not being verified by observations [footnotes 2.4, 2.5 and References 55 to 62], other for not being relevant to the central theme of this book.

All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008 Interpretations of a few different theoretical models of the early universe vs. the well-verified fact that Space-1 has been expanding since the hot-dense beginning (Diagram, opening pages; Figs. 1.1 and 1.2, and Table I, Chapter 1), have confusted many, including some reputed scientists. There are a few reasons for this confusion. One has been illustrated in the opening Diagram and in Chapters 1, 4 and 5 via the complicated dynamics, thermodynamics and unique roles of Spaces 1, 2 and 3. A second type of confusion is briefly treated next. Hubble’s astronomical obsrevations have proved that all clusters and super-clusters of galaxies [Figs. 1.2] are moving away from each other with speeds that are about proportional to their distance from earth. (See 3 Analogies in footnote 3.3). Observations, including the 1964 discovery of the microwave black body radiation4.12, prove that the expansion of Space 1 is the same in all directions (isotropic and homogeneous). Isotropic distribution across the sky of distant gamma-ray bursts and of supernovae4.1 have also supported this evidence. It is, therefore, only in some theoretical interpretations of some theorists in favor of their models that some issues may still cause confusion. All different interpretations are based on Einstein’s general relativity field equations3.3, on whose validity and universality practically all scientists currently agree. Einstein’s general relativity is expressed in terms of the local meteric tensor and its curved spacetime mathematical derivatives [Volume I]. Distances deduced theoretically can thus be determined locally between two infinitisimally close points in curved space-time3.3. It is, therefore, an unresolved issue to determine, in theory, namely, within the framework of each model, how to evaluate large distances between two distant points in each model. This issue should not be confused with the fact of the increase with time of Space-1. (Diagram in the opening pages, and Figs. 1.1 and 1.2). Yet, in debating the validity of each proposed model, one must specify the space-time-curvature -- the curve-path-of-light that connects two such cosmic-apart points. Unfortunately, for the theoretician who wishes to gain support for his own specific model, that determination depends on HIS OWN selected cosmological model. In the Comoving Distance Model, for instance, comoving distances cannot be fixed at all. In practice, the distance of distant objects are best measured by their luminosity -- which is reduced by the square power of the distance to the radiation source (Volume I) – and by the redshifts2.4 of their incoming electromagnetic radiation3.1. 4.5

Galactic Centers. The center of our galaxy is called Sagittarius A. It is a very compact source of radio waves that originate from gas and dust heated to millions of degrees K as they are postulated to “fall” into the galactic center, which is further postulated to contain a super-massive black hole4..3. Galactic centers of other galaxies are postulated to contain such a supermassive black hole. They may contain huge amounts of matter [mass], each in the range of hundreds of thousands to tens of billions of the mass of the entire solar system. See also quasars4.14. 4.6

String Theories (“Do Not Confuse Me With Facts”). Footnotes 4.6 to 4.11 constitue important branches of footnote 3.5. While they are a long one, they are not Introductions to the subjects they deal with, or refer to. Beyond these ones one may consult Volumes I and II.

Inter alia, current proponents of the variously proposed string theories claim that, on very small sub-atomic scales, all fundamental field-forces-interactions3.1 to 3..3 consist of vibrating strings, or membranes.4.9 Nonetheless, any current (and expected) experimental technique in science cannot provide experimental verification of any string theory below about 10-19 meter. This limit is still more than 15 orders of magnitude above any verification scale of any string theory, or of any theory.

All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008 Despite decades of intensive attempts to provide experimental proof of the variously proposed string theories as conducted by armies of theorists around the world, there is not a single verification test that any of the proposed theories is verifiable and can unify physics3.5. No string theory version has made any prediction that differs from those made by other theories. All string theories4.6 - 4.11 have failed to converge into a single acceptable formulation. Nonetheless, one string theory, the “Ads/CFT correspondense” -- a realization of the so-called holographic principle, appears to be accepted by many theorists, including a relationship to gauge theories like Quantum Chromo-Dynamics [QCD] [Vol. I]. While the different formulations of string theories have survived mathematical challenges, each solution represents an entire set of unverifiable predictions; a mysticism of theorists, which, when combined with the fundamental issue of a priori smuggling into their theories what is to be proved, [see below], makes them what they are. Einstein’s anti-probabilistic views remain unfalsified. Similarly, the much acclaimed “Theory of Everything” is misleading and not scientific [Appendix III]. Whatever the future holds for string theories, they have become a very active branch of speculative theoretical physics, a branch of theoretical physics that, in part, had originated from Einstein’s quest for a unified field theory of gravity3.5 and quantum physics.3.2 The first to add a fifth dimension to Einstein's Field equations [EFE] were Theodor Kaluza (in 1919) and Oskar Klein (in 1926)3.5. These attempts attracted Einstein’s attention in his attempts to develop a unified field theory. But Einstein died prior to being successful in this domain. The spectrum, or zoo, of subatomic particles3.2 that emerge from string theories may (mathematically) be represented by tiny vibrating strings that, by altering their mode of vibration, transform, say, an electron into a neutrino, a quark, or other particles3.2, while causing space-time to curve around these entities so as to give rise to Einsteinian relativistic gravity 3..3. Some string-theories proponents claim that prior to Genesis a Pre-Genesis-World Contraction [PGWC] had turned into a very massive black hole4.3, 4.14 [Cf., Table I, Chapter 1], namely, that, at the very instant of Genesis, many WHITE HOLES (universes) where created, while our observable universe is just one of them – indeed, a mystic science, but a beautiful mathematical music to the brain-mind.4.7 to 4.11 4.7

Hidden Variables play key roles in extra 6, 7 or higher dimensions that are postulated by various string theories4.6 to 4.11 , namely, beyond the verified three space and one time dimensions of general relativity3.3. Postulated earlier by David Bohm, the general idea is driving stringtheories theorists to by-pass the embarrassing point-like feathers of ‘particles’ in quantum theories3.2. It also allows to get closer to Einstein’s dream of arriving at a full-fledged deterministic, unified field theories that are unified with quantum physics 3.2; 13.1. Indeed, until his last day, Einstein had consistently explained that probabilistic quantum theories are incomplete, a fact indirectly acknowledged now by string-theories proponents that seek to remedy the situation in quantum theories3.2, 3.5. 4.8

M-Theory in String Theories postulates ‘Landscapes-Inside-landscapes’ in 10, 11 or 26 dimensions that harbor a large number of hidden variables4.7, different vacua and endless other universes4.6; 4.10. Investigating how a string theory may include fermions3.2 has led to the concept of supersymmetry4.11, a collection of postulates relating bosons and fermions3.2 (every particle has superpartner that is not observable). Superpartners are called squarks, selectrons and gluinos. The theoretical limit of the M-theory infers that protons, electrons, neutrons and their antimatter counterparts, may be converted to photons and then converted to other particles, i.e., to particles

D-Branes in String Theories are membranes (in short ‘branes’) of different dimensionality. These unobservable [hidden4.7] membranes are postulated as optional gravitational sources so that one may end-up with a modified gravitational theory within the framework of quantum gravity3.5; 13.1 . The concept supersymmetry4.11 applies between forces and matter for closed or open strings. These may emit and absorb closed strings and are postulated to emit the unverified graviton3.3 and also to emit charge3.2, since they emit closed strings, which are gauge bosons3.2. The pre-supposed strings are also postulated to contract to minimize their potential energy. But conservation of energy prevents them from disappearing. Instead they are postulated to oscillate-vibrate. By preassuming vibrating strings, one may deduce different vibrational modes that are further postulated to represent different sub-atomic particles. Such postulated strings may split and combine, which may resemble particles emitting and absorbing other particles, as in quantum interactions between sub-atomic particles3.2. Quantum strings are also postulated to harbor tension, like regular strings of a violin; a tension that is related to their size and shape. A closed loop string, left to move without external forces, will contract into a smaller loop. But it is further postulated that it would not shrink to a zero-sized point. Open strings have two distinct end-points, while closed strings are joined to make a complete loop. The two types may allow speculations about two different spectra of ‘elementary-particles’. For instance, one of the closed string modes is speculated to be the (unverified) graviton, and in the open string mode it is the well-verified photon3.1 Brane Cosmology includes speculative models in which Genesis is claimed to be periodical collisions between branes. See also Hinduism and footnotes 2.1 and 2.3. Other proposals include ‘multiverses’ and ‘dark [hidden, unobservable] matter’.2.4; 2.5 4.10

‘Landscapes-Inside-landscapes’ are speculated in some string theories as hidden worldsinside-worlds in 10, 11 or 26 space dimensions. They may harbor a large number of hidden variables, different vacua and endless other universes. Such theories are also being postulated to be the theoretical limit of the M-theory 4.8. 4.11

Symmetry-Asymmetry & Supersymmetries (Addendum to Footnote 3.4). Many types and branches of speculative ‘supersymmetries’, are postulated in string theories4.6 – 4.10.

For instance, some theorists claim a kind of a primitive symmetry: If the universe is eternal into the future (Chapter 2), ‘it must be’ eternal into the past’, or ‘prior to creation’ [the “big-bang”], there there must have been a ‘symmetric’ contraction into an ‘all-containing’ black hole4.3; 4.14. As the density “had” increased during that ‘pre-creation’ contraction, gigantic black holes have been postulated to be formed, and, at the instant of maximum contraction, they had all switched to expnasion, and only one of them has turned into “our universe”. A fantasy outside science. Such claims encounter endless debates. Yet, their (unemployed?) proponents hope that upcoming observations at CERN or by the Planck Sattelite and the ground-based LIGO and VIRGO observatories, may reveal slight variations in gravitational radiation that might be associated with postulated effects, say, on the polarization of the cosmic black body radiation4.12. 4.12

The Cosmic Blackbody Microwave Background Radiation of the Early Universe (discovered in 1964) is the remnant left-over radiation glow that has been expanding and cooling with Space-1-Expansion during the 13.72 billion (less 500,000) sun-earth years since creation. It has been cooled down from the end of ‘Day-6’ at about 4,000-3,000 K. [Table I, Chapter 1 and Figs. 1.1 and 1.2)]. It constitutes one of the direct proofs that Space-1 has been expanding isand its

All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008 lowest level of energy density [Diagram, opening pages] engulfs earth, our galaxy and any galaxy in the universe It is isotropic [the same in all directions] and homogeneous. Yet, slight variations in its intensity [temperature] are being measured to increase our knowledge on the beginning of gravity-induced structures during the beginning of the 7th ‘Day’ [Chapter 1]. 4.13

Super-Clusters of Galaxies. Some superclusters are marked in Fig. 1.2: Leo Superclusters; Sculptor Superclusters; Hercules Superclusters; Bootes Superclusters; Coma Supercluster; Perseus-Pisces Supercluster; Ursa Major Supercluster; Centaurus Supercluster; Shapley Supercluster; Columba Supercluster; Corona-Borealis Supercluster; Pavo-Indus Supercluster; Horologium Supercluster; Sextans Supercluster. Our local group cluster nominally contains 30 galaxies5.5 It is counted as ‘member’ of the Virgo, Hercules and Coma Supercluster [Fig. 1.2]. The geometrical shapes of super-clusters vary considerably; from that of Virgo, Hercules and Coma to long filaments or ‘clouds’ visible in Fig. 1.2. Adiabatic envelopes4.15 assume multidimensional, geometrically-twisted, ‘cage-shapes’ that wrap such filaments, ‘clouds’, etc. Far-away galaxies that had been formed relatively recently are different from the ones formed at similar distances but earlier, shortly after the first six ‘Days’ (Table I, Chapter 1, Fig. 1.1) Both our galaxy and Andromeda have systems of satellite galaxies. ‘Our’ satellite galaxies consist of the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds, Ursa Minor Dwarf, Darco Dwarf, Sculptor Dwarf, Canis Major Dwarf, Fornax Dwarf, Carina Dwarf, Sextans Dwarf, Tucana Dwarf, Leo I, Leo II, Leo A, Sag DEG, etc. Andromeda’s system consists of Cassiopeia Dwarf, Pegasus dSph, M32, M110, NGC 147, NGC185, AND I-V, etc. The Triangulum Galaxy, the 3rd largest galaxy in ‘our’ local group, also includes the Pisces Dwarf as a satellite. 4.14

Quasars are assumed to be supermassive forms of black holes4.3. Hundreds were detected recently by two telescopes: NASA's Spitzer space telescope, which measures infrared light, and Chandra, which measures X-ray emissions. These quasars are in young (far-away) galaxies that are surrounded by relatively high-density gas that emits X-rays as it is being sucked-accelerated into a one-way sink of a massive black hole. Quasars and black holes form local sinks, in addition to the universal-unstaurable sink generated by Space-1-expansion [Diagram, opening pages]. The X-rays emissions are detectable even when the quasars themselves cannot be detected. It is speculated that about 9 to 10 Billion Years Ago (TableII), when the age of the universe was between 2.5 to 4.5 billion years, many "supermassive" black holes had been formed inside large galaxies in the far reaches of the universe, i.e., during their initial stages. 4.15

Adiabatic Envelopes & The Origin of Time-Asymmetries and Irreversibility in Nature. This is an important branch of footnote 3.5. An adiabatic envelope is a physical or imaginary surface that is a barrier to any or to a net energy flow between its two sides. Such a surface may be a solid insulating wall, or an imaginary surface through which there is no NET energy flow. In the Diagram (opening pages) I employ the non-physical surface when there is ‘No net flow’ across a given geometrical boundary that wraps a cluster or superclusters of galaxies’. No net flow means that energy – radiation and particles somewhat similar to the solar wind5.3 -- still flows through this imaginary/non-physical surface, but in opposing directions, and equal in magnitudes (amounts per unit time).

All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008 All over the universe, in each galaxy, the maximum temperature observed-- in Spaces 2 and 3 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; are roughly the same, much of it due to supernovae4.1. The upper limit is imposed by a few factors: (i) (ii) (iii)

the maximum temperature during fusion4.2 in stars, [Volume I] the maximum temperature during supernovae explosions4.1. [Volume I] the dynamics & thermodynamics of â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;solar winds5.1 in spaces 2 and 3.

That means that across the universe, in any direction, there is no net energy flow from one supergalaxy-in-an-adiabatic-cell to another (Chapter 5 and figs. 1.1 and 1.2). All adiabatic envelopes that wrap clusters or superclusters of galaxies, are isotropic. Instead of studying all of them, one can study just one, for instance, the adiabatic geometrical surface that wraps around our local group5.5 . What ever are the dynamics and thermodynamics of any such selected envelope, they represent all those taking place in all other adiabatic envelopes in the universe. 4.16

Popper vs. Bohr. Popper strongly disagreed with Niels Bohr's instrumentalism and supported Albert Einstein's realist approach to scientific theories about the universe.

5 ________________________________________________________

Discovering The Origin of TimeAsymmetries and Irreversibility

Our world is a sad little affair, unless it has in it something, for every age to investigate. Philosophy would ravish all mortals with love for her; we should abandon all those things which, in our ignorance of what is great, we believe to be great. Seneca

The Solar-Wind Type

5.2

of radiation that spreads from active stars and galaxies into Spaces 2 and 3 is the most important link between us and deep Space-1 and between us and our past and future. (Chapters 1 and 2, respectively). Yet, this link is not easy to grasp. Unlike planets, all active stars generate and spread out radiation energy-matter that is generated by fusion4.2. The sun, for instance, emits this energy-matter as ‘solar wind’5.3, which spreads in all directions and is eventually dissipated in Space-1. (Diagram, opening pages) On its way to Space-1, the ‘solar wind’ engulfs earth and the other solar planets. No equivalent amount of this incoming radiation remains with this and the other planets, as many wrongly assume. Part of it is reflected immediately by our upper atmosphere to outer, colddark spaces 3, 2 and, eventually, to Space-1. The rest of the ‘solar wind’ enters our atmosphere, and following complicated thermal-ecological-hydrological cycles it is also dissipated irreversibly in outer cold-dark Space 1. In fact, the outgoing 83

energy also includes additional, small amount of radioactive energy from the earth’s interior. The ‘solar wind’ first undergoes through a shock wave generated at its outer boundary5.1. It is there where it clashes with opposing ‘solar wind[s]’ from nearby stars in Space 3. Eventually, together with similar ‘solar winds’ generated by billions of stars in our galaxy5.4, it reaches SPACE 1 -- the unsatuarable, limitless, universal sink for all the radiation pouring into it from all stellar and galactic sources. That one-way, irreversible energy dissipation in Space-1 is driven by the radiation energy gradients formed between Spaces 2&3 and Space-1. (Diagram, opening pages) Conclusion: The ‘solar wind’, as well as ‘similar winds’ from other stars in Space-3, first spread in Space-3, forming there glowing or non-glowing, closed, multi-dimensional boundaries of shock waves through which net energy flows down the gradient to Spaces 2 and 1. Depending on the density of (non-isotropic, non-homogenous) star population at various locations inside a galaxy, the net energy flow through any of these inter-stellar boundaries, depends on the size and location of the radiating star inside its galactic structure vis-à-vis the closest distance to the lowest energy level in Space-1. (Diagram). RECAP: Radiation energy net flows are driven by radiation-energygradients in Spaces 3 and 2. These gradients drive energy from active shining sources to the lowest energy density of the universal, unsaturable, limitless sink: The expanding Space 1. Space-1 is the vast, expanding, cold space [‘void’] between clusters and super-clusters of galaxies [Fig. 1.2]. While Space-1 wraps all gravity-bounded, radiating, material objects in the universe, it does not include the galaxies, stars and planets by themselves. Each cluster or super-clusters of galaxies4.13, is encaged by a nonphysical boundary. The result are billions of galactic-cluster-inadiabatic-envelope.4.15 That (invisible) boundary is not spherical, or of any standard shape. It assumes a shape dictated by the shapes of nearby super-cluster of galaxies.4.14 – 4.15; namely, of twisted, elongated filaments, or clouds. Due to the isotropy of Space-1-expansion, these adiabatic boundaries4.15 allow only equal amounts of energies to flow in 84

opposite directions ‘from one cage to another’, thereby generating billions of isotropic, adiabatic, galactic-cluster-in-adiabatic-envelope throughout the universe. Thermodynamically and fundamentally, each one of such cages represents the entire universe, namely, we do not need to study all these billions of cages. By studying just a single one of them, we understand what are the processes throughout all of them; -throughout the entire isotropic universe. Hypothetically, if Space-1 stops expanding tomorrow, its temperature, and the temperatures on earth would rise gradually (Analogy III in Footnote 3.3), eventually reaching that of the sun’s interior. The same would happen with other energy sources in our Milkyway galaxy5.4, in all clusters and super-clusters of galaxies.

Assertion 5.1

Gravity and Space-1-Expansion control the selection and orientation of structures from stellar and galactic ones, to all chemical and biological building blocks. All chemistry is based on succession of mass-additions in pre-supernova explosions4.1, geological strata, the development of skeletons and the digestive system, and, eventually, to many gravity-induced human concepts.

If such ‘a thought experiment’ would last for a long time, the sun and all other shining sources would stop emitting their fusion-based4.2 energy. Life on earth would come to an end and all irreversible processes in the universe would stop. ‘Thermal Equilibrium’ would then rule over the entire universe. But prior to that equilibrium, the solar wind rate of dissipation in Spaces 3, 2 and 1 would slow down, the earth’s atmosphere temperature would rise to the level that we all be roasted to death. Space-1 expansion is, therefore, at the very foundation of our generalrelativistic, cosmological World Outlook. Unlike short-range, quantum-based world outlook 3.2; 1.2; 4.6-4.11 to which the majority of scientists subscribe, gravity-based physics is scale-free3.3. The gravitational field penetrates all physical and biological structures. It affects all cells in our body-brain, as well as all 85

microorganisms and human, animal and plant activities in everyday life. Moreover, the origin of life, orientation of plants and animals and some key human concepts are gravity induced. In fact, gravity controls all ecological systems and constitutes the origin of growth, “natural selection’, “natural orientation”, diversity and performance of the living organisms [63]. 5.1 Gravity Selection Vs. Natural Selection All of us are ashes of dead stars; the remnants of a supernova2.1 that had exploded billions of years ago and its debris and gases were scattered in Space-3 (Diagram) and were later captured by the sun to form the Solar System 3.1. The key point is that the universe has already passed more than half of its present age: 13.7 billions years, when the solar system was Assertion 5.2 created. That creation was not of any special importance in “Gravity Selection” must replace the universe as a whole. the familiar concept There was yet neither life “Natural selection”. here, nor mortals that believe Gravity and gravity-induced and act as if they are the dissipation of all solar-wind types center of the universe. of energy in Space-1 are the sole universal builders of all structures Except hydrogen and helium, in the universe, all chemical elements in our including all chemistry, all body had been originated geological strata, earth inside pre-supernova star morphology, the entire evolution interiors4.1. of life, village, city and transportation systems as well as The massive stars sin was to written languages, sociobiology convert their light chemical and key human concepts. For elements to heavier ones details see PARTS C to D. much faster than do smaller stars, like our sun. Following gravity-induced collapse of a massive star (supernova4.1), the newly formed chemical elements were spread as hot debris in Spaces-1,2 and 3 . The first local "aggregates" of matter in the solar system3.1 had already contained atoms and simple molecules. Again it was gravity that 86

stratified these compounds in ‘horizontal’ layers according to their “specific gravity”. Indeed, volcanoes, the atmosphere, and all geological strata of layers of rocks composed of one material, e.g., shale or limestone, lying between rock beds of other materials are generated by the "selective force of gravity”. RECAP: “Gravity Selection” must replace the familiar concept “Natural selection”. Gravity and gravity-induced dissipation of all solar-wind types of radiation in Space-1 are the sole universal builders of all structures in the universe, including all chemistry, all geological strata, earth morphology, the entire evolution of life, village, city and transportation systems as well as written languages, sociobiology and key human concepts. For details see PARTS B to D. We are not at the center of the universe, for there is no such center, and we are not that important. Nor has life been feasible during most of the structuring-expansion of the universe. That first long history included neither humans nor their faith concerning their central role in the world. To know “wherefrom we came?” one must look not only deeper into space, but into the earliest world history, namely, before the solar system had come into being, starting from the invariant, remnant ratio of neutrons to protons in the entire universe [Table I].

5.1

The Solar System and Space 3 (see also footnotes 5.3 and 5.4)

The solar system is composed of our sun with its orbiting planets, moons, asteroids, comets, rocks, gases and dust, all bounded together by the COMBINED attractive gravitational field of the sun, ‘our’ galaxy5.4, ‘our’ local group of galaxies5.5 [‘our’ super-cluster of galaxies] and that of the gravitational field of all the masses in the rest of the universe. The sun, like all active stars in the universe, is a self-gravitating massive sphere of sub-atomic particles in a state of very hot plasma that is pressed-heated by the attractive force of gravity. It accounts for about 99%

of the solar system total mass. Its diameter is about 1.392 million km and is slightly larger than of an average star in ‘our’ Milky Way galaxy5.4. About 74% of the sun’s mass is hydrogen, with

All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008 about 25% helium. The rest is composed of heavier elements generated by its gravity-induced thermo-nuclear reactions (fusion)4.2. Gravity-captured debris from previous generations of earlier stars/supernovae4.1, had started to fall into or orbit the sun, gradually structuring the currently observed solar planets when the age of the universe was about 8 to 9 billion [sun-earth] years. Namely,during more than half of its present age, the universe has not harbored our solar system. Nevertheless, it may have included other similar systems. Earth may not be the sole habitatable planet in the universe. More than two hundred planets have been discovered orbiting other stars in our ‘nearby community’, with at least one harboring liquid water. The Solar System extends far beyond the farthest planets, asteroids, comets, rocks and dust in ‘our’ galaxy5.4. It is located inside non-expanding Space 3 that wraps our entire galaxy5.4 and is spatially interconnected with Spaces 2 and 3 (Diagram, opening pages). The Solar System’s glowing outer boundary varies in its glowing intensity depending on its location in different directions and distances from the sun. That glowing boundary is formed where the solar wind clashes with other ‘active-stars-winds’ emerging from ‘nearby’ stars. The solar wind forms there a gigantic shock wave -- a sort of an ‘outer boundary’ of our solar system, termed the heliosphere. The spatially non-flat, clashing surface is twisted and its form, local temperature and composition for these factors are affected by ‘winds’ emerging from other, ‘close’, or far-away stars. 5.2

Our Net Motion in Space is about 400 km/sec. The direction of the earth’s net motion lies in the same plane as its orbit around the sun and at angle of 61degrees tilted upward [northward] from the plane of the disk-like Milkyway.5.4 The earth travels around the sun at about 30 km/sec. These speeds should not be confused with the recession speed of clusters and super-clusters of galaxies away from each other, i.e., R(t) [Diagram] increases with time. Combining all these velocities, our galaxy5.4 is deviating from the cosmological uniform expansion motion by about 600 km/sec. 5.3

The Solar Wind, Spaces-3, 2 and 1 and Their Effects on Us on Earth The Solar Wind and Spaces 3, 2 and 1 constitute the most important link between the entire universe and us on earth Yet, their dynamics and thermodynamics are not easy to grasp. The Solar Wind and Spaces 3, 2 and 1 constitute the most important link between cosmology and us on earth Yet, their dynamics and thermodynamics are not easy to grasp.

Unlike the planets, the sun generates its own energy by atomic fusion4.2 and, thereby, emitting theat generated energy as the so-called ‘solar wind’. This ‘wind’ spreads in all directions and is eventually, dissipated irreversibly in Space-1 (Diagram, opening pages). The solar wind forms a gigantic shock wave at the external boundary of the Solar System5.1. On its long way to Space-1, this ‘wind’ first engulfs earth, and the other solar planets, moons, etc. No NET part of its incoming energy is irreversibly dissipated in earth -- as many wrongly assume. Its first portion is partially reflected immediately by our upper atmosphere, spreading out to outer, cold, dark Spaces 3, 2 and 1. The rest of it penetrates our atmosphere, and following highly complicated thermal, biological, ecological and hydrological cycles [Volume I], is eventually dissipated irreversibly in Space-1. The outgoing solar wind energy includes an additional, extra outgoing energy: The relatively small amount of radioactive radiation from the earth’s interior.

All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008 Each cluster of galaxies, like our local group5.5, or any super-clusters of galaxies [Fig. 1.2], is theoretically ‘encaged’ by a twisted adiabatic boundary4.15 in the form of filaments or clouds [Fig. 1.2]. Space-1 is the vast, expanding, cold space between clusters and super-clusters of galaxies. It is composed of interconnected ‘voids’ such as those shown in Fig. 1.2. While expanding Space-1 [via ‘voids’ and adiabatic envelopes] wraps all gravity-bounded, superclusters of material objects in the universe, it does not include them; namely, it does not include (i) the non-expanding galaxies; (ii) the non-expanding stars, planets, moons, etc., (iii) The non-expanding Spaces 2 and 3 (Diagram, opening pages). I claim [Volume I and refernces 13], that without Space-1 expansion, distribution and gravity, neither the universal, unstaurable sink can be formed; a sink that allows all irreversible processes to proceed in the shining sources in the entire universe: -- the formation of stars, supernovae4.1, all chemistry4.1, galaxies, the Solar System5.1, the Solar Wind5.3 and life on earth. 5.4

Our Milky-Way Galaxy contains billions of gravity-induced star-entities. Most stars are formed in the dilute regions of the rotating inter-stellar SPACE-3 arms. Our galaxy is almost 100,000 light-years5.6 in diameter at its disk-like longest spiral arms. It is in the form of an almost flat spiral disk like the one shown in the opening page. Its average thickness is about 1,000 lightyears. It is a member of our local group5.5 and of our super-cluster of galaxies (Virgo)5.5. 5.5

Our Local Group of Galaxies That is Located Inside Non-Expanding Space-2. The local group nominally includes 30 gravitationally-bounded galaxies, the largest of which are Andromeda and our galaxy 5.4. It is about 10,000,000 light-years5..6 in its largest spatial diameter, about 100 times the size of our galaxy.

The local group of galaxies is a ‘member’ of the Virgo Super-cluster of galaxies, which includes M31, M49, M58, M59, M60, M61, M84, M86, M87 and M89. Andromeda (M31), the closest large galaxy in our local group, is characterized by a similar spiral structure to that of ours5.4. It is located about 2,200,000 light-years5.6 away from us. X-ray studies reveal the presence of intra-galactic gas in Space-2. This gas may emit X-rays and other types of radiation3.1. The shapes of super-clusters of galaxies vary considerably; from that of our local group to long filaments. (Fig. 1.2; Schematically shown in the Diagram only as Clusters I and II.) Space-1 is the vast, expanding, cold space between clusters and super-clusters of galaxies. While expanding Space-1 wraps all non-expanding, gravity-bounded material objects in the universe, it does not include them. 5.6

Light-year is the distance an electromegnetic wave, like light (photons), or X-ray, travels in ‘empty’ space during one year. Since the speed of light in ‘empty’ space is 300,000 km/sec, we multiply it by 60 seconds per minute, 60 minutes per hour, 24 hours per day and 365 days per year. The result is 9.41x1012km. Examples: The diameter of our galaxy, the Milkyway5.4, at its longest spiral-like disk, is about 100,000 light-years.

5.7

Distances to Galaxies in Our Local Group5.5 [inside Space 2] may be referred to by MilkyWay diameters. Local group distances are ranging from about 1.6 to 17 Milky-Way diameters. Distances to far-away astronomical objects are measured by various methods that are briefly explained in footnote 4.1. Nonetheless, light year5.6 remains the most common cosmological distance used.

PART C Language, Brain-Mind Perceptions and Gravity __________________________________________________6

Test Your Mind Please examine the word ‘gninaem’. Next ask yourself: Can my mind associate it with anything that I know? Now reverse the order of the letters in ‘gninaem’. Your mind now recognizes ‘meaning’. This test of mind remains invariant for any language, including symbols, words and sentences [green box below]. \

Up-Side-Down Reversal-Symmetry: X, θ, +, Ф, O, I, Σ, E, B, Z, Н, §; 3, 8, 0, I, etc.; Left-Right-Reversal-Symmetry: M,U,V,W,Y,X,+,Ф,O,I,П,Ť,A; 8, 0, I, V, etc.; Some symbols, like X, +, Ф, O ,I; 8, 0 and I harbor two symmetries. Linguistic Irreversibility is loss of meaning by violation of brain-mind dictated orientation of symbols as commonly educated by the order of symbols in words and of words in sentences, as well as by the configuration-orientation of symbols by themselves vis-à-vis gravity. Meaning in our brain-mind is read-entered by irreversibility. The processing period in our brain-mind to associate meaning to symbols, words and sentences may be termed Linguistic Arrow of Time, or Linguistic Time Asymmetry. Vertical (Gravity) Axis Irreversibility includes: $, ¢, €, B, C, D, E, F, G, L, K, N, S, a, b, c, d, e, f, g, k, n, r, s, t, z, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, µ, ¶, @, Ί, σ, ‫ ד‬,‫ ג‬,‫ב‬, ‫ ר‬,‫ ק‬,‫ ץ‬,‫ פ‬,‫ ף‬,‫ ע‬,‫ מ‬,‫ ל‬,‫ה‬, ‫ ﻚ‬,‫ ﻓج‬,‫ئ‬, ‫ځ‬, ‫ڑ‬, ‫ ﯣ‬,‫ڗ‬, &, δ, η, etc. Horizontal (Gravity) Axis Irreversibility includes: $, ¥, F, P, G, L, R, S, T, a, b, d, e, f, g, h, i, n, q, l, v, u, y, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, µ, ¶, @, &, Ψ, ά, δ, γ, η, ‫אַ‬, ‫ ש‬,‫ ר‬,‫ ק‬,‫ ץ‬,‫ פ‬,‫ ף‬,‫ ע‬,‫ מ‬,‫ ל‬,‫ ך‬,‫ ט‬,‫ ח‬,‫ ז‬,‫ ה‬,‫ ד‬,‫ ג‬,‫ב‬, ‫תּ‬, ‫ ﻚ‬,‫ ﻓج‬,‫ ب‬,‫ئ‬, ‫ځ‬, ‫ڑ‬, ‫ ﯣ‬,‫ڗ‬, etc. To preserve MEANING our brain-mind is forced to detect-prevent linguistic reversibility. This ‘education’ goes back to the first fullfledged writing language in human history, to the UR civilization (Appendices), as in the cuneiform writing illustrated below:

6.1 Brain-Mind Perceptions Imposed by Gravitation Our brain-mind rejection of ‘left-to-right’ reversals in writing-reading of Hebrew, Arabic, etc. , in ‘Right-to-left’ in Latin, English, etc., and of ‘topto-bottom’ reversals in Chinese and Japanese, constitutes an unequivocal proof that this is not entirely an innate, pre-experience effect. It is a matter of geography and social-cultural needs that have been imposed by ancient rulers of past societies and adopted in modern languages, law, etc. [Assertions 6.1 and higher]

Assertion 6.1 To communicate with each other; to record physical, social and individual events -- including fact finding and abstract, mathematical, poetic or religious themes -- humans, since the dawn of civilization, have enforced on each individual the local, yet globally-fixed, gravity-induced3.3, oriented, configured-aggregated symbols, words, sentences and local and judicial-religious laws of submission and of historical, educational recording. [Green Box and Appendices IV, V]

Consequently, we are left with no other option but to conclude that this adaptation of our brain-mind goes back in history to our cultural ancestors as far back in historical time until one reaches the roots of the first written language [Appendices V, VI]. Assertion 6.2 The single, common, practically fixed, gravity-vector3.3 axis enforced on any individual brain-mind, at all historical times, has been globally used to direct any and all time-spatial Arrows-Orders of Speech and Writing. It is based on gravity-induced orientability and balancing of our brain-mind [Green Box and footnotes 6.1, 6.2]. It is a gravity-ordered, brain-mind prevention of loss of meaning, which I term Linguistic-Educational Irreversibility. It may not be an innate manifestation of Kantian Philosophy, despite the fact that our head contains balancing-organels6.1 and our orienting cells include specific gravity-pointers (see below). That capacity is externally imposed on our brain-mind by hard training since the first recognizable civilization: UR (Appendices VI, VII). It has been enforced by the punishable-rewarding methods of not a free choice of training childhood. It is Inour anysocial-cultural written language, this since socially-grounded determinism, is strictly It istheenforced basedthe onindividual. the denial of free willbyoftraditional-social the individual. dictatorship. 91

This gravity-induced determinism is a single general-relativistic reference3.3 that remains valid and reliable to all in any local culture; anytime, anyplace: The gravity vector. Social determinism therefore includes not only our common, geographically-traditionally determined language, but its linguistic time asymmetry3.4 that is enforced on any child. 6.2 Gravity-Induced Intelligent Thinking According to Lev Semenovich Vygotsky (1896-1934), 'thought' and 'language' have different origins; - 'thought' in its 'pre-linguistic stage' is linked to 'biological evolution', while 'language' in its 'pre-intelligent stage' is linked to the 'social evolution' of the child. In both Vygotskyfinds a clear 'link with external factors': "Verbal thought is not an innate natural form of behavior but is determined by a historical-cultural process and has specific properties and laws that cannot be found in the natural forms of thought and speech".

There is a moment of discovery when the child is repeatedly instructed to recognize a 'link' between a word and an 'object'. From this moment on, 'thought' becomes 'verbal' and 'speech' 'rational'. Accordingly, 'pre-linguistic thought' has the same origin to the kind of 'primitive thought' that some animals acquire through 'biological evolution', while speech always has â&#x20AC;&#x153;an external social origin". The origin of both is therefore 'external'. Following the methodology presented here, that origin may be traced back to gravitationallyinduced processes3.3; 3.4. In contrast, by a reversed speech, or writing, or 'reading', or music, one loses the meaning of words, sentences and music. 6.2 The Key Capability of a Civilization. Verbal-intelligent thinking, music, science, law and order, is preserved when one associates 'objects' and â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;subjectsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; with symbols, words, sentences, laws, etc. One then becomes capable of expressing

intelligent thought and social-religious laws and share them with others. Using the reliable gravity force-field-interaction3.3, one can record numbers, equations, music, events and verbal-intelligent thinking for a later use, even when she or he is no longer able, or alive, to repeat such acts, or even in spacecraft, on the moon, or elsewhere. Painting, sculptures and movies are interconnected parts of human records and intelligent thinking. But they may not only express intelligent thought. They are capable of proceeding beyond speech, symbols, equations and words into the ‘realm’ of ‘imagination’, innovation, 'abstract imagination' and surrealism. [see the chapter on ‘realities’ in Arts and Religion] 6.3

Loss of Orientability and Order Under Zero Gravity

Much experimental evidence, in part collected in spacecraft, proves that there is a loss of orientability in growing seeds under weightlessness ['zero gravity']. Seeds lose their rootsvs.-above-ground-growth orientability if placed under zero-gravity conditions. This asymmetry3.4 may not be an entirely innate property under zero-gravity conditions.

Assertion 6.3 The origin of temporal behavior in animals can be traced back in time and out to external physical influences. Even “innate patterns" are frequently associated with simple orientation movement in the field of gravitation3.3, i.e., as "upward-downward" balancing6.1 of the biological body in reaction to gravity. Such gravity and geophysical periodicities emerge as prime sources of order.

The same conclusion applies to balancing in sitting, walking, jumping, swimming, floating, flying, etc., and to gravityinduced socio-biology [see below], as well as to the origin, structure and functioning of our skeleton, muscles, way of motility and gravityinduced concepts [see below]. Animals are no exception. Each is 'conscious' of the commonlyshared "up-down" surroundings, and about "weight" and acceleration. Plants are also harboring innate sensors that guide them in which direction trees grow even on a slope of a mountain. 93

Additional examples range from gyroscope inertial changes, or gravity-induced changes involving the fluid in the vertebrate inner ear6.1 to a crystallizing suspension of organic spheres in water, and much more [Volume I]. 6.4 Gravity-Induced Plant Growth and Animal Behavior The sensing devices which plants and animals use for "gravity perception" ("gravity receptors", "g-perception", "bio-accelerometers", "gravityinduced biological clocks", etc.) are not yet well understood, even though a voluminous literature has been published on this subject. But what we already know justifies the central role we expect gravity to play in all life adaptive processes.

Aseertion 6.4 There is a direct link between gravitation3.3 and form, adaptive structure, growth rate, growth direction, adaptive behavior, navigation, and adaptive space perception of plants and animals [Parg. 6.4]. All plants and animals have evolved under the influence of gravity. Their form as well as their structural development have been shaped by this vectored forcefield3.3. In turn, they have "learned" to exploit it and even to cope with it - learned in the evolutionary as well as in the ontogenetic sense of the development of the individual organism.

If a growing higher plant is displaced with respect to the "upright" position, some tens of minutes later it will adapt its growth in such a way as to restore its original orientation in coincidence with the gravity vector. (If it is displaced only briefly and then restored to its original orientation well before the growth response can set in, it still responds to that displacement.) Gravity-induced orientation-adaptation of an organism may occur when an organism orients itself by a gravity-induced gradient of density differences or hydrostatic pressure. Small organisms (including all bacteria) may have no means for sensing gravity, but they are affected by it. 94

Animals low on the evolutionary scale characteristically exhibit innate patterns that depend little on learning, and have a lesser adaptability to changes in the environment. Consequently, their dependence on heredity-geophysical-gravitational origins is ‘high’ in proportion to animals that are ‘high’ on the evolutionary scale. While the latter show some signs of innate patterns, they harbor a greater capacity to produce a much more flexible mechanism to respond to a variety of other external changes that stimulate them. The evolutionary origin of the so-called "innate ideas" may, therefore, be external rather than internal. Each of the billions of cells in our body contains specific organelles and nuclei, which are heavier than the rest of the cell. These are key instruments in our lives, in our orientation, balancing, walking, reading, etc.

Assertion 6.5 Even ‘primitive’ plants ‘know’ to grow vertically upward when they they start growing in total darkness as seeds inserted deep into the ground; -- even when they grow on a steep mountain slop. As most high-growing trees thay align their growth under the control of the cosmological-local gravity vector.

Plants and animals always ‘obey’ the gravity-induced commanding-guiding force, for a reason. They try to maximize sun input and minimize shadows from other trees. We form no exception. Even with closed eyes. we always ‘feel’ and ‘obey’ the ever-present gravity force. We and all animals ‘detect it’ to orient ourselves anyplace on earth, and balance our motion. 6.6 Gravity-Induced Ecosystems Assertion 6.6 Many aspects of animals social organization and evolution can be predicted on the basis of gravity-induced environmental variables. Since biogeochemical evolution causes key natural resources to be distributed non-uniformly in the spatial and temporal coordinates of the biosphere, resource monopolization develops in all levels of sociobiological systems. 95

Gravity-induced changes develop territoriality in a given spatial region or in a given assembly of individuals, especially when key resources are not sufficiently abundant and stable through long periods of historical times. One species, or even one sex, may control a larger quantity of resources, say, scarce water ponds, than the other individuals, until a small percentage of the population monopolizes all key resources. We observe this phenomenon in both the animal and human domains of socio-biology. In humans these gravity-induced territoriality is often developed into nationality, strategy, historical events and wars. Assertion 6.7 When the limited terrestrial space must be divided into lots in a community it carries economic and social standing, or, into national "lebensraums" involving "well-defined territories", it may become a constrain that induces "Natural Selection-Orientation" in some sociobiological systems; from animals' mating systems to animals' monopolies on water resources; from natural food administration to the control of key strategic ridges; from controlling fossil fuel resources to disputes over territories. In fact, much of the currently known socio-biological evolution, and much of human history may be reassessed along these lines. [Table II, Appendices]

Other possible links between human evolution and gravity-induced changes in the environment are illuminated by empirical results that emerge from recent studies in geology and the new, mt-DNA-based anthropology and archeology. 6.7

Gravity-Induced Law, Seconds, Minutes, Days, Year

Whole cultures, civilizations and religions have been constructed on gravity-induced human orientability, concepts, spirituality, art, music, home structure, village structure, wells, canals, boats, trade, transportation structures, transportation vehicles and roads, agriculture, and even law enforcement by hanging. [Appendices] 96

History testifies that such gravity-induced cultural phenomena may proceed far beyond grammar and social order into the spiritual and hierarchical domains: High priest, low deck, high commissioner, highness, heaven, lofty, go to the bottom of the subject, etc.1.1 Letter orientation, from cuneiform writing to later written languages includes past-present-future linguistic laws [modern grammar]. Gravity, combined with Mitochondrial-DNA, are key tools in archeology, anthropology and geology: deposition layers and trash are ordered by gravity and used in such studies. [Table II, Appendices] Such a gravity-induced science is translated into gravity-rooted â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;historyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, chronology, natural Selection-Orientation, biological clocks, etc. 6.8 Gravity-Induced Perception and â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Aggregated Entities We train our brain-mind to appreciate only gravityinduced, configuration-orderorientation appeals and reject chaos, confusion and disorder. In short, we reject what does not well align with gravityinduced posture, growing, walking, standing and sitting modes.

Assertion 6.8 One cannot enjoy music if played in reverse. Even the computer page is ordered by margins, footnotes, page numbers, first and last, etc. And it takes time to read them and to comprehend them; the time that always advances from past to future; the time that I term Linguistic-Musical Arrow of Time. Similarly, gravity-induced ordering of shelves, files, documents and books in a library indroduces order into our life. Such gravity-induced order dominates not only compositionorder-asymmetry of everyday life, but is deeply ingrained in our brain-mind arrow of time.

Our brain-mind searches for 'right' via what is gravitationally induced symmetries and asymmetries. This applies to persons, animals, plants and the nonliving structures. It immediately associates and compares the observational results with pre-trained, accepted/rejected configurations-structures. It then implements stored yardsticks associated with common concepts like young/old, slender/fat, 97

healthy/sick, aesthetically-accepted/rejected and a priori inserted expectations to reproduce the same, or improved species. Each picture we observe, each letter-symbol, word and sentence that we read, or hear, forms in our brain-mind a specific aggregated, configuration-boundary, gravity-oriented asymmetry in threedimensional reality, or its equivalents in examining a two-dimensional page-space, or a computer display page-space. The three-dimensional configuration is than completed in our mind. Each letter-symbol, each word and each sentence generates an aggregated, configuration-boundary, gravity-oriented asymmetry in our brain-mind, where it had been irreversibly recorded and compared with what has been forced on our brain-mind by previous forces of our education; -- at home, school, social group, tribe, nation, religion or specific branch of civilization. A time reversal of musical notes destroys our pleasure. One cannot enjoy it if it is played in reverse. The structure and modulation of voice and the sentences a human mind seeks to identify with are important. Even a minor deviation from one's pre-trained language, intonation, accent, symmetry and asymmetry in face, in body, in walking, etc., destroys our gravity-induced, inner motivations for what is 'right' and 'healthy', and what is not. In observing a person our mind generates a gravitationally induced structural asymmetry. In fact, any picture is gravitationally oriented in our brain-mind: ‘up/down’ or ‘horizontal/left/right’. Thus, inversion of a picture, or reversing the direction of lines, words and symbols of any a meaningful text, destroys the meaning and associated verbal thinking associated with that text. It takes us some measurable time 'to study a picture', and 'to read' a text, and even more so, to 'comprehend' its innate/associated meaning vis-à-vis our pre-conceptions. We term this elapsing time, and its pointed direction, the 'Pictorial Arrow of Time', or the 'Linguistic Arrow of Time', and maintain that each generates an irreversible 'Structural Space-Time Arrow' in our brain-mind, in terms of 'Space-Aggregated-Asymmetric-Picture', which points from gravityinduced form-orientation-configuration, or, 'head' and 'lower figure', to 'beginning' and 'end'. 98

6.9 Biological Clocks and Gravitation The origin of temporal behavior in animals can be traced back in time and out to external physical influences. Gravity and geophysical periodicities emerge as prime sources of order and information in all non-living and living systems. Animals low on the evolutionary scale characteristically exhibit innate patterns, depend little on learning, and have a lesser adaptability to changes in the environment. Consequently, their dependence on heredity-geophysical-gravitational origins is high in proportion to animals high on the evolutionary scale. How, prior to and after being planted or born, biological cells inform the superstructure of plants, animals and our body-mind where is “up” and where is “down”? where the "head" should be? And where the ‘legs’ or ‘roots’ should be? How new born chicken know to refrain from going down a decline the moment they open their eyes?

These questions are dealt with in Volume I. 6.10 Vertigo, Loss of Coordination-Balancing & Gravity Vertigo is a loss of coordination, balancing and orientation vis-à-vis space and the gravity-induced horizon. I shall employ this well-known phenomenon to explain how gravity-detectors in our ear6.1 operate to help our brain6.2 to control our balancing, orientation, coordination and movement. Our biological structures in the inner ear include semicircular canals and a fluid that moves, by gravity force, with respect to the gravity vector and activates a hair cell that transmits linear and rotational motions vis-à-vis the gravity vector to the vestibular nerve, which carries these signals through the brainstem to our brain cerebellum6.1, which, in turn, uses them to control our balancing, orientation, coordination and movement. The vestibular system in our ears comprises of two semi-circular ‘canals’, which are used to indicate our rotational movements, and otoliths6.2, which indicate linear translations.

The vestibular system6.1 sends signals primarily to the neural structures that control our eye movements, and to the Cerebellum-muscles system6.2 that keeps us upright and helps us maintain clear visionorientation. 6.11

Biological Cells, Reproduction, Immunity System and Gravity

Gravity causes changes in cell division, metabolism and the immunity system. Reproduction is also impaired and the immune cells cannot differentiate into mature cells in low or zero gravity conditions atainable in spacecrafts. The size of a biological cell depends on the local gravity vector – its size increases in larger local gravitational field-force values3.3. Bone cells must attach themselves to something and will die if they cannot. Without the gravity force-field they float around and perish. Protoplasmic motion, cytoplasmic viscosity and specific gravity of cell components -- relative to the ground-plasma -- are important. Moreover, when animals evolve on land outside the oceans they develop stronger skeletons to cope with larger gravity forces vis-à-vis the reduced one due to buoyancy in the waters. Earlier lifeforms in the oceans were smaller and had a jellyfish-like configuration. Without strong skeletons land animals could not come into being. 6.12 Animals and Gravity-Induced Effects Each of the billions of cells in our body contains specific organelles and nuclei, which are heavier than the rest of the cell. These are key instruments in our lives, in our orientation, balancing, walking, reading, etc. Plants and animals always ‘obey’ the gravity-induced commandingguiding force, for a reason. They try to maximize sun input and minimize shadows from other trees. We form no exception.

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Even with closed eyes, we always ‘feel’ and ‘obey’ the ever-present gravity force. We, and all animals, ‘detect it’ to orient ourselves anyplace on earth, and balance our motion. Gravimorphism, gravitropism and tropism are directional movements of a plant with respect to a directional stimulus. One such tropism is gravimorphism -- the growth or movement of a plant with respect to gravity. Plant roots grow in the direction of gravity while shoots and stems grow against it. Blood circulation and its pressure are also affected by gravity. Space travel may involve living in zero or low gravity values (hypogravity). During supermaneuverability attainable by future [thrust-vectored] fighter aircraft the gravity-acceleration forces on both aircraft and pilot are critical. To Conclude: Gravity generates, structures and controls all geological layers and global phenomena ranging from mountain crests, tectonic folds, valleys, beaches, oceans and lagoons, to springs, wells, swamps, glaciers and rivers, and the bio-systems connected with them. Many experimental data obtained from laboratory investigations have contributed to put on a firm scientific basis the assumption that life had originated from nonliving systems. These findings represent the strongest arguments for a general theory of evolution based on gravityinduced asymmetries. Without gravity-induced orientation-order and grammar we are lost in any given written language. Gravity-induced grammar prevents us from vertical revesals. Similarly, horizontal reversals prevent us, say, from reversals of W into M. [Green Box] There are more complicated gravity-induced grammar rules. They range from preventing reversal of past into future, and vice versa, to use 101

gravity-induced structures as reference: A mountain crest, valley, beach line, river bed, sky, earth, ocean, etc.1.1 Gravity-sensing cells function as detectors of the direction of gravity. The fluid-particles systems inside cells initiate inner convective currents that cease under zero gravity. Thus, the absence of gravity affects the contacts of cells via their membrane potential and their cytoskeletons. 6.1

Otolith Organs in our inner ear are sensitive to gravity and accelerations, which, in gravity physics is equivalent to gravity3.3. When the head is in an upright position, the otolith presses on sensory hair cell receptors in the ear. This pushes the hair cell processes â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;downâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; and prevents them from moving side to side. However, when the head is tilted, the gravity force shifts the hair cell, distorting the balance, and sending signals, through the brain6.2 that the head is tilted. Otoliths are small particles of calcium carbonate in a viscous fluid. The inertia3.3 of these small particles causes them to stimulate hair cells when the head moves. The hair cells send signals down the sensory nerve fibers, which are interpreted by the brain as motion. 6.2

Cerebellum is a brain region that integrates sensory signals, like the ones arriving from the vestibular system6.1 and neural pathways that connect it with the brainâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s motor cortex, which sends commanding signals to the muscles, to cause specific motions, and via the spinocerebellar tract to provide feedback signals on the position of the body in space, gravity perception, etc. [Assertion 6.2]

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7 _______________________________________ A Virtual Deep-Space Expedition To Discover A New World Outlook

The next time that you see your mail-delivery person, inform him or

her that your correct zip code is 27,000 light-years5.6 away from the Galactic Center4.5 of your â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Spiral Galaxy Countyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;5.4 at Space-3 (Diagram). Then hand him or her the Diagram to allocate you during your deep-space expedition.

Fig. 7.1: The map for your mail-delivery person to find you during the deep-space expedition. You start from Space-3 (contains our galaxy5.4), proceed to Space-2 (contains the Local Group of galaxies5.5) and finally enter Space-1 (between Clusters and Superclusters of galaxies4.13). Your 1st Mission: Discover the hidden adiabatic envelopes4.14 that portions of Space-1 form around each cluster or super-cluster of galaxies.

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All of us in the ‘Solar System Community’5.1 have acquired a ‘goodsit-in-the-middle of the Milky-Way5.4 Rotating Theater-of-Nature’5.1. Our Milky Way galaxy is contained in Space-3, Cluster II (Fig. 7.1). It is a ‘member’ of our local group of galaxies5.5. Cluster I is a nearby supercluster of galaxies that includes Virgo, Hercules and Coma.4.13 To plan such a deep-space trip you would be provided with FIG. 7.1. Please use it if you want to know what you are trying to accomplish beyond a mere travel to Space-1, the Kingdom of Darkness. What would you be looking for in the Kingdom of Darkness? Einstein’s field equations of gravity physics (general relativity)3.3 accept no static solutions when applied to cosmology. Accordingly, the cosmos cannot stay still (static, non-expanding or contracting) and thus attain thermal equilibrium (uniform temperature) all over cosmic curved space-time. In fact it is expanding, as predicted by general relativity without the artificial addition of the cosmological constant. Your 1st Mission: Discover the hidden adiabatic envelopes4.15 that Space-1 wraps around each cluster or super-cluster of galaxies. Bone Voyage! During the first leg of your trip you watch how the ‘solar wind’5.3 clashes with opposing similar winds that spread out from nearby stars to form a gigantic shock wave5.1 that you may have to cross about half way to the nearest star, which is 4 light-years5.5 away. If you survived many such shock-wave crossings (generated by other stars in our galaxy on your way out of it), you are heading to the edge of our galaxy. You better go in the short way out, in the direction of its narrow side, namely, perpendicular to our Milky-Way ‘almost flat disk of stars’, far away from the dangerous Galactic Center4.5. During your deep-space trip, you must be careful not to fall on any cool brown dwarf, like DEN0255-4700, which is in our ‘neighborhood’ -- just 16.2 light-years away5.6. It is hard to detect, for it is about 100 million times fainter than the sun. 104

You may also encounter one-way traps as black holes4.3, or quasars4.14, from which you can never return home, live or dead. Then, if you can imagine a thought-traveling experiment in which you travel close to the speed of light – a speed that is attained only by light in vacuum, but never by spacecraft or humans -- you would reach the side-edge of our galaxy5.4 after about 500 years, give or take a decade. (Special relativistic effects would almost freeze your biological age, so you would arrive there almost as young as you have left earth.) You next proceed further and deeper into space until you escape from the domain of (non-expanding) SPACE-3 and enter into the domain of (non-expanding) Space-2, the intra-cluster space of our local group5.5.

Spaces 1, 2 and 3 (Fig. 7.1) are ‘filled with’ isotropic BLACK BODY RADIATION4.12, all types of radiation3.1, and, in Space-3: Different stellar-wind-like5.1 flows heading in different directions, interstellar shock waves, dust and gas. One can install sails on your spacecrsft -- somewhat like those on a sailing-boat, then orienting them to catch stellar winds going roughly in your direction. That may save fuel. But you do not need them for your virtual tour is speeding close to the speed of light speed. The lowest density of radiation energy in the entire universe is on twisted surfaces of adiabatic surfaces4.15 that are located about between any neighboring clusters or super-clusters of galaxies (Fig. 7.1). Points on these surfaces are marked as (a), (b) and (c) in Fig. 7.1 and to map these surfaces is your mission. Each supercluster that you observe on your way contains from 10 to thousands of galaxies, while each galaxy contains from 10,000,000 to

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1,000,000,000,000 stars, usually orbiting a common center of gravity, like the Milky way5.4. In addition to some different types of stars and unusual gravitationally bounded cosmic mediums, as well as a tenuous interstellar medium, most galaxies contain a large number of multiple-star systems, e.g., star-clusters and nebulae. Most galaxies that you observe during your trip are several thousands to several hundred thousands light-years5.6 in diameter, and are usually separated from one another by distances of millions lightyears5.6. Non-expanding Space-3 is the space that wraps each galaxy, namely, it is also the space between the stars (interstellar space). It consists of various â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;solar-wind-like flows5.3;, relatively dilute amounts of matter particles, typically 90% hydrogen and about 10% helium, and some â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;heavierâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; atoms and molecules, as well as dust clouds, magnetic fields, cosmic rays, light, X-rays and other types of electromegnetic radiation3.1. During the last 13.699 billion years or so, Space-1 expansion means, inter alia: A uniform (isotropic and homogenous) increase in distances between at least the super-clusters of galaxies. Space-1 being the background against which linear motions and rotations of gravity-bounded objects are measured and counted5.2. Space-1-Expansion is neither a theory nor a model, as some wrongly assume. It is a well-verified fact. The expansion of any adiabatic envelope4.15 is the same as those of all other. The maximum and minimal temperatures inside each is the same as in all other expanding envelopes. Hence, the study of a single one, like the one in Fig. 7.1, represents the entire expanding universe. This conclusion constitutes the 1st cornerstone of the world outlook that you are supposted to discover there. 106

PART D THE SKEPTIC VIEW

8 Limitations of Definitions and Mathematically-Based Theories

8.1 Scientific Errors Introduced by The Very Act of Definition According to Plato, everything is connected with everything else. Therefore, any reliable definition must include 'the whole universe' and its contents, dynamics and history. I therefore try, whenever I can, to minimize the common a priori act of 'precise definition' of symbols, concepts, proofs or theories, for contrary to ‘good intent’, such a ‘precise act’ always introduces a certain degree of error. This means that the very act of defining a scientific word, a symbol, a theory or a concept in the most advanced dictionaries, or in the class room, erects a ‘fence’ around it. Anything outside that fence is, a priori, rejected and lost forever within the framework of these disctionaries, courses and the resulting sciences. One must therefore begin education with cosmology, as often done with the Bible but for a different end. Other reasons for adopting such an initial approach to education are enumerated in the Introduction. Indeed, without paying much attention to the fundamental consequences, we carelessly use definitions in academia, research and everyday life These facts raise the issues of symbols, pure and applied mathematics. 107

A plied

mathematics is the key tool of the ‘exact sciences’. It constitutes a special kind of 'intelligent thinking’ that is integrated with its ‘universal grammar' -- a sort of critical thinking which has been partially developed to safeguard our minds from prejudices and inconsistencies. Yet, consistency, by itself, is a two-sided issue, as I shall briefly review next.. p

A "mathematically-based theory" is considered "consistent" if it never proves a contradiction. In formal logic, both mathematical statements and proofs are written in a symbolic language, whose validity and proofs rest on a theorem that follows from the starting list of axioms. Such a proof may also be validated by a computer, and such programs are available. A theory is an a set of statements, some of which are taken as valid without proof (axioms), and others, the theorems, are taken as valid because they are implied by the axioms. A complete and consistent set of axioms for all mathematics is impossible. "Provable by a theory" means "derivable from the axioms and primitive notions of the theory, using logic.” 8.2 Tarski's Indefinability Theorem According to this theorem No sufficiently powerful language is strongly-semantically-self-representational. Namely, arithmetical truth cannot be defined in/by arithmetics. Accoriding to Smullyan[42], Tarski's Indefinability Theorem is somewhat superior to the famous Gödel's Incompleteness Theorems [see below], which are more related to mathematics and less to a wide range of philosophical issues and languages. Tarski's theorem is not directly about mathematics but about the inherent limitations of any formal language that is stronglysemantically-self-representational when it contains predicates and function symbols defining the semantic concepts specific to that language.

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8.3 Gödel's Incompleteness Theorems Gödel has demonstrated that conventional mathematics, which we tend to consider as a supremely logical and consistent system, involves paradoxiacal, self-referential statements about itself, i.e., a conventional mathematical system, say, the mathematics of flat space in the Euclidian geometry -- an ‘absolute stage’ on which Newtonian gravity and physics stands, can be incomplete because one has not discovered all its necessary axioms. In computer science, for instance, one can never create a complete and consistent finite list of axioms, or even an infinite list. Each time that one adds a statement as an axiom, there will be other correct statements that cannot be proved, even with the new axiom. Moreover, if the system can prove that it is consistent, it is not. As might have been expected, this idea has been much debated by mathematical philosophers: How can a theory be both correct and unprovable? Is mathematics a loop of our mind? Is the mind a self referential loop?

Gödel's first incompleteness theorem shows that any system that allows one to define the natural numbers is necessarily incomplete: it contains statements that are neither provable correct, nor provably false. Some scholars therefore argue that this refutes the logicism of Gottlob Frege and Bertrand Russel, who had aimed to reduce/define the natural numbers in terms of logic. Not all axiom systems satisfy these hypotheses, even when these systems have models that include natural numbers as a subset. For example, there are axiomatizations of ‘flat’ space that do not meet the hypotheses of Gödel's theorems. Another limitation applies only to systems that are used as their own proof systems. Gödel's theorem has another interpretation in the language of computer science. Theorems are computably enumerable: one can write a computer program that will eventually generate any valid 109

proof. One can then ask if it has the stronger property of being recursive: Can one write a computer program to definitively determine if a statement is true or false?

Gödel's theorem says that you cannot. His theorems, however, are confined to sufficiently strong axiomatic systems, i.e., that a theory contains enough arithmetic to carry out the proof of the incompleteness theorem. Some scholars claim that Gödel's incompleteness theorems have provided a deadly blow to David Hilbert’s program towards a universal mathematical formalism. Nevertheless, the essence of these issues is much more complicated, as shown next. Undecidable Statements: A statement is neither provable nor refutable. Hence, some scholars resort to the concept "independent". but, that concept is also ambiguous. Meta-Language: A sufficiently developed language cannot represent its own semantics. Any meta-language includes primitive notions, axioms, and rules absent from an object language. Theorems provable in a meta-language are not provable in the object language. “Truth”: Some of the aforementioned theorems may presuppose that mathematical "truth" and "falsehood" are well-defined in an absolute sense, rather than relative. If an axiomatic system can be proven to be consistent and complete from within itself, then it is inconsistent. Minds and Machines: Gödel's incompleteness theorems may also reflect on human intelligence. While Gödel's theorems cannot be applied to humans, since they make mistakes and are, therefore, inconsistent, it may be applied to the domain of science. Sets of expressions are coded as sets of numbers. For various syntactic properties (such as a formula, a sentence, etc.), these sets are computable. And any computable set of numbers can be defined by some arithmetic formula.

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There are various additional theorems and sub-theorems 34-49. I do not intend to expand on them in these pages, for these pages are mainly written for the general reader, without resorting to any mathematics. We therefore move next to elaborate on some more practical domains in the mined fields of verifiable scientific theories and proofs. Pure and Applied Mathematics attempt to stay aloof and beyond human emotions and ambitions. It protects one from making mistakes, prior to and aft writing down a single mathematical equation. How mathematics -- combined with verifiable observations -- help protect the human mind from falling into unverifiable traditional dictums or ‘intuitively’ generating mistkes is demonstrated by the following dramatic event in the history of science; when Einstein had concluded that his [tensorially based 8.1-8.3] field equations of general relativity3.3, our most universally verified theory of acceleration and gravity, harbors a mistake. To correct that ‘mistake, he forced on these equations a ‘correction number’, called the cosmological constant. Luckily his tensorial field equations were flawless, despite the fact that a cult of believers in its unverifiable interpretations has evolved during the last 90 years or so, telling us about an imaginative need to leave that artificial constant in Einstain’s field equations. 8.4 Space-Time and Symmetry-Asymmetry The deep essence and the fundamental meaning of curved space-time, symmetry-asymmetry, statistics and probabilities are understood only by a portion of scientists. A much smaller portion, or, in fact, a splendid minority, maintains that probabilities, statistics and quantum postulates provide them with no ‘free will’ [1.11]. 8.5 Differential Equations Vs. Observations It is in the unique domain of mathematics that time-symmetry, reversibility and the symmetrical laws of physics serve us as key tools to better understand nature, despite the limitations mentioned above. And it is only by combining (conceptual, reversible, analytic) timesymmetry with (factual, aggregated, observational) time-asymmetry, or by combining reversible equations with a priori known, factual, initial and boundary conditions, that one may, mathematically, arrive at a 111

reliable world outlook observations/experimentations.

agreement

with

While symbols and analytical concepts may be symmetric, words and sentences (in order, syntax, phoneme, form, sound modulation or other modes), or ‘useful’ physico-mathematical equations, are basically asymmetric. Mathematics, gravitation, symmetry-asymmetry, aggregation, time and meaningful sentences are coupled. While some minor reservations are justifiable, there is an overwhelming "word of evidence", derived from physics, the languages and the studies of linguistics, cybernetics, information and mathematics, that fortifies this contention. 8.6 The Popperian Falsification Principle The greatest living philosopher of science in the last century, Sir Karl Popper, has introduced the Falsification Principle about the ability of mankind to establish what is science and what is non-science, in addition to what might be ‘true’ within the domain of a given theory, or a set of ‘facts’, axioms or definitions Scientific theories can be falsified by irrefutable, multiple evidence. They are, therefore, falsifiable. As to the great dispute in physics between deterministic general relativity3.3 and probablistic quantum theories3.2, Popper strongly disagreed with Niels Bohr’s physico-philosophical interpretations and supported Albert Einstein's realist approach to determinism and scientific theories about the universe and its contents and processes. Applied mathematics is often used to cross disciplinary borders. However, some use it as a cover to advance their subjectivistic, unverifiable claims, proofs and ‘theories’. The examples provided in footnotes 3.4 and 3.5 illustrate how -- by a priori selecting only timeasymmetric mathematics, or time-asymmetric mathematical solution that fits with their desired ‘proof’ – they easily fool themselves or others. ‘Pure mathematics’, is often develped for its own sake, without a priori harboring intentional applications, although they may be ‘uncovered’ later. 112

According to Einstein, when we predict the behavior of a specific or confined set of natural phenomena, we usually mean that we have found a ‘constructive theory’ covering this set. When we find that other sets of phenomena are incompatible with that theory, we tend to either generalize or modify it, or failing that, seek an alternative one. To this ‘constructive’ category Einstein opposes the so-called “theories of principles” (exemplified, according to Einstein, by thermodynamics and the general theory of relativity), whose point of departure and foundation are not hypothetical constituent, but empirically observed general properties from which mathematical formulae are deduced so as to apply to every case of observation which presents itself. Thus, according to Einstein, the merit of constructive theories lies in their comprehensiveness, adaptability, and clarity for a given set of phenomena, while that of the “theories of principles” -- in their logical ‘perfection’ and universality and in the vast observational spectrum of their formulation at any scale and time. Yet, Einstein did not trust some semi-hidden aspects of his own general theory of relativity2.5. Two such events are described next: The failure of statistical mechanics (both classical and quantum) to deduce and explain the origin of irreversibility, time-asymmetries, cosmic and local structuring, generation of order and what is called “entropy growth” -- as well as its philosophical and applicative limitations and lack of large-scale universality -- has been explained in footnotes 2.5, 3.4 and 3.5 as well as in Volume I. Indeed, Einstein had not suspected that his general theory of relativity already incorporates another ‘theory of principle’: Thermodynamics, especially the so-called Second Law of Thermodynamic. Namely, the foundations of thermodynamics are NOT a separate, stand-alone, theory of science; it is NOT fragmented from the rest of physics. It constitutes an integral part of gravity-induced, interconnected, unified physico-philosophical knowledge.

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Scalars are numbers, ‘constants’, or measurable quantities that one can count. They harbor no direction in space, time or space-time. Algebra and calculus belong to this domain, and both constitute boring subjects to most students, and to me. An example is speed. 8.2

Vectors are scalars and other entities that harbor direction in space, time, or space time. These are frequently used as the ‘first derivatives’ of entities, physical or imaginative, in space, time, space-time or higher dimensions. An example is velocity. 8.3

Tensors allow anyone to express the same laws of physics for any observer in the universe: Rotating, standing still, moving linearly at constant speed, accelerating, standing on a tiny, or a massive planet or a star, i.e., under different gravitational fields. Expressing derivatives in 3 space coordinates and one time coordinate, or in additional dimensions, tensors constitute translators that show that what one observes, scales, measures, or reads in, say, a flat space-time, is the same for any and all other curved space-time points of other observers. Tensors are, therefore, the translators from one set of coordinates, say, the set used by a rotating observer, to any other set used, say, by an observer ‘falling’, or fast accelerating into a black hole4.3;4.14 or ‘standing’ on the planet Jupiter. Thus, tensors express a theory by resorting to a single universal language, e.g.., via their mathematical derivatives, they tell any observer that these or these scalars, vectors or other physico-mathematical entities, when all arranged on one side of a tensorially-expressed equation, are all zero for any and all observers. We may judge that result as an ‘invariance’ for all.

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The Biggest Clash Between Science and Organized Religion

During a recently invited lecture I spoke about the Central Theme and the world outlook that, inter alia, allows accommodation of both science and religion under the same roof without fusing them together -- essentially a preliminary attempt to gain improved tolerance and understanding to what might be shared with mutual respect by both science and organized religions. [Assertion S.1] To my surprise, the lecture at that state-affiliated university was opened by a prayer. At the lecture end, a distinguished professor of the Graduate School of Education there, grabbed the microphone and with a winning smile, faced her graduate students and the other junior professors in the audience, and loudly declared: â&#x20AC;&#x153;We have only one sun in the world. In contradiction with this established fact, you claim that it is expanding during the last 13 billion years. But it is not. It is a mistake!â&#x20AC;?

My reply was similar to what is presented in the opening pages and Synopsis I. But the distinguished professor interrupted me and stated: Astronomy is a star-working that borders with paganism. WE all know that and WE can neither change anything in our curriculum, nor help you find mutual accomodation for starworking in this university.

Totally amased, I asked:

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Have you heard about the first notable woman in astronomy? About Hypatia? About the greatest clash between science and religion in her time?

Her reply was No!

Never!

At that moment I, sadly, decided that it is my “educational duty” to add this chapter about the biggest and longest ever clash between science and organized religion.

The

daughter of Theon [335-405ac], Hypatia, is a noted astronomer, mathematician and philosopher. She became the head of the world’s-greatest academy of philosophy, astronomy and mathematics in her time, in Alexandria, Egypt. During this historical period, Alexandria was the most important center of commerce, culture, science and philosophy in the entire Western World. Rome had already been sacked and its libraries and records of science, medicine and philosophy lost for ever. Only the great and unique Academy-Library in Alexandria still harbored the world’s top knowledge in science, medicine, astronomy and philosophy. It was taught and expanded there until that tragic epoch.

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During Hypatia's lifetime, the Roman Empire was split into two and Roman Law and its power were challenged by the rising Christian power. At the very center of this historical conflict, Hypatia is freely leading top-world studies, while practicing an unprecedented lifestyle of feminine freedom, equality and independence. In addition, her unmatched intellectual gifts attracted a large number of students from all over the two divided Roman Empires. She had many suitors but rejected all offers of marriage, preferring to live independently of any man, in a men's world in which women were considered their property, harboring almost no civil rights and being denied higher education. Some reliable ancient documents have survived concerning the tragic events that took place there between 412 to 415 [1-12]: In 412 Cyril became the Christian Patriarch of Alexandria. The Roman governor of Alexandria at that time was Orestes. Cyril and Orestes became bitter enemies of power and ideology.  Hypatia was a friend of Orestes. This fact, together with prejudice against her philosophical, astronomical, mathematical and free-spirited lifestyle, led to Hypatia becoming the focal point of envy and hate on Cyril’s part.  She dared to defy both church and state interference in science and philosophy; to preserve the rights of academic freedom and the conviction that all individuals have the right to defend their beliefs and share science and its fact-finding activities with all.  In great personal danger, she continued to teach and publish, until, in the year 415, she was set upon by a fanatical mob of Cyril's parishioners.  They dragged her from her chariot, tore off her cloths, and armed with sharp seashells, flayed her flesh from her bones, dragged her through the streets to the newly christianised Caesareum church. Then she was burned and her work banned and destroyed. 117

 In great panic the faculty run away for their life. The Outcome: That world’s-top Academy-Library was destroyed, its top and unique world’s knowledge in mathematics, astronomy, medicine and philosophy has been lost forever to humanity, while Cyril was crowned a Saint.

Where, Today, We Would Be, Say, in Medicine, Without The 1000-Years of Retarded Science Caused By That Organized Religion Crime?

Render therefore unto Caesar the things which are Caesars’; and unto God the things that are God’s.

Matt. 22:21

With Hypatia and that unique world center gone, the Dark Ages have lingered in, blocking the progress of science, medicine and philosophy.  It lasted 1000 years as the church policy and practice.  Eventually, it was only the tragic outcomes of brave-wise persons like Bruno, Copernicus and Galileo that have gradually marked the end of this darkest period in science.  But this lesson may proceed beyond the end of the dark ages: Can one imagine where we would be today without these 1000 years of delay in science, medicine, philosophy and the freedom 118

of thought and practice? Would knowledge today be at a much higher level if what had happened [1-12] and the 1000-years of retardation of science, would have been aborted? And if so, would, say, cancer, stroke, heart attack and other diseases be well-cured by now? A Closing Word In bringing this chapter to a close, I stress that Plotinus maintains, with hypatia, that there is an ultimate reality that is beyond the reach of thought, or language, like shadows of ‘real’ mountains and trees, as seen by one staying in a cave. These ideas go back to Plato, to Socrates and to earlier Greek philosophers, who, inter alia maintain that the object of life is to try to live and act as close as possible to reality-in-itself, to ‘things-in-themselves’, which, however, can never be precisely described, formulated and comprehended. Hypata; Documentation. Various documents have been uncovered about Hypatia [1-12]. These are verifiable historical facts, not popular stories and anecdotes as many wrongly assume or, in vain and intended distortion, claim in public and in private circles. Her own work was lost after her defamation by the Church. Only a few titles and references to her contributions survived, some of them, ironically, in the Vatican. In Mathematics: Hypatia and her father Theon had produced a new version of Euclid's Mathematical Elements; - elements which have become the basis for later editions of Euclidian mathematics. The Greek-Theon-Hypatia methods of operating with sexadecimal fractions and the extraction of the square root of a non-number should also be noted. Hypatia’s contributions to mathematics are currently undergoing academic investigations and evaluations, for instance, those conducted by the Departments of Mathematics in Monash University in Australia and in St. Andrews University in Scotland [12]. In Astronomy: Hypatia and her father, professor Theon, expanded the works of the great astronomer Ptolemy; Almagest and Handy Tables. [E.g., a 9th century Vatican manuscript exists, which is based on Theon-Hypatia's text used in the year 463 in Apamea in Syria.] Hypatia had contributed much to the knowledge of Arithmetica and Apollonius's Conics vis-à-vis Ptolemy's astronomical works. In Medicine: Among Hypatia’s admirers was Synesius of Cyrene, later to become the Bishop of Ptolemaist. Some of the letters that Synesius wrote to Hypatia have survived. They testify that he was filled with great respect to Hypatia's knowledge when he asked her advice for the construction of an astrolabe and a hydroscope. In Education: Hypatia taught updated philosophical ideas with a greater scientific emphasis than earlier followers of Neoplatonism. She was also described as a charismatic teacher. Her eloquence and authority had reached global influence, so much so that some Christians had considered themselves being threatened by her very existence, teaching and influence. She was murdered by Church members who felt threatened by her scholarship, learning, and depth of scientific knowledge. Nitrian monks; a sect of Christians who were supporters of Cyril, were instrumental in her murder. Her scientific research and teaching was banned from all countries ruled by Christianity.

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All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008 In Philosophy: Hypatiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s philosophical ideas discouraged mysticism while encouraging logical and mathematical studies. She extended those of Plotinus, the founder of Neoplatonism, and of Iamblichus, who was also a developer of Neoplatonism.

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10 ____________________________________________ Realities in The Arts and Religion Assertion 10.1: Arts and Religion Afresh The arts introduce aesthetics to the life of almost anyone, while religion introduces morality and hope at least to the poor, helpless and the sick. Theology, by resorting to a set of distinct symbols, acts, words, concepts, language and records form an integral part of accumulated old wisdom that, however, does not speak the language of modern science. Both the arts and sciences set no barriers of race, class, creed, faith and nationality; In turn, the growing reputation, reliability and success in practice of science, from medicine to television, from space satellites to cell phones, from cars to airplanes and from advanced weapons to advanced civilization, intimidates some jealous theists; pushing them to stress conflict, intolerance, the unbridgeable, time-invariant attitudes. Perhaps one way to soften such attitudes is to use the language and logic of moderest theists and believers, perhaps as Assertion S.1, perhaps as this Assertion proposes next. Those who ask in pray to change anything in the future may not be respecting a deterministic Master Plan that rules superb since the beginning of time, while the humbles who only feel deep gratitude for being born, healthy and alive, are the believers in the Master Plan that has been controlling everything and is mercilessly the SAME ny attemptthetouniverse define at ‘things-in-themselves’ is like defining throughout all times, even, and particularly so, priora desert image a mirage. to by thethe arrival ofof mortals. Hence, to ask for any favorable future outcome, for any change in personal fate or well-being, is to ask to It was in 1987, within the third edition of VOLUME I, that we change the past-time-fixed laws of the universe; an anthropomorphic have elaborated on the role played by aestethics in human yearning wish that ignores the fact WE are not the center of the universe. for reality, science, ‘truth’ and our endless search for a single theory Perhaps the closest analogy is to ask to change the sex of a of everything. yet un-born child, when that has already been fixed.

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In Chapter 8 we had briefly reviewed the limitations of any mathematically-based theory and the inconsistency of consistent statements in both the languages and mathematics. But it is here that we make another short stop to assess the realities displayed in The Arts. In The Arts we often yearn for the more aesthetic and the more beautiful and inspiring. It is here where‘Reality’, or ‘realism’ is often claimed to be in contrast with illusion. For example, a painting that displays nature like a picture is considered ‘realistic’, while those that distort it are often claimed to be ‘unrealistic’. What artists claim about ‘reality’ often depends on what other say it is not. In the domain of religion there are endless ‘realities’ of different faiths and individuals. These ‘realities’ cannot be ignored by science. They are associated with or based on historical facts that are at the base of any organized religion. (Appendix VI). The aesthetic link between all ‘human-based realities’ is always evident in and displayed by endless ritual dances, performing arts, the composition of music, traditional fiestas and ornamented objects in temples, cathedrals, mosques, art galleries and museums of science, natural history and local cultures. All these realities, and the endless realities of each and all individuals, form an intergral part of a single whole that is the outcome of the Human Free Spirit. The latter subject requires more elaborations, as will be done later. ‘Reality’, or ‘realism’ in the arts is often claimed to be in contrast with illusion. A painting that displays nature like a picture is considered ‘realistic’, while those that distort it are often claimed to be ‘unrealistic’. What artists claim about their own ‘reality’ often depends on what other say it is not.

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Assertion 10.2: Shadows of ‘Things-in-Themselves’ Thanks to the subdivision of knowledge into fragmented ‘disciplines’, scholars have neither succeeded to define ‘What Things-in-Themselves are’, nor even explain the interconnectedness between such concepts and different descriptions of ‘external’ and ‘inner’ ‘shadows of Things-in-Themselves’, to judge their collective importance and to estimate their inherent structure, inner logic and ordering.

Assertion 10.3: Reality in The Arts, Sciences and Religions Creative members of The Arts express their own “reality”, which like the grand aim of science, is to approach it as close as possible within the most fundamental, aesthetic frame of mind and as a longing for the run-away horizons of truth and symmetry that we always try to reach. There are, in addition, endless ‘realities’ of different organized faiths and of almost each individual. These ‘realities’ cannot be ignored by science. They are associated with, or based, on present and historical facts. [Chapter 9].

‘Reality’ in the arts and in everyday life is often considered as what it is not, e.g., ‘NOT in touch with reality’. Those who claim that a priori assume that they know what reality is for other humans in other cultures and religions. ‘Reality’ in the undefinable essence of HAVAHYAH, may be a misleading concept. [Chapter xxx]. For instance: One side of Einstein’s field equations of general relativity represents factual reality [the local energy-momentum tensors], while their other side equates that with the local curvature of space-time. One may therefore be tempted to view all other verifiable factual realities, say, in chemistry, biology, medicine and geology, in the essence of HAVAHYAH-induced laws [Volume I[ Since all scientific disciplines can be reduced to the laws of physics, which, by themselves, are HAVAHYAH-induced physicomathematical-philosophical-cosmological concepts that apply in both 123

the non-living and the living worlds, they are exactly the same throughout the universe at any scale and space-time. Assertion 10.4: Limitation of Any Scientific ‘Reality’

Any claim of ‘the scientific reality of things-in-themselves’ is misleading. At best one may eleborate on a ‘reality’ within a given domain of science, the arts and faith of the individual. Nothing is ultimate, nothing is but painted words, symbols, numbers and equations, unless verifiable by observations and experimentation. Any claim for the ‘reality’ of unverifiable multi-universes in pre- or post Genesis can pass the Popperian Falsification Test. [Chapter 8].

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APPENDICES Appendix I _____________________________________________________________________________________________

Homework and Grading

All

scientists operate under some set of personal philosophies, whether declared or not. A failure to acknowledge that is selfdelusion. Accordinly, I open this Appendix by stressing my own subjectivistic approach and guidlines while aiming at objectivistic ones. But when it comes to homework selection and grading it may be a different kind of personal responsibility. There are at least two categories of students, faculty and general readers. The first one may select homework themes and sources according to their own personal philosophy. They may need minimal guidance, or none at all. The second category may rely on sources that are recommended here. The potential problem with this category may originate from the reliability and objectivity of some the selected sources. Hence, according to my experience, one must a priori be informed about potential subjectivistic interpretations associated with any GROUP of sources. At this point my selection priorities and general guidlines are: 1. Nobel Prizes are pre-supposed to minimize subjectivistic selections and interpretations. But as all scientists are, they also harbor no immunity against making biased mistakes, or errors 125

2. Most important, they do not include important domains of science and philosophy such as mathematics, astronomy, archeology, geology, history, anthropology, biology, bioengineering, engineering, aerospace, sociobiology, ecology and philosophy of science. 3. Nevertheless, a selection of a Nobel-Prize-Committee’s Description of the subject for which a Nobel Prize had been awarded, may be relatively safer than using other sources. [Obviously, it may be found wrong or misleading at a later time. But that is part of the history of science.] 4. Hence, the source list provided in Appendix II is recommended. 5. A mathematically-based theory, by itself, is not safe. 6. “Authorities” quoted by anyone may not be safe. 7. A long list of “Authorities” is not safer than a small one. 8. Using wide-scope common sources like Wikipedia and Britannica may not be safe, but see below. 9.

Using articles published by ‘top’, ‘peer-reviewed’ journals, periodicals and patent offices may not be safe.

Homework on a Subject for Which a Nobel Prize Was Awarded By clicking a name on the list provided in Appendix II one is linked to Wikipedia, where a published review on the subject for which a Nobel-Prize was awarded, had been provided by a Nobel-Prize selecting body. The articles published by Wikipedia contain an (Edit) LINK. At the end of your work you may be able to contribute to the subject that you had selected for study, research and homework. Good luck!

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Appendix II _____________________________________ List of Nobel-prize Winners By Country

The latest Nobel-Prize Winners in each country are listed first. Homework may best be based on the latest discoveries as described by the awarding committies. Biographies are interesting and may be included in an assay as a brief background. Nonetheless, any homework assay intended for grading should mainly be based on a scientific topic. Peace Laurates are interesting, but are outside the scope of this book. A star* may be added below next to a name when the Laurate has been associated with more than one country. The Nobel-Prize Commitees have provided the Free Encyclodepdia Wikipedia with data on each Laurate. By typing or clicking below on the Laurate name, one can get the data from Wikipedia, or use Google for internet search engines, or quality book libraries. Data typed into the Google search engine should be inside quotation marks, for instance, “Albert Einstein”, “A. Einstein”, or “Einstein, Albert”. Good Luck! Argentina César Milstein*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1984 Adolfo Pérez Esquivel, Peace, 1980 Luis Federico Leloir, Chemistry, 1970 Bernardo Houssay, Physiol. or Medicine, 1947 Carlos Saavedra Lamas, Peace, 1936 Australia Barry Marshall, Physiol. or Medicine, 2005

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All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008 J. Robin Warren, Physiol. or Medicine, 2005 Rolf M. Zinkernagel*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1996 Peter Doherty, Physiol. or Medicine, 1996 John Warcup Cornforth, Chemistry, 1975 Patrick White*, Literature, 1973 John Carew Eccles, Physiol. or Medicine, 1963 Sir Frank Macfarlane Burnet, Physiol. or Medicine, 1960 Sir Howard Florey, Physiol. or Medicine, 1945 William Henry Bragg*, Physics, 1915 William Lawrence Bragg*, Physics, 1915 Austria Elfriede Jelinek, Literature, 2004 Eric R. Kandel*, Physiol. or Medicine, 2000 Walter Kohn*, Chemistry, 1998 Friedrich Hayek, Economics, 1974 Konrad Lorenz, Physiol. or Medicine, 1973 Karl von Frisch*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1973 Wolfgang Pauli, Physics, 1945 Otto Loewi*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1936 Victor Franz Hess, Physics, 1936 Richard Kuhn*, Chemistry 1938 Erwin Schrรถdinger, Physics, 1933 Karl Landsteiner, Physiol. or Medicine, 1930 Julius Wagner-Jauregg, Physiol. or Medicine, 1927 Richard Adolf Zsigmondy*, Chemistry, 1925 Robert Bรกrรกny*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1914 Alfred Hermann Fried*, Peace, 1911 Bertha von Suttner*, Peace, 1905

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All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008 Belgium Ilya Prigogine*, Chemistry, 1977 Christian de Duve*, Physiol. and Medicine, 1974 Albert Claude, Physiol. and Medicine, 1974 Georges Pire, Peace, 1958 Corneille Heymans, Physiol. and Medicine, 1938 Jules Bordet, Physiol. and Medicine, 1919 Henri La Fontaine, Peace, 1913 Maurice Maeterlinck, Literature, 1911 Auguste Beernaert, Peace, 1909 Bosnia and Herzegovina Vladimir Prelog*, Chemistry, 1975 Ivo Andric*, Literature, 1961 Brazil Peter Medawar*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1960 Bulgaria Elias Canetti, Literature, 1981 Canada Robert Mundell, Economics, 1999 Myron Scholes*, Economics, 1997 William Vickrey*, Economic Sciences, 1996 Bertram N. Brockhouse, Physics, 1994 Michael Smith*, Chemistry, 1993 Rudolph Marcus*, Chemistry, 1992 Richard E. Taylor, Physics, 1990 Sidney Altman, Chemistry, 1989 John C. Polanyi*, Chemistry, 1986 David H. Hubel*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1981

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All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008 Saul Bellow*, Literature, 1976 Gerhard Herzberg*, Chemistry, 1971 Charles B. Huggins*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1966 Lester B. Pearson, Peace, 1957 William Giauque*, Chemistry, 1949 John James Richard Macleod, Scotland, Physiol. or Medicine, 1923 Frederick G. Banting, Physiol. or Medicine, 1923 China Gao Xingjian*, Literature, 2000 Daniel C. Tsui*, Physics, 1998 Edmond H. Fischer*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1992 Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama*, Peace, 1989 [now India] Chen Ning Yang, Physics, 1957 Tsung-Dao Lee, Physics, 1957 Chile Pablo Neruda, Literature, 1971 Gabriela Mistral, Literature, 1945 Colombia Gabriel García Márquez, Literature, 1982 Costa Rica Oscar Arias Sánchez, Peace, 1987 Croatia Vladimir Prelog*, Chemistry, 1975 Ivo Andric*, Literature, 1961 Lavoslav Ružička, Chemistry, 1939 Czech Republic Peter Grünberg*, Physics, 2007 Jaroslave Seifert, Literature, 1984

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All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008 Jaroslav HeyrovskĂ˝, Chemistry, 1959 Gerty Cori*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1947 Denmark Jens Christian Skou, Chemistry, 1997 Niels K. Jerne, Physiol. or Medicine, 1984 Ben Mottelson, Physics, 1975 Aage Bohr, Physics, 1975 Johannes Vilhelm Jensen, Literature, 1944 Henrik Dam, Physiol. or Medicine, 1943 Johannes Fibiger, Physiol. or Medicine, 1926 Niels H. Bohr, Physics, 1922 Schack August Steenberg Krogh, Physiol. or Medicine, 1920 Henrik Pontoppidan, Literature, 1917 Karl Gjellerup, Literature, 1917 Fredrik Bajer, Peace, 1908 Niels Ryberg Finsen, Physiol. or Medicine, 1903 East Timor Carlos Felipe Ximenes Belo*, Peace, 1996 JosĂŠ Ramos-Horta*, Peace, 1996 Egypt Mohamed ElBaradei, Peace, 2005 Ahmed H. Zewail* Chemistry, 1999 Naguib Mahfouz, Literature, 1988 Anwar Sadat, Peace, 1978 Faroe Islands Niels Finsen, Physiol. or Medicine, 1903 Finland Ragnar Granit*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1967

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All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008 Artturi Ilmari Virtanen, Chemistry, 1945 Frans Eemil Sillanpää, Literature, 1939 France Albert Fert, Physics, 2007 Yves Chauvin, Chemistry, 2005 Claude Cohen-Tannoudji, Algeria, Physics, 1997 Georges Charpak, Physics, 1992 Pierre-Gilles de Gennes, Physics, 1991 Maurice Allais, Economics, 1988 Jean-Marie Lehn, Chemistry, 1987 Claude Simon*, Literature, 1985 Gerard Debreu, Economics, 1983 Jean Dausset, Physiol. or Medicine, 1980 Roger Guillemin*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1977 Seán MacBride*, Peace, 1974 Louis Néel, Physics, 1970 René Cassin, Peace, 1968 Alfred Kastler, Physics, 1966 François Jacob, Physiol. or Medicine, 1965 Jacques Monod, Physiol. or Medicine, 1965 André Lwoff, Physiol. or Medicine, 1965 Jean-Paul Sartre, Literature, 1964 Saint-John Perse*, Literature, 1960 Albert Camus*, Literature, 1957 Andre Frederic Cournand, Physiol. or Medicine, 1956 François Mauriac, Literature, 1952 Léon Jouhaux, Peace, 1951 André Gide, Literature, 1947

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All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008 Roger Martin du Gard, Literature, 1937 Frédéric Joliot, Chemistry, 1935 Irène Joliot-Curie, Chemistry, 1935 Ivan Bunin, Russia, Literature, 1933 Charles Nicolle, Physiol. or Medicine, 1928 Henri Bergson, Literature, 1927 Ferdinand Buisson, Peace, 1927 Aristide Briand, Peace, 1926 Jean-Baptiste Perrin, Physics, 1926 Anatole France, Literature, 1921 Léon Bourgeois, Peace, 1920 Romain Rolland, Literature, 1915 Charles Richet, Physiol. or Medicine, 1913 Alexis Carrel, Medicine, 1912 Paul Sabatier, Chemistry, 1912 Victor Grignard, Chemistry, 1912 Marie Curie*, Chemistry, 1911 Paul-Henri-Benjamin d'Estournelles de Constant, Peace, 1909 Gabriel Lippmann*, Physics, 1908 Alphonse Laveran, Physiol. or Medicine, 1907 Louis Renault, Peace, 1907 Henri Moissan, Chemistry, 1906 Frédéric Mistral, Literature, 1904 Antoine Henri Becquerel, Physics, 1903 Pierre Curie, Physics, 1903 Marie Curie*, Physics, 1903 Frédéric Passy, Peace, 1901 Sully Prudhomme, Literature, 1901

133

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134

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135

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136

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137

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138

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139

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140

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141

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142

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143

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Arne Tiselius, Chemistry, 1948

144

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145

All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008 Leopold RuĹžiÄ?ka*, Chemistry, 1939 Charles Edouard Guillaume, Physics, 1920 Carl Spitteler, Literature, 1919 Alfred Werner, Chemistry, 1913 Theodor Kocher, Physiol. or Medicine, 1909 Henry Dunant, Peace, 1901 Taiwan Yuan T. Lee, Chemistry, 1986 Samuel C.C. Ting, Physics, 1976 Turkey Orhan Pamuk, Literature, 2006 Ukraine Georges Charpak*, Physics, 1992 Roald Hoffmann*, Chemistry, 1981 Ilya Mechnikov*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1908

United Kingdom Doris Lessing, Literature, 2007 Sir Martin J. Evans, Physiol. or Medicine, 2007 Oliver Smithies*, Physiol. or Medicine, 2007 Harold Pinter, Literature, 2005 Clive W. J. Granger*, Economics, 2003 Anthony J. Leggett*, Physics, 2003 Peter Mansfield, Physiol. or Medicine, 2003 Sydney Brenner, Physiol. or Medicine, 2002 John E. Sulston, Physiol. or Medicine, 2002 Tim Hunt, Physiol. or Medicine, 2001

146

All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008 Paul Nurse, Physiol. or Medicine, 2001 V.S. Naipaul, Literature 2001 John Hume, Peace, 1998 John Pople, Chemistry, 1998 David Trimble, Peace, 1998 John E. Walker, Chemistry, 1997 Harold Kroto, Chemistry, 1996 James A. Mirrlees, Economics, 1996 Joseph Rotblat*, Peace, 1995 Richard J. Roberts, Physiol. or Medicine, 1993 Michael Smith*, Chemistry, 1993 Ronald Coase, Economics, 1991 James W. Black, Physiol. or Medicine, 1988 Niels Kaj Jerne*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1984 CĂŠsar Milstein*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1984 Richard Stone, Economics, 1984 William Golding, Literature, 1983 Aaron Klug, Chemistry, 1982 John Robert Vane, Physiol. or Medicine, 1982 Elias Canetti, Literature, 1981 Frederick Sanger, Chemistry, 1958 and 1980 Arthur Lewis, Economics, 1979 Godfrey Hounsfield, Physiol. or Medicine, 1979 Peter D. Mitchell, Chemistry, 1978 James Meade, Economics, 1977 Nevill Francis Mott, Physics, 1977 Betty Williams, Peace, 1976

147

All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008 Mairead Corrigan, Peace, 1976 John Cornforth, Chemistry, 1975 Christian de Duve*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1974 Friedrich Hayek, Economics 1974 Antony Hewish, Physics, 1974 Nikolaas Tinbergen, Physiol. or Medicine, 1973 Patrick White*, Literature, 1973 Geoffrey Wilkinson, Chemistry, 1973 Brian David Josephson, Physics, 1973 Rodney Robert Porter, Physiol. or Medicine, 1972 John Hicks, Economics, 1972 Dennis Gabor, Physics, 1971 Bernard Katz, Physiol. or Medicine, 1970 Derek Harold Richard Barton, Chemistry, 1969 Ronald George Wreyford Norrish, Chemistry, 1967 George Porter, Chemistry, 1967 Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin, Chemistry, 1964 Andrew Huxley, Physiol. or Medicine, 1963 Alan Lloyd Hodgkin, Physiol. or Medicine, 1963 John Kendrew, Chemistry, 1962 Max Perutz, Chemistry, 1962 Francis Crick, Physiol. or Medicine, 1962 Maurice Wilkins*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1962 Peter Medawar*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1960 Philip Noel-Baker, Peace, 1959 Frederick Sanger, Chemistry, 1958 and 1980 Alexander R. Todd, Baron Todd, Chemistry, 1957

148

All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008 Cyril Norman Hinshelwood, Chemistry, 1956 Max Born*, Physics, 1954 Winston Churchill, Literature, 1953 Hans Adolf Krebs*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1953 Archer John Porter Martin, Chemistry, 1952 Richard Laurence Millington Synge, Chemistry, 1952 John Cockcroft, Physics, 1951 Bertrand Russell, Literature, 1950 Cecil Frank Powell, Physics, 1950 John Boyd Orr, Peace, 1949 Patrick Blackett, Baron Blackett, Physics, 1948 T. S. Eliot*, Literature, 1948 Edward Victor Appleton, Physics, 1947 Robert Robinson, Chemistry, 1947 Martin Ryle, Physics, 1946 Ernst Boris Chain*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1945 Alexander Fleming, Physiol. or Medicine, 1945 George Paget Thomson, Physics, 1937 Robert Cecil, 1st Viscount Cecil of Chelwood, Peace, 1937 Norman Haworth, Chemistry, 1937 Henry Hallett Dale, Physiol. or Medicine, 1936 James Chadwick, Physics, 1935 Arthur Henderson, Peace, 1934 Norman Angell, Peace, 1933 Paul Dirac, Physics, 1933 Charles Scott Sherrington, Physiol. or Medicine, 1932 John Galsworthy, Literature, 1932

149

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150

All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008 Oliver Smithies*, Physiol. or Medicine, 2007 Roger D. Kornberg, Chemistry, 2006 John C. Mather, Physics, 2006 Edmund S. Phelps, Economics, 2006 George F. Smoot, Physics, 2006 Andrew Z. Fire, Physiol. or Medicine, 2006 Craig C. Mello, Physiol. or Medicine, 2006 Robert H. Grubbs, Chemistry, 2005 Richard R. Schrock, Chemistry, 2005 Thomas Schelling, Economics, 2005 John L. Hall, Physics, 2005 Roy J. Glauber, Physics, 2005 Irwin Rose, Chemistry, 2004 Edward C. Prescott, Economics, 2004 David J. Gross, Physics, 2004 H. David Politzer, Physics, 2004 Frank Wilczek, Physics, 2004 Richard Axel, Physiol. or Medicine, 2004 Linda B. Buck, Physiol. or Medicine, 2004 Peter Agre, Chemistry, 2003 Roderick MacKinnon, Chemistry, 2003 Robert F. Engle, Economics, 2003 Anthony J. Leggett*, Physics, 2003 Paul C. Lauterbur, Physiol. or Medicine, 2003 Alexei A. Abrikosov*, Physics, 2003 Daniel Kahneman*, Economics, 2002 Vernon L. Smith, Economics, 2002

151

All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008 Jimmy Carter, Peace, 2002 Raymond Davis Jr., Physics, 2002 Riccardo Giacconi*, Physics, 2002 Sydney Brenner*, Physiol. or Medicine, 2002 H. Robert Horvitz, Physiol. or Medicine, 2002 William S. Knowles, Chemistry, 2001 K. Barry Sharpless, Chemistry, 2001 Joseph E. Stiglitz, Economics, 2001 George A. Akerlof, Economics, 2001 A. Michael Spence, Economics, 2001 Eric A. Cornell, Physics, 2001 Carl E. Wieman, Physics, 2001 Leland H. Hartwell, Physiol. or Medicine, 2001 Alan Heeger, Chemistry, 2000 Alan MacDiarmid*, Chemistry, 2000 James J. Heckman, Economics, 2000 Daniel L. McFadden, Economics, 2000 Jack Kilby, Physics, 2000 Paul Greengard, Physiol. or Medicine, 2000 Eric R. Kandel*, Physiol. or Medicine, 2000 Ahmed H. Zewail*, Chemistry, 1999 G端nter Blobel*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1999 Walter Kohn*, Chemistry, 1998 Robert B. Laughlin, Physics, 1998 Daniel C. Tsui*, Physics, 1998 Robert F. Furchgott, Physiol. or Medicine, 1998 Louis J. Ignarro, Physiol. or Medicine, 1998

152

All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008 Ferid Murad, Physiol. or Medicine, 1998 Paul D. Boyer, Chemistry, 1997 Robert C. Merton, Economics, 1997 Myron Scholes*, Economics, 1997 Jody Williams, Peace, 1997 Steven Chu, Physics, 1997 William D. Phillips, Physics, 1997 Stanley B. Prusiner, Physiol. or Medicine, 1997 Richard E. Smalley, Chemistry, 1996 Robert F. Curl Jr., Chemistry, 1996 William Vickrey*, Economics, 1996 David M. Lee, Physics, 1996 Douglas D. Osheroff, Physics, 1996 Robert C. Richardson, Physics, 1996 Mario J. Molina*, Chemistry, 1995 F. Sherwood Rowland, Chemistry, 1995 Robert Lucas, Jr., Economics, 1995 Martin L. Perl, Physics, 1995 Frederick Reines, Physics, 1995 Edward B. Lewis, Physiol. or Medicine, 1995 Eric F. Wieschaus, Physiol. or Medicine, 1995 George Andrew Olah*, Chemistry, 1994 John Charles Harsanyi*, Economics, 1994 John Forbes Nash, Economics, 1994 Clifford G. Shull, Physics, 1994 Alfred G. Gilman, Physiol. or Medicine, 1994 Martin Rodbell, Physiol. or Medicine, 1994

153

All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008 Kary B. Mullis, Chemistry, 1993 Robert W. Fogel, Economics, 1993 Douglass C. North, Economics, 1993 Toni Morrison, Literature, 1993 Russell A. Hulse, Physics, 1993 Joseph H. Taylor Jr., Physics, 1993 Phillip A. Sharp, Physiol. or Medicine, 1993 Rudolph A. Marcus, Chemistry, 1992 Gary S. Becker, Economics, 1992 Edmond H. Fischer*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1992 Edwin G. Krebs, Physiol. or Medicine, 1992 Elias James Corey, Chemistry, 1990 Merton H. Miller, Economics, 1990 William F. Sharpe, Economics, 1990 Harry M. Markowitz, Economics, 1990 Jerome I. Friedman, Physics, 1990 Henry W. Kendall, Physics, 1990 Joseph E. Murray, Physiol. or Medicine, 1990 E. Donnall Thomas, Physiol. or Medicine, 1990 Sidney Altman*, Chemistry, 1989 Thomas R. Cech, Chemistry, 1989 Hans G. Dehmelt*, Physics, 1989 Norman F. Ramsey, Physics, 1989 J. Michael Bishop, Physiol. or Medicine, 1989 Harold E. Varmus, Physiol. or Medicine, 1989 Leon M. Lederman, Physics, 1988 Melvin Schwartz, Physics, 1988

154

All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008 Jack Steinberger*, Physics, 1988 Gertrude B. Elion, Physiol. or Medicine, 1988 George H. Hitchings, Physiol. or Medicine, 1988 Charles J. Pedersen*, Chemistry, 1987 Donald J. Cram, Chemistry, 1987 Robert M. Solow, Economics, 1987 Joseph Brodsky*, Literature, 1987 Dudley R. Herschbach, Chemistry, 1986 Yuan T. Lee*, Chemistry, 1986 James M. Buchanan, Economics, 1986 Elie Wiesel*, Peace, 1986 Stanley Cohen, Physiol. or Medicine, 1986 Rita Levi-Montalcini*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1986 Jerome Karle, Chemistry, 1985 Herbert A. Hauptman, Chemistry, 1985 Franco Modigliani*, Economics, 1985 Michael S. Brown, Physiol. or Medicine, 1985 Joseph L. Goldstein, Physiol. or Medicine, 1985 Bruce Merrifield, Chemistry, 1984 Henry Taube*, Chemistry, 1983 Gerard Debreu*, Economics, 1983 William A. Fowler, Physics, 1983 Barbara McClintock, Physiol. or Medicine, 1983 George J. Stigler, Economics, 1982 Kenneth G. Wilson, Physics, 1982 Roald Hoffmann*, Chemistry, 1981 James Tobin, Economics, 1981

155

All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008 Nicolaas Bloembergen*, Physics, 1981 Arthur L. Schawlow, Physics, 1981 David H. Hubel*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1981 Roger W. Sperry, Physiol. or Medicine, 1981 Walter Gilbert, Chemistry, 1980 Paul Berg, Chemistry, 1980 Lawrence R. Klein, Economics, 1980 Czeslaw Milosz*, Literature, 1980 James Cronin, Physics, 1980 Val Fitch, Physics, 1980 Baruj Benacerraf*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1980 George D. Snell, Physiol. or Medicine, 1980 Herbert C. Brown, Chemistry, 1979 Theodore Schultz, Economics, 1979 Steven Weinberg, Physics, 1979 Sheldon Glashow, Physics, 1979 Allan M. Cormack*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1979 Herbert A. Simon, Economics, 1978 Isaac Bashevis Singer*, Literature, 1978 Robert Woodrow Wilson, Physics, 1978 Arno Penzias, Physics, 1978 Hamilton O. Smith, Physiol. or Medicine, 1978 Daniel Nathans, Physiol. or Medicine, 1978 Philip Anderson, Physics, 1977 John H. van Vleck, Physics, 1977 Roger Guillemin*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1977 Andrzej W. Schally*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1977

156

All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008 Rosalyn Yalow, Physiol. or Medicine, 1977 William Lipscomb, Chemistry, 1976 Milton Friedman, Economics, 1976 Saul Bellow*, Literature, 1976 Burton Richter, Physics, 1976 Samuel C. C. Ting, Physics, 1976 Baruch S. Blumberg, Physiol. or Medicine, 1976 Daniel Carleton Gajdusek, Physiol. or Medicine, 1976 Tjalling C. Koopmans*, Economics, 1975 Ben R. Mottelson*, Physics, 1975 James Rainwater, Physics, 1975 David Baltimore, Physiol. or Medicine, 1975 Renato Dulbecco*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1975 Howard Martin Temin, Physiol. or Medicine, 1975 Paul J. Flory, Chemistry, 1974 George E. Palade*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1974 Wassily Leontief*, Economics, 1973 Henry Kissinger, Peace, 1973 Ivar Giaever*, Physics, 1973 Christian Anfinsen, Chemistry, 1972 Stanford Moore, Chemistry, 1972 William H. Stein, Chemistry, 1972 Kenneth J. Arrow, Economics, 1972 John Bardeen, Physics 1972 Leon N. Cooper, Physics 1972 Robert Schrieffer, Physics 1972 Gerald Edelman, Physiol. or Medicine, 1972

157

All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008 Simon Kuznets*, Economics, 1971 Earl W. Sutherland Jr., Physiol. or Medicine, 1971 Paul A. Samuelson, Economics, 1970 Norman Borlaug, Peace, 1970 Julius Axelrod, Physiol. or Medicine, 1970 Murray Gell-Mann, Physics, 1969 Max Delbr端ck*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1969 Alfred Hershey, Physiol. or Medicine, 1969 Salvador Luria*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1969 Lars Onsager*, Chemistry, 1968 Luis Alvarez, Physics, 1968 Robert W. Holley, Physiol. or Medicine, 1968 Har Gobind Khorana*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1968 Marshall Warren Nirenberg, Physiol. or Medicine, 1968 Hans Bethe*, Physics, 1967 Haldan Keffer Hartline, Physiol. or Medicine, 1967 George Wald, Physiol. or Medicine, 1967 Robert S. Mulliken, Chemistry, 1966 Charles B. Huggins*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1966 Francis Peyton Rous, Physiol. or Medicine, 1966 Robert B. Woodward, Chemistry, 1965 Richard P. Feynman, Physics, 1965 Julian Schwinger, Physics, 1965 Martin Luther King, Jr., Peace, 1964 Charles H. Townes, Physics, 1964 Konrad Bloch*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1964 Maria Goeppert-Mayer*, Physics, 1963

158

All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008 Eugene Wigner*, Physics, 1963 John Steinbeck, Literature, 1962 Linus C. Pauling, Peace, 1962 James D. Watson, Physiol. or Medicine, 1962 Melvin Calvin, Chemistry, 1961 Robert Hofstadter, Physics, 1961 Georg von Békésy*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1961 Willard F. Libby, Chemistry, 1960 Donald A. Glaser, Physics, 1960 Owen Chamberlain, Physics, 1959 Emilio Segrè*, Physics, 1959 Arthur Kornberg, Physiol. or Medicine, 1959 Severo Ochoa*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1959 George Beadle, Physiol. or Medicine, 1958 Joshua Lederberg, Physiol. or Medicine, 1958 Edward Tatum, Physiol. or Medicine, 1958 William B. Shockley, Physics, 1956 John Bardeen, Physics, 1956 Walter H. Brattain, Physics, 1956 Dickinson W. Richards, Physiol. or Medicine, 1956 André F. Cournand*, Physiol. or Medicine, 1956 Vincent du Vigneaud, Chemistry, 1955 Willis E. Lamb, Physics, 1955 Polykarp Kusch*, Physics, 1955 Linus C. Pauling, Chemistry, 1954 Ernest Hemingway, Literature, 1954 John F. Enders, Physiol. or Medicine, 1954

159

All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008 Frederick C. Robbins, Physiol. or Medicine, 1954 Thomas H. Weller, Physiol. or Medicine, 1954 George C. Marshall, Peace, 1953 Fritz Lipmann, Physiol. or Medicine, 1953 E. M. Purcell, Physics, 1952 Felix Bloch, Physics, 1952 Selman A. Waksman, Physiol. or Medicine, 1952 Edwin M. McMillan, Chemistry, 1951 Glenn Theodore Seaborg, Chemistry, 1951 Ralph J. Bunche, Peace, 1950 Philip S. Hench, Physiol. or Medicine, 1950 Edward C. Kendall, Physiol. or Medicine, 1950 William Giauque, Chemistry, 1949 William Faulkner, Literature, 1949 T. S. Eliot*, Literature, 1948 Carl Cori, Physiol. or Medicine, 1947 Gerty Cori, Physiol. or Medicine, 1947 Wendell M. Stanley, Chemistry, 1946 James B. Sumner, Chemistry, 1946 John H. Northrop, Chemistry, 1946 Emily G. Balch, Peace, 1946 John R. Mott, Peace, 1946 Percy W. Bridgman, Physics, 1946 Hermann J. Muller, Physiol. or Medicine, 1946 Cordell Hull, Peace, 1945 Isidor Isaac Rabi*, Physics, 1944 Joseph Erlanger, Physiol. or Medicine, 1944

160

All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008 Herbert S. Gasser, Physiol. or Medicine, 1944 Otto Stern*, Physics, 1943 Edward A. Doisy, Physiol. or Medicine, 1943 Ernest Lawrence, Physics, 1939 Pearl S. Buck, Literature, 1938 Clinton Davisson, Physics, 1937 Eugene O'Neill, Literature, 1936 Carl Anderson, Physics, 1936 Harold C. Urey, Chemistry, 1934 George R. Minot, Physiol. or Medicine, 1934 William P. Murphy, Physiol. or Medicine, 1934 George H. Whipple, Physiol. or Medicine, 1934 Thomas H. Morgan, Physiol. or Medicine, 1933 Irving Langmuir, Chemistry, 1932 Jane Addams, Peace, 1931 Nicholas M. Butler, Peace, 1931 Sinclair Lewis, Literature, 1930 Frank B. Kellogg, Peace, 1929 Arthur H. Compton, Physics, 1927 Charles G. Dawes, Peace, 1925 Robert A. Millikan, Physics, 1923 Albert Einstein*, Physics, 1921 Woodrow Wilson, Peace, 1919 Theodore W. Richards, Chemistry, 1914 Elihu Root, Peace, 1912 Albert A. Michelson*, Physics, 1907 Theodore Roosevelt, Peace, 1906

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Appendix III The Pipa Prize AIII.1 to Stephen Hawking Assertion AIII.1 Any claim based on impossible-to-verify prediction is not scientific. It is chimera, or a mystic imagination, like Kabalah. Anyone who ignores this basic requirement of science is either an Impostor of Verified Science [IVS], or a proponent of what cannot pass the Popperian Falsification Principle for all verifiable scientific theories [4.2]. An IVS tells the media, and the ill-informed, about his great discoveries of, say, the ultimate ‘Theory of Everything’, ‘other universes’ and what had happened ‘prior to Creation’, encouraging the media to celebrate the ‘new science’, or claims that ‘Einstein Was Wrong’, etc. Some proponents, from all walks of life, eagerly join such mystifying cults to find their living and fame under the reflected glory achieved by such popular prophets. [Cf. the biblical story of Elija.] Introduction of such mysticism into science has been conducted during the last two decades or so by Stephen Hawking (see below).

The first edition of VOLUME I was published in 1981. It contains criticism of Stephen Hawking’s theories that lack possible verification, while hinting that, in fact, some claims in the thermodynamics of black holes had originated by a graduate student (at that time): Today professor Beckenstein. The British weekly Nature was among the first to publish a review of VOLUME I. The review was written by Stephen Hawking. In it he states what he is going to do to make VOLUME I better.

162

Indeed, he then wrote a similar book but with different style and marketing goals, omitting all my mathematical equations, adding jokes, mysticism, pictures, semi-pictorial diagrams and, systematically, diminishing others, including Newton and Einstein. Then he lost his ability to speak due to his Lou Gehrig's disease, and has since been confined to a wheelchair equipped with a voice synthesizer. This sad fact has been well-exploited by his publishers in marketing the 1988 book A Brief History of Time, advertising him, inter alia, as 'A crippled scientist looks into the sky'. Hawking's claims have been first ridiculed in a published interview with professor Yuval NEEMAN, a renown physicist. The first attack on Hawking was that his claims about entropy and black-holethermodynamics, are actually not his, but those of Professor Beckenstein. In July 2004, in a conference on Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity and Gravitation, Hawking was forced by other physicists to admit his mistakes. He then retracted versions of his theory in which he had wrongly claimed that matter and energy going down a black hole, would disappear from the energy and mass of the universe. Hawking’s unverifiable claims gave rise to many popular ideas, lectures, articles and books, e.g., about unverifiable ‘other universes’. According to professor John Casey of Cambridge University, when Hawking found himself dining in the company of Edward Teller, the father of the hydrogen bomb, he announced in public: "HE IS STUPID". "Hawking is famous for using his wheelchair to run over the toes of those who annoy him, Prince Charles reportedly among the transgressors".

Hawking is also portrayed as an "angry combatant who uses what ever is at his disposal to diminish others.", "A masterly puppeteer", "I think what distinguish Hawking from the rest is, to put it bluntly, his disability" [Sohnious], "stories revolve around [Hawking's] 'Theory of Everything', of which a need to retract it has emerged: 163

"This is a … blow. What has been proven?” his rivals wonder, “Look at how he retracts!" "After two police investigations" [of alleged, repeated, brutal, physical abuses by his wife], Hawking, 68 in 2004, has been living in his other "brutal new universe", [VF, June, 2004]. Many top physicists dismiss Hawking as 'personalizing infinity', and, thus, intimidating many scientists and pushing the image of science far into mysticism and a misleading populism, which, inter alia, exploits the layperson ignorance of what is verifiable science. 'Nobel Prize' has not been bestowed unto such a famous scientist? You must be wrong.', not a few laypersons wonder loudly. The answer is no. Consequently, millions of his readers feel betrayed by science. Hawking's unmatched populism, drive them to conclude the inevitable: There is a lot of politics and corruption in science and academia. In fact, one may be rich and famous, but that does not provide one with a Nobel Prize; -- so far. AIII.1

Tan Tune’s 1992 ‘Concerto for Strings Orchestra and Pipa’, had originated in a 2000-

years-old Chinese mysticism. See also footnotes 4.6 to 4.11.

164

Appendix IV ______________________________________ A Few, Personally-Encountered Lessons Students and readers who failed a course, or had been rejected by a university that they had applied to, or have been a dropouts, may find this first personally-Encountered Lesson instructive.

22, without high-school education, using only a self-help studying methodology [Introduction], I passed examinations that allow one to become an academic student without being graduated from high school. [Being a farmboy, there was not any high school in my village.] A few years later my doctorate study came to a full stop when a chemical engineering professor notified the administration that I had failed in his undergraduate course on thermodynamics. It was not a simple failure, as I told him. I strongly objected to the definitions, proofs and methods that he had used in teaching entropy and the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics1.3, therby refusing to take any part in his examinations. To resolve the impasse, the university nominated a panel of professors to roast that rebelling student during four hours of oral crossfire. A community of graduate students, and their mentors, anxiously waited outside the roasting room, hoping for the final ousting of the non-conformist from their ranks, where an independent re-assessment of anything in a graduate class was labeled ‘anti-academic’. At ‘roasting end’, the panel declared: ‘Passed with flying colors’. One panelist told a few graduate students that the non-conformist may have generated new thermodynamic foundations, which, however, are not easy to grasp for they are based on Einstein’s general relativistic cosmology and the expansion of the universe. 165

The 2nd Lesson It is not ‘scientifically sufficient’ to prove, publish and lecture on a new theory or outlook. One must, at one and the same time, work hard, often alone, to prove how and where other theories, and/or outlooks, have failed to mention relevant facts and mathematical rules that contradict their ‘proofs’, and/or are not unified with the rest of verifiable physics. One cannot stop that because there is ‘a social dictum’ to be nice to ‘authorities’, or because colleagues oppose it. Mercilessly one must expose false ‘proofs’, especially when these are fed, as they are, to the minds of new generations of innocent students. Such effort means a basic necessity to cross apparently unrelated disciplines in science in order to prove how and where ‘authorities’ harbor self-deception that borders with smuggling into their formulations, ‘proofs’ and theories what they want to prove, without declaring the contraband 3.4; 3.5.

It happened at a reputed university in New England. A ‘distinguished professor’ tried to demonstrate the alleged absurdity of the theory and outlook presented in my invited seminar. He did it by lighting up a match in the lecture hall, while adding, apparently to make the entire audience laugh: Do you claim that I can light-up this match because there is a theory that the universe expands? Nothing expands in this lecture hall, as far as I can see. As to your alleged new theory, statistical and quantum mechanics have already provided us with perfect and elegant mathematical proofs of what you try in vain to re-prove. There is absolutely no need in science for another theory about the origin of irreversibility and time asymmtery in nature.

Much of the audience, hearing that from their distinguished professor, did not bother to stay and hear the reply. They left the lecture hall, an mass, together with their leader. My host was visibly embarrassed. Yet, a few graduate students in physics stayed to hear the reply, which was essentially as presented in the Yelow Box above and the text below. 166

Assertion A.1 Symmetry in physico-mathemical equations is always conserved irrespective of any mathematical funambulism of any claimer of a new proof or theory in science.3.5; 3.4 If one starts with symmetric equations, the result can never be asymmetric. Space and time in fundamental physics are symmetric3.4. So are all the laws of physics, except in thermodynamics. Similarly, asymmetry is conserved. Aymmetry cannot result from symmetry, nor vice versa. Yet, Nobel Prize was awarded to I. Prigogine, for violating such A law; for a false ‘proof’. Other famous ‘Authorities’ have similarly failed. Almost endless publications in the domains of statistical and quantum mechanics present false mathematical ‘proofs’, ‘re-proofs’ and pre-formulation procedures that allow them to fabricate the ‘proven’ origin of time-asymmetry and irreversibility in nature.

Indeed,

nothing expands in this lecture hall, at home, on earth, in the solar system, in our galaxy and in our cluster of galaxies. Only inter-cluster Space-14.4 expands. With or without localized black holes4.3;4.14, only expanding Space-1 provides us, with the universal, UNSATURABLE SINK for all the energy outpouring into it from all shining sources. The resulting Energy-Density Gradients (Diagram, opening pages), when combined with the fact that general relativity accepts no static cosmological solutions, is the very CAUSE and ORIGIN of all irreversible processes in the universe, including life. Expanding Space-1 leads to the formation of proto-stars-galaxies, galaxies, stars, supernovae, the solar system, our biosphere, amino acids, DNA and all forms of life, and, eventually, to one’s ability to set-up fire in a lecture hall by lighting-up a match. 167

Most likely none would notice if Space 1 stops expanding tomorrow. Only post a long delay time the lowest temperature of the dark night sky [Space-1] would increase substantially due to the gigantic quantities of energy that pour into it from all radiating sources. Eventually the dark-cold ‘night sky’ would become as bright-hot as the sun’s core temperature. By then all students and their professors are well-roasted and all false teaching are committed to the flames of recorded history, that would be lost too [Chapter 2]. Were the students to stay, listen and learn? The distinguished professor said no, and left with them. I said, yes, and stayed to explain.

On the newly-formed earth, the heavy chemical element iron was gravity-forced into its interior, thereby pushing up-and-out the lighter elements, like silicon and gases, to form the outer crest and early [reducing] biosphere in which the later [oxidizing] version our ancestors and we have lived since the dawn of civilization [Table II, Appendix VI]. Indeed, these escaping gases formed what is to become later the oxygen-rich biosphere in which plants, animals and humens live today [Chapter 8]. At this beginning there is yet no life, no DNA, not even a single virus or bacteria. To reach the next conclusion one must travel down the gradient leading from hot temperatures in the brightest galaxy and the brightest stars, namely from the highest radiation densities of ‘solar-windlike’4.15 mediums in SPACES 3 and 2 of active, hot, and radiating clusters or super-clusters of galaxies4.13; 4.1 . These are marked as ‘mountains crests’ in the Diagram [opening pages]. From them one may travel down first to deepest energydensity valley (b) and enter the Dark Kingdom of cold SPACE-1. Here one may find the lowest value of energy-mass and temperatures in the cosmos at any given cosmic time. Where in the cosmos is spot (b)?

168

Spot (b) is always located between any neighboring clusters or superclusters of galaxies, like the deepest valley between two neighboring high mountain crests. It is right there that the same value of energy-mass flow is crossing point (b), but from opposite directions: One flow arriving from ‘CLUSTER I’, the other from ‘CLUSTER II’. Why is spot (b) so important to discover and record?

First note that there is no net energy transfer at points (a), (b) and (c). But there is much more fundamental meanings for physics at these spots than this technical conclusion. If next one tries to detect all spots (b) around ‘our’ Cluster II, one would have to travel and find all spots (b) around it. [Appendix V] To start with, one may go around with measuring instruments to allocate all such adiabatic spots4.15 to eventually reach spot (c). Then, if one proceeds further, one would get back to spot (b). When one allocates all spots (b) and (c), they ‘encage’ our Cluster II in an ‘INVISIBLE ADIABATIC CELL’.4.15 Such a ‘cell’, is neither spherical, or square, nor solid or marked by a border police. Most likely it has endless different forms that may resemble a very long and twisted filament, or a twisted one around a cloud of clusters of galaxies [Fig. 1.2]. RECAP: Cluster II, as well as all clusters and super-clusters of galaxies in the cosmos, are each ‘encaged’ in such an invisible [adiabatic] boundary4.15. Since clusters, or super-clusters of galaxies harbor the same maximum temperature4.1, each interconnected ‘adiabatic cell’ represents the fact that there is no net energy-mass flow from it to any other adiabatic ‘cells’. Namely, on ‘a sufficiently large scale’ the cosmos isotropic and homogenous [Fig. 1.2] in terms of maximum and minimum temperatures. But there is much more to it, fundamentally, as explained next. In each Space-2 and 3 the stars convert hydrogen and helium by the same well-verified thermo-nuclear fusion4.2, as we well-know from studying the dynamics-thermodynamics of hydrogen-bomb 169

explosions.4.2 Thus, in each ‘adiabatic cell’ the same fusion4.2 takes place, but at different rates. The fastest rate can reach the same maximum temperature as observed at the brightest star and the brightest galaxy: That of a supernova explosion.4.1 The energy-density mountains in SPACES 2 and 3 are always higher than those in the deep valleys [or ‘voids’ shown in Fig. 1.2] marked (a) (b) and (c) in the Diagram. These valleys are maintained at lower temperatures/energy-densities by the very expansion of Space-1. Despite the huge quantities of radiation-particles ‘winds’5.3 flowing into it from the stars and galaxies, it not only irreversibly absorbing them all, it cools them down as they approach spots (a) (b) and (c). That inflowing energy-matter is not lost in the total accounting of mass in the universe, which includes that of LOCAL black holes formed at any time and size4.3.

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Appendix V A Condensed World History From Genesis to the First Recognizable Civilization

TABLE II

SunEarth Yrs Ago

A Condensed World History

13.7 Spaces 1, 2 and 3 are still fused together. (Diagram, opening billion pages) The laws of physics3.1; 3.2; 3.3 control the expansion and structuring of the universe away from a very hot-dense, structure-less beginning. The first six ‘Days’ are described in Table I (Chapter 1). At this earliest epoch the universe is radiation-dominated and opaque. There are yet neither stars and galaxies, nor inter-cluster Space-14.4; 4.13. 13.7 Atoms are formed when the radiation-dominated era of billion comes to a close on the 7th ‘day’. [Table I, Chapter 1]. This happened when the Radiation Energy Density drops below less 6 the (rest-mass) density of matter (mainly hydrogen and ‘Days’, helium) and the cosmic temperature starts dropping below marke about 3000-4000 degrees Kelvin4.12. d in Table I Gravity begins its everlasting transformation of chaos into structures and the early opaque universe gradually becomes clear for the passage of radiation from proto-emitters towards other proto-emitters clashing about midway on the surface of adiabatic cells4.15 that wrap each super-cluster of galaxies4.13. That is the beginning of all irreversibility and structuring in the observable universe; -- irreversibility that leads to life about 8.8 billion years later. As gravity-induced, proto-structures begin to form about 171

300,000-500,000 sun-earth years after the beginning, our â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;measurable distance yardsticksâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; [Volume I] become relevant, i.e., here-now one can detect the world expansion during that early epoch. For the first time in world history we directly observe the dynamics and CAUSES of the earliest formation of stars and galaxies. 13.7 billion less 300k to 500k

Some of the earliest structures are much more massive4.1; 4.2 than the mass of the sun5.1. Increasing gravity-induced pressures and temperatures inside the cores of such early stars ignite fusion reactions4.2 in the interiors of active stars. These stars are formed out of clouds of hydrogen and helium surrounding early mega stars4.1.

Billions of galaxies, each containing about 10 million to a trilion stars, gradually emerge and radiate into protointergalactic SPACE-1 (Diagram, opening pages). Quasars4.14 are formed in the initial formation stages of large 9 galaxies. These general relativistic entities3.3 are assumed to be supermassive forms of black holes4.3; 4.14. Hundreds of to them were recently detected in young (far-away) galaxies. 10 They may be surrounded by relatively high-density of matter, which emits X-rays as it is sucked-accelerated into a billion one-way sink of a massive black hole. (Quasars and black holes form local sinks, in addition to the universalunsaturable sink generated by Space-1-expansion. [Diagram, opening pages]) . Many "supermassive" black holes had been formed inside large galaxies in the far reaches of the universe, i.e., during their initial stages, when the age of the universe was between 2.5 to 4.5 billion years. their moons are gravity-constructed out of 4.567 Planets and 4.1 by the billion supernova ashes (debris) that had been captured 5.1; 5.2 . These gravitational field of the (relatively) moving sun debris are composed of rocks, meteorites, clouds of dust and gas, many of which are still orbiting the sun, or had fallen into it, or on earth, moons and the other planets of the solar system5.1. Gravity-constructed earth gradually becomes larger and rounded, and. with other planets, orbits the sun as a modest member of the solar system. The solar wind5.1; 5.3 begins to hit the solar-system planets. 172

On earth it is partially reflected back to cold Spaces 3, 2 and 1. This reflection is from the upper atmosphere. The rest of it is undergoing complex energy transformations/cycles in the air, clouds and down to the ground, being eventually reflected to Spaces 3, 2 and 1 at longer wavelengths. [Volume I] A huge, visible, shock wave is formed, and sustained, at the solar system edge, where the solar wind5.3 clashes with other stellar winds that spread out from other, nearby stars. 4.55 to Geologists reveal lead isotopes that had been on earth since 4.40 4.54 billion years ago, with a precision of 1%. Crystals of billion zircon from Australia provide 4.55 billion years as earth age. A compromise between astronomers and palanetologists, which includes the “radiometric age dating” of meteorite material and lunar samples, fix the age of earth at 4.404 billion years. Our Early Biosphere Forms. Gravity becomes the selective force for creating the pre-conditions for the creation of life: to 2,7 First by pulling down into the earth's center the heavy billion elements, such as iron, thereby forcing out gases and lighter elements, like silicon-based compounds, to form the earth's crest; rocks, volcanic lava, soil. 4.53

The so-ejected gases form the gravity-induced, early, hydrogen-rich (ammonia, etc.) earth atmosphere. This hydrogen rich bio-sphere gradually changes into oxygennitrogen-rich one in which we breath. Gravity-induced structuring of the earth (core, mantle, crust and atmosphere), start to produce biomonomers, aminoacids, and – via early polymerization -- DNA, m-RNA, tRNA, enzymes, proteins, ADP, cellular organization, biological clocks and some primitive, single cellular organizms. While orbiting earth, the moon causes gravity-induced tides. Such geo-periodic cycles cause changes in the seas, the atmosphere and the lands. Later these would also affect the generation of amino acids, DNA, life and all eco systems. The sun-caused annual sessions, and the endless geological 173

shears in the earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s crust, are key players in generating pre-life conditions. DISPUTED ORIGIN OF LIFE: Gravity-induced processes in the formation of the solar system4.1; 5.1; 5.4 have generated the availability of the basic building blocks of life on earth. Yet, the emergence of bio-molecules on earth remains an open question that includes proposals that life, at least in the form of bio-molecules, had originated outside the solar system. But that proposal lacks sufficient evidence as to the mechanism and the time period that life had originated. Many potential terrestrial origins have been published, but they differ as to their origin, mechanism and timing. The earliest proposal dates are about 4.4 billion years ago, when water vapor had first been liquefied. All proposals are time limited by indications about the existence of plants and photosynthesis about 2.7 billion years ago. Hot water springs were discovered in 2006 on the moon Enceladus -- the first-time evidence of water in liquid form that has been detected. Yet, if Enceladus had harbored life, it may had been limited to microbes or other robust organisms capable of living under such extreme conditions.

Single-celled organisms combine to form multicellular 3 billion organisms, with higher degrees of structuring and complexity, at least in plants. Reproduction means are originated by gravity-induced, 2 billion irreversible processes1.1. First these processes involve only single-cell organisms, but later two different organisms exchanging DNA heredity code for reproduction of a newlyborn organism have emerged. Some of the newly-born organisms lacked the capability to reproduce and vanish from the history of life. Female and male entities have gradually evolved to reproduce by combining DNA of the two parents. Different types, locations and orientations of legs, wings, eyes, hair, digestive systems, mouth and reproductive organs evolve under the influence of and in response to gravity1.1. Biological clocks associated with fertility are gravitationally linked to the annual changing sun-earth gravity cycles and 174

the moon-gravity-induced tides. The head-legs superstructure-orientation of the embryo is formed by gravityinduced orientation. 4.5 to 0.543 billion

Precambrian Era, fragmented into: Hadean [4.5 to 3.8 million YRS AGO]; Achaean [3.8 to 0.543 million YRS AGO]; further fragmented into Paleoproterozoic [2.5 to 1.6 billion YRS AGO]; Proterozoic [2.5 to 0.543 million YRS AGO]; Mesoproterozoic [1.6 to 0.9 billion YRS AGO]; Neoproterozoic [0.900 to 0.543 million YRS AGO], Vendian [0.650 to 0.543 billion YRS AGO];

650 to The oldest animal fossils are discovered as existing in the 543 Vendian era. Fish evolve into the first creatures on land, mill. moving on land with primitive four legs, backbones and eyes on the top of their heads rather than on the side. [Various types of such ‘mermaids’ have survived and are sometimes caught by fishermen.] Unlike other fish, such land types could move their head independently of its shoulders, like current land animal. They grow overlapping ribs that could support the body against gravity. Evidence is based on a fossil from Canada, Ellesmere Island. A meat-eater named “Tiktaalik”, a 2006 find, is 4 to 9 feet long and looks like a cross between a fish and a crocodile. 543 to 248 mill.

Paleozioc Era [543 to 248 million YRS AGO], fragmented into: Cambrian [543 to 490 million YRS AGO]; Ordovician [490 to 443 million YRS AGO]; Silurian [443 to 417 million YRS AGO]; Devonian [417 to 354 million YRS AGO]; Carboniferous [354 to 290 million YRS AGO]; Permian [290 to 248 million YRS AGO]

248 to 65 mill.

Mesozoic Era, fragmented into: Triassic [248 to 206 million YRS AGO]; Jurassic [206 to 144 million YRS AGO]; Cretaceous [144 to 65 million YRS AGO].

Asteroids falling on earth cause global climatic catastrophes on the average every 100,000 years. One of them, marked 2004SB, is about 1.3 kilometer wide, and it is postulated to hit earth around November 1, 2141. Yet it may be diverted away by solar sails or other means, if required. 230 to Various types of dinosaurs live around the globe for about 65 mill. 155 million years. They became extinct by gravity-induced climatic phenomena that lead to lack of water/grass, etc. Some ‘Dino-Birds’ have survived and have evolved into many familiar bird and other species. 175

55 mill. Mammoths, mastodons, and elephants emerge. The first mammoths emerged in Africa. They later reached Europe and Siberia. One branch reached North America about 1,700,000 YRS AGO. 50 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 45 Gravitationally-pushed glaciers advancing South, forced mill. mammoths to what is now the state of South Dakota. The plate that carries the Indian subcontinent is pushed up, 50 to gradually forming the Himalayas. 45 mill. The new barrier to global wind changes weather patterns, altering average temperatures and ecological systems. Climates that had been tropical had turned largely temperate, jungles had thinned out, and fruits and nuts normally available year around began to appear only seasonally. The changing conditions for feeding, outside the forest in the resulting savanna, attracted forest-dwelling apes in search of food. Once out of the forest these apes began to evolve rapidly. The grasslands favored the survival of those who could stand up; for an erect position enables to see over the grass to spot and hunt their prey, and to see and escape the animals that preyed on them. Thus they were able to survive longer and produce more offspring who shared their characteristics. After many generations they had evolved into the uprightstanding-walking hominids in Eastern Africa. Intellect henceforth is aided by fore-limbs freed from tasks of walking. 65 to 1.8 mill.

Cenozoic Era [65 million YRS AGO until present], fragmented into: Paleocene [65 million to 54,800,000 YRS AGO]; Eocene [54.8 to 33.7 million YRS AGO]; Oligocene [33.7 to 23.8 million YRS AGO]; Miocene [23.8 to 5.3 million YRS AGO]; Pliocene [5.3 to 1.8 million YRS AGO].

Experience with gravity-induced factors, grew in hominids 14 to into primitive but intelligent thinking. 12 mill. Hominids divert from Orangutans in Borneo and Sumatra in Southeast Asia 8 to 6 Hominids lived together with Chimpanzees. Several mill. hominids may be our ancestors: Sahelanthropous techadensis, Orrorin tugenesis and Ardipithecus kadabba. 176

Gravity-induced changes in the environment, e.g., when a 3.2 to volcano erupts, cause changes in feeding behavior of 1.8 hominids, and thus changes in teeth, jaws, legs, backbone, mill. etc. Skeleton structure adapts to enhance motility. Loss of estrus by the female hominid. This sexual rhythm differentiated them from all other animals. New modes of mating improve the selection of a partner lead to prolonged infant dependency, stable and more enduring family units. Hominid “Lucy” lived in Afar, Hadar, Northern Ethiopia, about 3.2 million years ago. She had short legs. But the structure of her knee and pelvis indicates that she routinely walked upright on two legs. However, chimpanzees also occasionally walk upright for short periods of time and genetic studies show that humans and chimpanzees shared a common ancestor about 8,000,000 YRS AGO. Descendants split into chimps and hominids. Other sites from 2,000,000 to 1,400,000 YRS AGO include Turkana, Kanapoi, Olduvaland and Ubeidiya. Some 17 or 19 gravity-induced ‘ice ages’ since 3,000,000 years ago have strongly affected ecological systems on earth. Each lasted about 50,000 to 100,000 years and each had lowered the surface of the oceans, resulting in climateinduced changes in life and ecological systems, e.g., Ushaped valleys in North America and Canada. Ice melting lead to destruction of creatures which had adapted to colder climates. First-ever human-like ‘settlement’ in the hot Jordan valley, 1.8 to near lake of Galilee, in Ubeidiya, where the Jordan River, 1.4 meets a small river from the Porria Valley. This unique site mill. consists of 'living floors' that include tools such as hand axes, picks, bifaces, pebble-core tools. Bones found at the site include extinct species of hippopotamus, deer, and mollusks. The site contains different layers of alternating floors of animal-bones vs. lake-fish-bones with no floors. The layers with floors are composed of river-rounded-stones and include the tools mentioned above. 177

The alternating layers correspond to repeated expansions and contractions of the ancient Lake of Galilee. When the lake was contracting, the animals and hominids who had migrated from East Africa via the Red and Dead Seas found there unique feeding site that allowed them to surpass the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;technologyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; of the Neanderthals. From there, our surviving ancestors gradually spread to all corners of the world. Various hominids migrated from the Jordan River to Europe and West Asia. Their earliest migration waves have not survived in these colder climates, but later migrations of more advanced hominids have survived. Neanderthals split from Jordan Valley and Carmel Caves 0.5 to hominids. About 400 of their remains have been found. 0.028 They made their last stand in Gibraltar. Like apes, they mill. lacked a bony chin and their nose was more prominent than ours. Yet, they had a larger and broader face than ours. Their skull has a receding forehead and low braincase, but their brain is larger than those of our ancestors. Moreover, they used fire and introduced burial sites, as did our Carmelite ancestors.. Carmel Caves is occupied by migrants from Ubeidiya. The 500k to Tabun Cave has the longest sequence of occupation, almost 40k half a million years. The dwellers used improved hand axes of flint or limestone for killing animals (gazelle, hippopotamus, rhinoceros and wild cattle) and for digging out plant roots. Hand axes became smaller and better shaped and scrapers, made of thick flakes chipped off flint cores, were used for scraping meat off bones and for processing animal skins. Upper levels in the Tabun Cave consist mainly of clay and silt, indicating that a colder, more humid climate prevailed when glaciers formed once more; this caused the Mediterranean Sea level to drop about 100m to its present level. It also produced a wider coastal strip, covered by dense forests and swamps. Trash in such sites is gold to the archeologist. Its gravityinduced layers reveal at least the diet of the dewellers. It consisted of fruit, seeds, roots and leaves with meat supplements. 178

1,800k to prsnt

The Quaternary Era is fragmented into the Pleistocene [1.8 million to 10k YRS AGO] and Holocene [10k to present]

Burial tradition spreads. Skeleton of a female buried inside a stone niche just outside a Carmel Cave is one of the most ancient human skeletal remains. Migrations from Ubeidiya to the rest of the world is proved 100k to by studies of complete Mitochondrial DNA sequence xxx. 13k In Ubeidiya, during 1.4 million years, hominids have ‘selfeducated’ themselves to graduate as ‘modern humans’. They have later survived with relatively advanced technology in other climates Fourteen skeletons uncovered, including three complete ones; that define an archaic type of Homo sapiens, are closely related to modern humans in physical appearance with delicate facial features, a protruding chin and straight forehead, has been fully developed in the Carmel Caves and the Jordan River. Carmel graves show a cult and rituals related to death and spiritual realm. Migration from Ubeidiya to the Indian subcontinent. 100k Further migration from Ubeidiya to China. 67k to More inventions of skills in fishing and fire making emerge. 10,500 40k YRS AGO, further migrations from Ubeidiya to Europe. 35k YRS AGO, the earliest clothed body discovered in Russia. 30k YRS AGO: Beginning of the last North-American ice age. Mitochondrial-DNA studies provide evidence for migration to the Baikal Lake area in Southern Siberia, across the Bering land bridge, to Alaska, North America and further South along the coast. 27k YRS AGO, caves in Africa abound with paintings and carvings. 20k YRS AGO, further migration to North America via the Bering land bridge. 15k YRS AGO, domestication of dogs from a few ancestor wolfs starts in China. 13k YRS AGO, further migration from North to South America. 12,500 to 10,500 YRS AGO, Natufian culture on Mount Carmel emerges. Plant-gathering and animal-hunting is transformed to plant120k

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growing and animal-domestication. The level of the Mediterranean Sea rose again, as the glacial period came to an end, and the coastline stabilized to roughly its present contours. Carmel settlements become permanent, consisting of a few families living together in a kind of a village that serves as a base for hunting expeditions and food gathering. Improved Natufian flint tools are used primarily as scrapers of animal skins. Decorative beads, blades for cutting meat and sawing bone and sickle blades (secured in wooden or bone scythes) emerge for harvesting grain (which left a characteristic gloss on the edge of the blades). Microliths of a lunatic shape are used as arrowheads, harpoons and fish hooks. Grinding tools, mortars and pestles made of stone are used for food processing. Further migrations from Asia across the Bering land bridge 12,000 to the Americas. to Migrants’ artifacts in Clovis, N.M., North America. 11,200 Main racial groups are frozen in territories that they 10,000 dominate. Cultivation of primitive forms of rice in South-East Asia emerges. Pottery is produced in Japan 9,818 YRS AGO. Human remains in ‘On Your Knees’ cave in Alaska. 9,500 YRS AGO, evidence of harvesting of wild grasses in Asia Minor. 9,400 YRS AGO, human remains in Kennewick, on the Western Coast of North America. 8,640 YRS AGO, human remains in Palli Aike, at the Southern end of Chile. Village and perhaps a shrine in Jericho, the Jordan Valley. 9200 Jericho is considered by some scholars as the birthplace of civilization, but see UR below. End of the last ‘Ice Age’. Ocean water level rising. New 8,100 ecosystems start to emerge. The first recognizable civilization: The Ubaid Culture, Ur, is 7,000 established on the fertile soil formed between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, in an area close to where they flow into to what is today Iraq, near the Persian or Arabic Gulf. It is 180

also called Sumer. Yet, other call it the ‘the land between 5,500 the two rivers’, ‘the Ur Civilization’, or ‘Ki-engir’, ‘Acadi’ as the Bible refers to it sometimes via other names, including Ur. Its first settlers are called Ubaidians. Their name is derived from Tel al'Ubaid, near the city of Ur. 6600 YRS AGO, the Ubaidians living in villages develop systems to drain marshes and irrigate their crops by digging ditches to river waters. As in the Carmel culture, they learned to keep farm animals and develop weaving, leather work and copper and bronze metallurgy. They are involved in trade with nearby societies. 6100 YRS AGO, the Ubaidians develop large ovens for baking bread. In Tell Hamoukar, a protective city wall is erected. Primitive hieroglyphics is also developed, mainly for record keeping of trade transactions. It has evolved into the first written language. Villages had local religious cult centers, each with its particular god. One of these, Eridu, is traced back to about 7000 YRS AGO. It later had a temple with monumental architecture that goes back to around 6500 YRS AGO. Semites have worked their way from the Carmel Caves into the fertile Ur area. An U’baid site at Yarim Tepe yielded several hundred grindstones and grinders in a single room. A simple machine is devised to make pottery easier to manufacture and paint. Pottery emerges as Ubaid Style of Art, with its monochrome black painting. The earliest historical division of labor evolves. Stamp seals are used at various Ubaid-culture sites as precursors to writing. Earlier flint sickles are replaced by clay sickles. A religious temple dedicated to Nin-Khursag (Ninhursag) was uncovered at al'Ubaid, with a dedication inscription from A-anni-padda, king of Ur and son of Mes-anni-padda, king of Ur. Uncovered “Sumerian King List” shows that they are from the First Dynasty of Ur. The Ubaidians were then invaded by the Sumerians and a new era starts to evolve. As with the Ubaidians, the origin of the Sumerians is not clear. Their language, which has survived through writing, 181

5.9k

bears some resemblance to the Ural-Altaic languages. Earlier than 9,000 YRS AGO Ali Kosh becomes a village with wide lanes and rectangular houses. Sheep and goats are well domesticated. Fishing in nearby marshes and irrigation gradually evolves to help grow cereal crops by at least 8000 YRS AGO. Sumerians completely replace Ubaidians and construct improved canals for irrigating crops and for transporting crops by boat to village centers. They also improve the roads over which their donkeys trod, some of their donkeys pulling wheeled carts. As the UR/Sumerian population increased, the key element in creating a civilization - a word derived from an ancient word for city â&#x20AC;&#x201C; at least fifteen cities had emerged: Ur, Uruk, Kish, Lagash, Eridu, Sipper, Nippur, Adab, Umma, Larsa, Eshnunna, Shaduppum, Isin, and Shurupak. Ur, for example, has increased to a city of about 24,000 people and Uruk to around 45,000. Around each city were fields of grain, orchards of date palms, and land for herding. Besides planting and harvesting crops, the Sumerians hunted, fished, or raised livestock. Sufficient food is gradually produced to support population that has further developed professions: Priesthood, pottery making, weaving, carpentry, early metallurgy and trading. The Sumerians have also developed trade by sea and designed and constructed seaworthy boats and even ships. They imported key commodities made from wood, stone, tin and copper.

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Appendix VI _________________________________________________

The Origin of Writing, Time, Religion and Literature

And the name of the third river is Hiddekel; which flows toward the east of Ashur. And the fourth river is Euphrate.

Religion and Literature

Genesis 2:14

Te’rah begat Abram, Nahor, and Ha’ran; and Ha’ran begat Lot. And Ha’ran died before his father Te’rah, in the land of his nativity, in Ur Kasdim [of the Chal’dees]. Genesis, 11; 27, 28 Get yourself out of your country, And from your kindred, And from your father’s house, To the land that I will show you. Genesis 12:1

AVI.1

, like Egypt, India and China, is among first-timer civilizations in the world history. It is where the first full-fledged written language and the Abrahamic Monotheism have entered the world history and have since irreversibly changed it. Once a complete writing language has evolved and used in UR, its surviving records -- on time-invariant, dry, clay tablets -- have 183

provided us with details of incredibly rich culture that had flourished mainly from about 6500 to 4700 years ago and has been later adopted, almost in its entirety, by the Babylonian civilization and subsequent ones. Other inventions that have been generated by this first recognizable civilization include the use of seconds, minutes, an hour and numerology, as we use them today. Poems, anecdotes, prose, huge decorated temples, pantheon of gods, diversified theology, cosmology, political system, government, organized armies and numerology, had all flourished there. No such parallels in Egypt, India and China had emerged that early. Hence, UR is widely recognized as the first full fledged civilization on earth. Some of its great epics have surfaced to the light of history in various archeological sites. A few surfaced independently in the biblical stories of GilgameshAVI.2, the flood, Noah, the ark and the city of Ur - the birthplace of Abraham, the biblical founder of monotheism. AVI.1 The Ubaidians Around 7,000 to 5500 years ago, the first settlers in UR are called Ubaidians. Their name is derived from Tel al'Ubaid, near the city of Ur. There is no evidence to back-link them with Ubeidiya, more than a million years earlier. Nevertheless, as recent DNA-based studies link humans around the world to Ubeidiya, it may be a plausible assumption. About 6600 years ago, the Ubaidians living in villagesAVI.3 developed systems to drain marshes and irrigate their crops by digging ditches to river waters. As in the earlier Carmel culture [Table II, Appendix VI], they learned to keep farm animals and developed weaving, leather work and even copper and bronze metallurgy. They were also involved in trade with nearby societies: West, east, North and South of their unique land. At about 6100 years ago the Ubaidians developed large ovens for baking bread. In Tell Hamoukar, a protective city wall had been erected. Hieroglyphics were first developed, mainly for recordkeeping of trade transactions and taxes. Gradually these hieroglyphics evolved into the first written language. (see below) 184

AVI.2 Ubaid Invaded By Sumerians About 5900 years ago the Sumerians replaced Ubaidians and constructed improved canals for irrigating crops and more advanced roads for transporting crops by boat to village centers. Disciplined infantry in a phalanx with overlapping shields and leveled spears appear on monuments from UR. They have also introduced a new key weapon: A bow composed of interlocked wood and horn strips, which had provided their arrows with a longer range. The Sumerians had also introduced the foundations of mathematics, establishing the technique of expressing numbers by position and sign, as well as the sixty-based system in our circle of 360 degrees and our hour of sixty minutes, each composed of 60 seconds. A later Babylonian cosmogony is based on the Sumerian one, with creation of the world from watery medium and the eventual generation of mankind. As a well-functioning civilization, UR/Sumer lasted about 1,300 years, roughly from 5300 to 4000 years ago. Then the Elamites invaded and sacked URAVI.4. AVI.3 How The First Writing Language Was Invented The invention of the first full-fledged writing language is attributed to both the Ubaidians and the Sumerians. That progress coincides with the gradual transition from hunting-gathering families, groups, and tribes, to more permanent agrarian communities, villages and cities. The need to mark and count private property, such as parcels of land, animals, or measures of grain, or evidence of trade in transferring private property to another, or to contribute it to the cult center to please the local ruler/priest/god, were probably the main driving force for the invention of a writing language. Rich literature, list of kings and religious mythologies have emerged and survived on clay tablets.

185

The first evidence of recording of property was discovered as "counting tokens", such as those depicted below. These may represent numerical records of trade, or goods provided to the temple priest/god.

AVI.4 The Evolution of the Cuneiform writing Around 6100-5800 years ago, such records have gradually been transformed into more meaningful symbols that could be inscribed into a wet clay -- prior to drying it. Such records are precursors of a written language. Some pictographs have also served as bases for developing a written language. Both were gradually stylized, rotated with respect to the common â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;up-down vector of gravityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, and then impressed on a soft wet clay with a wedge shaped stylus to become the script known today as Cuneiform writing. Examples and their meanings are shown below.

Head

Foot

Sun "day"

Hand

woman

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Excavations of the ancient city Ugarit, have produced texts in a cuneiform script that were consonantal [no vowels] and in the order of the Alef-Beyt, as shown.

The first full-fledged writing language known

The Sumerians also wrote arithmetic based on units of ten. Such records were also read as a common language when their ‘up-down’ and ‘left-right’ orientations were agreed upon by the priest or king and enforced on some others by hard education. Such education was enforced by punishable training aimed to associate symbols with things, animals and spoken sounds. Gradually, when enforced as the common order of symbols, via the gravity-induced orientation, to represent the spoken sounds, they have been used by the Sumerians for hundreds of years. AVI.5 The Emergence of Religious Order The invention of writing was immediately exploited as a tool to tighten the control of kings and priests over the population. It was mainly used to increase the control of rulers and priests over assets and to exercise their claimed divine power. Such enforced spread of the written language has helped control bigger villages, towns and cities. A sort of an empire has eventually emerged. But that signaled its forthcoming end. It is in UR/Summer that a close relationship between religion and nd government had evolved. Literature Sumerian Lyre AVI.6 The Origin of Cosmogony and Numerology Concerned about their cosmological-star-gods, the Sumerians needed to map the fixed and moving stars. That prompted them to divide the sky circle into units of sixty, each 6 degrees, from which they also invented the 60 seconds in a minute and 60 minutes in an hour. 187

Therefore, when we use them in everyday life, we are using an ancient culture, a cultural system that we take for granted, namely, without inquiring about its origin and ancient-scope meaning. AVI.7

Organized Education, Judicial Law and Womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Equality

Scholars assume that the first organized system of education was also introduced in UR. The legal idea of justice, with or without clear division between secular and religious authorities, played a basic role in UR. Monogamous families were gradually established by law, which also gave women important rights. Divorce, for instance, was conducted by law that provided equitable treatment of divorced wives. UR/Sumerian art portrays women in skirts, clean-shaved men and uniformly dressed soldiers as well as men sitting in armchairs with cups in their hands while musicians play for them. Some scholars therefore assume that the first musical instrument in the ancient world is the depicted Sumerian Lyre.

AVI.8 UR as Precursor of Monotheism UR is indentified with Uruk and the biblical Erech. The Talmud also identifies Ur KaĹ&#x203A;dim with Erech in a place called Urichus. According to the Sumerians, the primeval sea (abzu) existed BEFORE anything else, and within it, the heaven (an) and the earth (ki) were formed. 188

The boundary between heaven and earth was firm and solid. The earth was a flat disk, while the brighter spots were the stars, sun and moon. An, god of heaven, is the main god of the pantheon. Ki is probably the earth goddess Ninhursag (queen of the mountains), Ninmah (the exalted lady), or Nintu (the lady who gives birth). Enki, during the first days, needed things that were created. AVI.9 First the Heaven and Earth were separated An took Heaven, Enlil took earth. Nammu is the Goddess of the watery abyss, the primeval sea. She may be the earliest of deities within Sumerian cosmology. She is elsewhere described both as the mother of all gods and as wife of An, Enki's mother. Anunnaki’s temple was in Erech. He and Enlil give the gods, goddesses and kings their regions of divine power. AVI.10 The Origin of Abrahamic [Hebrew] Monotheism The Hebrews are the first to collectively arrive at and obey the abstract notion of a single Creator, and later, to forbid, via the Ten Commandments in the TorrahAVI.10, any representation of YHVH by any image, statue, painting or icon. No people has produced a greater historical impact from the idea of Monotheism. In trying to comprehend the origin of Monotheism one must first examine the pantheon of gods at UR/SumerAVI.9. Abraham (Ibrahim in Arabic, and initially Abram) was 75 years old when he left his Ur/Sumer. He was probably forced to leave because of his belief in Monotheism and total rejection of the local pantheon of gods. This was probably the beginning of Monotheism. His son, Yitzhak [Isaac] defined early monotheism simply as: “The God of my father, the God of Abraham” [Genesis 31:42]. All Abrahamic religions are deduced from Abraham’s early idea of a single, ONE GOD. Unlike their later offspring, Isaac and Jacob, Abraham tried to spread Monotheism through people who had not been 'blood-related'.

189

Christianity had first spread to Egypt, Greece and Rome. It was later divided into various churches and denominations: On the 5th century it was split between Western Catholicism and the Oriental Church (later divided into Greek Orthodox, Russian Orthodox, etc) and on the 16th century into the Protestant Reformation and later into hundreds of Protestant denominations.[30] Islam originated and was established by Muhammad in the 7th century in Mecca and Medina. It is also a continuation of Abrahamic Monotheism. Through the son of Abraham, Ishmael, conceived through Abraham's servant Hagar, Muslims are also related to Abraham. Abraham had 8 sons: Ishmael by his wife's servant Hagar, Isaac by his wife Sarah, and six by another wife, Keturah. The Druzes also believe in the Abrahmic faith through their ancestor Yitro [Jethro], the father-in-law of Moshe [Moses]. The Noachide faith, is also based upon the faith of Abraham through the children of Abraham. Moses, Jesus, Muhammad and Bahaullah are all claimed to be descendants of Abraham through one of these sons and relatives. The Bahai religion reconizes them all as precrusers of their universal faith according to which all people are citizens of planet earth and the beauty of the world shines at any place and via any religion. AVI.11 The Bible: Where it Came from The contents of Genesis, and later of the first five books of the Bible [Torah, Pentateuch] have probably existed at least since a written language was widely used in UR. There is little doubt, that since the UR/Summerian/Akkadian literature is so rich with epics, proverbs and wisdom anecdotes, that part of Genesis had been inspired by that great civilization. Indeed, some parts of the Original Hebrew Bible concerning, say, the story of the great flood may have originated in the UR civilization AVI.10. Gilgamesh and the implementation of the law, have so been adopted. Yet, there is no surviving written evidence of any of the early Hebrew Biblical texts prior to the famous Dead Sea Scrolls.AVI.11 190

One may, therefore, conclude that the early written Hebrew texts had been consonantal. Only much later, after the first exile, the Hebrew consonantal text has been inserted with vowels, as dots, especially when the early translators from Hebrew to Aramaic and Greek had to fix the proper pronounciation and understanding of the text.AVI.11 These editing processes have generated many textual variants and many shear mistakes, like the famous statue of Moses with horns by Michael Angelo. The cuurent bible has evolved through a slow process has resulted in thousands of variants/mistakes of both the Old [Original Hebrew Bible] and New Testaments [Expanded Bible] as we know them todayAVI.10. In fact, Psalms, Proverbs and Job in non-Hebrew texts, have reached their final form as late as the 4th century. Eleazar, the high priest of Jerusalem, sent to PtolmeyPhiladelphus in Alexandria, Egypt, about 2259 years ago, the Hebrew manuscript of the Pentateuch to be translated into Greek -- the famous Septuagint. This great historical event took place many years prior to the writing of the Dead Sea Scrolls that we have as the earliest written evidence today.

There are at least 5,250 different texts of the Original Hebrew Bible.AVII.11 Each text translator, or a mere copier, had first to master the Hebrew grammer, pronaunciation and meaning, an almost impossible task for those who had known only the Greek Septuagint and the Latin versions.AVII.11 AVI.1

The Geographical Location of Ancient UR: The City-State-Civilization of Abraham; The Founder of the Hebrew Monotheism. Ur is a famous archeological site. It is geographically located on the fertile soil formed by repeated flooding and deposition of rich fertile soil between the Tigris and the Euphrates rivers, in an area that is currently Southern Iraq. This area is close to where the two rivers enter the Persian-Arabic Gulf. Its original name, however, as had been used by its the founders, is not clear, and was probably not a single uniform name.

191

All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008 Both Ur and Sumer, or just Shumer, will be henceforth used to refer to this important civilization Some, in all historical times, refer to it as the ‘the land between the two rivers’, or Ki-engir, Acadian, Akkadian, etc., while the Bible refers to it with other names, including Ur. Hiddekel and Euphrates are amongst the four rivers identified in the original Bible as leading to Eden, the garden of Eden and the river of Eden. Hiddekel was later shortened to Diklat. The Persians pronounced it, Tigra, from whence the Greek name Tigris. In Arabic it is, Dijla. Idikna, Idikla, or Idiklat. The city-state-civilization Ur is located at Tell el-Mukayyar, which in ancient texts had been named Uriwa or Urima and later Uru. Shinaar is also a designation applied to Mesopotamia: The ‘land between the two rivers’. It is mentioned eight times in the original Hebrew Bible in reference to a later civilization: Babylonia. Shinaar may have also included Erech, or Ur/Sumer. The Euphrates is also called Puranum [meaning, Great water] or Pura, or Purat, or Ufratu. In Greek it is Euphrates and in Arabic Furat. AVI.2

Gilgamesh ruled Uruk and was probably the first world poet and author of great epics. One of his epics relates to the coming of a great flood, which obliterates mankind except for a single righteous family that has survived the flood by constructing an ark. Also uncovered by archeological facts are original Ur/Sumerian epics resembling the Biblical Eden, Creation of the world and creation of man from mud or dust. It is from this single family that an improved race has emerged and inherited the earth. The Ur/Sumerian literature, cosmogony, theology and rituals, have also influenced the next civilizations to such an extent that even today one can detect their echoes in the Judeo-Christian and Islamic traditions. AVI.3

Villages in the UR Civilization had local religious cult centers, each with its locally particular god. One of these, Eridu, is traced back to about 7000 years ago. It later had a temple with monumental architecture that can be traced back to some 6500 years. Some scholars consider the people of Ur ‘Semites’ and assume that multiple migrating wave of Semites have worked their way into the fertile Ur/Sumerian area, either peacefully or by force. It was during the Ubaid period that a simple machine was devised to make pottery easier to manufacture and paint. Pottery gradually became more uniform, conforming to an Ubaid Style of Art, with its monochrome black painting. The invention of a more advanced potters' wheel emerged at the end of the Ubaid era. Other scholars assume that within this period the early historical division of labor had started to evolve. Stamp seals have been found at various Ubaidculture sites, perhaps as precursors to writing (see below). Earlier flint sickles had gradually been replaced by clay sickles. A great temple was uncovered at al'Ubaid, with a dedication inscription from A-anni-padda, king of Ur and son of Mes-anni-padda, also a king of Ur. According to the “Sumerian King List” that has survived, they are from the First Dynasty of Ur. AVI.4

Hammurabi of Babylon defeated Rim-Sin of Larsa around 5823-5763 years ago and became the sole ruler of UR/Sumer/Akkad. These decades mark the end of the UR/Sumerian empire, but not the end of its culture.

AVI.5

According to Islamic Tradition Abram, or Abraham, lived in Edessa Sanli Urfa, a site of a mosque called the Mosque of Abraham. The Talmud and some Arabic writers regard Erech, or Orek, as the birthplace of Abraham. The cuneiform writing refers to this city as Urnki. UR is also identified with the current Iraqi city Mugheir, or Mughayyar, also called Urumma, or Urima, and later Uru in a district called Chaldea, or Kaldu. Ur Kaśdim is also identified with the Turkish name Urfa, which, in turn, is derived from Orhāy and the Greek Ορρα, Orrha. AVI.6

UR, the well-investigated Archeological Site. Its castle-temple is depicted above and its Bible account is as the hometown of the first Hebrew and the most pious father of Monotheism, Abraham. Those who are considered descendants of Abraham are known as ‘Hebrews’, ‘Ishmaels’ and Druses.

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UR was constantly at war with nearby city-states. It was attacked by raiders from Akkad. It then entered a stage comparable to the Dark Ages, and has remained so until a new king, UrNammu, came to power. Under his rule a government was established which enforced its laws and rules strictly. Temples were re-built, including the biggest: The Ziggurat, depicted above. This period ended when northern tribes attacked and UR was occupied by Babylonians. AVI.8

UR vs. The Creation of Man. Through the invention of the cuneiform writings, we can read today hymns, myths, lamentations, incantations and the structure of their religious world. The British Museum began excavations there in 1919 and was joined later by the University Museum of the University of Pennsylvania. The ruins of UR were first excavated by J.E. Taylor, who had partly uncovered the ziggurat of Nanna. An impressive discovery was the Royal Cemetery. It contained art treasures of gold, silver, bronze, and precious stones. The Sumerians also invoked the idea of the creation of man from several models, or designs that had been created from mud or dust, prior to the final selection of man. They also introduced the faith in life after death, and the idea of Sheol [hell]. The priesthood maintained great power over the population also through omens and dreams, while some of the kings claimed divine power. The temples included many rooms for priests and priestesses and were decorated with human and animal figures. Some have evolved into towering ziggurats in which priests, priestesses, musicians, singers, castrates and hierodules performed. Various public rituals and food sacrifices were performed daily, while other, like a New-Year celebrations, annually. Lamentations reveal that people asked and prayed while confessing sins. From surviving records of hymns and myths, a picture of the creation of the universe emerges. AVI.9

The Akkadian top god was Marduk. All land belonged ultimately to the gods, while the king-priest was their vicar. There were gods of the air and water as well as the goddess of love and procreation and war named Ishtar, as was later mentioned in the Bible. One may therefore label the UR/Sumerian religious government as the beginning of a systematic and organized theology. AVI.10

The True Origins of Christianity And The Bible by Andrew D. Benson, Prudential Publishing Company, Clovis, Ca, 1997 [30]. Mr. Benson has assembeled a massive amount of evidence and documented it with over 2000 footnotes and references to recorded historical events. [See also Footnotes AVI.11 and AVI.2] AVI.11

The Original Hebrew Bible. Hebrew, according to the Bible, was the language that God has spoken to Moses. The Hebrew Written Language [Alef-Baith] is also attributed by the Bible to God-Written first Stone Tablets that provide humans with the TEN COMMANDMENTS. The DEAD SEA SCROLLS were discovered between 1947 and 1956 in the Dead Sea Caves of Qumeran. They were written around 100 years prior to the birth of Christ, namely, about 2110 years ago. They do not contain one book; the book of Esther. Most important, the Original Hebrew Bible was written by using only the consonants of the written Hebrew language. The vowls, as dots, had to be understood by the Hebrew scholars. Only much later, after the first exile, the Hebrew consonantal text has been inserted with vowels, as dots, especially when the early translators from Hebrew to Aramaic and Greek had to fix the proper pronounciation and understanding of the text. These editing processes have generated many textual variants and many shear mistakes, like the famous statue of Moses with horns by Michael Angelo. There are at least 5,250 different texts of the Original Hebrew Bible and The Expanded Bible. Each text translator, or a mere copier, had first to master the Hebrew grammer, pronaunciation and meaning -- an almost impossible task for those who had known only the Greek Septuagint and the Latin versions.at

least 5,250 different texts of the Original Hebrew Bible.AVII.10 Each text translator, or a mere copier, had first to master the Hebrew grammer, pronaunciation and meaning, an almost impossible task for those who had known only the Greek Septuagint and the Latin versions.AVII.10 193

References I shall make you love books more than you love mother, and I shall place their excellence before you. A scribe is the task-must of everyone.

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Credits Most photographs in this FREE-TO-THE-PUBLIC book are acknowledged as the general courtesy of NASA to the public. Some pictures were taken by the author, or their source marked. Most figures, diagrams and caricatures are taken from the unabridged VOLUMES I and II [13]. The List of Nobel Prize Winners by Country was provided by Nobel-Prize Selection Committees and taken from Wikipedia – The Fee Encyclopedia.

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