Language Learning Strategies Instruction by Mohamed Amin Embi

LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES INSTRUCTIONS

INTRODUCTION Language learning strategies are employed by learners to complete listening, vocabulary, speaking, reading, and writing activities presented in language lessons. Knowing that a task has to be completed or a problem need to be solved, language learners will use metacognitive, cognitive or social/affective strategies that they possess to attend to the language-learning activity (Oxford, 1990). While experienced language learners can approach language learning problems in a systematic way and are successful in selecting appropriate strategies to complete a language-learning task, novices may be less efficient at selecting and using strategies to task (O'Malley & Chamot, 1995). Irrespective of language learning experiences, both groups of learners will need instruction on 'how' to use strategies efficiently to develop their language learning and language performance (Wenden, 1987, O'Malley & Chamot, 1995, Cohen, 1998,). One way to guide learners towards the effective use of learning strategies is to incorporate Language Learning Strategy Instruction into daily language lessons (Kinoshita, 2003). Language Learning Strategy Instruction (LLSI) is also known as strategy training, learner training, learning to learn training, learner methodology training and methodological initiation for learners (Oxford 1990). Language learning strategy instructions are the initiation, structuring and control of the singular individual steps as part of the whole language learning process. In other words, language learning strategies instruction is the operationalization and implementation of strategies to improve the progress in developing language skills (Green and Oxford 1995).

THE IMPORTANCE OF LLSI No one knows everything about how people learn language, but there is strong support for sharing, through strategy training, what we do know. Research shows that learners who receive strategy training generally learn better than those who do not, and that certain techniques for such training are more beneficial than others (Oxford 1990). Lee (1995) in her study pointed out that second language learner can become more autonomous in the language learning process. The results not only showed that students gained better final exam grades than mid term exam grades but also confirmed the previous studies by Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Malley et al (1985b). Her findings also revealed that language learning strategies instruction for second language learner is an efficient means for helping college students at the beginning level.

RESEARCH ON LEARNING STRATEGIES INSTRUCTIONS Research on language learning strategy instruction has been interested in verifying the effectiveness of particular strategy training. Researchers have experimented with instructing language learners to use selected learning strategies as a way to improve language performance (Kinoshita, 2003). Cohen and Aphek (1980) trained learners of Hebrew on how to recall new words by using 'paired associationsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; and found that learners perform better in recalling tasks when they form associations (Ellis, 2002). In a study by Weinstein (1978), students in the ninth grade were trained to use a variety of strategies and apply them to reading comprehension and memory tasks. The positive results showed that students trained in elaboration strategies significantly outperformed the students who received no training (O'Malley & Chamot, 1995).

Wenden (1987) describes that providing students with a checklist of criteria to self-evaluate their oral production resulted in successful use of self-evaluation as a learning strategy. The consensus of these investigations and others (Bialystok 1983; Gagne 1985; Sano 1999; Dadour 1996) tell us that language learning strategies are 'teachable' and training language learners to use selected learning strategies can lead to positive effects on task performance in the language learning process. Research on strategy instruction has also investigated the instructional sequences used by language instructors to implement strategy instruction into foreign language lessons. One of the research interests of Chamot et al. (1988) was to discover how three regular classroom teachers integrated strategy instruction into their Spanish and Russian foreign language class activities. The results showed that although each participating instructor had an individual way of providing learning strategy instruction (O'Malley & Chamot, 1995), all three instructors opted for direct instruction (informing students of the purpose and value of strategies) and followed a structured sequence of introducing, practicing, reinforcing and evaluating strategy use each language activity (Kinoshita, 2003). Research by Robbins (1996) and Grunewald (1999) provides insights into instructional sequences and teaching approaches. Robbins (1996) renders a qualitative description of the instructional sequence used to implement strategy instruction at two universities in Kyoto, Japan. As a framework for strategy instruction, he used the Problem-Solving Process Model. Students were instructed to use the model to plan, monitor, use and evaluate strategies as they attended to language learning tasks. The instructional sequence for each lesson are modeling, explaining, encouraging, and prompting the use of strategies. Grunewald's action research (1999) shows evidence of how strategies instruction can been integrated into foreign language lessons. Grunewald developed an optional supplementary

system

useful

language

learning

techniques

strategies.

Supplementary learning strategies were identified for each language skill presented in the course book and direct instruction of these language strategies were integrated into the 3

weekly language lessons. The teaching approach used for strategies instruction includes awareness raising, explicit naming of strategies, practice and self-evaluation and monitoring

STRATEGY TRAINING - VOCABULARY One cannot speak, understand, read or write a language without knowing a lot of words (Rubin and Thompson 1994). Research on training second language learners to use learning strategies has been limited to applications with vocabulary tasks (Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Malley and Chamot 1990). Memory training in second language learning has focused on mnemonic techniques that facilitate vocabulary learning (Thompson 1987). Training procedures that use paired associate techniques include the peg-word method, in which second language learners use a list of memorized cue words to learn vocabulary or grammatical categories in the second language (Paivio and Descrochers 1979) and the key-word method, in which students learn sets of words through the combination of an auditory and imagery link (Atkinson and Raugh 1975, Pressley, Levin and Delaney 1982). Cohen and Aphek (1980) trained students of Hebrew to recall new vocabulary words through paired associations. Students were given brief instructions on how to use association, and then they selected their own new words from a reading text and made their own associations for them. At the time of the post test, students most often used the initial association that they had made to recall the new word, and this led to better performance than using a different association or none at all.

STRATEGY TRAINING - LISTENING

Listening is the most important of the language skills since people spend approximately 60% of their time listening (Rubin and Thompson 1994). The research by Murphy (1985, 1987) explored types of strategies used by college students at different proficiency levels. Seventeen specific strategies were identified and categorized. The results show that proficient and less proficient listeners could be distinguished by the frequency of the strategies they used. For instance, proficient listeners used strategies such as elaborating, inferencing, anticipating, conclusion drawing, self-description, more frequently than less-proficient learners. Murphy (1985) also explores the sequential patterns of the strategies used by proficient and less proficient listeners. Based on her findings, proficient listeners tend to apply a wide range of strategies compared to the less proficient listeners.

STRATEGY TRAINING â&#x20AC;&#x201C; READING Studies of learning strategies with first language learners have determined the effects of strategy training on different kinds of tasks and learners. Findings from these studies generally indicate that strategy training is effective in improving the performance of students on a wide range of reading comprehension (Brown et al. 1983; Chipman, Segaland Glaser 1985; Dansereau 1985). Based on a research done in Swanson Middle School among Latino students who are performing at low levels of literacy in the middle school grades, Jimenez and Gamez (1996) initiated that practice of reading fluency has strong potential for promoting and fostering reading abilities. Earlier classroom observations and individual student interviews provided evidence that the students were reading and comprehending at quite a rudimentary level. Jimenez and Gamez (1996) demonstrated the think aloud procedure for the students to improve their reading.

Towards the end of the project, there were

indications of changes in their motivation to read and their ability to verbalize important information about reading strategies.

STRATEGY TRAINING – WRITING AND SPEAKING (ORAL) In second language learning contexts, language production skills are particularly important because students’ acquisition of speaking and writing competence is crucial to their success in academic settings (O’Malley and Chamot 1990). O’Malley and his colleagues performed a research on seventy five enrollees in ESL program at the secondary leveling three mid Atlantic suburban high schools. The students participating in this study were all at intermediate level. Intermediate level students were described as having little or no skill in reading and writing English, but with some proficiency in understanding or speaking English. Students received instruction and practice in the use of learning strategies for fifty minutes daily for eight days. The students performed two of the three language activities: vocabulary, listening or speaking on random days. Before presenting their 2 minutes talk, students wrote a draft of the oral presentation and then made the presentation to the group. One of the most important findings in this study was that strategy training could be effective in a classroom setting for language tasks such as listening, speaking and writing(O’Malley and Chamot. 1990).

STRATEGY TRAINING – CONTENT BASED The ESL instructional model developed by O’Malley and Chamot (1990) is based on a cognitive theory. The Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach (CALLA) is designed to develop the academic language skills of limited English proficient students. 6

CALLA integrates grade appropriate content topics, academic language development and direct instruction and practice in using learning strategies. In a research done by Chamot and her colleagues (1993), a study was designed to identify learning and problem solving strategies of students at high, average and low mathematics achievement levels, and to compare strategic approaches of students in high implementation and low implementation classrooms. Students were enrolled in ESL mathematics classes in a project implementing the Cognitive Academic Learning Approach (CALLA). In this approach, the curriculum content that is used to develop academic language and learning strategies are taught explicitly to increase studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; metacognitive awareness and to facilitate their learning of both content and language. The results indicated that significantly more students in high implementation classrooms were able to solve the problem correctly than were students in low implementation classrooms. Of greater interest was the finding that there were no differences in the actual number of problem solving steps used by students in the two implementation levels, but that significant differences for high implementation classrooms were found for correct sequence of problem solving steps, which has been featured in instruction in the high implementation classrooms (Chamot et al. 1993).

TYPES OF LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES INSTRUCTIONS Language learning strategies instructions can be taught in at least three different ways: awareness training, one time strategy training and long term strategy training (Oxford, 1990). Awareness training

Awareness training is also known as conscious raising or familiarization training. In this situation, participants become aware of the language learning strategies and the way these strategies can help them accomplish various tasks. This training should be fun and motivating so that participants can expand their knowledge of strategies. Participants can be teachers, students or anyone else interested in language learning processes. One time strategy training One time strategy training involves learning and practicing one or more strategies with actual learning tasks. This kind of training normally gives the learners information on the value of the strategy, when it can be used, how to use it and how to evaluate the success of the language strategy. This training is suitable for learners who have a need for a particular and targeted strategy that can be taught in one or a few sessions. In general, this strategy is not as valuable as long-term training. Long term strategy training Long term strategy training involves learning and practicing strategies with actual language tasks. Students learn the significance of a particular strategy, when and how to use it, how to monitor and evaluate their own performance. Long term training is more prolonged and covers a greater number of strategies. This strategy is most likely to more effective than one time training.

ISSUES IN LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIS INSTRUCTIONS There are a few major issues that need to be addressed in language learning strategies instructions. Separate versus integrated instructions

An unresolved issue in learning strategies instructions is whether instructions should focus only on learning strategy instruction or should be integrated with classroom instruction in the language or content subject (Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Malley and Chamot, 1990 p.152). Arguments in favor of separate training programs advance the notion that strategies are generalized to many contexts (Derry and Murphy 1986, Jones et al.1987). Students will strategies better if they can focus all their attention on developing strategic processing skills rather that try to learn content at the same time (Jones et. al.1987). On the other hand, those in favor of integrated strategy instructions programs argue that learning in context is more effective than learning separate skills whose immediate applicability may not be evident to the learner (Wenden, 1987b) and that practicing strategies on authentic academic and language tasks facilitate the transfer of strategies to similar tasks encountered in other classes (Chamot and Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Malley 1987). Dansereau (1985) suggests that future studies should evaluate a learning strategy system that integrates both content independent strategies and content dependent strategies. Weinstein and her coworkers (Weinstein and Underwood 1985) have developed and implemented both separate and integrated instruction in learning strategies. Direct versus embedded instruction In direct instruction, students are informed of the value and purpose of strategy training, while in embedded instruction, students are presented with activities and materials structured to elicit the use of the strategies being taught but are not informed of the reasons why this approach to learning is being practiced. Early research following the embedded approach found little transfer of training to new tasks (Brown, Armbruster and Baker 1986). More recent studies have added a metacognitive component to training by informing students about the purpose and importance of the strategies to be trained and providing instruction on the regulation and 9

monitoring of strategies (Brown et al . 1986; Palinscar and Brown 1986).A criticism of uninformed strategy training of this type is that students who are not aware of the strategies they are using do not develop independent learning strategies and have little opportunity of becoming autonomous learners (Wenden 1987b). Many researchers recommend that instruction in learning strategies be direct rather than embedded (Brown et al.1986; Palinscar and Brown 1984; Wenden 1987b; Weinstein and Mayer 1986; Winograd and Hare 1988) or that direct instruction be added to a curriculum or instructional material designed with embedded strategies (Derry and Murphy 1986). THE ROLE OF A LANGUAGE TEACHER Teachers are traditionally viewed as authority figures, identified with roles like parent, instructor, director, manager, judge, leader, evaluator, controller and even doctor. The specter of role change may discomfort some teachers who feel that their status is being challenged. Others, however, welcome their new functions as facilitator, helper, guide, consultant, adviser, coordinator idea person and co-communicator (Oxford 1990). Evaluator A language teacher plays the role of an evaluator where he or she assesses student work frequently and later provide feedback that accurately communicates both the quality of student work and, and the specific areas in which improvement is needed. Facilitator /Trainer The teacher must make an effort to expand his or her knowledge base beyond discipline, stimulate discussion when appropriate and stimulate intellectual curiosity among his or her students.

Mentor A language teacher should help and provide students with multiple methods/tools to stimulate critical thinking, including alternatives to the teacherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s own preferred methodology. He or she should also welcome, encourage, and respect a diversity of opinions. Language Learner Language teachers are also language learners especially when learning a new language and expanding new knowledge.

Researcher The concept of teacher as a researcher encourages teachers to be collaborators in revising curriculum, improving their work environment, professionalizing teaching, and developing policy.

LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES MODEL

INTRODUCTION Research on the learning strategies that second language students generate and strategies that can be taught is of great significance in understanding the operation of cognitive processes during second language acquisition (Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Malley and Chamot, 1990). Instructional models and material are helpful in illustrating the ways in which research findings can be converted into practical classroom activities. LLSI MODEL BY Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;MALLEY AND CHAMOT The ESL instructional model was developed is based on cognitive theory. The Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach (CALLA) is designed to develop the academic language skills of limited English proficient students in upper elementary and secondary schools. The theoretical model on which CALLA is based, suggests that language is a complex cognitive skill. It requires extensive practice and feedback in order to operate at an autonomous level. The CALLA lesson plan framework incorporates learning strategy instruction, content area topics, and language development activities. Learning strategy instruction is both direct and embedded. In CALLA, new learning strategies are introduced and familiar ones are practiced. 12

CALLA lessons include both teacher directed and learner centered activities. They specify three types of objectives, namely, content objectives, language objectives, and learning strategy objectives. Each CALLA lesson is divided into five phases: preparation, presentation, practice, and evaluation and expansion activities (refer to Figure 1.1). Theses phases are often recursive and the teacher may wish to go back to earlier phases in order to clarify or provide additional instruction.

Figure 1.1 LLSI Model by Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Malley and Chamot (1999)

Preparation

Expansion Activities

Presentation

Evaluation

Practice

Preparation In the preparation phase, the teacher finds out , through brainstorming, what students already know about the concepts in the subject area to be presented and practiced, what gaps need to be addressed and how students have been taught to approach a particular type of learning activity. The lessonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s objectives are explained to students and 13

new vocabulary is developed. The learning strategies most commonly taught in this phase are elaboration, advance organization and selective attention. Presentation In the presentation phase, new information is presented and explained to students in English that is supported by contextual clues such as demonstration and visuals. Teachers make sure that students comprehend the new information so that they will be able to practice it meaningfully in the next phase of the lesson. Some of the learning strategies taught and practiced in this phase are selective attention while listening or reading, self monitoring, inferencing, elaboration, note taking, imagery and questioning for clarifications.

Practice The practice phase of the lesson is learner centered. Students engage in hands on activities to practice the new information they were exposed to in the presentation phase. The teacher acts as a facilitator in helping students assimilate the new information and use it in different ways. Cooperative leaning in heterogeneous teams is particularly effective during the practice phase, as students can work together in small groups to clarify their understanding of the information previously presented. The learning strategies in this phase are self monitoring, organizational planning, resourcing, grouping, summarizing, deduction, imagery, auditory representation, elaboration, inferencing, cooperation and questioning for clarification.

Evaluation In this phase, students check the level of their performance so that they can gain an understanding of what they have learned and any areas they need to review. Evaluation activities can be individual, cooperative or teacher directed. Learning strategies practiced in the evaluation phase are: self evaluation, elaboration, questioning for clarification, cooperation and self talk. Expansion activities In the expansion phase, students are given a variety of opportunities to think about the new concepts and skills they have learned, integrate them into their existing knowledge frameworks, make real world applications and continue to develop academic language. This phase also provide the opportunity to exercise higher order thinking skills such as inferring new application of a concept, analyzing the components of a learning activity, drawing parallels with other concepts, and evaluating the importance of a concept or a new skill.

LLSI MODEL BY OXFORD Oxford’s eight-step model (refer to Table 1.1) for strategy training focuses on the teaching of learning strategies themselves. It is especially useful for long term strategy training. It can also be adapted for one-time training by selecting specific units. The first five are planning and preparation steps, while the last three involve conducting, evaluating and revising the training. Table 1.1: Strategy Model by Oxford (1990)

Determine the learner’s needs and the time available

Select strategies well

Consider integration of strategy training

Consider motivated issues

Prepare materials and activities

Conduct “completely informed training”

Evaluate the strategy training

Revise the strategy training

Step 1: Determine the Learners’ Needs and the Time Available The initial step in a training program is to consider the needs of the learners and determine the amount of time needed for the activity. Consider first who the learners are and what they need. Are they children, adolescents, college students, graduate students or adults in continuing education? What are their strength and weaknesses? What learning

strategies have they been using? Is there a gap between the strategies they have been using and those learners think they have to learn? Consider also how much time learners and learners students have available for strategy training and when learners might do it. Are learners pressed for time or can learners work strategy training in with no trouble? Step 2: Select Strategies Well First, select strategies which are related to the needs and characteristics of learners. Note especially whether there are strong cultural biases in favor or against a particular strategy. If strong biases exist, choose strategies that do not completely contradict what the learners are already doing. Second, chose more than one kind of strategy to teach. Decide the kinds of compatible, mutually supporting strategies that are important for students. Third, choose strategies that are generally useful for most learners and transferable to a variety of language situations and tasks. Fourth, choose strategies that are easy to learn and valuable

to the learner. In

other words, do not include all easy strategies or all difficult strategies. Step 3: Consider Integration of Strategy Training It is most helpful to integrate strategy training with the tasks, objectives, and materials used in the regular language training program. Attempts to provide detached, content independent strategy training have been moderately successful. Learners sometimes rebel against strategy training that is not sufficiently linked to their own language training.

When strategy training is integrated with language learning, learners understand better how the strategies can be used in significant, meaningful context. Meaningfulness makes it easier to remember the strategies. However, it is also necessary to show learners how to transfer the strategies to new tasks, outside of the immediate ones. Step 4: Consider Motivational Issues Consider the kind of motivation teachers will build into a training program. Decide whether to give grades or partial course credit for attainment of new strategy. If learners have gone through a strategy assessment phase, their interest in strategies is likely to be heightened. If a teacher explains how using a good strategy can make language learning easier, students will be more interested in participating strategy training. Another way to increase motivation is to let learners have some say in selecting the language activities or tasks they will use, or let them choose strategies they will learn. Language teachers need to be sensitive to learners’ original strategy preferences and the motivation that propels these preferences. This means that teachers should phase in very new strategies gently and gradually, without whisking away students’ ‘security blankets’.

Step 5: Prepare Materials and Activities The materials that can be used for strategy training are handouts or handbook. Learners can also develop a strategy handbook themselves. They can contribute to it incrementally, as they learn new strategies that prove successful to them.

Step 6: Conduct “Completely Informed Training” Make a special point to inform the learners as completely as possible about why the strategies are important and how they can be used in new situations. Learners need to be given explicit opportunity to evaluate the success of their new strategies and exploring the reasons why theses strategies might have helped. Research shows that strategy training which fully informs the learners, by indicating why the strategy is useful and how it can be transferred to different tasks, is more successful than training that does not. Most learners perform best with completely informed training (Brown et al., 1980a). In the very rare instances, when informed training proves impossible, more subtle training techniques might be necessary. For example, when learners are through cultural influences, new strategies need to be camouflaged or introduced very gradually, paired with strategies the learners already know and prefer. Step 7: Evaluate the Strategy Training Learners’ own comments about their strategy use are part of the training itself. These self assessments provide practice with the strategies of self monitoring and self evaluating, during and after the training, own observations are useful for evaluating the success of strategy training. Possible criteria for evaluating training are task improvement, general skill improvement, maintenance of the new strategy, transfer of strategy to other relevant tasks and improvement in learner’s attitude. Step 8: Revise the Strategy Training The evaluation phase (Step 7) will suggest possible revisions. This leads right back to Step 1, a reconsideration of the characteristics and needs of the learners in light of the cycle of strategy training that has just occurred. 19

LLSI MODEL BY MACARO Macaroâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s model is cynical and similar to the model of action research. It takes you from an identification of the problem, through to being able to evaluate the efficacy of the action. Macaro (2001) has proposed a system of leaner training based on a series of nine steps. This model is represented in Figure 1.2 below.

Figure 1.2 Learner strategies training cycle

9. Monitoring strategy use and rewarding effort 8. Evaluation by students (and teachers)

7. Gradual removal of scaffolding

1. Raise the awareness of the students

2. Exploration of possible strategies available

Learner Strategies Training Cycle

6. Initial evaluation by students

3. Modeling by teacher and/or other students

5. Application of strategies with scaffolded support

4. Combining strategies for a specific purpose or specific task

Steps 1 and 2: Raising awareness and exploring the range of strategies All learners have been employing strategies for use with their L1 for many years. One possible way to start would be to ask them to think back to when they were in primary school and how they went about improving their reading and writing skills. Write some of these ideas on a large sheet of paper pinned on the wall. Ask them if any of these strategies are natural strategies (developed of their own accord) or taught strategies. Next, make comparison with L2 strategies. It is a good idea to divide them into small groups with a list of open ended questions to discuss and then get the groups to feed back to their whole class. For initial awareness-raising, a short questionnaire may perhaps be introduced. Metacognitive, social and affective strategies could be included in the questionnaire. This would mean that a whole range of questions could be asked to support and evaluate learnersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; learning. It would have the added advantage if the questionnaire has a frequency of use (often, sometimes, not often etc). Questionnaires can then be collected and analyzed. At this point, it will be important to discuss why the use of these strategies might help the students to learn more effectively. Discuss with students the problems of learning a language in the classroom and the strategies that they can use in order to overcome these problems. Another way to raise awareness is to provide the students with examples of strategies used by other individual students. These are highly personalized sequence of strategies and may provoke an interesting reaction from learners. To raise awareness over time, students could keep a diary to show the way they learn. By doing this, teachers will be provided with a broader picture of their studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; progress. This is a perfectly appropriate approach to take once a learner has decided to embark on a programme of strategy training.

Steps 3, 4 and 5: Modeling, combining and applying strategies Making the learners aware of the existence of strategies and exploring the range of available strategies is not going to bring about successful strategy use. Learners may need to be shown explicitly and repeatedly the strategies which they can try in order to achieve better learning. Reading comprehension strategies An effective way of modeling strategy use in reading is to do it in front of learners . try to show how the text is more accessed successfully if strategies are used in combination. Ask learners to identify a problem in the text and get them to try to apply a combination of strategies (e.g. Guess what the word means from the context and use their â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;world knowledgeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; and common sense). Listening comprehension strategies Identify with the class the differences between reading and listening. Provide learners with short reading texts and ask them to predict which words or ideas would be likely to come up in a listening text on that topic. Then give them a transcription of a taped text but with some changes made to the text and discuss how they managed to scan for the differences. Interactive strategies As learners become more proficient in the language, they will be bale to rely more on strategies which use knowledge of the language itself such as circumlocution, syntax avoidance and discourse avoidance. To develop effective use of intonation and mime, provide students with dialogues, role plays and conversations in front of the class.

Coinage or prediction strategies Students may be asked to try to coin an L2 word or predict what and L2 word might be either from L1 or L2 respectively. Students can also try to predict what a word might be in the L2 from their current knowledge of L2. These two strategies can be modeled or practiced in the classroom. Memorization strategies Students’ awareness can be raised by getting them to think what type of learner they are in terms of storing language and retrieving language from their long term memory. In all memorization strategies, teachers will need to model how the strategy is to be performed before asking learners to try it out themselves. Examples of memorization strategies are word webs, word hooks, word shapes, visual imaging and word chains. Writing strategies Teachers can use questionnaires and the result of questionnaires to present students with the range of writing strategies available for them. Awareness in writing can also be raised with self report on a writing task. Step 6: Initial evaluation of strategy training Evaluating the effectiveness of strategy use is a complex undertaking whether the teacher is involved in eliciting the evaluation or whether the learner alone is doing the evaluation. The important consideration must be on the effectiveness of the strategy related to the cognitive processes involved in language learning. Evaluation of strategy effectiveness needs to be grounded in some sort of theory of language learning. An initial evaluation phase therefore must encourage the learner to reflect on how the underlying sub-skills and processes have been enhanced. The learner must be able to reflect not only on “can I understand better?” but also on “how is that I can understand better?”

Step 7: Removing the scaffolding Scaffolding means supporting a course of action in a controlled way for learners, with the objective that it will become automatic and more autonomously applied, once the learner judges that action to be efficacious for their learning. Removing the scaffolding suggests slowly removing the supports and hoping that the strategy edifice doesn’t topple over and into disuse. When should a teacher stop reminding their students to try out a strategy? The optimal answer would be when each of them has proceduralized the strategy sufficiently for it to have become routine. As all learners are different and progress at dissimilar rates, in practice, it is extremely difficult. Macaro (2001) points out alternative ways of removing the scaffolding. They are: •

to provide the materials periodically

•

remind learners of the combinations of strategies they can use when embarking a task

•

give some scaffolding materials from time to time

•

ask the students periodically before an activity, to list which strategies they are going to use

Step 8 : Overview evaluation The next step in the cycle is to ask the learners for an overall impression of the strategy training programme. This can be done as below: •

through teacher led discussion

•

through group discussion with feedback

•

through questionnaires

â&#x20AC;˘

through summaries at the end of a period of diary keeping

â&#x20AC;˘

through interviews with the learners either individually or in groups

In 1996, Macaro (2001) carried out a pilot study on learner strategies used by year 9 and year 10 pupils. There were the three phases to a leaner strategies study namely, an awareness raising stage, a strategy training stage and en evaluation stage. In the phase 1 questionnaire results, girls claimed to use strategies much more than boys. However, after the strategy training, boys reported having found the whole process more useful than the girls. The general response to strategy training was positive although not overwhelming. This shows that some high strategy users do not find strategy training as useful as low strategy users. Therefore, strategy training like language learning needs to be differentiated.

Step 9: Monitoring strategy use and rewarding effort Teachers who have carried out programme of strategy training will want to monitor strategy use over the longer term. They can do this by listening to students during oral interaction, observing the frequency of dictionary use by students, discussing after the end of a topic whether principles of combining strategy use are still adopted, detecting development of the learners and monitoring the general enthusiasm of the class as a whole. Research evidence seems to suggest that language learning is not an effortless process. Teachers often provide feedback evaluations of work which not only comment on what was achieved linguistically but also on the effort that the individual student has put into the work. With younger children, it is often a reward system that produces the greatest effort.

LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGY PROGRAMME

INTRODUCTION As you put language learning strategies into action, you may want to make connections with other people who are interested in strategies and active learning. You are not alone in your interests, other people can help you and you can help them. LANGUAGE LEARNING DISC Joan Rubin has produced an exciting instructional tool known as the â&#x20AC;&#x153;Language Learning Discâ&#x20AC;?. The disc designed for adults, is a two sided (1 hour) interactive video disc with five accompanying diskettes providing an average of 8 hours of instruction. This disc is designed to help students take charge of their progress by learning how to learn a language. Says Rubin (1987b), disk users can expect to: a) gain insights into their own approach to learning b) learn to choose strategies appropriate to a task and learning purpose c) learn to use these strategies in a classroom, self study or job situation d) learn to use strategies specific to reading, listening and conversation e) be able to define strategies for improving memory for language learning f) learn how to effectively transfer knowledge about language and communication from one language into another g) learn to use resources wisely h) be able to deal more effectively with errors

Learners can accomplish these purposes using a wide range of topics including reading an instructional manual to connect to videocassette recorder, reading a scuba text for new words, or comparing elements used in borrowing money to recognize speech variation. Students can work with 20 languages in this instructional program. Materials are presented in an integrated fashion so that students are exposed to the same strategy in several different lessons. Throughout the material, students can choose the language, the topic, and the level of difficulty. The disc uses video in three ways. First, to model natural foreign language communication so that students can observe foreign language speakers using native language. Second, enable students to participate, and get feedback on their choice in a foreign language. Third, to model cognitive approaches to problem solving in foreign language situations. The disc is divided into three sections: An Introduction, General language learning Strategies, and Strategies Related to Reading, Active Listening or Conversation. The disc holds promise for a range of language learners in secondary schools, universities and other institutions.

TEACHING LANGUAGE ACCORDING TO CONTENT BASED The Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach (CALLA) has been designed by Anna Uhl Chamot and J Michael Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Malley. This model embeds training in learning strategies within activities for developing both language skills and content area skills. This model also teaches students to use relevant learning strategies to bolster both their language skills and their skills in various content areas. CALLAâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s purpose is to help learners use English through the integration of language and content. There are three components in this model: 27

a) the content component represents declarative knowledge (concepts, facts and skills for mathematics and social studies b) the English language development component of CALLA aims to tech procedural knowledge that students need to use language as a tool for learning c) the learning strategies instruction component of the CALLA model suggests ways in which teachers can foster autonomy in their students. Chamot and Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Malley (1990) feel that learning strategies can give limited English proficient learners a boost as these students prepare to make a transition or move into main stream classes. The learning strategy instruction components of CALLA shows students how to apply the strategies, suggests a variety of strategies for different tasks, provides examples throughout the curriculum to enhance transfer, and shows how teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; prompting of strategies can gradually be reduced. The CALLA model includes a generalized lesson plan, divided into five phases: preparation, presentation, practice, evaluation and follow up expansion. The CALLA model is valuable for four reasons. First, the linkage between language and content skills is fruitful. Second, the structured nature of the CALLA lesson plan helps teachers to include the right elements such as learning strategies, language development, content skills and ways to assess all three. Third, the model suggests cooperation between language teachers and mainstream content area teachers. Fourth, the CALLA model awakens teachers and learners to the possibilities for both language development and content area skill development. TEACHING LANGUAGE STRATEGIES THROUGH WEB LearnerTraining.net consists of a six-step procedure to make classroom language learners aware of the key strategies for successful language learning. This model is

developed based on an online strategy awareness training model designed by Mohamed Amin Embi (2000b). Mohamed Amin Embi (2000a) believes that in learner training, teachers have several important roles to play. Teachers need to identify their studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; language learning strategies, familiarize with different methods of findings out or helping learners identify their existing language learning strategies and help poor learners to be aware of the strategies employed by successful language learners to expand their repertoire of language learning strategies. In designing E-LearnerTraining.net, these roles have been taken in consideration. E-LearnerTraining.net is one of the first web-based learner training model designed to assist language learners discover strategies for successful language learning (Mohamed Amin Embi, 2002). E-LearnerTraining.net consists of a learner training model for learning of English, Malay and Arabic. Five-step procedures are designed to make language learners be aware of the key strategies for successful language learning: Step 1- Identifying Ones Own Language Learning Strategies An instrument known as SMART Questionnaire has been integrated into the virtual learning-to-learn model to enable language learners to identify their own language learning strategies. The online questionnaire is adapted from Mohamed Amin Embi (1996) which uses a 1-4 Likert Scale item to identify three broad areas of learning strategy; namely, classroom language learning strategies, out-of-class language learning strategy, and examination language learning strategies. Step 2 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Discovering Main Strategies for Successful Language Learning Based on a data collected from secondary school students learning English, Malay and Arabic respectively, Mohamed Amin Embi (1997; see also Mohamed Amin Embi, Juriah 29

Long & Mohd Isa Hamzah 1998) developed a model of learning-to-learn languages known as SMART Language Learning. ‘SMART’ is the acronym of the following main strategies related to successful language learning: S - Social Learning Strategies: strategies for learning with others M - Metacognitive Learning Strategies: strategies for managing language learning A - Affective Learning Strategies: strategies for lowering anxiety when learning a language R - Remembering Strategies: strategies for memorizing language materials T - Test Preparation Strategies: strategies for preparing for language examination Step 3 – Discovering the Secrets of Successful Language Learners The virtual learning-to-learn model incorporates secrets of successful language learners especially in terms of what successful language learners do in the classroom, out of the classroom, and how successful language learners prepare for their language examination. Step 4 – Discovering How to Become Successful Language Learners A page known as How to Become SMART Language Learners (Picture 6) is integrated into the virtual learning-to-learn model to help language learners discover strategies for learning grammar, improving writing, improving speech, improving listening, and learning vocabulary. (Mohamed Amin Embi 1996; Mohamed Amin Embi et al. 1998). STEP 5 – Becoming Autonomous Language Learners In order to assist learners to be more autonomous language learners, two main pages each with hyperlinks to language learning materials available in the world wide web 30

known as the Links for SMART Language Learners (Picture 7) and SMART-Resource Links for Language Learners (Picture 8) are integrated into the virtual learning-to-learn model. The former provides learners with links categorized according to the major language skills and areas; whereas, the latter provides learners with more than a dozen language related information and activities available in the World Wide Web. Similar information is also prepared for the learning of Malay and Arabic. Conclusion A related study conducted by Mohamed Amin Embi and Azmi Abdul Latiff (2002) shows that teachers strongly believed that such online learning to learn module can enhance language teaching and language learning.

Picture 1: E-LearnerTraining.net Homepage

Picture 2: E-Learn Homepage (learning-to-learn English)

Picture 3: E-Belajar Homepage (learning-to-learn Malay)

Picture 4: E-Taalim Homepage (learning-to-learn Arabic) 33

Picture 5: The SMART Questionnaireâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s page

Picture 6: SMART E-Learn Model

Picture 7: Secrets of SMART English Learners

Picture 8: How to become SMART English Learners

Picture 7: E-Learn Forum

Picture 8: E-Learn Inventory

Picture 9: E-Learn Club

Picture 10: E-Learn Links

INSTRUMENTS FOR ANALYZING LEARNER’S LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGY

Learner strategy instruction begin with helping students become aware of what strategies are and which strategies they are already using (Cohen 1998, Chamot et al. 1999, Grenfell and Harris 1999, Macaro 2001, Chamot 2004). Teachers first elicit students’ prior knowledge about strategies and then help them identify their current learner strategies for different tasks (Cohen and Macaro, 2007). Instruments or questionnaires have been used for broad areas of strategy use.

Rebecca Oxford’s Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) Oxford’s Strategy Inventory for Language Learning is a standardized measure for students of a variety of languages. SILL can be used to collect and analyze information about large numbers of language learners. It has also been used in studies that correlate strategy use with variables such as learning styles, gender, proficiency level, and culture (Bedell & Oxford, 1996, Nyikos & Oxford, 1993, Oxford & Burry-Stock, 1995; Wharton, 2000). SILL questionnaire is divided into six categories namely memory strategies, social strategies, affective strategies, metacognitive strategies, compensation strategies, and cognitive strategies under two categories (direct and indirect). The questionnaire asks respondents to answer questions by using categories like never true of me, usually not true of me, somewhat true of me, usually true of me and always true of me. SILL version 7.0 contains 50 items assessing the frequency of strategy use and take about 30 minutes to complete (Oxford, 1990). Below is an example of SILL version 7.0.

Learning Strategy Inventory For Language Learners Author: Prof. Rebecca Oxford, Columbia University, New York. This questionnaire was designed by Professor Rebecca Oxford, now Director of the Program for Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages at Teachers' College, Columbia University, New York. It is designed to give you (and us) information about the way you tackle the tasks of learning a foreign language. This questionnaire is used all over the world. Unlike our other questionnaire, this one can give you information about your own learning techniques, once you have filled in all the questions and evaluate your answers. STRATEGY INVENTORY FOR LANGUAGE LEARNING (SILL) Version 7.0 (ESL/EFL) � R. Oxford, 198 9 Information on answering this questionnaire: All questions given to you have a similar system of answers to choose from. For spacial reasons, however, have we not been able to give details on the meaning of each answer you can choose from. To be able to answer accurately please refer to the information underneath: • Never true of me: also includes 'almost never true of me'- it doesn't happen very often in your learning behaviour • Usually not true of me: it happens occasionally in your learning behaviour • Somewhat true of me: it happens in a fairly regular pattern in your learning behaviour • Usually true of me: it happens regularly and represents an obvious pattern in your learning behaviour • Always true of me: also includes 'almost always true of me'- it happens almost all the time and represents a strong pattern in your learning behaviour Part: A 1. I think of the relationships between what I already know and new things I learn in English.

2. I use new English words in a sentence so I can remember them.

3. I connect the sound of an English word and an image or picture of the world to help me remember the word.

4. I remember a new English word by making a mental picture of a situation in which the word might be used.

5. I use rhymes to remember new English words.

6. I use flashcards to remember new English words.

7. I physically act out new English words.

8. I review English lessons often.

9. I remember the new words or phrases by remembering their location on the page, on the board, or on a street sign. Part: B

1. I say or write new English words several times.

2. I try to talk like native English speakers.

3. I practice the sounds of English.

4. I use the English word I know in different ways.

5. I start conversations in English.

6. I watch English language TV shows spoken in English or go to movies spoken in English.

7. I read for pleasure in English.

8. I write notes, messages, letters, or reports in English.

9. I first skim an English passage (read over the passage quickly) then go back and read carefully.

10. I look for words in my own language that are similar to new words in English.

11. I try to find patterns in English.

12. I find the meaning of an English word by dividing it into parts that I understand.

13. I try not to translate word-for-word.

14. I make summaries of information that I hear or read in English. Part: C 1. To understand unfamiliar English words, I make guesses.

2. When I can't think of a word during a conversation in English, I use gestures.

3. I make up new words if I do not know the right ones in English.

4. I read English without looking up every new word.

5. I try to guess what the other person will say next in English.

6. If I can't think of an English word, I use a word or phrase that means the same thing. Part: D

1. I try to find as many ways as I can to use my English.

2. I notice my English mistakes and use that information to help me do better.

3. I pay attention when someone is speaking English.

4. I try to find out how to be a better learner of English.

5. I plan my schedule so I have enough time to study English.

6. I look for people I can talk to in English.

7. I look for opportunities to read as much as possible in English.

8. I have clear goals for improving my English skills.

9. I think about my progress in learning English. Part: E

1. I try to relax whenever I feel afraid of using English.

2. I encourage myself to speak English even when I am afraid of making a mistake.

3. I give myself a reward or treat when I do well in English.

4. I notice if I am tense or nervous when I am studying English.

5. I write down my feelings in a language learning diary.

6. I talk to someone else about how I feel when I am learning English. Part: F 1. If I do not understand something in English, I ask the other person to slow down or say it again.

2. I ask English speakers to correct me when I talk.

3. I practice my English with other students.

4. I ask for help from English speakers.

5. I ask questions in English.

6. I try to learn about the culture of English speakers. Please press the button below to evaluate your answers. Evaluate

Cohen and Oxfordâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Young Learnersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Language Strategy Use Survey

Initial learner strategy questionnaires were directed for the older learners and recently , more accessible questionnaires for younger learners have been developed. One example is Cohen and Oxford’s Young Learners Language Strategy Use Survey. This survey uses a range of visual resources and practical exemplifications to enable learners to understand their own preferred ways of tackling the language learning task (Cohen and Macaro, 2007). This survey incorporates six language skills consisting of listening, speaking, vocabulary, reading, writing and translation skill. The questionnaire requires respondents to mark a plus (+) if the statement describes the learner’s language use, a check (/) if the statement is somewhat like the learner’s language use or write a minus (-) if the statement is not like the learner’s language usage . This survey contains 75 items assessing the frequency of strategy use. Below is an example of Young Learners’ Language Strategy Use Survey by Andrew D. Cohen and Rebecca Oxford (2002).

YOUNG LEARNERS’ LANGUAGE STRATEGY USE SURVEY* (Also useful for Beginning or Low Intermediate Learners) Andrew D. Cohen & Rebecca L. Oxford *Note: this DRAFT survey (unpiloted as of 6.24.02) is based on items from Rebecca Oxford’s Strategy Inventory for Language Learning, which appears in R.L. Oxford. 1990. Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. Boston: Heinle *Heinle, as well as strategies identified and described in A. D. Cohen’s Language learning: Insights for learners, teachers, and researchers. NY: Newbury House/HarperCollins, 1990. PLEASE GIVE ANY COMMENTS ABOUT THIS SURVEY TO ANDREW COHEN OR REBECCA OXFORD. Instructions to students: Below are a series of statements about language learning. In the blank … Mark a plus ( + ) if the statement really describes you. Mark a check ( / ) if the statement is somewhat like you. Write a minus ( - ) if the statement isn’t like you. LISTENING STRATEGIES What I do to listen more: 1. I listen to the radio in the language. 2. I watch TV shows in the language. 3. I go to movies that use the language. 4. I listen to the language if I am in a, or go see movies in the language. 5. If I hear people speaking the language, I listen. Add anything else you do to listen more:

What I do to understand sounds: 6. I find sounds in the language that are like sounds in English. 7. I try to remember unfamiliar sounds I hear. 8. I ask the person to repeat the new sound. 9. I listen to the rise and fall of sounds (the music of the language). Add anything else you do to understand sounds: What I do to understand what I hear: 10. I listen for the important words. 11. I listen for what seems interesting. 12. I listen for words that are repeated. Add anything else you do to understand the meaning:

What I do if I still don’t understand what someone says: 13. I ask the person to repeat. 14. I ask the person to slow down. 15. I ask a question. 16. I guess the meaning from the person’s tone (such as angry or happy). 17. I guess the meaning from how the person moves or stands. 18. I guess the meaning from what I heard before. Add anything else you do if you still don’t understand what someone says: VOCABULARY STRATEGIES What I do to memorize new words: 19. I group the words by type (e.g., nouns, verb, adjectives). 20. I match the sound of the new word with the sound of a word I know. 21. I use rhymes to remember new words. 22. I write the new word in a sentence. 23. I write the new word on a card. 46

24. I go over new words several times at first. 25. Later I go to remind myself about words I learned earlier. Add anything else you do to memorize new words: SPEAKING STRATEGIES What I do to practice speaking: 26. I make the sounds of the language until I can say them well. 27. I imitate the way native speakers talk. 28. I say new expressions over to myself. 29. I practice using new grammar forms when I talk. Add anything else you do to practice speaking: What I do to talk with other people: 30. I start conversations. 31. I change the subject if I don’t have the words I need. 32. I plan what I am going to say. 33. I ask the other person to correct me when I talk. Add anything else you do to talk with other people: When I can’t think of a word or phrase I want to say: 34. I ask the person to help me. 35. I try to say it a different way. 36. I use words from my own language. 37. I use words from my own language but say them with sounds from the new language. 38. I move my hands or body so the person will understand me. Add anything else you do when you can’t think of a word or phrase you want to say:

READING STRATEGIES What I do to read more: 39. I read a lot in the language. 40. I read for fun in the language. 41. I find things to read that interest me. 42. I look for things o read that are not too hard. Add anything else you do to read more: What I do to understand what I read: 43. I skim over a reading to get the main idea. 44. I look for important facts. 45. I read things more than once. 46. I look at the pictures and what is under the pictures. 47. I look at the headings. 48. I think about what will come next in the reading. 49. I stop to think about what I just read. 50. I underline parts what seem important. 51. I mark the reading in different colors to help me understand. 52. I check to see how much I understood. Add anything else you do to understand what you read: What I do when I donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t understand what I read: 53. I guess the meaning by using clues from other parts of the passage. 54. I use a dictionary to find the meaning. Add anything else you do when you donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t understand what you read:

WRITING STRATEGIES What I do to write more: 55. If the alphabet is different, I practice writing it. 56. I take class notes in the language. 57. I get write other notes in the language. 58. I write letters to other people in the language. 59. I write papers in the language. Add anything else you do to write more: What I do to write better: 60. I plan what I am going to write. 61. I use a dictionary or glossary. 62. I read what I wrote to see if it is good. 63. I ask someone to correct my writing. 64. I rewrite what I wrote to make it better. 65. I use the spell checker on the computer. 66. I use the grammar checker on the computer. Add anything else you do to write better: What I do if I cannot think of a word or phrase I want to write: 67. I ask someone for the word or phrase I need. 68. I try to say it a different way. 69. I use words from my own language. 70. I use words from my own language but add new endings to those words. Add anything else you do when you canâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t think of a word or phrase you want to write:

TRANSLATION STRATEGIES What I do when I translate: 71. I plan what I want to say or write in my language and then translate it into the new language. 72. I translate when reading to make sure I understand it. 73. While I am listening to someone, I translate parts of what they say into my own language to help remember it. Add anything else you do when you translate: What I do to think in the new language: 74. I put my language out of my mind. 75. I try to understand without translating. Add anything else you do to think in the new language:

If you have time, read the survey again. Find strategies that interest you. Ask the teacher about them.

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APPENDIX