Wine & Viticulture Journal - July/August 2016

JULY/AUGUST 2016 · Volume 31 Number 4

WINE MATURATION

• Oak alternatives: a balance between science and finance • Use of ultrasound treatment for accelerating ageing on lees • Sulfur in wine – a snapshot of Australian trends • Influence of water deficit on grapevine trunk disease • Tasting: Grenache, Shiraz & Mourvedre blends

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IN THIS ISSUE

C O NN ET W E N S T S

V I T I C U LT U R E

R E G U L A R F E AT U R E S

8 OPINION (JONATHAN CAHILL): Wine and food pairing – where’s the evidence of its benefits as a marketing tool?

46 The influence of water deficit on grapevine trunk disease

9 WFA (TONY BATTAGLENE): The spectre of ‘food miles’ re-emerges 10 WINE AUSTRALIA (ANDREAS CLARK): New R&D projects to support fine Australian wine 18 KEY FILES (TONY KEYS): American snakes and ladders – Part 3: Where the dice fall

EVENTS

11 International Cool Climate Wine Symposium

51 TONY HOARE: Increasing irrigation efficiency – technology to save water without risking yield or quality 54 A comparative study of traditional versus plant sensorbased irrigation 58 ALTERNATIVE VARIETIES: Kerner

W I N E M A K I N G

24 CATHY HOWARD: Sulfur in wine – a snapshot of Australian trends 31 Oak alternatives: a balance between science and finance

60 Under-vine cover crops as an alternative to herbicide 64 Viticultural factors influencing tannin levels in grapes and wine

36 Use of ultrasound treatment and non-Saccharomyces yeasts for accelerating ageing on lees in red wines 39 Influence of the botanical origin, toast level and ellagitannin content on the oxygen consumption by oak chips in a model wine solution 43 AWRI REPORT: Vintage 2016 – observations from the AWRI helpdesk

BUSINESS & MARKETING

67 Drink pink: a cross-cultural examination of the perceived image of rosé

W I N E TA S T I N G

75 Grenache, Shiraz & Mourvedre blends

70 MARK ROWLEY: US consumers continue to rely on varietal cues for their purchase decisions

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Established 1985 Published bi-monthly Publisher: Hartley Higgins

Sonya Logan, Editor

General Manager: Peter Muscet Editor Sonya Logan Ph (08) 8369 9502 Fax (08) 8369 9501 Email s.logan@winetitles.com.au Editorial Advisory Panel Gary Baldwin Peter Dry Mark Krstic Armando Corsi Markus Herderich EDITORIAL ASSISTANCE Lauren Jones, Write Lane CONTRIBUTING WRITERS Matthew Ayres Tony Battaglene Tatiana Bouzdine-Chameeva Jonathan Cahill Joan Miquel Canals Steve Charters Andreas Clark Adrian Coulter Geoff Cowey Anna Crump Tim Dodd Marcel Essling Francesca Fort Joanna Fountain Esteban García-Romero Thomas Giordanengo Ingrid Glastonbury Rick Glastonbury Sergio Gómez-Alonso M. C. Gonzalez Peter Hayes Isidro Hermosín-Gutíerrez Tony Hoare Matt Holdstock Cathy Howard Dan Johnson Tony Keys Rachel Kilmister Nikolaos Kontoudakis Priyanka Kulkarni Iris Loira Sijing Li Antonio Morata María Navarro Paul Petrie Caroline Ritchie Mark Rowley Thibaut Scholasch Eileen Scott Con Simos Richard Smart Mark Sosnowski Creina Stockley Jose Antonio Suárez-Lepe Wendu Tesfaye Justine Vanden Heuvel Natalia Velikova Kerry Wilkinson Fernando Zamora Advertising Manager: Dan Brannan Ph (08) 8369 9515 Fax (08) 8369 9529 Email d.brannan@winetitles.com.au Production and Design: Luke Westle Subscriptions One-year subscription (6 issues) Australia $77.00 (AUD) Two-year subscription (12 issues) Australia $144.00 (AUD) To subscribe and for overseas prices, visit: www.winetitles.com.au Published by Winetitles Media ABN 85 085 551 980 Address 630 Regency Road, Broadview, South Australia 5083

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The opinions expressed in Wine & Viticultue Journal are not necessarily the opinions of or endorsed by the editor or publisher unless otherwise stated. All articles submitted for publication become the property of the publisher.

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T

his issue of the Journal was sent on its way to the printer just as the 16th Australian Wine Industry Technical Conference was getting under way in Adelaide. This year incorporating the Winemakers’ Federation of Australia’s Outlook Conference, the triennial Tech Conference is one the most significant events on the Australian wine industry’s calendar, and certainly marks the biggest gathering of its members. More than 1000 delegates had registered across the five days and the accompanying trade exhibition fully subscribed. We look forwarding to presenting some of the highlights from the program in future issues of the Journal.

The wrapping up of this issue also coincided with the final stages of the Tour de France. When I’m not grumbling about how cold/wet it is, the many layers I have to put on to remain warm against the weather outside, or that winter seems to be dragging on longer than any in living memory – yep, I’m one of those! - I enjoy catching the Tour this time of year, when I can summon the stamina to keep late enough hours to catch it that is! I enjoy the sweeping images of the French countryside as much as watching the competitors wind their way up and down hills with strength and speed I could only dream of achieving – especially the snow-capped mountains of the stunning Alps. Which is a nice segue into highlighting our coverage in this issue of the recent International Cool Climate Wine Symposium (page 11). The Journal was a trade sponsor of this year’s event, and was represented by Richard Smart and Peter Hayes, who not only made

presentations during the symposium, but have shared with us their highlights of the program. The focus of our next issue will be ‘Cool Climate Viticulture’ which will largely comprise articles from the ICCWS program that most appealed to Richard and Peter. But, for now, enjoy their summaries.

Immediately following Richard and Peter’s ICCWS overviews is the third and final instalment of Tony Keys’ indepth look at the US market. In this article, Tony turns his attention to the future opportunities and challenges in this market for the Australian wine sector (page 18).

Another highlight of this issue is Cathy Howard’s look at trends in the use of sulfur in the Australian wine industry.

Some of you may have completed the online survey Cathy ran as part of her article (page 24).

Are you familiar with all the known viticultural influences that affect grape tannin accumulation in red wines?

Rachel Kilmister presents them in her article which is drawn from some of the research undertaken by a team from Victoria’s Department of Economic Development, Jobs, Transport and Resources which has been looking at anthocyanins and tannins for the past decade (page 64).

May you enjoy digesting these and the many other valuable articles in this issue.

If you would like to make any suggestions for inclusions in future issues or like to comment on anything in this one, send me an email: s.logan@winetitles.com.au.

I promise I’ll emerge from my cosy spot beneath my nana rug to reply!

Like us on Facebook or follow us on Twitter! www.facebook.com/WineAndVitiJournal @WineVitiJournal Cover: Ben Heide REGULAR FEATURES

News 6 WFA 9 Wine Australia 10 Tony Keys 18

4 www. wi n e t i t les.com.au

AWRI Report 43 Alternative Varieties 58 Varietal Report 72 Tasting 75

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N E W S

S N I P S

WET REBATE REFORM WAITING GAME CONTINUES With Malcolm Turnbull declaring a Liberal-National victory in Australia’s recent election and his ministerial team now sworn in, the nation’s winemakers await the outcome of consultations with the re-elected Government over its changes to the WET rebate proposed in the 2016 Budget.

Prior to the election, Deputy Prime Minister and Minister for Agriculture Barnaby Joyce committed to consultation with industry on the reforms should a Coalition Government be re-elected, particularly regarding the tightened eligibility criteria.

Acting chief executive of the Winemakers’ Federation of Australia Tony Battaglene told the Wine & Viticulture Journal just prior to this issue of the publication going to print in late July that the Government had advised it would be releasing a discussion paper on the eligibility criteria which was expected “in the next few weeks”.

“We expect they will then undertake a consultation phase in the regions and major centres,” Battaglene said, adding government officers would also be available at the Australia Wine Industry Technical Conference, which was due to be held on 24-28 July, to “listen to issues raised by the industry”.

Battaglene said a meeting in Adelaide on the Friday before the Conference between state and regional representatives was due to be held to “try and ensure we have a common position to take to government”.

LATEST AUSTRALIAN WINE EXPORT STATS RELEASED Wine Australia’s latest export report shows that the value of Australian wine exports continued to grow in the 12 months to the end of June 2016.

From July 2015 to June 2016, the value of exports grew 11 percent, driven by bottled exports, particularly at higher price points. Bottled exports grew by 15 percent to $1.7 billion with the average value of bottled exports increasing 9 percent to $5.35 per litre the highest since October 2003.

Wine Australia CEO Andreas Clark said, “Pleasingly, demand for Australian fine wine has continued to grow, particularly in North America and Asia.

“Our finest wines contributed to almost half of the total value growth in the last 12 months, with exports priced at $10 FOB and over per litre up 26 percent to a record $499 million.

This increased demand for Australia’s

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finest wines was reflected in all of our top five export markets. Exports priced $10 FOB and over to the United States grew by 16 percent, mainland China by 71 percent, the United Kingdom by 15 percent, Canada by 12 percent, and Hong Kong by 5 percent,” he said.

WINEGRAPE PRICES UP BUT PRODUCTION DOWN IN MURRAY DARLING AND SWAN HILL The prices of most winegrape varieties in the Murray-Darling and Swan Hill wine regions increased this year while production dropped marginally, data provided by the regions' wineries to Wine Australia for a report on the 2016 crush has revealed.

The report reveals a 27% increase in the average price of Chardonnay, up from $223/tonne to $283/tonne. Other white varieties to also record increases: Colombard $224/tonne (+10%), Sauvignon Blanc $348/tonne (+9%) and Semillon $220/tonne (+3%). One of the best-performing white varieties for the region in recent years, Pinot Gris, dropped 8% to record an average price of $485/tonne. Not unexpectedly, the price of Gordo fell 15% to $231/tonne after several thousand tonnes failed to sell.

Each of the major red varieties improved on last year’s prices, with Cabernet Sauvignon averaging $331/ tonne (+12%), Merlot $321/tonne (+9%) and Shiraz $320/tonne (+ 11%). These varieties last year all came in under $300/tonne.

Overall, production dropped 4% to 368,000 tonnes – 238,000 tonnes purchased from growers and 130,000 tonnes harvested by wineries from their own vineyards.

The value of the fruit purchased from growers was $74 million. Across all varieties, growers received an average price of $312/tonne, up 8% from $288/ tonne. Including winery-owned fruit, the total value of the 2016 harvest was $118 million compared with $111 million in 2015.

Murray Valley Winegrowers (MVW) executive officer Mike Stone said the increase in prices for Chardonnay and the major reds provided some optimism that market conditions were improving.

But prices generally still barely covered production costs and needed to improve significantly to convince growers that the wine industry was in full recovery mode.

“The signs are positive, with export sales increasing and achieving the strongest growth in average value in almost 20 years. But growers remain

W I N E & V I T I C ULTUR E JO UR N A L JULY/A UGUST 2016

anxious, wanting to see more evidence of demand picking up and prices responding accordingly,” he said.

The 2016 Murray-Darling/Swan Hill Wine Grape Crush Report is available on the MVW website www.mvwi.com.au.

WINE GRAPE COUNCIL OF SA ELECTS NEW CHAIR Heather Webster, from Langhorne Creek, is the new chair of the Wine Grape Council of South Australia (WGCSA), replacing Simon Berry from the Adelaide Hills.

WGCSA executive officer Peter Hackworth said Webster had “a grass roots appreciation of the dynamic and challenging wine industry as well as bringing extensive executive and director experience from across a number of industries to the role”.

Webster has served as chair of Langhorne Creek Grape and Wine for a number of years and as its representative on the WGCSA. “I am well aware of the challenges and the opportunities facing the industry.

In taking on this role, I am committing to add my efforts to the thousands of growers and winemakers who are working hard to achieve a strong and viable industry to benefit their families, their communities and this state,” she said.

Webster is a Fellow of the Australian Institute of Company Directors and on their South Australian board, has an MBA and has worked in transport, science and as a board member of a mutual bank for many years.

"I bring broad experience to the council which will assist us to clearly focus our efforts, cooperate constructively and work efficiently and accountably to deliver benefits to our levy payers.

“I am committed to building partnerships and collaboration to get the best results. It is important that work done at national, state and regional levels is not duplicated, and that the roles and responsibilities at each level are clear. For example, biosecurity affects all vineyards and many other crops. While we can all contribute by good vineyard practices, pest and disease incursions can best be tackled effectively at the national level.

“I am pleased to be working with our strong board which represents all of SA’s wine producing areas. We are committed to achieving positive outcomes.”

She thanked Simon Berry for providing “excellent service” to the WGCSA and the state’s winegrape growers. He served as WGCSA chair from 2010.

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Heather Webster NATIONAL GERMPLASM COLLECTION RECEIVES FUNDING BOOST A two-year project, funded by Wine Australia, to DNA profile – and thus confirm the identity of – around 500 unique varieties and nearly as many clones currently held in collections around Australia has been announced.

It will be an international project that will also include collections in France, Italy and Germany.

There has been growing concern in the sector about the health status, management and future of numerous grapevine collections and source blocks in Australia. The two biggest germplasm collections – those managed by CSIRO and the South Australian Research and Development Institute (SARDI) – have not been fully accessible to the Australian grape and wine community for several years.

Mark Thomas, from the CSIRO, will lead the project. Thomas’ first job as a Postdoctoral Fellow with the CSIRO was to develop an objective way to identify grapevines using DNA markers known as microsatellites, or SSRs. It quickly became the accepted method globally.

He has since developed an even better system and will use it as part of this project In 2013, Wine Australia, then known as the GWRDC, commissioned a review to document what germplasm collections existed and examine bestpractice germplasm management in other industries. The final report noted not only the number of different varieties, but also that some prephylloxera heritage material is probably unique to Australia.

“We do know that some of the varieties – at least in the CSIRO collection, based on work done many years ago – don’t exist in the French collection or anywhere else, simply because they were early imports into Australia and they’ve been lost and don’t exist in Europe anymore,” Thomas said.

Following the release of the review, Wine Grape Growers Australia formed

S N I P S

a Germplasm Management Working Group to develop a business plan for the future management of the various collections.

At about the same time, the GWRDC funded two other projects: one to develop an Australian Vine Quality Standards Scheme for Vine Assurance and the other for Thomas to evaluate a new marker type for DNA identification known as SNPs (single nucleotide polymorphisms).

SNPs will be used to assess all varieties as part of the new project. It’s a sophisticated technology and not that difficult or time consuming to use. The complexity comes with the task at hand.

“For each individual variety in Australia, such as Cabernet Sauvignon, we want to compare our examples with ones from France, Italy and Germany, if we can find them,” Thomas said. “And in theory they should match.

“We expect there to be some mismatches. We know from the scientific literature, based on the DNA markers that have been used so far, that all collections are finding errors.”

He said the reasons for the errors were historical, given all national collections were created before DNA typing existed.

Thomas said he was less concerned with what discrepancies might exist overseas than with creating a definitive list of what Australia owns and uses.

The question for the Australian grape and wine community would then be how it wants to use that list, and what sort of germplasm collection(s) it wants to create.

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O P I N I O N

Wine and food pairing – where’s the evidence of its benefits as a marketing tool?

By Jonathan Cahill

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he great economist John Maynard Keynes was once criticised for changing his mind. In reply he said, “When the facts change, I change my mind. What do you do?” This seems to be the case with the well-established practice of matching wine with food. There is specific evidence that the facts have changed, although there is a compelling question as to whether this was always the case and it was the consensus that chose to ignore it as an inconvenient truth. There is no doubt that wine pairing is interesting and a nice party piece. But the trouble with parties is the day after and the cold light of reality.

The only apparent evidence against the practice is a statistically robust survey in the UK conducted by Encirc in 2014. In this, to the overall question ‘do you match food with wine e.g. red wine with beef’, only 22 percent endorsed the statement: Yes, I always try to match wine to the food I’m eating'. By contrast, a hearty 57% agreed with the reply: 'No, I drink whatever wine I fancy with my food'. Consequently around a fifth of consumers have some interest, whereas over a half don’t really give a damn.

There is other detailed evidence. In a paper Gerard Basset MS MW, past winner of the top world sommelier award, wrote for his wine MBA he researched three wine lists. The list with the food pairing was not the preferred one, rather it was the list which described the wines themselves and their taste which was the winner. This has particular resonance, as the occasion might be regarded as the ideal context for food pairing given the respondents were about to eat and, so, could be deemed to be at their most receptive to such suggestions. Yet, food matching was still of only secondary interest.

On an anecdotal note, the person in charge of the wine section in a branch of a well-respected UK supermarket, who had worked there for more than 25 years, reported that there were hardly

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ever questions from customers about pairing. It was taste they were interested in above all, as with Basset’s research. Such observations have some validity as these supermarket staff talk to more consumers in a day than most people in the wine

Many in the wine industry seem to be seduced by food pairing as a major marketing tool, despite the apparent evidence to the contrary. industry do in a lifetime. They are in the front line. Yet, the marketing department of this store seldom asks for any feedback from them – a statement in itself.

Obviously the idea of food pairing is highly plausible and makes logical sense, particularly to those within the wine industry, although not all. Wine Advocate editor Lisa Perrot-Brown stated that they do not feel food pairing is worthy of consideration. As it seems to appeal to only a small segment of the market, matching might have some validity for tactical initiatives.

Many in the wine industry seem to be seduced by food pairing as a major marketing tool, despite the apparent evidence to the contrary. Beltrán Domecq is a wonderful champion of Sherry with a profound knowledge of his subject.

However, in his book Sherry Uncovered, he sang the praises of the pairing of Palo Cortado with cuttlefish testicles. Given the latter are not even readily available in Jerez or Sanlucar in the Sherry region, such a choice seems too esoteric and inaccessible for most consumers. It stands as a useful caution against the tendency of those in the wine world to be seduced by their own passion for wine to the exclusion of the more prosaic concerns of the consumer. The inconvenience is that it is the latter who pays – that’s why marketing

W I N E & V I T I C ULTUR E JO UR N A L JULY/A UGUST 2016

is a necessary discipline, rather than an option.

Turning to a wider canvas, there appears to be a logical inconsistency in the wine pairing approach. It is to be hoped that, when wine matching is considered, most wines would be able to offer a reasonably broad scope of different dishes they could complement. The danger of individual recommendations is that they focus like a telescope on one point of a wine’s horizon with the unforeseen consequence of excluding the other options. The wine could be boxed in with regards to the food for which the consumer thinks it is suitable.

The overriding question with regards to wine pairing is what came first, the matching or its employment as a marketing tool? In the light of the evidence it seems to be a familiar act of seduction where the interest of the trade is deemed to have been transferred to the consumer, presumably by a process of osmosis. It is best to spend one’s funds wisely and this means on the basis of evidence. There may well be proof for the marketing efficacy of wine pairing. But without this, the effort that is devoted to wine pairing would be more constructively engaged in marketing that directly addresses consumers and, so, would be more likely to bring returns.

It would be best to curtail the party and throw away the telescope.

Jonathan Cahill has many years’ experience in advertising, research and marketing both in the UK and overseas.

He has written two books on marketing, ‘Igniting the Brand – Strategies that have Shot Brands to Success’ and ‘Marketing Rethink – Reassessing the Roots, Practice and Diversions of Marketing’.

This article was first published on The Drinks Business website on 18 May 2016 (https://www.thedrinksbusiness. com/2016/05/db-reader-is-food-andWVJ wine-pairing-overrated/)

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The spectre of ‘food miles’ re-emerges

By Tony Battaglene, Acting Chief Executive Officer, Winemakers’ Federation of Australia

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number of years ago the issue of ‘food miles’ was seen would, therefore, benefit wine trade by harmonising the as a major threat to the Australian wine industry. With metholodogy at the European Union level. The next stage our markets geographically distant from production, is for the pilots to consult on the draft final version of the Australian wine was being targeted as environmentally Organisation Environmental Footprint Sector Rules (OEFSRs) unsustainable due to the carbon footprint generated from in the period between June and September 2016. The OEFSRs long transport distances. contain a set of rules on how to measure the lifecycle Simplistically, ‘food miles’ assumes that proximity to environmental performance of the product and also describe market is a good measure of carbon sustainability. There the communication tests or their results. is research that argues the environmental impact of This issue was discussed at the last World Wine Trade transportation within global Group (WWTG) meeting in food chains is substantial.

Brussels in April. WWTG ...unless we are proactive on this issue, we may The Waste Resources Action members expressed concern at Plan (WRAP) in the United the direction the EU appeared face a significant trade barrier within Europe Kingdom championed the food to be heading in. Members which may be adopted by major international miles concept several years were particularly concerned retailers to create a private standard that ago. This was seen externally that the pilot program would as a cynical manipulation lead to compulsory labelling, exporters must meet to sell their product in by some of the businesses which would likely discriminate our export markets. involved (glass manufacturers, against non-EU products. for example, to increase These concerns were raised domestic glass production) to protect their industries under with the European Commission. Specific technical concerns the guise of environmental sustainability. Using simple surround the calculations of footprints on individual stock consumer messaging, the concept of food miles was used to keeping units (SKU), including product of different age and present local food as climate-friendly and to argue against vintage maturation, transportation distance, individual imported food and long-distance trade. footprint of packaging materials utilised which may be Thankfully, this campaign appears to have lost traction, sourced from very different countries within the same vintage although there has been a large increase in bulk wine of a SKU, and lasting concerns that despite any labelling exports to the UK for economic efficiency reasons rather than outcomes or other communication methods, there is potential sustainability over the last few years. for discriminatory trade on the part of retailers.

However, a further worrying development within Europe WWTG members continue to coordinate and share has reintroduced the concept by stealth. The European information using agricultural attaché contact points in Commission has established a pilot method to define, Brussels. WFA is also acting directly with our agriculture Accolade Wines Australia Limited, Aravina Estate, Australian Vintage measure and communicate environmental performance Ltd, Barwick counsellor in Brussels to Bests address our concerns.

It is clear to Wines, Beltunga, Wines Great Western, Bremerton throughout the lifecycle of products for both food and that unless we are proactive on this Pty issue, we Campbells may face a Wines, Wines, us Brown Brothers Milawa Vineyard Ltd, Casamasignificant Group Pty Ltd, Cellarmaster Group, Charles beverages. This is a move towards the development of trade barrier within Europe which may beMelton adoptedWines, Clover Hill Wines, CMV Farms, Coriole Vineyards, Delegats Wine Esa harmonised methodology for the calculation of the by majorWine international retailers DogRidge, to create a Edgemill private standard tate, Delegat’s Estate Limited, Group, Fanseenvironmental footprint of products. that exporters must meet to sell theirFuse product in Services our exportPty Ltd, low Bell, Five Star Wines, Fowles Wine, Wine Vineyards, Glenlofty Wines, Harry Jones Wines, WVJ Henry’s There is a likelihood that once complete, the product Gemtree markets.

Drive Vignerons Pty Ltd, Hentley Farm, Hope Estate, Hospitality Reenvironmental footprint category rules will form the basiscruitment Solutions, Howard Park Wines, Hungerford Hill Wines, Infor all voluntary and mandatory compliance standards across glewood Wines Pty Ltd, Innocent Bystander, Jack Rabbit Vineyard, Europe and, so, it is important that we ensure they do notJim Barry Wines, KarriBindi, Kauri, Kingston Estate Wines Pty Ltd, Kirrihill Wines Pty Ltd, Krinklewood Biodynamic Vineyard, L’Atelier contain any major barriers. by, Aramis Vineyards, Leeuwin Estate, Make WInes Australia, McWilThe pilot is scheduled for completion in 2016, when it will liam’s Wines Group, Memstar, Mondo Consulting, Moppity VIneyards, Moxon Oak, Nadalie australia, Nexthire, Oenotec Pty Ltd, Options Wine be evaluated. It is intended that the product category rules Merchants, Orlando Wines, Ozpak Pty Ltd, Patrick of Coonawarra, Planwill be incorporated into EU labelling (EU Eco-Label), andtagenet Wines, Portavin Integrated Wine Services, R&D VITICULTURpublic procurement. The current activity is to identify ‘hotAL SERVICES PTY LTD, Robert Oatley Vineyards, Rymill Coonawarra, spots’ i.e., key categories where environmental stress is Seville Estate, Stella Bella Wines, Streicker Wines, The Gilbert Family Wine Co, The Lane Vineyard, The Scotchmans Hill Group Pty Ltd, The generated. More information on the project is available atYalumba Wine Company, Tintara Winery, Tower Estate Pty Ltd, TreasThe Wine Industry’s Leading Online Job Site http://ec.europa.eu/environment/eussd/smgp/ef_pilots.htm. ury Wine Estates, Turkey Flat Vineyards, Two Hands Wines, Tyrrell’s A pilot study was completed on wine in February 2016. Wines, Vinpac International, Warburn Estate Pty Ltd, WebAware Pty Ltd, Wine and Vine Personnel International,Wines Overland, Wingara The rationale for the program is that a wine company WIne Group,Wirra Wirra Vineyards, Zilzie Wines, Accolade Wines Auswishing to market its wine as ‘green’ or sustainable in the tralia Limited, Aravina Estate, Australian Vintage Ltd, Barwick Wines, Wines GreatbyWestern, Bremerton Wines, Brown Brothcreated & managed EU would need to apply different schemes in the differentBeltunga, Bests ers Milawa Vineyard Pty Ltd, Campbells Wines, Casama Group Pty Ltd, national markets. Product environmental footprint (PEF) Cellarmaster Group, Charles Melton Wines, Clover Hill Wines, Csulting, Moppity VIneyards, Moxon Oak, Nadalie australia, Nexthire, International,Wines Overland, Wingara WIne Group,Wirra Wirra Vineyards, Zilzie Accolade Wines Australia Limited, Aravina V3 1N 4 W I N E & VITICULTUR E JO UR N A LWines, JULY/A UGUST 2016 www.winetitles. com . Estate, au

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WINE AUSTRALIA

New R&D projects to support fine Australian wine

By Andreas Clark, Chief Executive Officer, Wine Australia

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ine Australia will invest in 12 new research and development (R&D) projects that will help increase demand and the premium paid for Australian wine and better the grape and wine sector’s competitiveness.

Over the next four years, we will invest $8.5 million into the projects that will provide tangible evidence to support our fine wine claims, contribute to objective measures of quality, help manage the effects of climate change and provide practical tools to support informed decision making.

The wine provenance and measures of quality projects aim to provide tangible evidence of how Australia’s unique terroirs influence wine style and quality. These projects will focus on better understanding how and why fine Australian wines reflect their provenance and terroir and what changes in management practices can be adopted to more optimally express Australian terroirs. They will also contribute to the development of objective measures of wine quality.

One of the ways to increase competitiveness in the sector is to provide the information that the sector needs to manage the challenges of

short-term climate cycles and longterm climate change. The projects investigating climate adaptation will focus on viticultural treatments to manage the effects of climate change, with an emphasis on fruit and wine quality.

Over the next four years, we will invest $8.5 million into the projects that will provide tangible evidence to support our fine wine claims, contribute to objective measures of quality, help manage the effects of climate change and provide practical tools to support informed decision making.

Economic sustainability is another way that we will increase the competitiveness of the sector. We will focus on practical information, innovations and tools that enhance winery profitability and, thus, economic sustainability.

These 12 research and development projects join another three that commenced earlier this year investigating digital viticulture.

Digital viticulture is the development and deployment of digital technologies for viticulture. Research is investigating accurate, real-time measurements of key crop parameters in the vineyard and the rapid delivery of information to growers and wineries. It will provide better decision-making tools to maximise fruit quality, control input costs, facilitate management of fruit yield and enable better harvest logistics and fruit grading decisions at the winery.

Our research partners for these projects include long-term collaborators – the Australian Wine Research Institute (AWRI), CSIRO, the Tasmanian Institute of Agriculture (TIA), the University of Adelaide and 2XE – and one new to viticulture, the Antarctic Climate Ecosystem CRC. We look forward to working with all our research partners to continue to deliver strong outcomes for the Australian grape and wine community, and we will keep our grape and wine community up-to-date on how these and other supported RD&E projects progress.

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Brighton cool climate symposium was beaut… with some messages for Australia The ICCWS 2016 is the major international forum focusing on the production and marketing of quality wines from cool climate regions!

BRIGHTON, UK, THURS 26TH - SAT 28TH MAY 2016

Register your interest & find all the latest news at iccws2016.com

By Dr Richard Smart Smart Viticulture, Newlyn, Cornwall, United Kingdom. Email: richard@smartvit.com.au

Some 600 international delegates from 30 different countries gathered in Brighton in late May for the 9th International Cool Climate Wine Symposium. As a trade sponsor of the ICCWS, the Wine & Viticulture Journal was represented at the event by viticultural consultant Richard Smart and wine industry strategist and advisor Peter Hayes. We asked them to deliver their highlights of the ICCWS, beginning with Richard’s here and continuing with Peter’s on page 14.

INTRODUCTION The most recent International Cool Climate Wine Symposium was held over three days at the end of May in the southern England seaside resort of Brighton. I attended this and the previous eight symposia in the series, and was obliged to ask myself, was this the most successful ever? And, what, if anything, might Australia learn from this gathering?

Certainly, the Brighton meeting was one of the largest with around 600 delegates, who were probably more geographically spread than for any other conference in this series.

The program was also likely the most diverse with many countries represented by presenters, both keynote and contributors. Traditional cool climate Europe was well represented. The program was large and extensive, and matched the location and grandeur of

Jancis Robinson opening the 2016 International Cool Climate Wine Symposium in Brighton, UK, in May. Photo: Julia Claxton V3 1N 4

the Brighton Hilton Metropole hotel on the seafront and near the famous Brighton Pier.

SOME CONFERENCE DETAILS The previous conference was held in Hobart, Tasmania, in February 2012, and one cannot help but make comparisons.

Both local wine sectors are about the same small size, around 2000ha. The Brighton program was larger with 29 sessions, 21 of which were concurrent.

While some people complain about this (the kid in a candy shop dilemma) others find the opportunity to attend sessions within their discipline more satisfying.

However, it makes such conferences more difficult and expensive to organise with the need for more keynote speakers; the cost of the Brighton symposium was a constant grumble.

The organisers were not backward about promoting their own local

wine sector, with two tastings for all delegates within plenary sessions, one featuring sparkling wines and the other still wines. This was a major logistical triumph.

There were 135 papers presented, with a surprising number from local contributors, but Australia and New Zealand were also well represented.

This was the first conference I had attended allowing instantaneous audience feedback, via mobile phones, the internet and software called Sli. do. Questions could be instantaneously displayed, and polls taken; useful during wine tasting. As happened at the Tasmania ICCWS, the location for the next conference was announced, giving the opportunity for that host to deliver professional presentations.

Ontario, in Canada, will play host to the 2020 ICCWS; during the final session brochures were on every table, and a ▶ video of Canada’s wine charms shown.

Dr Greg Jones (left), from Oregon, and Hans Schultz, of Germany, doing a ‘tag’ presentation on emerging cool climate wine regions. Photo: Julia Claxton W I N E & VITICULTUR E JO UR N A L JULY/A UGUST 2016

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The ICCWS 2016 is the major international ENGLAND AND WINE forum focusing on the production and marketing of While qualitythe wines from focus of cool climate regions! the Brighton meeting BRIGHTON, UK, THURS 26TH - SAT 28TH MAY 2016 was very much about Register your interest & find allinthe developing wine production thelatest news at iccws2016.com UK, it is important to remember the significant role of the UK as a wine market over the ages. In medieval times the wine trade in Europe was large and wine was England’s largest single import, mostly to the port of London but also to Southampton and Bristol.

The English possession of the land around Bordeaux promoted vineyard expansion. Some 11,000 tonnes of wine were shipped from Libourne to London from the 1308 vintage and in the 1360s England was taking one half of Bordeaux’s entire vintage!

Wine remains a significant import into the UK, and the traditions of the wine trade remain. It is no coincidence UK business and marketing consultant Mike Paul (left) chaired an interesting that the Institute of Masters of Wine session on the challenges involved in developing regional identities, which featured was founded in the UK, originally Willi Klinger (right), managing director of the Austrian Wine Marketing Board, who intended as a trade qualification, spoke of the advantages and disadvantages of regional wine marketing. Photo: Julia Claxton but now a major global force on wine commentary. Similarly, the UK boasts a most impressive group of substantially from the common soilWilli Klinger, from the Austrian Wine wine journalists, among them Jancis limited perspective. He regards vineyard Marketing Board. Ex-pat Australian Robinson, who opened the conference, management as a component of terroir, Steve had studied the success of the and Oz Clark, who presented in a most which is a very liberal interpretation, Central Otago effort to build a strong humorous but informed manner the but one that I fully endorse. regional identity, right from the English still wine tasting.

One session that I particularly beginning of its 35-year history. He enjoyed and is of considerable relevance described the actions of the pioneering SOME CONFERENCE HIGHLIGHTS to Australia was to do with marketing growers who decided to promote the challenges involved in developing strong region over individual brands, a bold Greg Jones, of Oregon, and Hans regional identities. The session was move indeed, but one that has paid off.

Schultz, of Germany, made the first opened by Mike Paul, UK business and The Central Otago wine region is now technical presentation of the conference marketing consultant, who played the considered one of the world’s top three by considering emerging cool role of the devil’s advocate by raising (or maybe six) Pinot Noir regions. The climate wine regions. They presented issues against regional identification, approach has become more difficult compelling evidence of temperature seeing all other speakers in the with newer entrants to the region. increases in present cool climate session were promoting the concept Willi Klinger is the charismatic wine regions around the world and, (as is happening now in Australia). leader of the Austrian Wine Board moreover, made predictions as to which Mike’s argument was that brands and spoke to the advantages and might be the future cool climate wine created by individual producers are disadvantages of regional wine brands. regions under climate change. In this more important than ‘regional’ brands They were not successful marketing regard Europe, including the UK, and in helping to sell wine. Collaborative a single variety like Gruner Veltliner, North America are well off, as is South marketing requires lots of time and but were more successful promoting America. Opportunities in Australia effort by individual producers and, in variety, wine style and regional origin. appear more limited but, in fact, include fact, there are few examples of regions Willi spoke to the difficulties of finding substantial tracts of land, as in New with strong identities beyond the half consensus among producers comparing Zealand for both islands. The outlook dozen or so that spring immediately to it to “taming a flea circus”. This issue for South Africa is less encouraging, mind. Regional brands are currently was also addressed by the speaker being further north and with little proliferating, making the task of from Champagne. Even though this elevated land. earning recognition even more difficult. is arguably the most successful wine Kees Van Leeuwen, of Bordeaux, The other side of the argument was region, it is very difficult to juggle all presented a very expansive view presented by Steve Charters, from the different commercial interests ▶ of terroir, enlarging the concept the Burgundy School of Business, and within that region.

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The ICCWS 2016EVER is the major international WILL AUSTRALIA wine consumption continues to decline forum focusing on the production marketing GET SERIOUS ABOUT anand important question is whether the of quality wines from cool climate regions!

TRUE COOL CLIMATE demand for premium wines from cool WINE PRODUCTION? climate regions BRIGHTON, UK, THURS 26TH - SAT 28TH MAY 2016may grow at the expense of warmer regions?

Register yourKym interest & find all Professor Anderson, ofthe thelatest news at iccws2016.com If Australia wants a share of premium University of Adelaide, gave one of markets, it must invest more in genuine the more interesting papers at the cool climates as found in Tasmania conference, asking how competitive and on elevated zones of the Great are cool climate regions in the global Dividing Range. For too long Australia wine market? This is, of course, a has imagined that cool climates may very important question: can the price be found in zones like the Adelaide premium match the increased costs Hills and Coonawarra; wishful thinking, of cool climate wine production? Kim unsupported by temperature data. will make his presentation available by The UK example is particularly contacting him via email: kym.anderson@ interesting, with premium quality adelaide.edu.au. The definition of cool sparkling wines being grown in regions climate used by Kym is warmer than for of around 850 degree days, which some other speakers. He estimates that corresponds to areas south of Hobart, cool climate regions account for some for example. The lucrative sparkling 14% of the world winegrape vineyard wine market is available for Australian area and around 20% of the global investment, but is that happening quickly winegrape value. Australia has a low enough? Or will we see, once again, that proportion, less than 4% of the world’s the cool climate wine initiative will be cool climate areas, even less than that grasped by New Zealand, and Australia is of New Zealand. As global per capita left in the dust, literally?

CONCLUSION Was the Brighton conference the best ever? I think so, from many viewpoints. Ontario will be hard pressed to improve on Brighton. Certainly the program was comprehensive, though light on sensory evaluation.

Might Australia ever have another cool climate symposium, as it did in Melbourne in 2001 and Hobart in 2012? I am not sure. As Kym Anderson showed, only a very small proportion of Australia’s vineyards might claim to be cool climate at present, much less than for China and the USA. One wonders whether the remaking of the Australian wine sector to capture lost export markets might embrace planting more genuine cool climate vineyards. The Australian wine sector is not limited by resources to do this, only the will.

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Diversity, variety and management of ‘cool climate’ viticulture and its products The ICCWS 2016 is the major international forum focusing on the production and marketing of quality wines from cool climate regions!

BRIGHTON, UK, THURS 26TH - SAT 28TH MAY 2016

Register your interest & find all the latest news at iccws2016.com

Report on the 2016 International Cool Climate Wine Symposium

By Peter Hayes

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t an interview in 1986 for a state-wide role in viticulture, responding to the question, what constitutes cool climate viticulture?, a response along the lines of “it’s simply part of a spectrum, complicated by issues at flowering and challenges to finish maturation” seemingly satisfied the panel.

Roll on another 30 years, at the very well attended and equally well organised International Cool Climate Wine Symposium in Brighton, UK, in May, and the situation for cool climate viticulture is much the same but also different - very different and much more complex.

A definition of cool-climate viticulture, that this was basically where grapes ripened at around the time leaves were senescing, appeared to be accepted by most and seemed to provide an

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umbrella for much of the subsequent presentations. Growing seasons for these regions typically range from 4.5-6.5 months.

Such provenance was also noted by several presenters to produce wines that were variously described as “delicate, intense, powerful, varietally distinctive, moderate alcohol, thrillingly acid and inherently interesting” in character - obviously not all at the same time suggesting that diversity of style was also expected and accepted! Jancis Robinson, in her opening address, specifically noted English sparkling wine (“Fizzius Albion”) as having its own discernible, refreshing “hedgerow in a glass” English style and was not simply a copy of Champagne.

Tastings offered in the breakout sessions, social functions and offered by producers from the UK, Austria, Canada,

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Peter Hayes, who not only represented the Wine & Viticulture Journal at ICCWS 2016 but also gave a talk on managing variability in production performance in the UK. Photo: Julia Claxton

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Alistair Nesbitt (left), from the UK’s University of East Anglia, mapped candidate sites for viticulture across England and Wales, noting that every year since 1993 has attained a growing season average greater than 13.0°C; while Gary Pickering (right), of Canada’s Brock University, addressed the management of ‘green’ flavours in the winery, proposing minimal skin and rachis contact, juice clarification and, potentially, the use of odorant-binding proteins and bentonite as mechanisms to minimise the issue. Photo: Julia Claxton Chile and New Zealand demonstrated, in large part, many positive and attractive characters claimed by advocates for such wines. Nevertheless, there remained a remarkable spread of styles including those exhibiting green, vegetal characters associated with immature fruit/severely cool conditions and, at the other extreme, high alcohol (14%v/v), vinous Pinot Noir, lacking distinctive varietal character.

Clearly, the diversity of geography, climates and seasonal conditions presents an ongoing challenge for R&D, adaptation of practice and delivery of products that genuinely express the intended ‘cool-climate’ character so expounded by its proponents.

The symposium program offered three distinctively themed days with plenary sessions followed by a choice of parallel breakout sessions.

FACING A CHALLENGING CLIMATE This plenary session, presented by Greg Jones and Hans Schultz, highlighted significant polar trends in the global viticulture map, with viticulture now practised well beyond the former conventional limit of 50°N, and also at higher elevations, driven by climatic change, new investors and emerging markets.

Many of these new regions have short growing seasons, albeit with relatively long days, but may have challenges in the form of increased spring and autumn frost risk, deep winter chills or, in the

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case of more maritime sites, greater humidity and disease risk. Potential attractions of a relatively close consumer base may offset these aspects to a degree.

Emerging cool climate regions were noted and included the UK, Sweden, Denmark, Poland and Norway, several regions in Canada and, in the southern hemisphere, Tasmania, Central Otago, Rio Negro, Argentina and Malleco, Chile.

Temperature trends of +0.12-0.3°C/ decade in recent times (+1.3°C since the late 1980s) allowed a number of new regions to attain an average 13-15°C during their growing seasons which, when combined with the extended day length in more polar regions, served to allow adequate maturity and yields for territories previously non-viable for viticulture.

Key issues of precipitation patterns, water budgets and tolerance of cold/ freeze stress and seasonal frosts vary widely between candidate regions, so adaptive research around varieties and their management under such varied conditions remains critical; these issues received ongoing attention throughout the symposium.

In addressing the topic ‘Managing Climate-Based Variability’, approaches were again focussed on the selection of adapted scion/rootstock combinations and adoption of appropriate vineyard design and management systems. Gary Pickering, of Canada’s Brock University, specifically addressed management of

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‘green’ flavours in the winery, proposing minimal skin and rachis contact, juice clarification and potentially the use of odorant-binding proteins plus bentonite as mechanisms to minimise the issue; new products may allow this with less ‘flavour stripping’. He also noted some of the ‘green’ character potentially arising from low-level beetle infestation (coccinelidae/lady beetles) advocating attention to vineyard sanitation for such an issue.

Alistair Nesbitt presented an interesting overview of his PhD thesis through the UK’s University of East Anglia in which he mapped candidate sites for viticulture across England and Wales, noting that every year since 1993 has attained a growing season average greater than 13.0°C and that the UK candidate regions were generally around 1°C cooler than Champagne, but also wetter with rains in June likely to be challenging.

A breakout session on new varieties for cool climate regions and protected and semi-protected viticulture further explored adaptive responses to the challenges of cool and varied climates. Professor Reinhardt Töpfer, head of the Julius Kühn Institute for Grapevine Breeding in Germany, presented developments from his organisation’s breeding program. He noted earlier releases including ‘Regent’, which had found quite broad adoption, but then noted the more recent focus on marker-aided selection and knowledgeRegister www.winetitles. com . au

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Monika Christmann, of Geisenheim University and president of the OIV, noted the challenges for cool climate wine in delivering more acidic, lower alcohol, delicate wines while contending with climate change, technical progress and regulatory issues, economics of production and heightened competition. Photo: Julia Claxton

Huiqin Ma, one of China’s leading wine researchers,from the College of Agriculture and Biotechnology at the University of Beijing, who illustrated during her talk on ‘Managing cool climate wine styles’ the extreme diversity of cool climates across China. Photo: Julia Claxton

based breeding. This shall allow more involving a manipulable plastic sleeve attention to durability of resistance in bred with selected light transmissivity and varieties, multiple resistances to diverse strength. In trials this had delivered large diseases and added attention to adaptation increases in yield arising from increased to climate change, e.g., selection and bunch numbers, greater berry numbers breeding for higher acidity noting severe and berry size at the same time advancing losses in acidity in Riesling over recent maturity by up to four weeks; a gain of warming decades whereas breeding approximately 200 growing degree days strains showed less than half the decline at the fruit zone appears to have delivered over a similar time. significant impact. Capital costs were said Other speakers also discussed breeding to be perhaps 15% of the full poly-tunnel and selection programs including varieties alternative, or 10% of costs annualised from Armenia and the Russian Federation, over six years, so may offer a serious highlighting the scope for adaptation to prospect to reducing variability for many thermal stress and an accompanying growers in at least part of their vineyard. huge array of styles. In each instance, the Several other parallel sessions challenges of delivery to a critical and addressed themes of emerging vineyard crowded market place were recognised pest and diseases; managing phenolics as significant, requiring substantial time and new technological trends that affect and probably alternative ways to promote the marketing of wine. them.

The session on protected and semi OPTIMISING FRUIT AND WINE QUALITY protected viticulture offered some interesting approaches to modifying Dr Monika Christmann, of Geisenheim regional winter extremes; polythene University and president of the OIV, noted sleeves, mulches and frost machines with the challenges for cool climate wine in grid-network sensors and activators to delivering, on one hand, the more acidic, operate fans and mix warmer air from lower alcohol, delicate wines from such the inversion layer with cold air; some regions yet, on the other, contending with interesting 3-D modelling was employed climate change, technical progress and to characterise terrain, the risk of winter regulatory issues, economics of production freeze injury and potential to deploy fans and heightened competition. for thermal mixing.

Current and emerging conditions viticultural included greater temperatures, TheAustralian ICCWS 2016 is the major international consultant Richard heightened variability and the need for forum focusing on theSmart production and marketing presented development moreregions! flexible, adapted approaches to of quality wines from cool climate of a ‘Smart Cloche’ technology in winemaking.

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She specifically addressed aspects of low acid/high pH musts and juice, elevated alcohol concentration and sunburn or other environmental impacts (e.g., smoke taint) with the challenges of agreeing on appropriate regulation of technologies and the setting of limits, these being of particular issue in the OIV. She further highlighted the risks in pursuing a low added/low residual SO2 agenda being promoted by some, noting potential problems in maintaining barrels and potentially impacting on product safety.

Physical treatments (membranes, electrochemical etc.) and styles were increasingly likely to become important with all new technologies requiring consumer communication and acceptance to be effective.

Another presentation (Randolf Kauer, Geisenheim University) demonstrated the outcomes of a major trial of integrated, organic and biodynamic practices in Germany with no significant impact on wine quality or preference, although latter systems had more open canopies, less berry rot and lower yields; while work on Pinot Noir in NZ (Glen Creasy, Lincoln University) highlighted substantial differences in water demand and capacity for management between different soils under similar seasonal conditions.

Dr Matthew Goddard, also of Lincoln University, attracted considerable discussion with his paper ‘Regional microbial signatures positively correlates with differential wine phenotypes’,

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Bruce Tindale, chair of the ICCWS 2016 planning committee, congratulates Debbie Inglis, of Brock University, Canada, on her country’s successful bid to host the 2020 ICCWS. Photo: Julia Claxton suggesting a stronger future focus on the microbial contribution to ‘terroir’.

Dr Tony Proffitt, of AHA Viticulture based in Western Australia, opened the breakout session ‘New technologies for optimising fruit quality and vineyard management’, highlighting his experiences with yield monitoring and remote sensing/imaging for characterising management zones and adapting inputs for desired grape and wine outcomes.

A Spanish presentation (Javier Tardaguila, University of La Rioja) addressed the use of ‘Vine Robot’ to autonomously traverse vine rows carrying an array of sensors to characterise vine canopy, fruit and potentially estimate crop yield and composition. Another presenter from Spain (Maria Diago, also of the University of La Rioja) demonstrated a smartphone app to count flowers as a basis for yield estimation: http://televitis. unirioja.es.

Short presentations were made on deployment of regional weather networks (Agrii UK) for monitoring conditions and modelling/predicting crop protection interventions and a system to deliver thermoculture (AgroThermal Systems, USA) inputs - high temperature airstream into the fruit zone - to increase fruit set, yield, advance maturity, reduce fruit rot risk and improve chemical composition.

Dr Mike Trought, of New Zealand’s Marlborough Research Centre, presented an insightful and very lucid presentation on achieving vine balance, highlighting the

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delicate balance in cool climates between delivery of sufficient vigour and leaf area, appropriate fruit load and ensuring maintenance of inter-seasonal reserves to deliver adequate maturity and ongoing yield assurance. The management challenge in juggling site potential and vine capacity, attaining fruitfulness and ensuring ripeness required an array of management interventions beyond simply a prescription approach.

Lincoln University colleagues Scott Gregan and Glen Creasy dealt respectively with amino acid composition response to canopy manipulation in Sauvignon Blanc, with amino acid concentration significantly reduced by leaf removal, and the response of Pinot Noir to varied leaf area/crop load settings where leaf area changes were much more influential than crop load change.

Other breakout sessions were: Soil management in the vineyard; The challenges involved in developing strong regional identities – Part 1; Developments in vineyard pest and disease management; Educating the wine industry; Combatting botrytis and other bunch rots; Placing cool climate wines on the market; and New research and application in wine microbiology.

COOL CLIMATE WINE STYLES The plenary session, ‘Managing cool climate wine styles’ was delivered by Prof. Huqin Ma (the University of Beijing and vice general secretary of China Wine Growers) in which she illustrated the extreme diversity of cool climates across China. She noted the challenges for both producers and the emerging consumer in China, and specifically identified the future potential of genetics and the ‘omics’ (proteomics, metabolomics etc.) as the new toolbox for innovation and communication in adapting the grapevine to challenging environments and emerging markets.

Other speakers presented papers on rotundone, the peppery character in cool climate Shiraz (Pangzhen Zhang, University of Melbourne), pathogenesisrelated proteins as affected by UV radiation and disease infection (Bin Tian, Lincoln University) and managing variability in production performance in the UK (myself).

The break-out session ‘Competitiveness of cool climate regions in global wine

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markets’ featured presentations from Prof.

Kym Anderson followed by specific region-focussed papers covering the UK Register your and Canada. The challenges of reliability and predictability of adequate yields in each of these countries was all too evident and ongoing R&D was clearly required to ensure ongoing sustainable industries, allowing the significant investment already made in Canada to adopt technology for winter freeze amelioration and their ongoing commitment to R&D funding.

This innovative approach generated considerable discussion and appeared to offer a serious mechanism for producers to build character and texture in their sparkling wines and to possibly generate more ‘house-specific’ styles.

Other sessions included: Wine sensory evaluation; Oenotourism; The challenges involved in developing strong regional identities - Part-2; and Innovations in cool climate wine styles.

The 570 delegates from 30 countries, with 27 from Australia and 24 from New Zealand, were certainly offered an excellent program and accompanying events. The offering well exceeded what might be expected from a country with such a small scale of production; currently only around 2000ha in production, 640 registered vineyards and 133 wineries, although area is expected to reach 3000ha by 2020.

Canada, as the successful applicant and now host for the next ICCWS in Ontario in 2020, should do an excellent job if its supporting publicity and promotional material is any guide; attendance is strongly recommended for those interested in viticulture at the ‘cooler limits’.

Peter Hayes, a wine industry strategist and advisor, has extensive experience in education and training, R&D investment and management, viticultural operations, the irrigation sector and industry affairs in a career in the wine industry spanning more than 30 years. He has previously been state viticulturist and state-wide industry officer (fruit and vines) for Victoria, executive director of the Grape and Wine Research and Development Corporation (GWRDC), the director of viticulture at Rosemount Estates and national viticulturist and industry affairs manager with Southcorp Wines.

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American snakes and ladders – Part 3 Where the dice fall

By Tony Keys

Having looked at the rise and decline of Australian wine in the US market in his previous two articles, in this his final installment, Tony turns his attention to the future and the opportunities and challenges that lie ahead.

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y previous two articles have likened the American market to a snakes and ladders affair. Put plainly, it’s been up and down. Put bluntly, I believe it is as far down as it can go. It should now rise, either that or implode like a Las Vegas casino.

The glory days - if in hindsight they can be called that instilled an over confidence in Australian wine producers. Those believing Robert Parker high scores would lead to riches and global recognition were in the longer term to be disappointed, while those who saw the phenomenal success of Yellow Tail and developed copycat critter brands were also to become disillusioned with the American market.

Pre the Australian wine invasion of the American palate in the 1990s, American wine consumption was low, the 1998 average being around 7.4 litres per capita. By 2015 it had climbed to 10.64 litres. In the ‘90s wine was not the preferential alcoholic

drink of the American citizen.

For American adults beer was the favourite. According to Beverage Information in 2002 beer accounted for 60 percent of the USA adult alcohol drinks market while wine had a share of around 13 percent. By 2014 beer had dropped close to 51 percent and wine was up to 15 percent.

Figures aside, beer is worth keeping an eye on as it is split into two sectors. The big brews, such as Bud, Coors and Miller, are in the main declining and pose little hazard to wine, but the craft beer sector is on the increase and there I believe is a challenge to wine. Some stats: • 1998: Brewpubs 1000, microbreweries 420 • 2015: Brewpubs 1650, microbreweries 2397 Australian wine producers need to be fully aware of the American craft beer creep as it poses as much a threat to wine’s market share as do other wine imports and domestic wine

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YELLOW TAIL FEVER Yellow Tail has been and still is an immensely successful brand in the USA. According to Impact Databank the brand sold eight million ninelitre cases in 2015. Although this was reported as being down from 8.3 million cases in 2014, the figure is nonetheless way up on the 112,000 cases sold in 2002, a year after Casella partnered with W.J. Deutsch & Sons.

The Casella success in the USA has been greatly helped by Costco which has pallets of the wine in both bottle and magnum in its stores. If there is a downside to this success the brand has been trapped within a price bracket. Last Christmas the magnums were on sale in a New Jersey Costco for US$11.08 ($14.77) Having tried to introduce an upper tier to the Yellow Tail brand and not having the success the wine company expected, the Casella

family sought a different route to the higher price sectors via the purchase of the Peter Lehmann brand.

Australian wine exports to the US are looking good. Or, put another way, they look good in parts. Yellow Tail accounts for about 45 percent of the total. Without wishing Yellow Tail to decline in sales, it would be good for other companies to increase their sales and give some depth to the reputation of Australian wine in the US. The four contributors to this article were asked, ‘One may have views on Yellow Tail but there is no denying it is a very successful brand.

Has its success and dominance prevented other brands from gaining market share?’

Steve Raye was direct saying, of course it has but added it was worth remembering Yellow Tail retails in the sub US$10 sector which is declining while the over US$12 is growing. Chuck Hayward agreed

Australian wine producers need to be fully aware of the American craft beer creep as it poses as much a threat to wine’s market share as do other wine imports and domestic wine competition. competition. The dice are in play; what they show when they come to rest remains to be seen.

Overall beer consumption is still in decline. Impact Databank projects total beer consumption in the US market will fall by 0.2 percent this year, but craft beer is up by around 6 percent in market research company IRI channels.

Worth noting is the increase in craft brews is slowing with half of the top 30 craft brands down in both volume and value.

The interesting part is most of the 15 recording a decline are brands the big brewers have acquired to try and stem the losses they face with their major bland brands.

Consumers are not fooled. They want craft beer from craft producers, not an offshoot of a large international or national group. Again, a lesson for winemakers.

What went wrong with Australian wine in the USA? It’s a question that holds interest but is it really pertinent?

Looking at the current situation and the industry scepticism towards the American market, answers appear to be required so a line can be drawn. If Australian producers can define what went wrong perhaps they can turn the page, start afresh and not make the same mistakes.

One major question to define the past is, were critter brands responsible for the current situation? “Not a relevant question,” says Steve Raye, president and founder of

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Yellow Tail dominates the sub US$10 sector and will hinder other brands, Australian or otherwise.

Hayward also posed this question, “If Bin 65 hadn’t died on the vine, would there have been a Yellow Tail?”

Robert Joseph said he was impressed with the way Casella attacked the US market with such commitment. He also acknowledged the marketing skills and strength offered by Deutsch. He added, “Importantly, Jacobs Creek and McGuigan never focussed on the US. Wyndham Estate (in its older, sweeter guise) could have done well.”

Gordon Little wasn’t working in the US market either during the peak or the downturn but said in his opinion it was probably a combination of all the things mentioned. Critter brands, Yellow Tail and others have an association with cheap image.

Bevology Inc., a marketing consulting company that specialises in helping wine and spirits brands enter and grow in the US market.

Raye continues, “Your [Australia’s] new target audience wasn’t aware of the problem, or its magnitude. Yes, it happened, but not on their watch, so get past it. It’s like the Austrian’s starting every conversation, ‘In 1986 there was a scandal’ [diethylene glycol]. Guess what, nobody cares, and you don’t need to remind the trade, only insofar that the whole regulatory structure for quality control of Austrian wines changed.”

In Raye’s opinion the target audience for Australian wine is or should be Millennials, the 21 to 38 year olds of which there are around 70 million. Raye says the “compelling reason” for the Australian wine industry to put this cohort in its sights is, “they weren’t drinking wine when Yellow Tail became a phenomenon, so their minds have not been tainted by its rise and fall. They don’t buy in that price category, so what happened with Yellow Tail and critter wines is not relevant to them. Stop dwelling on it.”

Millennials are replacing Generation X (39-50 years) who, in turn, are replacing Baby Boomers (51-69 years). The point for Australian producers to note is the change of the cultural ▶ makeup of the two groups: Baby Boomers

Millennials

White

73%

White

56%

Hispanic

10%

Hispanic

21%

Black

11%

Black

13%

Asian

5%

Asian

6%

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The key findings of the Hispanic Millennial Project, Wave 4: palates as they climb the ladder of success.”

Food, Beverage & Alcohol report, released in May 2015, were: Compared with other Millennial cohorts, Hispanic Millennials • US-born Hispanic Millennials use food and beverages as a are more likely to have more than one alcohol of choice. This means of connecting to their cultural roots makes them open to change. They may not give up on beer or • foreign-born Hispanic Millennials consume mass-market tequila but they will include wine on occasion. food and beverages because they are seeking assimilation How aware are Australian producers of the rise of Hispanic into mainstream culture Millennial consumers in the USA? Speaking with several it • Hispanic Millennials prefer established brands to craft or appears not many or, at best, slightly aware. How aware is Wine artisanal brands Australia? We asked Andreas Clark, CEO of Wine Australia, if his • Hispanic Millennials are actively involved in grocery shopping, organisation is aware and what was it doing about it. yet less likely to conduct research or use coupons “We are aware of this through various existing research • Hispanic Millennials are heavy beer drinkers whose reports. We haven’t conducted any bespoke research because consumption is linked to culture and friendship this has already been done, for example, there is a specific Wine • all multicultural Millennials are ‘foodies’, with Hispanic Intelligence report on Hispanic Wine Drinkers which we have Millennials leading the preference for seen (unfortunately contractual terms wholefoods prevent us from sharing),” Clark said.

• while vodka is the spirit of choice If the Australian wine industry is among all Millennials, Hispanic prepared to probe deeper into the Compared with other Millennials are equally drawn to Chinese wine mind seeking what Millennial cohorts, Hispanic tequila motivates them to purchase their brand Millennials are more likely to • non-Hispanic white Millennials are i.e., colour of label and notes in Chinese embracing ethnic flavours. etc, they could also consider the growing have more than one alcohol The Hispanic Millennial Project was Hispanic population in the USA. In 2013 of choice. This makes them designed to gain a deeper understanding Rabobank predicted the Hispanic wine open to change. They may of Hispanic Millennials, comparing their market could be around 90-100 million habits to non-Latino Millennials and older cases a year by 2033. not give up on beer or tequila Latinos. The key findings listed above do Chuck Hayward, proprietor of but they will include wine on not read well when it comes to wine. Are Vinroads consulting, has been involved occasion.

Hispanic Millennials being ignored? with Australian wine since the 1980s.

The 2011 annual conference of the He doesn’t blame critter brands for Texas Wine Marketing Research Institute Australian wine’s standing in the US. included the presentation ‘Reaching the Hispanic Wine Market: “That’s an excuse to hide other reasons why things ‘turned’.

Highlighting the Opportunities’, by Natalia Kolyesnikova, PhD, Critter brands exist in all countries and are price point, Texas Wine Marketing Research Institute. There are a couple of marketing-driven wines that can be found globally.” comments from this presentation that stand out: As I noted in Part 1 of this article (March-April issue) the top “Wine is for the high class person and if a Mexican orders a five brands by volume of Australian wine sales, according to wine, they will look at him like, why are they ordering a wine?

Impact Databank, are: They should be ordering a beer with a tequila shot.

• Yellow Tail: 54.2% “I think one thing the wine industry hasn’t done is market • Lindeman’s: 10.6% to Hispanics on our TV and such. Most Mexicans may drink • Fish Eye: 7.8% Corona, and also drink Bud Light, but they do a very good job of • Jacob’s Creek: 4.7% marketing to us. And it’s an American company. So, I’m more • Little Penguin: 3.2% than sure, if they [wine industry] really wanted to, they could.

Five brands account for 80.5 percent of total Australian “You are kind of frowned upon when you drink wine, but wine sales in the US. It’s one sided, the scales tipping too far in another factor is the culture, too. The Hispanic culture. They the direction of big brands. There is no wish or need for these tend to drink more beer and hard liquor. But there is still time to brands to lose sales but there is for their market share to be go into that target market, which hasn’t been established. There reduced. is an opportunity for that happening. Marketing in Spanish is Gordon Little is a partner in New York-based Little Peacock the key. The person in advertising should be like me, otherwise Wines, a specialist Australian wine importer. He partly faults I don’t get it. If there are no people in the commercials that critter brands but says the blame should be shared with nonlook like Hispanics, you are missing that market. The words in food friendly wines that had high alcohol, bold fruit, lots of sweet Spanish, otherwise you are missing.” oak and were expensive.

Other reports show more positive results for Hispanic wine He wonders if what happened to Australian wines will happen consumption. Mercury Mambo Insights released a short article to New Zealand Sauvignon Blanc or Argentinian Malbec. He in 2015: explains the decline with, “as more producers and marketers “Reasons for this [Hispanic] explosive growth can be get onboard wine quality dips as it becomes a lot about price attributed to the rich wine heritage among South American and and/or purely brand competition in place of what’s actually in Spanish consumers. Additionally, wine consumption continues the bottle. to grow in Mexico among the burgeoning middle class. Here “Retail trade and sommeliers catch on, start looking for in the US, Latino Millennials too are refining their tastes and other stuff. Then eventually customers get tired too, and their

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attention is captured by something else, so they switch. subscriptions to magazines (The Wine Advocate, Wine Spectator, “While Yellow Tail may have done some damage to the image Wine Enthusiast, or Forbes). To Millennials, Wine Spectator of Australia as a whole, it hasn’t irreparably ruined the category. ratings don’t exist. They live outside of Google’s firewall as paid We just need to work harder to bring the wineries whose wines content that doesn’t fit their search algorithm. Wine Spectator show balance and sense of place to the fore. It’s a renaissance is totally an irrelevant concept to Millennials. Check it out: Wine to reflect what we’re drinking at home, not wines just made to Spectator circulation is 400,000, Vivino [website and app] has 16 capitalise on trends.” million downloads, Vinepair website has two million Millennial Robert Joseph is a UK-based consultant and writer, and active users.” part owner of Le Grand Noir, Greener Planet and Manyana What might happen to restore Australian wine to the French brands which sell well in the US market. Joseph is more American consumer? ambivalent about the role of critter brands in the decline in Hayward defends the American consumer saying they popularity of Australian wine. “Yes, and no. The problem was like Australian wine. He puts the blame on the producers not that Australia had very few Parkerised wines (at one time fewer connecting via their agents, retailers and staff. “If you pour it, than five wineries had 95+ scores), so there was nothing at the they will come. No one has been pouring it,” he said. top to counter the cheap and cheerful impression lower down.”

It’s the old and often repeated call of getting out to pound Which leads on to the other the streets, meet all involved often used theory that Australian in the chain and find out what wine sales suffered in the distributors, retailers and, most To Millennials, Wine Spectator ratings don’t USA because of high Robert of all, consumers want from exist. They live outside of Google’s firewall Parker points awarded to high Australian wine. alcohol wines.

Wine Australia is keen on as paid content that doesn’t fit their search Chuck Hayward partly agrees, education which it implements algorithm. Wine Spectator is totally an irrelevant offering an alternative view in various ways, bringing people concept to Millennials. Check it out: Wine that fellow wine writers and here who they think, in turn, will journalists around the world used influence consumers to return to Spectator circulation is 400,000, Vivino the high-pointed high alcohol or start including Australian wine [website and app] has 16 million downloads, wines Parker favoured to attack in their regular consumption.

Vinepair website has two million Millennial Parker himself.

Consumer tastings and Hayward points out Parker educational events also take active users. had many positive things to say place but how effective are - Steve Raye, Bevology Inc. about Australia prior to the 1998 they? Do American consumers era wines. He continues, “Lots of understand Australian wine folks were jealous of his ability to regions? I asked Little, Hayward, move markets and targeted him by bashing the categories and Raye and Joseph if they thought American consumers styles that consumers responded to in a positive manner.” were confused about Australian regions? The answers are Joseph is in agreement with Hayward. Yes, Parker liked big fascinating. wines, “but - and this is crucial - it wasn’t just Parker. It was US The philosophical Joseph: “Everybody outside Australia is consumers who genuinely like the wines he does.” confused about Australian regions. But the vast majority of all It’s Joseph’s view that Parker’s fondness for riper wines consumers are confused about all wine regions.” didn’t favour regions such as Coonawarra and Hunter Valley or The confident Hayward: “Nope. And not confused about subthe elegant style of Cullen from Margaret River. regions either.”

Steve Raye says there is some foundation in the Parker The blunt Raye: “Consumers don’t know about Australian point theory as some producers chased Parker points. Again, regions. It’s as simple as that.”

Raye says this is ancient history, stating that Parker and his The thoughtful Little: “Yes. But it’s not geography. Can publication The Wine Advocate “hegemony over the business the average consumer point out Burgundy or Jura on a map ended years ago”. He continues, “Bottom line, the world was either? It’s about trying to pin down each Australian region to different then, pre internet, pre Millennial, pre app, pre new one simple, memorable concept. In France Burgundy equals generation of consumers.”

Pinot Noir/Chardonnay. Bordeaux equals Cabernet Sauvignon/ Raye could well be correct in saying the world is moving on Sauvignon Blanc. It’s easy to capture. and the industry should deal with what is now not what has “Currently for Australia, it’s Australia equals Shiraz which passed. But has not history cemented Australian wine in the implies that Australia is mono-varietal, and that Shiraz is a American consumer’s mind as being at the lower end of the single flavour. They’re the two parts we need to change. It’s spectrum? difficult as every region makes Shiraz and Chardonnay. We need But why Australian wine? Many Australian reds have to do a better job of simply explaining characteristics of each historically been big, rich offerings. They’re not the same as region and presenting a benchmark.

Bordeaux wines, whose make up was traditionally lighter. When “Margaret River has done the best in this regard: Chardonnay Parker gave them high points it worked for them; it also worked and Cabernet. Also probably the Hunter Valley with Semillon; for some treacle-thick California wines. and Coonawarra with Cabernet. How can we benchmark Yarra Raye thinks the influential days of the The Wine Advocate are Valley, McLaren Vale (to include the emerging Italian varietals or ▶ past and not relevant to Millennials who, he says, “do not pay for not), Canberra and elsewhere?”

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Little says part of the answer for the USA is for retail stores to have an Australian section that is split into regions as the stores do with France and Italy. Unfortunately, it would require more shelf space and most retailers are not yet convinced the return is there.

Australia and New Zealand are sold on screwcap over cork; the Chinese and Americans are, in the main, not as enthusiastic. Hayward disagrees and finds it surprising Californian wineries are not also using caps.

Raye is in line with Hayward. Again, he returns to Millennials being the focus saying it was Boomers that equated caps to cheap, low quality wine. “Even if they [Millennials] don’t understand cork sucks as a closure, they do understand that screwcaps protect quality better,” Raye said.

Joseph is cautious, putting forward the argument of logic saying if Australian wine is the only screwcap Cabernet Sauvignon on the shelf and the US consumer is not yet persuaded that screwcaps have any kind of advantage, add in a cheap reputation, Joseph says, “it’s hardly likely to help”.

“The fact remains that almost no US or French or Italian wines in the US market are under screwcap. Anyone choosing to use them is swimming against the tide,” Joseph says.

According to a report commissioned by Wine Australia from Information Resources Incorporated (IRI), in the 52 weeks to 2 March 2016 Australian Chardonnay sales in the US off-trade (covered by IRI channels) were worth US$112.3 million, down 8 per cent. Is Australian Chardonnay becoming passé in the US? Not to consumers, according Hayward, but to gatekeepers, yes. Joseph turns the question around asking what is Australian Chardonnay? Is it Leeuwin Estate from Margaret River or a Chablis style from the Yarra Valley? The point he is making, if Australia can’t make up its mind what this style is, why should foreigners who have other things on their minds?

Raye thinks there are more interesting Chardonnays from California. He says there is hope in how New Zealand took Sauvignon Blanc and “created something larger than Sancerre”.

Little looks at it from the prestige angle saying many people who want Chardonnay really want Burgundy more, not because of quality but because Burgundy has the prestige that Australian Chardonnay hasn’t.

As independent wine stores have reduced in number so have wine buyers. Supermarket groups have streamlined their ranges and focussed on wine at prices their consumers are prepared to pay. In the past two decades the role of wine waiter has turned into the craft of sommelier. Sommeliers are influential, we are told, the question is, how influential?

If sommeliers recommend a wine to accompany a dish a diner has ordered, does that turn into retail sales or does the diner just remember the whole, that is, the fantastic meal including wine they had on that occasion, the detail becoming a blur?

Hayward and Joseph hold opposing views about sommeliers with Joseph saying they are increasingly crucial, and Hayward diplomatically saying, “don’t get me started”. He makes the observation, if sommeliers did influence consumers he would have sold truckloads of Gruner Veltliner at US$25-40 as San Francisco sommeliers have been raving about the wine for the past few years. However, Hayward says they sell around five cases a year.

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Table 1. Australian wine sold in off-premise retail outlets in the US in the year to the end of March 2016. Source: Information Resources Incorporate US $

000 Cases (9 litre)

Growth

Value: 0-$3.99

0

0 per cent

Popular: $4-$7.99

993

Down 2 percent

Premium: $8-$10.99

40.6

Up 314 percent

Super-premium: $11-$14.99

11.7

Up 26 percent

Ultra-premium: $15-$19.99

3.39

Down 1 percent

Luxury: $20-$24.99

4.08

Up 52 percent

Super-luxury: $25 plus

2.11

Down 11 percent

Joseph reckons “retailers are increasingly talking about where wines are served instead of/as well as the points they have won”.

Raye takes the middle ground saying it’s not something that is measurable. He also drives the point that another Australian Chardonnay, Shiraz or Cabernet is not likely to attract the attention of sommeliers. Producers need to first work out where they think their brand fits, i.e., on or off-premise.

Off-premise has in-store tastings but it’s not a restaurant’s business to give wine away so recommendation is important for on-premise.

Raye suggests, “One factor making a huge impact is label reading apps like Vivino. Now, there’s a wealth of information about many brands available with a click on their smartphone.

Pricing too, with Wine Searcher. One huge thing brands can do that we always recommend is to ‘claim’ your wine on Vivino.

The sites are happy to have the producers populate content, photos, ratings, reviews and food pairings. And since many other sites scrape content, you’ll often find stuff posted on Vivino appears on other sites.”

Little says he has no idea how influential they are but sommeliers can self-brand via social media such as Facebook and have followers which leads to influence.

Price is crucial in any market and the majority of wine sold around the world is in the lower price sector. The issue for Australia is too much wine is trapped in the lower sector. As Raye points out, in the US the under US$10 sector is declining but the plus US$12 is increasing. The price brackets for Australian wine sold in the year to the end of March in offpremise retail outlets are in Table 1.

The good news shown in the table is in the premium, superpremium and luxury sectors. Wine Australia makes a lot of the increases but the anchor dragging down all Australian wine in the United States is the popular price sector US$4 to $7.99.

All agree the sweet spot Australian producers should be aiming for is the retail US$12 to US$20 and it’s agreed more brands are needed in this sector. It’s what Casella is planning with its Peter Lehmann brand. Raye recommends looking at US$15 for entry level wine but expect it to be dealt down to US$11.99 then, “have higher priced ranges going up from there at minimum US$4 increments”.

Little agrees but reinforces his previous statements that the wine is good and “show balance, sense of place and versatility.

[It’s] hard work but the US is there for the taking, the second WVJ invasion less gung-ho [and] more considered. Go for it.”

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SULFUR

Sulfur in wine – a snapshot of Australian trends

By Cathy Howard

T

he catalyst for this article was an article published on the website of the UK wine and spirits trade publication Harpers Wine & Spirit (Harpers.co.uk) in June, written

by Barnaby Eales and titled ‘Sulfur Debate Boils Over’. “With the emergence of a counterculture in wine styles, the president of the International Vine and Wine Organisation (OIV), Monika Christmann, has issued a controversial warning over the push to reduce sulfur levels in wine,” the article began. The main issues triggering Christmann’s concerns were the rise in the production of, and demand for, organic wine; the emergence of ‘new wave’ wines inspired by the natural wine movement; the use of sulfites perceived by consumers as a negative, which is often put in the ‘health box’ with lower levels of SO 2 presented to consumers as ‘more healthy’; and the effects of climate change with warming growing conditions resulting in a rise in pH levels, therefore requiring higher additions of SO 2 to maintain desirable levels of molecular SO 2. Christmann fears that as a result, conventional wines will follow suit and drop their sulfur levels and then organic wines will drop their sulfur levels even lower, leading to a downward spiral in wine quality.

Thie article also pointed out that Christmann’s views on sulfur levels had been voiced at the International Cool Climate Wine Symposium (ICCWS), with several delegates stating that her fears over sulfur levels were unwarranted.

From a small producer's point of view, I am seeing pressure placed on us in marketing our ‘conventionally’ made wines in the relatively small Perth market, as there are more venues and wine lists now opting to stock only ‘natural’, ‘organic’ and ‘minimal intervention’ wines, and this is narrowing our potential on-premise customer base. When you talk with the owners and managers of these venues, and investigate their

website and social media posts, they are aligning ‘natural’ wines with ‘more healthy’ wines, suggesting that no additives used in the winemaking process is a very positive thing in their eyes and this is why they provide only these wines to their customers. Personally, I am puzzled as to why sulfur is being perceived as bad and an unhealthy winemaking additive, when it is actually one of the most useful additives that we, as winemakers, have at our disposal.

So, where do Australian winemakers currently sit in this debate? To find out more, I invited the Australian wine industry to take part in an online survey which was broadcast via Daily Wine News, a sister e-newsletter to the Wine & Viticulture Journal, to obtain an overview of winemakers’ current use of SO 2. I also contacted two researchers at the AWRI to gain their analytical perspective and two highly regarded wine writers for their views.

Figure 1. Graphical representation of the relationship between pH and free SO2 target levels in relation to molecular SO2 levels. The recommended level of molecular SO2 for red wines is 0.5ppm (mg/L), for white wines is 0.8ppm (mg/L) and dessert wines is up to 1.5ppm (mg/L) Source: www. brsquared.org/wine, Ben Potter 2001-2011.

Figure 2. Three different levels of free SO2 and their corresponding molecular SO2 at different pHs. Assuming that molecular SO2 must be kept below the sensory threshold of 2mg/L, above 0.8mg/L for reds and 0.6mg/L for whites, then safe zones are molecular SO2 levels between these two levels (i.e., 0.6-2mg/L for reds, 0.8-2.0mg/L for whites). Source: www.brsquared.org/wine, Ben Potter 2001-2011.

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HISTORICAL AND CURRENT USE OF SULFUR IN WINEMAKING SO 2 is added in the winemaking process to protect and preserve juice and wine quality, and maintain ‘freshness’. It binds with oxygen and other components in wine that could lessen wine quality. It also inhibits unwanted bacterial and yeast growth if added at the correct amounts in relation to pH and whether the wine is white, red, sweet or fortified.

There are other ways to keep wine fresh, such as pasteurisation (which is the common practice in large-scale brewing and cider-making operations) but pasteurisation is certainly not anywhere as effective as even a small addition of ▶ SO 2.

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SULFUR

The use of sulfur in the winemaking process goes back a couple of thousand years. There are records of its use in Roman times. The first written evidence mentioning the specific use of sulfur in winemaking is a royal German decree published in 1487. In Bordeaux, sulfur was widely used by Dutch merchants as a means of preserving wines as they were transported from one place to another. The empty barrels were treated first by burning a sulfur candle inside, then filling with wine as this was a proven method to preserve the wine during a long sea journey.

These days, the majority of winemakers judiciously add SO 2 at very precise points through the wine production cycle, from harvesting to bottling, using various analytical parameters as guides, such as pH and free and bound SO 2 measurements, as well as molecular SO 2 calculations. This ensures that the minimal but correct amount of SO 2 to inhibit oxidation and prevent growth of spoilage bacteria and yeasts is being added and maintained. There are exceptions to every rule, and for every winemaker though.

SURVEY RESULTS - A SNAPSHOT OF AUSTRALIAN WINERIES’ USE OF SULFUR The aim of the survey was to obtain a quick overview of the current free SO 2 targets being used by winemakers. The survey questions were kept short and concise, focussing on free SO 2 levels, and not touching on pH levels and molecular SO 2 targets. The survey was conducted online in late June, and

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asked the following questions: • annual production size • wine production techniques used, using terms such as ‘conventional’, ‘minimal intervention’, ‘organic and biodynamic’, or ‘natural’ • free SO 2 levels maintained during maturation (post ferment) • free SO 2 levels at bottling • whether there has been any change to wineries’ SO 2 usage in the past five years and, if so, why.

Ninety-two wineries responded to the survey. To keep the results in perspective, 44% of respondents had production levels of less than 10,000 cases, 25% were producing between 10,000 and 40,000 cases, 14% between 40,000 and 120,000 cases, 10% between 120,000 to 200,000 cases, and 7% greater than 400,000 cases.

In response to their winemaking practices, 50% described them as conventional, 33% as minimal intervention, 12% organic, and 5% ‘natural’.

With regard to SO 2 levels during maturation, the majority of winemakers (72%) maintained free SO 2 levels in their wines above 20ppm, with 36% in the range 20-30ppm and 36% working in the range above 30ppm. Of the remaining 26% of winemakers, 10% were not making any sulfur additions, 3% were making minimal additions of less than 10ppm, and 15% were working in the 10-20ppm range.

For bottling, there was a shift upwards in the levels of free SO 2 being added. Eighty-five per cent of winemakers were now working at free SO 2 levels above 20ppm, with 41% of them working in the range 20-30ppm and 44% working at levels greater than 30ppm. Of the remaining 15% of winemakers, 4% were not making any additions, 4% were less than 10ppm, and 7% were maintaining free SO 2 levels of 10-20ppm.

Of all the survey respondents, just over a third had changed their free SO 2 levels over the past five years. Drilling down further, 39% of these were conventional winemakers, and just over half of these cited the use of screwcaps as being their main reason for changing their SO 2 levels. Twenty-five percent nominated a change to their conventional winemaking practices, while 8% cited pressure from consumers to change their free SO 2 levels.

A further 6% identified themselves as following natural winemaking practices. One was, “a micro boutique Tasmanian Pinot producer with a scale of production that we consider as a commercially low risk. Our approach can be expressed as only prophylactic sulfur in vineyard, no additions of any description in winery, and can always add SO 2 at bottling should a doubt arise.” Another was, “The less the better. We try and keep additions to a minimum or nothing at all. With SO 2 it’s added using as little as possible.”

Finally, 20% of those who had changed their free SO 2 regimes were organic producers. Fifty percent of these cited their main reason for doing so was because they had changed to organic production practices. Thirty percent selected pressure from consumers to reduce sulfur dioxide levels and the advantage in the market to be able to promote “a healthier wine” as reasons for changing their free SO 2 levels.

Commented one respondent, “The whites are only stable for 12 months after which they have ‘tinned pineapple’ flavour. The reds age better, say two years, but we do get the odd returned bottle.”

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A WINE RESEARCHER’S VIEW - DR ERIC WILKES, GROUP MANAGER, COMMERCIAL SERVICES, THE AUSTRALIAN WINE RESEARCH INSTITUTE, SOUTH AUSTRALIA In response to the question as to whether SO 2 levels in Australian wines had reduced in recent years, Eric Wilkes stated, “The free SO 2 for white and red wines has actually increased in the last five years. However, the levels of bound SO 2 have gone down on average over the sample period suggesting a more controlled and effective use of SO 2. The data does suggest that there is a slightly larger spread of results for each year compared with previous years which may reflect an emerging use of low SO 2 values. But, there equally seems to be a larger spread to high values as well, so it is difficult to draw significant conclusions about the trend, especially without the ability to segregate those wines that are deliberately low SO 2.”

Wilkes continued, “The data does not suggest a significant drop in the mean free SO 2 levels in wines so it is hard to correlate this with any trend in faults. There has been some evidence of an increase in queries to the helpdesk for Brett issues, but it is very difficult to say if these correlate to lower SO 2 use. They may be related to other changes in wine style and processing such as pH. “Screwcap closures in general reduce levels of oxidation and, as such, we would expect them to contribute to higher levels of retained SO 2. Further, as yet there is no data to relate any SO 2 level trends to the increased prevalence of ‘natural’, organic or biodynamic wines as they are not common enough yet to actually have a real impact on the mean values seen

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for wines in the Australian context.

“The question of how low is too low to maintain wine quality and ageing potential is a very complex issue and cannot be simply answered with a single number. The effectiveness of any sulfur regime is dependent on wine style, the availability of other antioxidant components such as phenolics or glutathione, the levels of the trace metals copper and iron present, the Eric Wilkes, group manager oxygen history of the wine, of commercial services the degree of solids present, at the Australian Wine the level of filtration the wine Research Institute. underwent, the amount of oxygen introduced at the time of packaging, and the style of package and closure used. All that can be safely said is that, in general, increased levels of SO 2 do lead to increased shelf life for any given wine.

Obviously, significantly reduced SO 2 levels can lead to both increased risk from microbiological spoilage and reduced shelf life due to oxidative effects in bottle. However, that being said, there are strategies available to help minimise the risk from these issues for wineries that choose lower SO 2 regimes,” ▶ Wilkes said.

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WINEMAKING

SULFUR

A WINE WRITER'S VIEWPOINT - JENI PORT

A WINE JOURNALIST, JUDGE AND SOMMELIER’S VIEWPOINT - SOPHIE OTTON

Jeni Port agrees that there is a trend in free and total SO 2 levels dropping, “but I would say that at this stage it is not mainstream. I do not see the bulk of medium and big wine companies participating in the trend and it remains a niche market. The practice, once adopted, tends to be for both red and white wines, and I don’t see Australian wine writer producers pursuing the Jeni Port. style with just one wine and leaving others. Some makers don’t pursue ‘natural’ wines and do play around with lower sulfur levels but overall, most who are pursuing lower sulfur levels are fully committed to the ‘natural’ wine principle. There are some conventionally-made wines in which reducing sulfur levels are apparent but in my opinion this has been happening for some years within the wine industry, especially with the move to screwcaps. But I believe the conventionally-made wines aren’t dropping their levels to the degree of some of the more hardened followers of ‘natural’ wines.”

In regards to wine faults, Port states, “I think in the beginning when a number of makers raced to give the ‘natural’ style a try, there were many, many faults exhibited.

For many it was trial and error. Sadly, a number of makers appeared to be proud that their wines were natural and that it is acceptable that there be faults. I remember I had a highly animated discussion with a maker of ‘natural’ wines who told me that his cork-tainted wine was fine because he was using a natural product like cork. That said, with time the faults are fewer and fewer. However, it certainly puts the movement back each time you find one. It’s not acceptable and there are producers out there pursuing the style and making some excellent ‘natural’ statements without any faults.

"To my mind, so called conventional winemakers are a pretty conservative bunch and don’t go about changing long-term practices unless they have done their homework and have got any new directions down pat before putting them before the consumer. They need to see a noticeable difference or improvement in their wines before they will adopt anything new. So unless they have been pursuing lower SO 2 levels for some time, they won’t jump into them simply because of a little market pressure. They may not even regard 'minimal intervention' wines as the enemy."

Port’s thoughts on ‘how low is too low’ in regards to maintaining wine quality and ageing potential, "As a wine writer I would say the level is appropriate if it doesn’t lessen the wine in any way. Since lower sulfur levels are very often introduced along with a raft of other winemaking techniques it is difficult to see the single difference it alone brings."

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Sophie Otton is also seeing a trend in free and total SO2 levels dropping in wines, “but perhaps not in the way the Harper’s article implies. As more producers shift to organic and biodynamic practices, lower SO2 levels are required to meet certification standards, and many use considerably lower levels than those. Also, as the ‘natural’ wine movement gains momentum, new Journalist, judge and adherents also aim to use as sommelier Sophie Otton little sulfur as possible in both reds and whites, as part of a greater program of minimal intervention. However, if the question is referring to conventional producers lowering sulfur levels in their wines in response to organic and natural producers (as the article suggests), all I can say is I have seen no evidence of that. As a rule, the old guard have their sulfur regimes in place and while many would be watching developments on the other side of the market with some interest, I doubt many are being influenced to change the mode of their own production at this stage.”

Otton hasn’t seen a corresponding increase in wine faults.

“Even among the natural winemakers who employ little or no SO2, I am seeing fewer faults as the second wave of minimal interventionists move through, better techniques improving on quality.”

“The Harpers article seems to be more about predicting what may happen amongst conventional producers in Europe, than reporting on an actual and observable ‘trend’ there. The fact is that, at this relatively early stage, most Australian producers are either in one camp or the other. They stick to institutionally taught methods or they are part of the organic, biodynamic, and natural wine movement.”

As for Otton’s thoughts on ‘how low is too low’ to maintain wine quality and ageing potential, “That’s a very difficult question, because there are more variables involved in the quality and ageing potential of a wine than just the levels of sulfur. Other protective mechanisms include tannin, pH and alcohol levels, fining and filtration, and the time taken to naturally clarify, settle and consequently stabilise the wine before bottling. Good winemakers understand that there is a balance needed of all these elements and work with all of them to secure the integrity and lifespan of their final product. Other issues that need to be considered are whether the wine is designed to age or to drink young, and the price point and consumer category it is made for. For instance, we know that low sulfur is impractical for wines destined for supermarket and traditional bottleshop shelves where the environment is unpredictable in terms of lighting and temperature.

Ultimately, I think that the sulfur levels that are designated as acceptable in certified organic and biodynamic wine is a good place to start (half the Australian legal limit of 250mg/L) This is not in any way to suggest that lower or no sulfur is not acceptable, just ▶ not as practical in terms of transport and longer term storage.”

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NATURAL AROMA PROTECTION

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THE HEALTH DEBATE - WHY IS SULFUR SEEN AS UNHEALTHY?

CONCLUSIONS

Dr Creina Stockley, from the AWRI, was contacted for her thoughts on this question and directed me to a paper written by herself and AWRI managing director Dan Johnson in 2015, ‘Adverse Food Reactions from Consuming Wine’. The article states, “The most commonly reported reactions to wine are skin flushing, itching and nasal congestion which are less suggestive of an immunologically mediated allergy than an intolerance to chemical components or ingredients of wine. The extent to which wine constitutes a true allergen has not been established.”

Stockley and Johnson’s paper defines food intolerance as a “non-allergic food hypersensitivity. Food intolerances occur more frequently than true food allergies, affect approximately 20% of the population, and occur more frequently in females than males. Common elicitors of food intolerances are low molecular mass chemical ingredients, including preservatives, such as sulfur dioxide, flavourings and colourings. They also include components that occur naturally within food, such as salicylates and biogenic amines, including histamine; these are also natural components of wine.”

Stockley and Johnson state that in contrast, “The components of food responsible for food allergies (food allergens) are usually water-soluble glycol-proteins. An allergic reaction is an inappropriate and exaggerated immune response, where a normally harmless substance is perceived as a threat by the body’s immunological defences. A food allergy usually has a rapid onset following ingestion of the food protein, with symptoms generally commencing within minutes but up to two hours post-ingestion.”

In relation specifically to SO 2, Stockley and Johnson state, “An adverse reaction from ingestion of sulfur dioxide is more commonly an intolerance rather than an allergic adverse reaction. Although the most common symptom is asthma (bronchospasms and wheezing), foods and food additives are not common triggers for asthma (National Asthma Council of Australia 2005). Furthermore, adverse reactions to sulfite compounds in non-asthmatic and non-sensitive individuals are rare.”

Stockley and Johnson also state that there have been very few clinical studies that have clearly formed a connection between SO 2 additives in wine and ‘wine-induced asthma’.

Stockley and Johnson report that “sulfur dioxide will generally only cause an adverse reaction in sulfite-sensitive asthmatics, which comprise approximately 1.7% of all asthmatics. Steroiddependent asthmatics are most at risk of an adverse reaction.

The threshold for an adverse reaction varies between 5 and 200mg/L sulfur dioxide where foods containing greater than 100mg/L sulfur dioxide may elicit no reaction in some sulfitesensitive individuals.”

So, it is puzzling to see how SO 2 has been labelled as unhealthy, and certainly not at the levels commonly used in Australian wines (Stockley and Johnson state that from AWRI data, “The median concentration of total SO 2 in Australian wines is 73mg/L for red wine and 123mg/L for white wine). The SO 2 levels of dried fruits, canned soups and processed meats can be up to 100 times higher than the levels found in wine. Perhaps it’s simply because it is an additive, and one that is required by legislation to be declared on the back label.

There appears to be no significant shift in mainstream winemaking in Australia to reduce sulfur levels, apart from the increase in the number of wine producers moving towards minimal intervention and counter culture/natural winemaking practices, and those changing to organic winemaking practices. The overall number of these producers is still reasonably small compared with the total number of producers in Australia. In fact, according to the AWRI, there has been a shift to higher free SO2 levels, but lower total SO2 levels, indicating more discerning additions and use of sulfur during the winemaking process.

More valuable food for thought on this topic came from the OIV website where there is a link to a summary of a conference held in Spain in February 2015: ‘Organic wines without sulfites, an alternative for the future?’ Particularly interesting was the summary on the presentations from the marketing and sales perspectives.

First, a presentation titled ‘Organic wine: nearing demand’ showed that in Spain the market penetration of sustainable wine has increased by 8.6%, and indications were that health reasons are guiding consumers’ decisions to purchase organic wines even when these wines have prices 25-30% higher. Of particular interest was the summary of a presentation on communications in relation to wine, more specifically the communication gap between the senders (wineries or media) and the receivers (wine consumers).

Communication about wine seemed to be “rather ineffective at present due to a certain lack of credibility, the excessive complexity of the messages (by the senders) and the unattractiveness of these messages to the receivers, the consumers, who are often treated as critics or experts in tasting.” The recommendations from this presentation were to use credible, clear and simple messages.

It would also appear that there is considerable confusion among consumers regarding the different designations on wine labels and in wine communication messages (organic, biodynamic, natural, without sulfites, no sulfites added, sustainable, etc), and the need to educate wine retailers and those promoting and serving wine to convey a simple and correct message about the true meaning of each of these terms. As Port said, “Come to think of it, terms such as ‘minimal intervention’ and ‘natural winemaking’ and others require definition but I don’t suppose it’s going to happen. They tend to be rather loose and easily misinterpreted and far too easily adopted by winemakers wanting to separate themselves from the pack.”

My thoughts on sulfur being portrayed as being ‘unhealthy’ and ‘bad for you’ is one that perhaps needs to be worked upon and rectified by all of us, improving how we clearly and simply communicate messages about our wines to our consumers, including those in the retail and hospitality sectors.

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REFERENCES Anon. (2015) Conclusions from the ‘Organic wines without sulphites, an alternative for the future?’ conference, OIV website, accessed 12 July 2016, <http://www.oiv.int/ public/medias/125/en-conclusions-de-la-conference-enomaq-2015.pdf> Eales, B. (2016) Sulfur debate boils over, Harpers Wine & Spirit, accessed 12 July 2016, <http://www.harpers.co.uk/news/sulfur-debate-boils-over/537114.article> Stockley, C.S. and Johson, D.L. (2015) Adverse food reactions from consuming wine.

Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research 21:568-581.

Wilkes, E. and Godden, P. (2015) Composition of Australian wine 1984-2014.

Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research 21:741-753.

Cathy Howard is a winemaker and, together with her husband Neil, proprietor of Whicher Ridge Wines, near Busselton, Western Australia. She has been making wine for more than 20 years and also consults part-time to some wineries in the WVJ Geographe region.

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Oak alternatives: a balance between science and finance

By Kerry Wilkinson*, Sijing Li and Anna Crump School of Agriculture, Food and Wine, The University of Adelaide, PMB 1, Glen Osmond, South Australia 5064 *Corresponding author: kerry.wilkinson@adelaide.edu.au

Based on a presentation at the 2014 Adelaide seminar of the Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology, the authors describe the use of oak alternatives and their effect on wine composition and sensory properties, together with results of a study into consumers’ knowledge of and attitudes towards the role of oak in winemaking.

INTRODUCTION Oak maturation plays an important role in the production of most red wines and many white wines, enhancing both physical attributes (colour and stability) and sensory properties (aroma, flavour and astringency). However, oak is an expensive raw material, and barrels contribute significantly to production costs in terms of both capital investment (i.e., barrels) and labour associated with cellar management.

The cost of maturation depends on several factors, including the origin of oak wood (i.e., French versus American), the size of barrels, the duration of maturation, the

proportion of wine subjected to oak maturation and the age of barrels, i.e., new versus used (WFA 2007). In its Costs of Wine Maturation case study (WFA 2007), Wine Australia suggested the retail price of wine needed to double to meet the 104.5% cost increase associated with maturing wine for two years in new French oak barrels (Table 1, see page 32). Therefore, while barrel maturation is still preferred for the production of premium wines, the range and application of alternative oak products (e.g. oak chips, shavings and powders) has increased considerably as more rapid and economical methods of oak maturation.

Examples of the use of oak alternatives and their effect on wine composition and sensory properties are presented

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ment. The cost of maturation depends on several factors, including A recent study investigated the influence of different methods of oak the origin of oak wood (i.e.

French vs.

American), the size of barrels, maturation on the composition, sensory properties and consumer I NEE M MA GG W I N E M AT U R AT I O N WW I N A KKI N I N the duration of maturation, the proportion of wine subjected to oak acceptance of wine (Crump et al. 2015). A combination of traditional maturation and the age of barrels, i.e. new vs. used (WFA 2007). and alternative oak maturation regimes were used to age two Cabernet In their Costs of Wine Maturation case study (WFA 2007), Wine Sauvignon wines: a 2009 Cabernet Sauvignon from Padthaway, aged Australia suggested the retail price of wine needed to double to meet in 900 L Stakvats for 12 months; and a 2011 Cabernet Sauvignon from the 104.5% cost increase associated with maturing wine for two years Eden Valley, aged in 225–300 L barrels, 4550 L stainless steel tanks or thisFrench paper,oak together with results from awhile recent study of oakLchips; barrel aged wines hadvessels considerably higher ininnew barrels (Table 1). Therefore, barrel matura1000 plastic but tanks for 4 months.

Stakvat comprised stainless investigating consumers’ knowledge of and attitudes towards concentrations of cis - and -oak lactone and lowerpanels or tion is still preferred for the production of premium wines, the range steel, stainless steel with hightrans density polyethylene (HDPE) theapplication role of oak winemaking.

Techniques thatchips, extend concentrations of vanillin than other French oaked oak wines.

Wines and ofin alternative oak products (e.g. oak shavings stainless steel with oak panels.

Toasted chips were aged added the utility of oak offer industry real opportunities to gain in stainless steel or plastic tanks without oak chips contained and powders) has increased considerably, as more rapid and econom(at 2 g/L) to stainless steel and stainless steel/HDPE Stakvats. Maturacompetitive advantage through reduced production costs. little or no oak-derived volatiles, as expected. Differences ical methods of oak maturation. tion of the 2011 Eden Valley Cabernet Sauvignon in stainless steel and Thus, an innovative method by which old barrels can be observed between the oak volatile concentrations of different Examples of the use of oak alternatives and their impact on wine plastic tanks was performed with and without the addition of toasted ‘recycled’ and utilised as a previously untapped source of high wines most likely reflect differences in the type of oak used for composition and sensory properties are presented in this paper, French oak staves (at 1.4 m2/KL). quality oak for the preparation of alternative oak products maturation, as well as the different rates of oak addition and together with results from a recent study investigating consumers’ Following maturation, wines were analysed by gas chromatogwill also be described. durations of maturation. Nonetheless, compositional analysis knowledge of and attitudes towards the role of oak in winemaking. raphy-mass spectrometry to determine the concentrations of several confirmed the presence of oak volatiles in wines made using Techniques that extend the utility oakWINE offer AROMA industry AND real opporkey oak volatiles (Table 3) and by descriptive analysis with a trained CONTRIBUTION OF OAK WOODofTO both traditional and alternative oak maturation regimes.

FLAVOUR tunities to gain competitive advantage, through reduced production panel of judges to determine the intensity of various aroma and palate Descriptive analysis subsequently confirmed the presence costs. Thus, an innovative method by which old barrels can be ‘recyattributes (Figure 1). This enabled the influence of each maturation Oak was originally used for wine maturation because it of perceptible oak aromas and flavours. The 2009 Cabernet cled’ and utilised as a previously untapped source of high quality oak regime on wine composition and sensory properties to be determined. was readily available in parts of the world where wine was Sauvignon exhibited aged notes, i.e., leather aroma, as well for the preparation of alternative oak products will also be described.

Consumer acceptance of a subset of wines was also determined. being produced (i.e., France and America), but over time as woody aroma and flavour. Surprisingly, the sensory profiles Similar of oak volatiles observed in wines oak was found to impart desirable aromas and flavours of the winesconcentrations aged in Stakvats were quite were similar, consistent aged in Stakvats, irrespective of the type of Stakvat; i.e. stainless Contribution of oak wood to wine aroma and flavour to wine due to the extraction of oak-derived volatile Oak was originally used for wine maturation readily Table 2. Several important oak-derived volatile compounds, compounds (Maga 1989), including thosebecause shownitinwas Table 2.

Tablearoma 2. Several important and oak reported derived volatile compounds, their available in parts of the world where wine was being produced (i.e. their descriptors concentrations in aroma The composition of oak wood is influenced by both species descriptors and reported concentrations in untoasted and toasted French and France and America), but over time oak was found to impart desiruntoasted and toasted French and American oak wood. and geographical origin (Doussot et al. 2002), but thermal American oak wood. able aromas andofflavours wine, due to the extraction of oak-derived degradation wood to macromolecules (i.e., lignin and Concentrations (µg/g) volatile compounds (Magatoasting 1989), including shown in Table hemicellulose) during results inthose the formation of Oak Descriptorsª 2.oak Thevolatiles composition of oak wood influenced by both untoasted toasted (Campbell et al. is 2005, Fernández de species Simón and volatiles toasted untoasted American American b c geographical origin (Doussot et al.

2002), but thermal degradation French oak French oak et al. 2010, Alañón et al. 2012). The concentration of these oakb oakc ofvolatiles wood macromolecules (i.e.inlignin during can be measured eitherand oak hemicellulose) wood to determine cis-oak coconut, 11.5 nd–11.4 49.2 12.3–47.9 toasting results in the orformation oak volatiles et lactone woody its flavour potential in wine toofdetermine the (Campbell effect of oak WILKINSON, LI AND CRUMPcoconut, trans-oak maturation. Sensory analyses can also be used to determine 6.8 nd–6.8 4.7 3.3–5.3 lactone celery the contribution oakmaturation. to wine aroma and flavour.

Table 1. Cost effect of of barrel guaiacol

smoky,

tr

2.3–18.5

tr

4.2–13.5

Retail price to were burnt bacon Consumers’ knowledge regarding the use of oak in winemaking steel, stainless steel/HDPE or stainless steel/oak. Oak volatiles Cost increase Cost to make achieve 50% EVALUATING ALTERNATIVE OAK MATURATION REGIMES Description compared to 4-methylwas foundsmoky to influence their towards wines oak also detected in wines aged in either barrels or in gross stainless steel or $/per case margin nd attitudes 1.3–10.2 nd made using 0.9–7.9 no oak (%) guaiacol per 750aged mL bottle alternatives, as well as their preferences for oak maturation of wine plastic tanks with the addition of oak chips; but$ barrel wines A recent study investigated the influence of different eugenol – oak knowledge 0.7–2.3 – 4.2–6.1 (Table 4),clove, and spicy four distinct segments were identihadoak considerably higher of cis- and trans-oak No 99.97concentrations 40.00 lactone methods of oak maturation on the –composition, sensory fied following cluster analysis. One segment (Cluster 4) comprised and lower concentrations of vanillin than other oaked wines. Wines properties vanillin vanilla 7.9 53–190 9.5 42–140 One year in and consumer acceptance of wine (Crump et 160.32 60.4 64.00 consumers who were quite knowledgeable about oak maturation and agedFrench in stainless steel or plastic tanks without oak chips contained new al. 2015).oak A combination of traditional and alternative oak trwho = trace (i.e.opinions <1 µg/g);regarding nd = not detected. heldlevels strong the impact of oak on wine quality little or no oak derived volatiles, as expected. Differences observed maturation Two years in regimes were used to age two Cabernet Sauvignon ª Descriptors from Günther and Mosandl, 1986 and Boidron et al. 1988.

204.43 104.5 82.00 and negative attitudes towards the use of oak alternatives. These between the oak volatile concentrations of different wines most likely b new French oak Data from Campbell et al. 2005. wines: a 2009 Cabernet Sauvignon from Padthaway, aged c Data from Campbell et al. 2005, Fernández Simón oak et al.(than 2010 American and Alañón consumers had a stronger preference fordeFrench reflect differences in the type of oak used for maturation, as well as the in 900-litre Stakvats 12 2007). months; and a 2011 Cabernet Adapted from Wine Australiafor (WFA et al. 2012. oak) and considered themselves capable of differentiating wines different rates of oak addition and durations of maturation. NonetheSauvignon from Eden Valley, aged in 225–300L barrels, 4550L less, compositional analysis confirmed the presence of oak volatiles Table 3. Concentrations of oak volatiles present in Cabernet stainless steel tanks or 1000L plastic tanks for four months.

TableTO 3. OUTPUTS Concentrations of oak volatiles present in Cabernet Sauvignon wines ASVO 1 in wines made using both traditional and alternative oak PROCEEDINGS maturation • INPUTS Sauvignon wines following maturation.

Stakvat vessels comprised stainless steel, stainless steel with following maturation. regimes. high density polyethylene (HDPE) panels or stainless steel with Concentrations (µg/L) Descriptive analysis subsequently confirmed the presence of oak panels. Toasted French oak chips were added (at 2g/L) to perceptible oak aromas and flavours. The 2009 Cabernet Sauvignon stainless steel and stainless steel/HDPE Stakvats. Maturation cis-oak trans-oak 4-methyl guaiacol eugenol vanillin exhibited intense aged notes, i.e. leather aroma, as well as woody lactone lactone guaiacol of the 2011 Eden Valley Cabernet Sauvignon in stainless steel aroma and flavour.

Surprisingly, the sensory profiles of the wines and plastic tanks was performed with and without the addition 2009 Padthaway Cabernet Sauvignon aged in Stakvats were similar, consistent 2 of toasted French oakquite staves (at 1.4m /KL). with compositional data.

In contrast, more distinct differences were observed aged for 12 Following maturation, wines were analysed by gas between 121–128 23–29 7–8 4–11 nd–12 54–153 months in Stakvats the sensory profiles of 2011 Cabernet Sauvignon wines.

The barrel chromatography-mass spectrometry to determine the aged wine and unoaked winekey agedoak in avolatiles plastic tank gave3)quite concentrations of several (Table andsimilar by 2011 Eden Valley Cabernet Sauvignon sensory profiles; whereas the wine aged in a plastic tank with oak descriptive analysis with a trained panel of judges to determine aged for 4 months chips had apparent oak aromas charry, mocha 99 79 4 1 6 123 the intensity of various aromaand andflavours palate(i.e. attributes (Figureand in oak barrels woody notes).

1). This enabled the influence of each maturation regime on Consumers (n=116) then properties asked to ratetotheir acceptance of a aged for 4 months wine composition andwere sensory be determined. in stainless steel subset of wines, comprising the 2009 Cabernet Sauvignon aged in a nd nd 3–4 nd nd 6–20 Consumer acceptance of a subset of wines was also evaluated. or plastic tanks stainless steel/HDPE Stakvat (with the addition of oak chips) and the without oak chips Similar concentrations of oak volatiles were observed in 2011 Cabernet in either oak barrels, plastic tanks wines aged inSauvignon Stakvats,aged irrespective of the typeorofinStakvat; aged for 4 months with or without the addition of oak staves (Figure 2).

Collectively, in stainless steel i.e., stainless steel, stainless steel/HDPE or stainless steel/ 30–47 24–46 27–33 15–16 nd–6 242–313 or plastic tanks the total sample (i.e. all 116 consumers) gave the wines very similar oak. Oak volatiles were also detected in wines aged in either with oak chips scores, fromsteel 5.7 toor5.9plastic (out oftanks 9). However, considerable barrelswhich or inranged stainless with the addition nd = not detected. variation was observed between consumers’ individual preferences, so cluster analysis was performed on the basis Padthaway Sauvignon 2011 Eden Valley Cabernet Sauvignon V31N4 www.w i nscores, eti tl es .c om.au C ULTUR E JO UR NACabernet L JULY/A UGUST 2016 of hedonic and three distinct consumer W I N E & V I T I2009 segments were identified. The first cluster (n=35)

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A-Red fruit 8 A-Dark fruit 6 A-Dusty 4 2

P-Mocha

P-Woody P-Sweet oak

P-Charry

2

P-Red fruit A-Woody

A-Leather

P-Red fruit A-Woody

A-Mocha A-Sweet oak

SS/HDPE

A-Charry

0

P-Charry

A-Leather

SS

A-Red fruit 8 A-Dark fruit 6 A-Dusty 4

A-Charry P-Mocha

0

BARREL

SS/OAK

W WI INNEE M M AAKKI NI G N G

A-Mocha A-Sweet oak

PLASTIC +OAK

PLASTIC –OAK

Figure 1. Sensory profiles of selected Cabernet Sauvignon wines following maturation in stainless steel tanks (SS) stainless steel Stakvats with high density polyethylene (SS/ HDPE) or oak (SS/OAK) panels, oak barrels (BARREL), and plastic tanks with and without the addition of oak chips (PLASTIC ±OAK).

9 8

Hedonic Rating

7 6

a

a

a

a

b

b

5 4

a

a

c

b

b

b

3 2 1 0 SS/HDPE Total Sample (n=116)

PLASTIC +OAK Cluster 1 (n=35)

PLASTIC –OAK Cluster 2 (n=55)

BARREL Cluster 3 (n=26)

Figure 2. Consumer liking of selected Cabernet Sauvignon wines following maturation in stainless steel Stakvats with high density polyethylene (SS/HDPE), plastic tanks with and without the addition of oak chips (PLASTIC ±OAK), and oak barrels (BARREL). Letters indicate statistical significance within each maturation treatment (P = 0.05, one-way ANOVA). with compositional data. In contrast, more distinct differences were observed between the sensory profiles of 2011 Cabernet Sauvignon wines. The barrel aged wine and unoaked wine aged in a plastic tank gave quite similar sensory profiles; whereas the wine aged in a plastic tank with oak chips had apparent oak aromas and flavours (i.e., charry, mocha and woody notes).

Consumers (n=116) were then asked to rate their acceptance of a subset of wines, comprising the 2009 Cabernet Sauvignon aged in a stainless steel/HDPE Stakvat (with the addition of oak chips) and the 2011 Cabernet Sauvignon aged in either oak barrels, or in plastic tanks with or without the addition of oak staves (Figure 2). Collectively, the total sample (i.e., all 116 consumers) gave the wines very similar scores, which ranged from 5.7 to 5.9 (out of 9). However, considerable variation was observed between consumers’ individual preferences, so cluster analysis was performed on the basis of hedonic scores, and three distinct consumer segments were identified. The first cluster (n=35) liked the stainless steel/ HDPE Stakvat wine most, but wasn’t especially accepting of any wine. Cluster 2 (n=55) quite liked all of the wines; while Cluster 3 (n=26) liked the wines aged in plastic tanks (irrespective of whether oak staves were added or not) but did not particularly like the barrel aged or Stakvat wines. These results demonstrate the variation in consumers’ preferences for wine, but also that wines aged using oak alternatives were ▶ liked by some segments of the consumer market.

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EVALUATING CONSUMER ATTITUDES TOWARDS OAK MATURATION REGIMES

replaced routinely; typically every five or six years. An innovative method of recycling old barrels was investigated as a means of extending the utility of cooperage oak and reducing overall In a different study, consumers’ knowledge of and attitudes production costs. towards the role of oak in winemaking was investigated (Crump Used French and American barrels were disassembled et al. 2014). Most consumers were found to have a fairly limited and the resulting staves processed to produce oak battens understanding of the oak maturation process and a significant (approximately 900 × 70 × 6mm). Briefly, this involved removing proportion (>10%) believed wine was always aged in oak barrels. the wine-affected inner portion of each stave and then splitting Importantly, of the 1015 consumers surveyed, the vast majority the remaining oak lengthways into battens, which were OAK ALTERNATIVES (83.4%) enjoyed drinking oaked wines, at least sometimes. subsequently toasted over far infrared (FIR) heating elements.

Furthermore, whilst these consumers generally agreed the use Extracts were then prepared by soaking shavings taken from of oakinchips ‘doesn’t romantic’ compared barrel eachConsiderable batten in 20% aqueous Extracts were analysed variation wasethanol. observed in the concentrations of oak aged oak barrels orsound with oak alternatives (Table with 4). They valued maturation, they maturation also ‘don’t and carewere howwilling wine istomade as associated long as it byvolatiles gas chromatography–mass spectrometry to determine present in individual recycled oak wood samples (Table 5), traditional barrel pay the tastes et al. the concentrations of several key oakinvolatiles and albeit variation is similarly observed new oak (Table wood. 5) Nonetheless, higher good’ price (Crump per bottle.

In 2014). contrast, another segment (Cluster 1) Consumers’ knowledge regarding thedid usenot of have oak in compared with concentrations reported for new toasted oak most of the oak derived volatiles measured occurred at concentracomprising less knowledgeable consumers strong opin4–6 winemaking to influence towards wood 2), in order to reported determine potential of2). As tions(Table comparable to those for the newflavour oak wood ions regardingwas the found maturation of wine. their Theseattitudes consumers had no pref(Table wines usingvs. oak alternatives, as well as their preferences recycled oak wood. erencemade for French American oak and did not believe they could such, reclaimed oak wood can indeed impart oak aroma and flavour for oak maturation of wine 4), and four distinct oak they was concentrations differentiate wines based on (Table oak maturation (Table 4); instead, toConsiderable wine and old variation oak barrels canobserved thereforeinbethe recycled as a sourceofof knowledge segments were identified following cluster analysis. oak volatiles present in individual recycled oak wood samples were accepting of the use of oak alternatives, provided wine quality oak wood for the preparation of alternative oak products.

The barrel One segment (Cluster 4) comprised consumers who were (Table 5), albeit variation is similarly observed in new oak wood. was not compromised. reclaim process typically generates 60 oak battens with an approxiquite knowledgeable about oak maturation and who held Nonetheless, most of the2 oak-derived volatiles measured mate surface area of 8 m for every 225 L barrel, at a cost of $150 (i.e. strong opinions regarding the impact of oak on wine quality occurred at concentrations comparable to those reported for between 10 and 20% the cost of a new barrel).

Evaluating the potential for old oak barrels to be and negative attitudes towards the use of oak alternatives. new oak wood 4–6 (Table 2). As such, reclaimed oak wood Thus, the barrel reclaim process is not prohibitively expensive. recycled K ALTERNATIVES These consumers had a stronger preference for French oak can indeed impart oak aroma and flavour to wine and old oak Table 6 provides a simple cost comparison for maturation of The volatile compounds extracted from oak wood during maturation (than American oak) and considered themselves capable of barrels can, therefore, be recycled as a source of oak wood for wine (90,000 L per year for nine years, i.e. 810,000 L total) in either are finite and diminish with time (Towey and Waterhouse 1996). As differentiating wines agedwas in oak barrels or with oak alternatives Considerable variation observed in the concentrations of oak the preparation of alternative oak products. The barrel reclaim ued American or French oak barrels (300 L hogsheads) vs. stainless steel a consequence, oak barrels need to be replaced routinely; typically (Table 4). present They valued traditional barrel maturation and (Table were 5), process typically generates 60 oak battens with an approximate volatiles in individual recycled oak wood samples ted every 5 or 6 years.

An innovative method of recycling old barrels was willing to pay the higherin price contrast, surface area of 8m2 for every 225L barrel, at a cost of $150 (i.e., albeit variation is associated similarly observed newper oakbottle. wood. In Nonetheless, 1) investigated as a means of extending the utility of cooperage oak and another (Cluster 1) comprising less knowledgeable 10-20% the cost of a new barrel). Thus, the barrel most of segment the oak derived volatiles measured occurred at concentra- between inTable 4. Consumer preferences for oak maturation of wine. reducing overall production costs.opinions regarding4–6 consumers did not tions comparable tohave thosestrong reported for new oak wood the ef(Table 2). As reclaim process is not prohibitively expensive.

Used French and These American barrels were disassembled and the Oakcomparison knowledge segments (%) maturation of wine. consumers had no Table 6 provides a simple cost for maturation uld such, reclaimed oak wood can indeed impart oakpreference aroma andfor flavour resulting staves processed to produce oak battens (approximately French oak and did notbe believe they for nine years, i.e., 810,000L total) in hey to wineversus and oldAmerican oak barrels can therefore recycled ascould a source of of wine (90,000L per year cluster 1 cluster 2 cluster 3 cluster 4 900 × 70 × 6 wines mm). Briefly, this involved removing the 4); wine-affected differentiate based on oak maturation (Table instead, either American or French oak barrels hogsheads)(n=112) versus (n=461) (n=133)(300L(n=141) ity oak wood for the preparation of alternative oak products. The barrel innerwere portion of eachofstave andofthen splitting the remaining oak they accepting the use oak alternatives, provided wine stainless steel calculations and assumes: maturation of wine for reclaim process typically generates 60 oak battens with an approxiPrefer French or American oak lengthways battens, 2which were subsequently toasted over far quality was into not compromised.

12 months; that American and French oak barrels cost $900 and mate surface area of 8 m for every 225 L barrel, at a cost of $150 (i.e. infrared (FIR) heating elements. Extracts were then prepared by Not sure/no $1500 each, respectively; that barrels are replaced every three 92.6 75.9 79.5 41.1 between 10 and 20% the cost of aFOR newOLD barrel).

EVALUATING THE POTENTIAL OAK BARRELS BE preference soaking shavings taken from each batten in 20% aqueous TO ethanol. years (due to diminished oak volatiles); that Stakvats cost $5000 Thus, the barrel reclaim process is not prohibitively expensive.

RECYCLED Extracts were analysed by gas chromatography–mass spectromeach, and will last at least and that the oak French 6.5 20 years; 21.1 17.0reclaimed 56.3 Table 6 provides a simple cost comparison for maturation of on compounds extracted from oak wood during battens obtained from one hogshead (at a cost of $150) provide etryThe to volatile determine the concentrations of several key oak volatiles wine (90,000 L per year for nine years, i.e. 810,000 L total) in either As Americanoak for two Stakvats 0.9 3.0 in reality, 3.5winemakers 2.7 maturation finite and with time (Towey sufficient (albeit, (Table 5) andare compared withdiminish concentrations reported forand new toasted American or French oak barrels (300 L hogsheads) vs. stainless steel ally Waterhouse 1996). consequence, oakthe barrels need to be of might prefer more or less oak, depending on wine style). oak wood (Table 2),As in aorder to determine flavour potential Able to tell the difference between wine made in barrel or with alternatives was Ongoing cellar management costs have not been considered, recycled oak wood. nd Table 4. Consumer preferences for oak maturation of wine. butNo should be less for management of 100 Stakvats 90.9 78.9 78.0 than for 25.9 Table 4. Consumer preferences for oak maturation of wine. management of 300 barrels. the Oak knowledge segments (%) Yes 9.1 associated 21.1with traditional 22.0 74.1 The capital investment barrel ely maturation is considerable and contributes $1.00–$1.67/L cluster 1 cluster 2 cluster 3 cluster 4 Adapted from Crump et al. 2014. ted (n=461) (n=133) (n=141) (n=112) oak Table 5. Concentraton of oak volatiles in toasted samples of Prefer French or American oak Table 5. of oak volatiles in toasted samples of French and far French andConcentration American reclaimed oak.

American reclaimed oak. by Not sure/no 92.6 75.9 79.5 41.1 preference nol.

Concentrations (µg/g) Oak mFrench 6.5 21.1 17.0 56.3 Samples cis-oak trans-oak 4-methyl guaiacol eugenol vanillin les lactone lactone guaiacol American 0.9 3.0 3.5 2.7 ted reclaimed of nd–33.4 nd–73.1 1.5–11.6 0.8–4.9 2.7–7.7 58–115 French oakª Able to tell the difference between wine made in barrel or with alternatives No

90.9

78.9

78.0

25.9

Yes

9.1

21.1

22.0

74.1

Figure 3. Proportion of consumers surveyed (n=1015) who enjoy drinking oaked wines.

Adapted from Crump et al. 2014.

reclaimed American oakb

nd–65.5

nd–9.1

0.8–12.3 0.6–5.6

2.3–6.2

70–137

nd = not detected ªValues are means from 24 replicates; bValues are means from 22 replicates.

Table 6.5.Cost comparison for maturation traditional vs.and with stainless steel Stakvats and reclaimed oak. i n eti tl es .c om.au W I N E oak & of V Ibarrels TFrench I C ULTUR Ematuration JO UR NA L JULY/A UGUST 2016 Tablewww.w Concentration of wine oak volatiles in using toasted samples 34 American reclaimed oak.

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Cost

French oakª

nd–33.4

nd–73.1 1.5–11.6 0.8–4.9

nd–65.5

nd–9.1

58–115

W WI INNEE M M AAKKI NI G N G

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reclaimed American oakb

2.7–7.7

0.8–12.3 0.6–5.6

2.3–6.2

70–137

nd = not detected ªValues are means from 24 replicates; bValues are means from 22 replicates.

Figure 3. Proportion of consumers surveyed (n=1015) who enjoy drinking oaked wines.

Table 5. Cost comparison for wine maturation using traditional oak barrels versus maturation woith stainless steel Stakvats and reclaimed oak.

Table 6. Cost comparison for wine maturation using traditional oak barrels vs. maturation with stainless steel Stakvats and reclaimed oak.

Year 1

Year 2

Year 3

Year 4

Year 5

Year 6

Year 7

Year 8

Year 9

$270K

–

–

$270K

–

$450K

–

–

$450K

–

Cost Total

/L

–

$810K

$1.00/L

–

$1,350K

$1.67/L

$568K

$0.70/L

American oak barrels (300 x 300 L @ $900 each) $270K

–

–

French oak barrels (300 x 300 L @ $1500 each) $450K

–

–

Stakvats (stainless steel with reclaimed oak battens; 100 x 900 L @ $5000 each) $500K

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

$7.5K

$7.5K

$7.5K

$7.5K

$7.5K

$7.5K

$7.5K

$7.5K

$7.5K

to the overall cost of wine production. The use of alternative oak samples. The valuable contributions of collaborators, in PROCEEDINGS • INPUTS TO OUTPUTS oak maturation regimes significantly reduces theASVO required particular Dr Trent Johnson, Dr Daniel Cozzolino and Associate 3 capital investment; in the case of Stakvats and reclaimed oak, Professors Sue Bastian and Paul Grbin (University of Adelaide), maturation costs were only $0.70/L. Dr Yoji Hayasaka (The Australian Wine Research Institute) and Mr Peter Warren (Ausvat Pty Ltd), are also gratefully CONCLUSION acknowledged. Anna Crump thanks Wine Australia for financial support.

Traditional barrel maturation remains the preferred method REFERENCES of oak maturation for the production of premium wines, but oak alternatives are increasingly being used as more rapid Winemakers Federation of Australia (2007) Wine Australia: Directions to 2025. and economical methods of oak treatment of wines at lower Maga, J.A. (1989) The contribution of wood to the flavour of alcoholic beverages. price points. The research presented here demonstrates that Food Review International 5:39-99. alternative oak maturation regimes are certainly capable of Doussot, F.; De Jéso, B.; Quideau, S. and Pardon, P. (2002) Extractives content imparting oak-derived volatile compounds, and oak aroma and in cooperage oak wood during natural seasoning and toasting; influence of tree species, geographic location, and single tree effects. Journal of Agricultural and Food flavour to wine. Furthermore, although different segments of Chemistry 50:5955-5961. the consumer market have distinctly different wine preferences, Campbell, J.I.; Sykes, M.; Sefton, M.A. and Pollnitz, A.P. (2005) The effects of size, wines aged with oak alternatives were accepted by several temperature and air contact on the outcome of heating oak fragments. Australian consumer segments. Consumers’ knowledge of the role of Journal of Grape and Wine Research 11:348-354. oak maturation influenced their attitudes towards wines made Fernández de Simón, B.; Cadahía, E.; Muiño, I.; Del Álamo, M. and Nevares, I. with oak alternatives; more knowledgeable consumers were (2010) Volatile composition of toasted oak chips and staves and of red wine aged with not overly accepting of the use of oak alternatives, but less them. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture 61:157-165. knowledgeable consumers were, provided wine quality was not Alañón, M.E.; Díaz-Maroto, M.C. and Pérez-Coello, M.S. (2012) Analysis of volatile composition of toasted and non-toasted commercial chips by GC-MS after compromised. an accelerated solvent extraction method. International Journal of Food Science and There are clear economic benefits to be gained from the Technology 47:816-826. improved utility of oak during winemaking. The use of oak Günther, C. and Mosandl, A. (1986) 3-Methyl-4-octanolid - Quercuslacton, alternatives enables winemakers to reduce production costs, whiskylacton - Struktur und eigenschaften der stereoisomeren. Liebigs Ann. particularly for wines at lower price points; while the potential Chem.:2112-2122. for old barrels to be recycled as a source of high quality oak Boidron, J.N.; Chatonnet, P. and Pons, M. (1988) Influence du bois sur certaines wood has now also been demonstrated. substances odorantes des vins. Connaissance de la Vigne et du Vin 22:275-294.

Hopefully these results give winemakers greater confidence Crump, A.M.; Johnson, T.E.; Wilkinson, K.L. and Bastian, S.E.P. (2015) Influence in oak alternatives, and enable industry to address the of oak maturation regime on composition, sensory properties, quality and consumer acceptability of Cabernet Sauvignon wines. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry increasing costs associated with wine production, i.e., an issue 63:1593-1600. considered to be a high priority for the wine sector.

Crump, A.M.; Johnson, T.E.; Bastian, S.E.P.; Bruwer, J. and Wilkinson, K.L. (2014) Consumers’ knowledge of and attitudes toward the role of oak in winemaking.

International Journal of Wine Research 6:21-30.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors thank the industry partners who participated in these research projects through the provision of wine and/or

Towey, J.P. and Waterhouse, A.L. (1996) The extraction of volatile compounds from French and American oak barrels in Chardonnay during three successive vintages. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture 47:163-172.

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Use of ultrasound treatment and non-Saccharomyces yeasts for accelerating ageing on lees in red wines

By Priyanka Kulkarni, Iris Loira, Antonio Morata, Wendu Tesfaye, M. Carmen Gonzalez and Jose Antonio Suárez-Lepe Department of Food Technology, Technical University of Madrid (UPM), Madrid, Spain

Laboratory experiments show ultrasound treatment has promise as a method for accelerating the process of ageing wine on lees, shortening storage times.

O

ver time, winemaking techniques have evolved to be a perfect blend of science, culture and art. One such practice is the ‘sur lie’ method, which can be literally translated from French as ‘on lees’. Ageing on lees has long been considered to benefit overall wine quality by enhancing body and mouthfeel, as well as sensorial complexity and colour stability. However, this complex process can last for years and comes with a heavy financial investment for winemakers with long storage of wine and also has potential risk of microbial alterations. Thus, it is important for winemakers to optimise the time of ageing on lees. Furthermore, in today’s fiercely competitive market it is reasonable to develop new strategies and techniques to accelerate the ageing on lees process to shorten the storage time and achieve better quality.

YEAST AND ITS ROLE IN POLYSACCHARIDE RELEASE One of the key players of this process is the yeast strain.

After cell death the cellular constituents of the cell are degraded by its own enzymes. As a consequence,the wine is enriched with yeast metabolites and macromolecules such as mannoproteins and/or polysaccharides. The major changes in the physio-chemical and sensorial properties of the wine are caused by the polysaccharide fraction released (Palomero et al. 2009). This release of polysaccharides is affected by the yeast strains due to the particular chemical composition and molecular architecture of their cell wall.

In 2006 a new method was developed by Suárez-Lepe & Morata which targeted the use of exogenously prepared yeast biomass. The yeast biomass used in this process of ageing on lees was generated from a strain selected for its optimal characteristics of autolysis in a laboratory fermentor. Finally, this biomass was dehydrated by lyophilisation and dosed into the wine. The advantages of this technique over traditional over-lees ageing are:

ULTRASOUND WAVES A NEW APPROACH FOR ACCELERATING AUTOLYSIS With recent advances in technology, ultrasound treatment promises a new way of accelerating yeast autolysis, as ultrasounds induce chemical and structural changes similar to many months of natural ageing (Chang & Chen 2002, Chang 2004). As ultrasound waves pass through a liquid medium it forms small bubbles that collapse resulting in localised areas of high temperature and pressure which ultimately causes the disruption of the microbial cell wall. With the aim to take the research of ageing on lees to next level the use of nonSaccharomyces yeast biomass along with periodic ultrasound treatment was combined to accelerate the ageing process.

AGEING ON LEES WITH ULTRASOUND TREATMENT, THE EXPERIMENTAL SET UP Thirteen different yeast strains were assessed for their polysaccharide release kinetics (Table 1). The original copies of the yeasts available at the Department of Food Technology, UPM, Madrid, Spain, were used.

The yeast biomass used in the over-lees ageing assays was obtained by growing the different strains in YEPD medium using a step wise scale-up method. YEPD medium is a nutrient rich medium containing yeast extract, peptone, double-distilled water, and glucose or dextrose which is used to grow yeast cultures.

Table 1.

Sr. No

Yeast

Strain

1

Saccharomyces cerevisiae

7VA, G37, MN212

2

Schizosaccharomyces pombe

938

3

Saccharomycodes ludwigii

981

4

Dekkera bruxellensis

D37

5

Kluyveromyces marxianus

2402

6

Lachancea thermotolerans

1145

• lower risk of infection from spoilage yeasts and bacteria

7

Hansenula saturnus

931

• possibility of working with stabilised wines with less risk of bacterial infections

8

Torulopsis stellata

1303

9

Candida pulcherrima

1206

• ability to dose the selected yeast for the inoculation of lees.

10

Metschnikovia pulcherrima

MP

11

Kluyveromyces thermotolerans

KT

• the ability to use selective yeast with characteristics that are adequate for ageing on lees

36

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23°C two days

Yeast strains cultured on fresh YEPD medium

Yeast cells inoculated to YEPD broth in aseptic conditions. Tubes stored at 23°C for four days

Scale up of volume

Multiplication of yeast cells at 23°C Yeast lees/ biomass at the end of fermentation

Figure 1. Process layout for generation of yeast biomass.

Figure 1 gives a detailed process layout for generation of yeast biomass. The second phase was focussed on cleaning and lyophilisation of the yeast biomass. On completion of fermentation in YEPD medium the lees were collected and washed with miliQ water (Millipore). The washing process was repeated until the lees were visually pure white to give a yeast biomass with no remains of nutrients. Later, all the yeast biomass was dehydrated/lyophilised using an apparatus Edwards Modulyo (Crawley, UK) (Figure 2).

To study the polysaccharide release, autolysis was carried out in a model medium comprised of water:ethanol (90:10v/v) acidulated to pH3.5 with tartaric acid. Along the experiment, the model medium was subjected to an ultrasound treatment of 10 minutes/day. Subsequently, an assay of ageing on lees with ultrasound treatment was performed to assess four selected strains with higher polysaccharide release: 981, 938, D37, MN212.

Strains 7VA and G37 were used as controls.

90ml of a Tempranillo wine was dosed with 3.2g/l of the corresponding lyophilised yeast and treated five days a week, 10 minutes a day with ultrasound equipment with a frequency of 50KHz. The experiment was carried out in three replicates.

Throughout the experiment, polysaccharides, anthocyanins and aroma compounds were measured. Also, colour parameters and total phenolic index were determined periodically. And, finally, a sensory analysis was performed.

MONITORING THE EFFECTS OF ULTRASOUNDS OVER TIME Within two weeks of treatment, the polysaccharide produced

by Schizosaccharomyces pombe, Saccharomycodes ludwigii and Brettanomyces were greater than (>200mg/l) those produced by the other non-Saccharomyces strains. Amongst the group of Saccharomyces strains, the strain MN212 showed higher release of polysaccharides. This was compared with conventional ageing

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I NEE M M AA KKI N G G WW I N I N

on lees and it was observed that ultrasounds have a positive impact in accelerating yeast autolysis (Kulkarni et al. 2015).

The most feared yeast by winemakers, Dekkera/ Brettanomyces, showed interesting results with high polysaccharide release. No previous work has been done to study its autolytic capacity and its influence on organoleptic properties of wine. Higher turbidity was observed in non-Saccharomyces strains indicating higher release of polysaccharides (Figure 3, see page 38).

Regarding the ageing of red wine on lees, colour is a crucial parameter for all winemakers. According to previous research, ageing on lees is now considered to be a technique that helps preserve wine colour. However, a progressive decrease in the total anthocyanin content was observed when the wines were subjected to ageing on lees. Yeast lees tend to adsorb phenolic compounds thus decreasing the anthocyanin content. An overall increase in the colour intensity and hue was noted for all strains.

It has been previously observed that oxygen in small quantities favours polymerisation reactions among anthocyanin and tannins (Atanasova et al. 2002). This reaction results in an overall decrease of anthocyanins but the polymerised compounds formed are more intensely coloured and more stable over time than the initial compounds. The presence of lees decreased the tannin concentrations and the astringency of the wines and increased the mouthfeel sensation. This fact may be explained by the reaction of tannins with compounds released by yeast autolysis, such as proteins and mannoproteins.

SENSORY REPERCUSSION IN WINES After ageing on lees along with ultrasound treatment for six weeks, a tasting was conducted to see the sensorial impacts of the research. The tasters perceived low astringency and better persistence in wines with ageing on lees. Some oxidative notes were also noted. However, the wines aged on lees were more ▶ appreciated compared with the one without ageing on lees.

Yeast lees/biomass after fermentation

Lyophilisation of the lees

Washing was repeated to have Washing of lees with miliQ water yeast biomass without any remains of nutrients from the fermentation medium Lyophilised yeast cells

Figure 2. Process layout for cleaning and lyophilisation of lees.

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Figure 3. (Above) Higher turbidity after ultrasound in non-Saccharomyces yeasts. S. pombe 938 vs S. cerevisiae G37.

Figure 4. (Right) Spider web diagram showing the sensorial evaluation by a trained panel of tasters.

Thus, with this study it was observed that: • use of ultrasounds along with non-Saccharomyces strains can positively increase the polysaccharide release and achieve the effects of ageing on lees in around four to five weeks • the new genera of yeast such as Schizosaccharomyces pombe, Saccharomyces ludwigii and Brettanomyces, show potential interest for the new ageing on lees method due to their higher release of polysaccharides • ultrasound, with its unique energy form, is worth exploring as a reliable tool for assisting yeast autolysis.

POINTS TO CONSIDER FOR APPLICATIONS OF THIS TECHNOLOGY AT A WINERY LEVEL The above experiment was carried out at lab scale and further research is needed to see its repercussions at a winery scale. This technique offers an interesting way to produce low priced wine by replacing the conventional, prolonged ageing on lees with ultrasound ageing, thus obtaining a desired quality of wine in a shorter time.

Table 2. Comparison of polysaccharide release between conventional ageing on lees and ageing on lees with ultrasound treatment.

Polysaccharide content (mg/L) after 20 weeks of conventional AOL

Polysaccharide content (mg/L) after 2 weeks of AOL with ultrasound treatment

Schizosaccharomyces pombe

103.6

310.2

Saccharomycodes ludwigii

110.5

399.6

Saccharomyces cerevisiae

36.0

62.3

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This study also indicates the possibility of using this technique on yeast biomass in a model medium to accelerate autolysis and then later adding the autolysates to the wine, to avoid the impacts of ultrasound on the organoleptic properties of wine. However, this needs to be studied and further research in this field will be promising to develop techniques that could have positive repercussions on large-scale use in wineries.

Presently, technology is available in the form of Sonotrode for barrel cleaning and sanitation. Sonotrode is a tool that creates ultrasonic vibrations and applies this vibrational energy to a gas, liquid, solid or tissue. This technology can be further modified and used for treating wine with ultrasound waves.

However, until the technology is further developed ambitious winemakers can experiment with conventional ageing on lees for red wines along with periodic stirring, but it is worth winemakers considering to rack wine off gross lees which consists of vegetal particles, agglomerations of tartaric crystals, yeast, colouring matter and precipitated tannins. This kind of composition leads to a high risk of bacterial infection and the creation of volatile sulfur aromas in the wine when used for the ageing process.

Thus, on the whole, ageing on lees offers a reliable tool to obtain high quality and well-structured red wines.

REFERENCES Atanasova, V., Fulcrand, H., Cheynier, V., Moutounet, M. (2002) Effect of oxygenation on polyphenol changes occurring in the course of wine-making.

Analytica Chimica Acta 458, 15-27.

Chang. A.C., Chen. F.C. (2002) The application of 20 kHz ultrasonic waves to accelerate the aging of different wines. Food Chemistry 79, 501-506.

Chang. A.C. (2004) The effects of different accelerating techniques on maize wine maturation. Food Chemistry 86, 61-68.

Kulkarni P., Loira. I, Morata. A, Tesfaye. W, Gonzalez, M. C., Suárez-Lepe, J. A. (2015). Use of non-Saccharomyces yeast strains coupled with ultrasound treatment as a novel technique to accelerate aging on lees of red wines and its repercussion in sensorial parameters. LWT-Food Science and Technology 64, 1255-1262.

Palomero, F., Morata, A., Benito, S., Calderón, F., Suarez‐Lepe, J. (2009). New genera of yeasts for over‐lees aging of red wine. Food Chemistry 112, 432-441.

Suárez-Lepe, J. A., Morata, A. (2006). Nuevo método de crianza sobre lías.

Patente P-200602423.

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Influence of the botanical origin, toast level and ellagitannin content on the oxygen consumption by oak chips in a model wine solution

By María Navarro1, Nikolaos Kontoudakis1, Thomas Giordanengo5, Sergio Gómez-Alonso2,4, Esteban García-Romero3, Francesca Fort1, Joan Miquel Canals1, Isidro Hermosín-Gutíerrez2 and Fernando Zamora1 1 Departament de Bioquímica i Biotecnologia, Facultat d’Enologia de Tarragona, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, C/Marcel.li Domingo, s/n, 43007 Tarragona, Spain 2 Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Instituto Regional de Investigación Científica Aplicada, Campus Universitario s/n, 13071 Ciudad Real, Spain 3 Instituto de la Vid y el Vino de Castilla-La Mancha, Ctra. Toledo-Albacete s/n, 13700 Tomelloso, Ciudad Real, Spain 4 Fundación Parque Científico y Tecnológico de Castilla La-Mancha, Paseo de la Innovación, 1, 02006 Albacete, Spain 5 R&D – Qualité Pronektar, Sciage du Berry/Tonnellerie Radoux, ZA des Noraies, 36290 Mézières-en-Brenne, France

A Spanish study using oak chips in a model wine suggests winemakers should base their wood selection on its potential ellagitannin release which can influence not only wine flavour and body, but may have a possible protective effect against oxidation and reduce sulfites during wine ageing.

H

igh-quality red wines are traditionally aged in oak barrels to improve their sensorial characteristics.

Oak wood releases some volatile substances that improve wine aroma and also ellagitannins and other nonvolatile substances that contribute to wine structure and mouthfeel (Garde-Cerdán and Ancín-Azpilicueta 2006).

Ageing in oak barrels also oxygenates wine because small quantities of oxygen can reach the wine through the pores in the wood, the interstices between the staves, and the bunghole (Del Alamo-Sanza and Nevares 2014). This supply of oxygen can be positive for some red wines because it stabilises colour, reduces astringency, and removes excess vegetal notes (Escribano-Bailón et al. 2001). However, the oxygen supply in wine should be adequate since an excess may cause oxidation and, therefore, quality deterioration, especially in some white wines (Cáceres-Mella et al. 2013).

Oak chips are also used to enrich wine with the same substances that are released during oak barrel ageing, and its employment coupled with micro-oxygenation is widely applied by wineries as a more economical and quicker alternative to oak ageing (Llaudy et al. 2006).

It has been postulated that the ellagitannins released from oak can consume oxygen and protect wine from excessive oxidation (Vivas 2001). Several studies have been carried out into how oak chips can contribute to wine flavour but very little is known about how they affect the release of ellagitannins, and even less is known about the oxygen they consume (Vivas and Glories 1996).

It is well known that botanical origin and toast level exert a great influence on the ellagitannin content of oak wood (Doussot et al. 2002; Chira et al. 2013). However, oak wood is a very heterogeneous material with great variability.

To solve this problem Tonnellerie Radoux-Pronektar has

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developed a non-invasive measurement method based on infrared spectrometry for determining potential ellagitannin release (PER) which allows classifying staves according to its richness in ellagitannins.

Therefore, the objective of this work was to study the relationship between the release of ellagitannins from oak chips and oxygen consumption, analysing the influence of botanical origin, toast level and the potential ellagitannin release (PER).

OAK CHIPS For this study we used 2, 5 and 10g/L of French oak (Quercus petraea) and American oak (Quercus alba) chips and three toast levels (low, medium and high). They were provided by Tonnellerie Radoux-Pronektar (Jonzac, France).

In the case of the medium toast French oak, chips with three levels of potential ellagitannin release (PER) were used - high, medium and low. The PER was determined

by Tonnellerie Radoux-Pronektar using its non-invasive measurement method based on infrared spectrometry (Radoux OakScanTM) (Michel et al. 2011, 2013).

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN The oak chips were placed in clear glass bottles into which a pill had previously been inserted for the non-invasive measurement of dissolved oxygen by luminescence with Noma Sense equipment (Diéval et al. 2011).

The bottles were completely filled with the model wine solution previously saturated with oxygen. In parallel, other bottles were filled with the different wines without supplementation with oak chips. The composition of this solution was: ethanol 12%v/v; tartaric acid 4g/L; pH3.5;

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Fe 3mg/L; Cu 0.3mg/L. Three white wines and three red wines were also used to compare the kinetics of oxygen consumption of the different oak chips with those of these wines. The wine model solution and the various wines were saturated in oxygen by bubbling with air for 10 minutes.

Once the bottles had been closed with a crown cap and bidule to minimise the volume of headspace, oxygen (Diéval et al. 2011) was measured periodically. Oxygen was measured every day during the first five days and after every two to three days until the end of the experiment.

All assays were performed in triplicate taking using bottles of the oxygen-saturated model wine solution without added oak chips as a control reference. After 140 days of maceration, the bottles with 10g/L of oak chips were opened for ellagitannins analysis.

ELLAGITANNINS ANALYSIS The real or model wine samples were first fractionated to obtain ellagitannin-rich fractions using a previously described method (Garcia-Estevez et al. 2010). Ellagitannins, together with gallic and ellagic acids, were analysed by HPLC (Michel et al. 2011) and spectral data (DAD-UV–vis and MS/ MS).

INFLUENCE OF BOTANICAL ORIGIN AND TOAST LEVEL ON ELLAGITANNINS Table 1 shows the ellagitannin content of the various samples. Castalagin was the major ellagitannin in all the experimental conditions, representing more than 70% of total ellagitannins in all cases. Vescalagin was the second highest ellagitannin in concentration although its values were much lower (between 0% and 18%). Other minor ellagitannins, Roburin A, Roburin D, Grandinin and Roburin E, were also detected in some of the samples. In general, these results were in agreement with previous reports (Chira and Teissedre

2013, De Simón et al. 2006, Michel et al. 2011).

In addition, our results confirmed that French oak released many more ellagitannins than American oak at all toast levels (Chatonnet and Dubourdieu 1998) and that toasting drastically diminished the capacity of the wood to release these substances (Vivas 1995). Gallic and ellagic acids were also analysed and, in general, they showed a similar trend to the ellagitannins i.e., higher levels when French oak was used instead of American oak, and lower levels when the toast level increased.

INFLUENCE OF BOTANICAL ORIGIN AND TOAST LEVEL ON OXYGEN CONSUMPTION Figure 1 shows how the botanical origin and toast level of the oak chips influence the oxygen consumption of a model wine solution. The oxygen levels of the control samples without added chips oscillated slightly, especially at the beginning of the experiment, but remained quite stable over time, confirming that this solution did not consume oxygen.

In contrast, the oxygen concentration of all the samples containing oak chips decreased over time, demonstrating that the presence of these oak alternatives involved oxygen consumption. Moreover, the oxygen consumption was faster when more oak chips were added.

In the presence of French oak, the oxygen consumption was faster than with American oak at all amounts of added chips and all toast levels. Since French oak released higher concentrations of ellagitannins, the oxygen consumption kinetics seems to be related to the capacity of the wood to release these substances. In the case of French oak, the toast level seems to have an additional effect on the oxygen consumption rate. Specifically, the lower the toast level of the chips, the faster the oxygen consumption. This also suggested that the amount of released ellagitannins conditioned the oxygen since toasting Figure 2. consumption Influence of botanic rate, origin and toast level of oak chips on oxygen consumption in a model wine solution

12

Table Influence of botanic origin of ellagitannins, oak chips on ellagitannins, Table 1. 1.

Influence of botanic origin and toastand leveltoast of oaklevel chips on gallic and ellagic acid in a gallicwine andsolution ellagic acid in a model wine solution. model

Parameters

Castalagin (mg/L) Vescalagin (mg/L) Castalagin Roburin A (mg/L) (mg/L) Roburin A (mg/L)

Roburin D (mg/L) Roburin D (mg/L)

Grandinin (mg/L) Grandinin (mg/L)

Roburin E (mg/L) Roburin E (mg/L)

Total Ellagitannins Total Ellagitannins (mg/L) (mg/L) Gallic Acid(mg/L) (mg/L) Gallic Acid Ellagic Acid Ellagic Acid(mg/L) (mg/L)

American Oak French Oak Botanic origin American Oak American Oak French Oak French Oak

American Oak American Oak French Oak French Oak

American Oak

American Oak

French Oak

French Oak

American Oak

American French OakOak

FrenchOak Oak American

0.07 ± 0.01

± 0.01 a B Medium 1.38 ±Toast 0.18 b B High0.02 Toast ± ± 1.02 0.24 a A 0.36 0.07 b A 0.03 n.d. ± 0.00 0.07 ± 0.01 a A 0.02 ± 0.00 b A ± 3.50a Ba 13.44 ± 0.89 3.33

1.02 ± 0.24 n.d.

a A

n.d.

n.d.

0.07 ± 0.03 a ± 0.02 0.09 n.d. ± 0.02a 0.07 ± 0.02 0.09

± 0.07 ± 0.02 0.64 0.07

± 0.07 0.64 ± 0.01a 0.06 0.06 ± 0.01 French Oak 0.91 ± 0.13 French Oak 0.91 ± 0.13 a American Oak 1.21 ± 0.28 American Oak 1.21 ± 0.28 a ± 4.64 French Oak 18.48 18.48 ± 4.64 a French Oak ± 0.09a American Oak 1.051.05 ± 0.09 American Oak

French Oak

French Oak

± 0.62 9.21 0.07 b Ba ± 0.01 n.d.

± 0.23 ± 0.23a 2.76 2.76

0.10 ± 0.02n.d.c n.d.

n.d.

0.07 ± 0.01 a ± 0.03 0.24 n.d.

a

b

A 0.24

n.d. b ± 0.03

Aa

B

n.d. ± 0.02 b 0.11

B

A 0.11

A

a B

0.16 ± 0.16 ± 0.03 a A 0.43 ± A 0.43 ± 0.17 ± a B 11.18 B 11.18 ± 0.88 ± ± 0.02 Aa A 0.81 0.81 B

n.d.

± 0.02 n.d. b

n.d.

B

Ba

n.d.

± 0.06 ± 1.99 1.99

b

0.17 b A b A

B

n.d.

10

n.d.

n.d.

n.d.

n.d.

8

n.d. c A

c A

± 0.03 c B 0.88 b B0.12 ±0.12 b B 0.03 c B b Bb 0.06

± 0.06 ± 0.04 0.26 a A a A0.10 ± 0.06a Aa A 0.24 0.24 ± 0.04 0.26 1.30 ± 0.11 a B 1.20 ± 0.11 a B 0.18 1.30 ± 0.11 a B 1.20 ± 0.11 a B

b A b A 0.18 ± 0.01 b A

± 0.01

4

0

c A

±0.10 0.01± b0.01A

6

2

0.02 b A b A0.15 ±0.15 0.01± 0.01 c A c A 0.01± 0.01 c A B0.15 ±0.15

10 g/L

2 0

0.03 ± 0.00

10 g/L

4

10

0.03 ± 0.00

5 g/L

6

n.d.

n.d.

5 g/L

8

n.d.

Results are expressed as mean ± standard deviation. Different lowercase letters in a row indicate a statistical difference (p < 0.05)

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0

c A

betweenare toasting levels.asDifferent indicate a statistical difference (p <in0.05) between botanic origin. difference (p < 0.05) Results expressed mean ±uppercase standard letters deviation.

Different lowercase letters a row indicate a statistical between toasting levels. Different uppercase letters indicate a statistical difference (p < 0.05) between botanic origin.

40

2

n.d.

n.d.

0.03 b

4

c

± 0.62 B 1.38 9.21 c B ± 0.18 b B b B0.02 ±0.10 0.01± 0.02 c 0.36 ± 0.07 0.03 ± 0.00n.d.c A n.d. b A

± 3.50 13.44 ± 0.03a Ba 0.07

French OakOak American

American Oak American Oak

n.d.

0.02 ± 0.00 b A

± 0.89 3.33 Low Toast

American Oak

French Oak French Oak

a A

[O2] (mg/L)

Vescalagin (mg/L)

French Oak

6

[O2] (mg/L)

model wine solution

2 g/L

American Oak

8

[O2] (mg/L)

Botanic Low Medium Toast Toast TableParameters 1. Influence of botanic originorigin and toast level of Toast oak chips on ellagitannins, gallic and ellagicHigh acid in a

2 g/L

10

0

50

100

Time (days)

Control

Low Toast

0

50

100

150

Time (days)

Medium Toast

High Toast

Figure 1. Influence of botanic origin and toast level of oak chips on oxygen consumption in a model wine solution.

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Table 2. Influence of potential ellagitannin release (PER) of Table 2. Influence of ellagitannin potential release (EP)inofa model oak chips oak chips on ellagitannins, gallic and ellagic acid on ellagitannins, wine solution. gallic and ellagic acid in a model wine solution

IP Low IP Medium TableParameters 2. Influence of ellagitannin potential release (EP) of oak chips on ellagitannins, gallic and ellagic acid in a model wine solution Vescalagin (mg/l)

0.11 ± 0.01 a

Castalagin (mg/l)

1.28 ± 0.22 a

Parameters

IP Low

1.38 ± 0.18 b

IP Medium

IP High 4.13 ± 0.48 c

IP High

9.21 ± 0.62 b 20.38 ± 2.71 c

Vescalagin (mg/l)

0.11 ± 0.01 a

1.38 ± 0.18 b

Castalagin (mg/l)

1.28 ± 0.22 a

9.21 ± 0.62 b 20.38 ± 2.71 c

Roburin A (mg/l)

n.d.

Roburin D (mg/l) n.d.

Roburin A (mg/l)

n.d.

4.13 ± 0.48 c

0.07 ± 0.01 a

0.08 ± 0.01 a

0.24 0.03 a 0.18 ± 0.07 ± 0.01 a ±0.08 ± 0.01 a

0.04 a

0.24 a± 0.03 a ±0.18 ± 0.04 0.11 0.02 a a0.32 ± 0.03 b Roburin D (mg/l) Grandinin (mg/l) n.d.0.08 ± 0.01

Grandinin (mg/l)

0.08 ± 0.01 a 0.11 ± 0.02 a 0.32 ± 0.03 b 0.09 ± 0.02 a 0.16 ± 0.03 b 0.36 ± 0.02 c Roburin E (mg/l)

Roburin E (mg/l)

0.09 ± 0.02 a

0.16 ± 0.03 b

(mg/l)

0.38 ± 0.02 a

INFLUENCE OF POTENTIAL ELLAGITANNIN RELEASE (PER) ON OXYGEN CONSUMPTION Figure 2 shows how the PER of medium toast French oak chips influences the oxygen consumption of a model wine solution. As expected, the rate of oxygen consumption increased as the amount of French oak chips increased, whatever the PER value. The PER also proved to have a considerable effect on the rate of oxygen consumption.

Specifically, the higher the PER, the faster the oxygen was consumed. Consequently, these results reinforce the suggestion that there is a direct relationship between the oxygen consumption kinetics and the capacity of the wood to release ellagitannins.

0.36 ± 0.02 c

Total Total 1.56 ± 0.25 a 11.18 ± 0.88 b 25.46 ± 3.29 c Ellagitannins 1.56 ± 0.25 a 11.18 ± 0.88 b 25.46 ± 3.29 c Ellagitannins (mg/l) (mg/l) Gallic AcidAcid 0.52 ± 0.52 0.03 a± 0.03 1.99 a± 0.06 b ±4.87 ± 0.03 Gallic 1.99 0.06 b c4.87 ± 0.03 c (mg/l) Ellagic Acid (mg/l) 0.38 ± 0.02 a 1.20 ± 0.11 b 1.14 ± 0.69 b Ellagic Acid (mg/l)

M AAKKI N WW I INNEE M I G N G

1.20 ± 0.11 b

1.14 ± 0.69 b

Results are expressed as mean ± standard deviation. Different letters in a row indicate a statistical difference (p < 0.05) .

Results are expressed as mean ± standard deviation. Different letters in a row indicate a statistical difference (p < 0.05) .

decreased the release of these compounds. However, the toast level was not observed to influence the oxygen consumption rate in the case of American oak, probably because it released much lower amounts of ellagitannins than French oak.

INFLUENCE OF POTENTIAL ELLAGITANNIN RELEASE (PER) ON ELLAGITANNINS Table 2 shows how the potential ellagitannin release (PER) of medium toast French oak chips influence the ellagitannin concentration. As was also observed in previous experiments, vescalagin and especially castalagin were the major ellagitannins (around 90% of total ellagitannins).

Furthermore, the oak chips with higher PER released much more ellagitannins than the oak chips with medium PER, and these in turn more than the oak chips with low PER. Consequently, these results confirm that the non-invasive measurement method using infrared spectrometry (Radoux OakScanTM) (Michel et al. 2011) allows oak wood to be correctly classified on the basis of its PER.

COMPARISON BETWEEN THE OXYGEN CONSUMPTION OF OAK CHIPS WITH THAT OF WINES Overall, the obtained results suggest that the ellagitannins released by oak wood can consume some of the oxygen entering the wine during barrel ageing or other winemaking operations, therefore protecting it against oxidation.

However, is this protection really important for the oxygen consumption by the wine itself or, conversely, is it negligible? In an attempt to respond to this question, the oxygen consumption of three white wines and three red wines without added oak chips was compared with that of a model wine solution with 10g/L of added French and American oak chips (both medium toast and medium PER) (Figure 3 see page 42). As expected, the red wines consumed oxygen faster than the white wines, although a great variability between the wines was observed, very likely because of their different qualitative and quantitative phenolic composition.

Specifically, the time it took for the oxygen to be completely consumed in red wines oscillated between one and six days whereas in white wines it took between five and 20 days.

Since red wines contain higher concentrations of phenolic compounds than white wines and phenolic compounds are probably the main oxygen consumers in wine (Ginjom et al.

2010), these results were completely logical and only to be expected.

Oak chips consumed oxygen more slowly than wine.

Specifically, the time it took for the oxygen to be completely consumed by model wine solutions with 10g/L of added oak chips was 28 days in the case of French oak and 52 days in

Figure 2. Influence of the ellagitannin potential of French oak chips on oxygen consumption in a model wine solution.

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wood much more slowly than in assayed real red wines, but at a rate that was not so different from rates observed in some of the assayed real white wines.

Therefore, oak wood should be chosen for its potential ellagitannin release because it can have a direct impact on the flavour and body of the wine, and also a possible protective effect against oxidation and can also be considered useful for reducing sulfites during wine ageing.

REFERENCES Cáceres-Mella, A.; Peña-Neira, A.; Narváez-Bastias, J.; Jara-Campos, C.; López-Solís, R. and Canals, J.M. (2013) Comparison of analytical methods for measuring proanthocyanidins in wines and their relationship with perceived astringency. International Journal of Food Science and Technology 48:25882594.

Chatonnet, P. and Dubourdieu, D. (1998) Comparative study of the characteristics of American white oak (Quercus alba) and European oak (Quercus petraea and Quercus robur) for production of barrels used in barrel ageing of wines. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture 49:79-85.

Chira, K. and Teissedre, P. (2013) Extraction of oak volatiles and ellagitannins compounds and sensory profile of wine aged with French winewoods subjected to different toasting methods: Behaviour during storage.

Food Chemistry 140:168–177.

De Simón, B.; Sanz, M.; Cadahía, E.; Poveda, P. and Broto, M. (2006) Chemical characterization of oak heartwood from Spanish forests of Quercus pyrenaica (Wild). Ellagitannins, low molecular weight phenolic, and volatile compounds. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 54:8314−8321.

Del Alamo-Sanza, M. and Nevares, I. (2014) Recent advances in the evaluation of the oxygen transfer rate in oak barrels. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 62:8892-8899.

Figure 4. Comparison between oxygen consumption by Oak chips in a model wine solution and wines. the case of American oak. These times are much longer than those measured in red wines but are not too different from those observed in some of the white wines assayed.

Therefore, the oxygen consumed by ellagitannins released from oak chips may effectively compete with the oxygen consumed by the wine itself. Consequently, the contact of the wine with oak wood, either in the form of barrels or alternatives, can play a major role in protecting the wine against oxidation. This protection can be negligible in the case of red wines but important in the case of some white wines.

CONCLUSIONS The maceration of oak chips in a model wine solution led to dissolved oxygen being consumed at a rate that seems to be closely associated with the release of ellagitannins and other phenolic compounds from the wood. In this regard, botanical origin and toast level clearly influenced the amount of released ellagitannins as well as the rate of oxygen consumption.

The main results can be summarised as follows: • the rate of oxygen consumption was higher when French oak was used compared with American oak and also decreased as the toast level increased • the oxygen consumption rate increased in parallel to the potential ellagitannin release (PER) • the greater the amounts of chips, the faster the oxygen consumption.

• the oxygen in a model wine solution was consumed by oak

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Diéval, J.B.; Vidal, S. and Aagaard, O. (2011) Measurement of the oxygen transmission rate of co-extruded wine bottle closures using a luminescencebased technique. Packaging Technology and Science 24:375–385.

Doussot, F.; De Jéso, B.; Quideau, S. and Pardon, P. (2002) Extractives content in cooperage oak wood during natural seasoning and toasting; influence of tree species, geographic location, and single-tree effects. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 50: 5955-5961.

Escribano-Bailón, T.; Alvarez-Garcia, M.; Rivas-Gonzalo, J. C.; Heredia, F. J. and Santos-Buelga, C. (2001) Color and stability of pigments derived from the acetaldehyde mediated condensation between malvidine 3-o-glucoside and (+)-catechin. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 49:1213-1217.

Garcia-Estevez, I.; Escribano-Bailon, M.T.; Rivas-Gonzalo, J.C. and AlcaldeEon, C. (2010) Development of a fractionation method for the detection and identification of oak ellagitannins in red wines. Analytica Chimica Acta 660:171176.

Garde-Cerdán, T. and Ancín-Azpilicueta, C. (2006) Review of quality factors on wine ageing in oak barrels. Trends in Food Science & Technology 17:438447.

Ginjom, I.R.; D’Arcy, B.R.; Caffin, N.A. and Gidley, M.J. (2010) Phenolic contents and antioxidant activities of major Australian red wines throughout the winemaking process. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 58(18):10133–10142.

Llaudy, M.C.; Canals, R.; González-Manzano, S.; Canals, J.M.; SantosBuelga, C. and Zamora, F. (2006) Influence of micro-oxygenation treatment before oak ageing on phenolic compounds composition, astringency, and color of red wine. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 54(12):4246-4252.

Michel, J.; Jourdes, M.; Silva, M.A.; Giordanengo, T.; Mourey, N. and Teissedre, P.L. (2011) Impact of concentration of ellagitannins in oak wood on their levels and organoleptic influence in red wine. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 59(10):5677-83.

Michel, J.; Jourdes, M.; Le Floch, A.; Giordanengo, T.; Mourey, N. and Teissedre, P.L. (2013) Influence of wood barrels classified by NIRS on the ellagitannin content/composition and on the organoleptic properties of wine.

Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 61:11109−11118.

Vivas, N. (1995) Sur la notion de grain en tonnellerie. Journal des sciences et techniques de la tonnellerie 1:17-48.

Vivas, N. (2001) Les tanins oenologiques, d’hier a aujourd’hui: une revolution discrete que nous devons assimiler dans les pratiques de chais.

Revue des oenologues et des techniques vitivinicoles 98:11-16.

Vivas, N. and Glories, Y. (1996) Role of oak wood ellagitannins in the oxidation process of red wines during ageing. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture 47:103-107.

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Vintage 2016 – observations from the AWRI helpdesk

By Adrian Coulter, Geoff Cowey, Paul Petrie, Marcel Essling, Matt Holdstock, Creina Stockley, Con Simos and Dan Johnson The Australian Wine Research Institute, PO Box 197, Glen Osmond, South Australia 5064

Managing director Dan Johnson

Since 1955 the AWRI has provided technical support to Australia’s grapegrowers and winemakers. The AWRI helpdesk responds to queries, conducts investigations and monitors technical trends across the nation’s wine regions, disseminating information via eBulletins, the AWRI website, webinars and faceto-face extension events. Vintage 2016 showed some similarities to vintage 2015, with an early and compressed harvest, rain close to harvest in certain areas and some concerns about bushfire smoke.

IDENTIFYING KEY TECHNICAL ISSUES

AT A GLANCE

The close relationship between the AWRI helpdesk and industry places it in a unique position to capture knowledge associated with the technical issues encountered each vintage across Australia.

This allows the team to predict, observe, react to and communicate any emerging issues to Australia’s grapegrowers and winemakers; to develop and deliver tailored extension content; to implement any required emergency response; and to communicate ideas for new research projects to the AWRI research team. Vintage 2016 generated more than 700 enquiries to the helpdesk and 69 investigations between 1 January and 1 May, which are similar numbers to the past two vintages. The AWRI library delivered 765 articles and books in response to requests during the same time, with around 70 percent of articles requested on winemaking topics and about 27% related to viticulture. This report provides an overview of the growing conditions and the major technical issues encountered within the Australian wine industry during vintage 2016.

• A warm spring led to an early budburst and harvest • Large crop yields were seen due to higher bunch numbers • Rapid, compressed vintages were experienced across many Australian wine regions • Stuck fermentations were encountered in many regions • Bunch rot occurred in some regions due to late season wet weather • Some regions in South Australia, Western Australia, Victoria and Tasmania were exposed to smoke from bushfires • Despite the challenges, the overall fruit and wine quality appear to be good to exceptional.

CONDITIONS DURING THE GROWING SEASON The unpredictability of weather patterns across Australia was highlighted this season. A dry winter and spring meant that many vineyards started the growing season with little or no water reserves in the soil profile, increasing the requirement for supplementary irrigation. A very strong El Niño system was forecast by the Bureau of Meteorology early in the season. October 2015 was 3°C above the average temperature for most of the country and overall spring temperatures were warm, leading to an early bud break and then an early start to harvest. While some regions experienced long-term drought conditions throughout the season, others in coastal NSW and WA experienced intense late rains that put vines under high disease pressure. Overall, the shift towards early ripening and concurrent ripening of different varieties continues to compress vintages and pose challenges for growers and wineries.

DROUGHTS TO FLOODING RAINS Rain late in the growing season in January was a welcome relief at many sites, delaying fruit maturity and giving harvest and winery

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teams an opportunity to catch up. It added much needed moisture to the soil profile and a small ‘top up’ to dams. This was the first substantial rain seen in many vineyards for more than three months and was vital to maintain canopy cover at sites without an alternative water source. Unfortunately, the timing and intensity of the wet weather in some regions caused flooding, with rainfall in some regions between 150-200mm in just 24 hours. This caused both disease and vineyard access problems, with some significant fruit losses. The helpdesk received enquiries about the most appropriate methods to assess disease incidence and severity in the vineyard, and provided assistance with reviewing the limited options for late season botrytis management.

A WARM AND COMPRESSED VINTAGE Above average yields due to higher bunch numbers (caused by warm conditions in spring 2014) and a compressed vintage once again placed stress on harvest and processing infrastructure.

There was a delay in harvesting some blocks which resulted in high Baumé fruit and higher alcohol wines. Ferment speeds tended to be fast, either to turn tanks over quickly to be ready

W I N E & VITICULTUR E JO UR N A L JULY/A UGUST 2016

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AWRI REPORT

5% 4% 3%

2%

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Queries related to stuck fermentation

Year Figure 1. Percentage of total winemaking queries that related to stuck fermentations, by calendar year (2016 data covers January to April only). for the next batch of fruit or because of strains on refrigeration capacity to cool both grapes and ferments. Fermentation issues were also observed, with winemakers having little time or spare tank space to deal with stuck ferment issues promptly.

Climate projections suggest that early and compressed vintages are likely to increase in frequency due to more regular heatwave events and less water availability (Department of Environment 2016). As such, a review of the tactics employed in 2015 and 2016 could provide valuable preparation for future vintages.

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&

Planning for future compressed vintages should focus on logistics, with key steps including: • starting vineyard assessments early, before the new year in warm regions • conducting regular vineyard assessments as maturity can increase rapidly in warm years • harvesting heat susceptible fruit first • identifying compositional changes expected through greater dehydration • expecting lower acidity and/or higher pH and making adjustments before fermentation • expecting higher pectin levels, higher enzyme requirement needs and longer settling times for white juice • expecting higher protein levels as these are also typical with riper fruit.

STUCK FERMENTATIONS Due to a strong El Niño forecast prior to harvest a hot and compressed vintage was predicted. In the past, hotter vintages have tended to result in higher than average numbers of stuck fermentation problems as seen for the 2008 and 2013 vintages in Figure 1. The main drivers for slow and stuck ferments are normally high sugar and associated high alcohol levels due to increased ripening in hotter years. The likelihood of sub-optimal ferments can also increase in a compressed vintage where there is increased demand on staff time, refrigeration and tank capacity. At such times, a step such as managing pump-overs can sometimes be neglected, even though it is critical in moderating cap temperatures and also introduces a level of aeration, both of which are important in maintaining a healthy ferment.

Occasionally, other season-related compositional factors can contribute to higher than average occurrences of stuck ferment problems. Early in the vintage the helpdesk team began investigating stuck ferment wines to see if any such compositional factors might apply this year. In particular, the team looked for unusual acidity or nutrient profiles, higher Baumé levels and unusual vineyard microbial populations or agrochemical residues due to more rapid ripening of fruit.

Several wine regions were also visited later in the vintage to try to understand the root causes behind stuck fermentation issues.

W I N E & V I T I C ULTUR E JO UR NA L JULY/A UGUST 2016

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AWRI REPORT

Of the ferments that were examined, the findings revealed: • agrochemical residues from late sprays had not impeded fermentation • sulfur dioxide levels in grapes and ferments were within acceptable ranges and, therefore, unlikely to have caused fermentation problems • acidity levels, including organic acid profiles, were within typical ranges compared to other vintages. Compressed vintages can lead to pH and TA imbalances. A few wines did have volatile acidity levels >0.8g/L which can have a negative effect on fermentation • nutrient levels (YAN and amino acids) were considered typical and no sulfide issues occurred during fermentation.

All of these ‘typical’ results suggested that higher sugar and alcohol levels were likely to be the main causes of this year’s stuck or sluggish fermentations. Most winemakers had inoculated with alcohol-tolerant yeast strains this vintage, so strain choice did not appear to be a major factor, but winemakers did report that fermentations had been faster than usual. This may have increased stress on yeast, making it more difficult for them to finish fermenting the last 1-2 Baumé of ferments. Lack of time and tank space to deal with stuck ferments immediately was also an issue.

Key steps that can be taken to reduce the risk of stuck fermentations include: • checking YAN levels up to 7-10 days before harvest, and making appropriate adjustments • choosing a yeast strain that is tolerant of higher sugar and alcohol levels • judicious use of sulfur dioxide and well-timed acid additions to minimise the influence of undesirable microorganisms.

If a stuck fermentation is encountered, winemakers are encouraged to take action quickly to rack the ferment off lees and conduct a restart using a scale-up yeast culture. More information on managing stuck fermentations can be found on the AWRI website.

for advice on a wine that contained floating particles of organic material. The subsequent investigation identified the material to be vinegar fly (Drosophila) pupa cases. The term pupa means that the vinegar fly was at the immobile non-feeding stage of development, between larva and adult, which suggests that these might have been present in the bottle prior to filling.

ARE EARLY AND COMPRESSED VINTAGES BECOMING THE NORM? The helpdesk’s report on the 2015 vintage concluded with a speculative question about whether the early vintage was ‘a sign of things to come’ for grapegrowing in Australia’s changing climate. A year later, vintage 2016 did seem to live up to this statement, with another early and compressed vintage and further examples of challenging extreme weather. What’s in store for 2017 is, of course, impossible to predict; however, what is certain is that learnings from both these vintages should be remembered as Australia’s wine community adapts to a changing climate.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work is supported by Australia’s grapegrowers and winemakers through their investment body, Wine Australia, with matching funds from the Australian Government. The AWRI is a member of the Wine Innovation Cluster in Adelaide, South Australia. The authors thank Ella Robinson for her editorial WVJ assistance.

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SMOKE TAINT Early season smoke events were experienced in a number of regions. While the risk of taint from smoke exposure prior to veraison is lower than for exposure closer to harvest, there were still some cases where grapes were rejected after early season smoke exposure. The AWRI recommends assessing the risk of smoke taint via a combination of analytical testing of grapes and sensory assessment of a small-scale ferment made from the same grapes. More details are available on the smoke taint page of the AWRI website. To assist with interpretation of smoke taint analytical results, the AWRI helpdesk team has recently commenced a two-year project to expand its database of background levels of smoke taint compounds in grapes that have not been exposed to smoke. This database allows a simple ‘traffic light’ indication of risk of smoke taint to be provided when grapes are analysed.

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MOST UNUSUAL QUERY Every year the helpdesk receives a number of enquiries and carries out investigations that can only be described as odd or unusual. This year a winemaker contacted the helpdesk asking

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TRUNK DISEASES

The influence of water deficit on grapevine trunk disease

By Mark Sosnowski1,2, Matthew Ayres1 and Eileen Scott2 South Australian Research and Development Institute (SARDI), GPO Box 397, Adelaide, South Australia 5001 ²School of Agriculture, Food and Wine, The University of Adelaide, Waite Campus, Glen Osmond, South Australia 5064 1

A field study was established in a low-rainfall region of Australia to investigate the effect of deficit irrigation on pathogen infection and colonisation by the trunk diseaseas eutypa and botryosphaeria dieback in grapevine canes. The results contradict anecdotal reports on the impact of drought and deficit irrigation practices on the prevalence of grapevine trunk disease in vineyards.

INTRODUCTION The grapevine trunk diseases eutypa and botryosphaeria dieback contribute to grapevine decline worldwide, reducing vineyard productivity and longevity, threating the sustainability of the wine industry which contributes $40 billion per annum to the Australian economy.

The causal fungi infect vines through pruning wounds and colonise wood, causing dieback and, in the case of eutypa dieback, stunting and yellowing of shoots and leaves (Figure 1) and may eventually kill the vine.

Environmental conditions are thought to be an important factor in the expression of foliar symptoms of eutypa dieback, and variation in severity of symptoms has been recorded from year to year in Australia (Creaser and Wicks 2001, Sosnowski et al. 2007a), France (Dumot et al. 2004) and the USA (Butterworth et al. 2005). Sosnowski et al. (2007a) reported a statistical relationship between an increase in symptom expression and higher winter rainfall and suggested that increased water availability may facilitate transport of toxins to the foliage in spring. Furthermore, they also reported decreased disease incidence was associated with increased temperature in spring. It was proposed that as vines grow vigorously in warmer conditions, the ability of fungal toxins to reach the foliage might be reduced and the increased amount of foliage may dilute the toxins.

In a controlled environment experiment, potted vines subjected to a combination of extreme heat or cold plus low or high soil moisture displayed more severe foliar symptoms than those in moderate conditions (Sosnowski et al. 2011).

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Figure 1. Grapevine trunk disease symptoms.

Research has also demonstrated that low soil water content (Levitt 1980, Smart and Coombe 1983), and high temperature (Kriedemann and Smart 1971) can dramatically reduce grapevine health by influencing the severity of other diseases.

Environment and plant health, therefore, may influence the expression of foliar symptoms of eutypa dieback and the growth rate of the pathogen.

Regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) involves the imposition and management of water stress by irrigating at less than the full requirement of the vines and maintaining soil moisture at a relatively low level, to control vigour and increase fruit quality while conserving water (McCarthy et al. 2002). Furthermore, climate change may lead to more extreme environmental conditions for

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grapegrowing in the future, especially via drought, by increasing water stress in the summer months (Schultz 2000, Jones 2005). Spores of Eutypa lata infect vines through pruning wounds, and the natural wound protection response of the vine plays a role in reducing the ability of spores to colonise the tissue. Sosnowski et al. (2011) reported that water-stressed vines in a warm, dry environment were more susceptible to infection of pruning wounds by E. lata than vines receiving standard watering.

The aim of this study was to further evaluate the ability of E. lata (eutypa dieback) and Diplodia seriata (botryosphaeria dieback) to infect wounds and colonise canes on vines under different levels of irrigation and water â&#x2013;ś stress.

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TRUNK DISEASES

Figure 2. Rotor Spray™ under-vine sprinkler used for delivering deficit irrigation treatments.

METHODS A vineyard trial was established at the Loxton Research Centre in the Riverland, South Australia (mean annual rainfall 261 mm, Bureau of Meteorology) to investigate the effect of regulated deficit irrigation on grapevines. Beginning in December 2011, Shiraz vines grafted on Ramsey rootstock (planted in 1992 and topworked to Cabernet Sauvignon in 2010) were subjected to four irrigation levels: 100, 50, 25 and 12.5% of the standard irrigation program using under-vine Rotor Spray™ sprinklers (Figure 2). The trial was established as a randomised block design with four replications, three panels (two vines per panel) x three rows for each irrigation treatment, and the four vines in the centre used for inoculations, leaving a buffer zone between treatments. Vines were spur-pruned with four cordons (Figure 3).

One-year-old shoots were pruned to approximately 30cm spurs (3-5 buds) in July of 2013 and 2014. Within an hour of pruning, wounds were inoculated with approximately 500 spores of E. lata or 1000 spores of D. seriata suspended in 20µl of water. Twenty canes per four vine plot were inoculated with each pathogen individually, and a further 20 canes were left as non-inoculated controls (to monitor natural infection).

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Figure 3. Four-cordon spur pruned vines with treated canes tagged in the Loxton vineyard trial.

To determine the extent to which E. lata and D. seriata colonised the canes, the treated canes were removed from vines in July of 2014 and 2015, and placed in cool storage. For assessment, bark was removed from canes using a sharp knife and the canes were surface sterilised in bleach for 10 minutes followed by rinsing in sterile distilled water. The extent of staining (die back) from the wound surface was measured and recorded. Wood pieces (~2mm thick discs) were cut with sterile secateurs at 10mm intervals up to 100mm below the inoculation point and transferred to agar plates. Following seven to 10 days of incubation, cultures were identified, and the distances at which fungi were reisolated below the wound surface recorded. Data were subjected to analysis of variance, and least significant difference (LSD) at the 5% level was used for all pairwise comparisons, with standard error of the means calculated.

LEAF WATER POTENTIAL Grapevine leaves were analysed using a pressure chamber to estimate soil water tension, based on the method described by Canny and Roderick (2005). The youngest fully formed leaf, including petiole, was chosen from a shoot from one vine per treatment for each replication. The leaf was placed

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in a snap-lock bag with the petiole protruding, which was then cut at a 45° angle with a razor blade. The petiole was then inserted into a grommet in the pressure chamber cap. The cap was secured on the pressure chamber and the nitrogen gas cylinder valve was opened, allowing pressurisation of the chamber. The pressure in the chamber was slowly increased, whilst watching the protruding end of the petiole. When the first bubbles were observed from the petiole, the pressure reading was recorded. This was repeated two to three times per treatment over a four to six hour period between midnight and dawn. The means of the readings were recorded.

RESULTS Over the two years of the experiment, the incidence of recovery from wounds did not differ between pathogens or irrigation treatments, ranging from 74-93% recovery in 2013-14 and 62-82% recovery in 2014-15.

In 2013-14, the overall mean distance of recovery was significantly greater for E. lata (88mm) than for D. seriata (44mm). The greatest colonisation of canes by E. lata occurred in vines with full irrigation, vis. mean recovery distance of 106mm from the wound site (Figure 4). The mean recovery distance decreased significantly to 89mm for

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TRUNK DISEASES

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Figure 4. Effect of irrigation treatment on recovery distance of Eutypa lata (light green columns) and Diplodia seriata (light blue columns) from pruning wounds in canes, and associated staining of wood (dark green and blue columns, respectively) at the Loxton Research Centre in the Riverland, South Australia. Recovery distance of either pathogen from non-inoculated controls (NIC) is indicated by black columns, and staining in grey columns. Red line represents the mean leaf water potential (LWP). Bars represent standard error of the mean. the 25% irrigation treatment and to 60mm for 12.5% irrigation treatment.

There was no difference in recovery of D. seriata between the irrigation treatments. In non-inoculated controls, colonisation of neither pathogen exceeded a mean of 3.7mm for any of the treatments (data not shown). Leaf water potential was 5.8 Bar for the full irrigation treatment and increased significantly to 10.7 Bar for the minimum irrigation treatment (12.5%).

In 2014-15, the overall mean distance of recovery was significantly greater for E. lata (71mm) than for D. seriata (2mm). The greatest colonisation of canes by E. lata occurred in vines with full irrigation, with mean recovery distance of 80mm from the wound site (Figure 4), significantly further than that recorded from canes on vines with 12.5% irrigation (61mm). There was no difference in recovery of D. seriata between the irrigation treatments. In non-inoculated controls, colonisation of neither pathogen exceeded a mean of

4.5mm for any of the treatments (data not shown). Leaf water potential was 5.9 Bar for the full irrigation treatment and increased significantly to 12.1 Bar for the minimum irrigation treatment (12.5%).

In both years, the extent of staining did not differ between pathogens or irrigation treatments, with mean distances ranging from 15-25mm (2013-14) and 13-20mm (2014-15, Figure 4). Non-inoculated controls had similar distance of staining, ranging from 14-19mm (2013-14) and 18-22mm (2014-15). The mean distance at which pathogens were recovered from canes ahead of the staining ranged from 3986mm (E. lata) and 5-26mm (D. seriata).

DISCUSSION Reducing the irrigation level and, hence, increasing stress on vines had no effect on establishment of wound infection following inoculation but significantly decreased the distance

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to which E. lata colonised the canes.

This is contrary to previous reports based on the incidence of infection in pruning wounds, where less irrigation was associated with greater incidence (Sosnowski et al. 2011). This also suggests that the plant defence mechanisms in response to wound infection may differ from those involved in limiting growth through vascular tissue. During vine pruning, it was observed that fully irrigated vines had the thickest canes and, as the irrigation was reduced, so too was the cane diameter. In an honours study, Hamblin (2015) reported that tolerant cultivars, in which colonisation by E. lata was restricted, generally had smaller cane diameter and xylem vessel diameter than susceptible cultivars. The relationship between cane diameter and growth of E. lata in vine tissue of water stressed vines is being investigated further.

Recovery of D. seriata was not affected by irrigation treatment,

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TRUNK DISEASES

implying that the interaction between this pathogen species and grapevine is not affected by water stress. Further research would be required to examine the effect on other species commonly associated with botryosphaeria dieback.

This study also revealed that E. lata colonised canes to a significantly greater extent than D. seriata, contradicting previous reports that D. seriata had pathogenicity similar to E. lata (Pitt et al.

2013). However, the previous study was based on necrotic staining in the wood, as opposed to recovery of the pathogen.

It has previously been reported that the E. lata fungus can grow in healthy wood tissue 80mm ahead of the stained wood and that there is no correlation between staining and E. lata recovery (Sosnowski et al. 2007b). This study has confirmed these results, with E. lata recovered up to 86mm ahead of staining, supporting the recommendation to cut at least 10cm beyond any stained wood during remedial surgery.

In conclusion, water deficit did not increase the susceptibility of grapevine canes to pruning wound infection and colonisation by trunk disease pathogens and, for eutypa dieback, there was evidence of decreased susceptibility to colonisation in vines under severe water deficit. These results suggest that drought and deficit irrigation practices are not likely to contribute to the increased prevalence of grapevine trunk disease in vineyards.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research was funded by Wine Australia, with additional support from Nufarm Australia, Adelaide Hills Wine Region, Barossa Grape and Wine Association, McLaren Vale Grape Wine and Tourism Association and Clare Region Winegrape Growers Association.

The authors acknowledge Gary Grigson for maintenance of trials at the Loxton Research Centre, and thank Ian Bogisch, Cathy Todd, Lee Bartlett, Bruce Henderson and Georgina Elena for technical assistance.

REFERENCES

Levitt, J. (1980) Responses of plants to environmental stresses. New York, USA: Academic Press.

McCarthy, M.G.; Loveys, B.R.; Dry, P.R. and Stoll, M. (2002) Regulated deficit irrigation and partial rootzone drying as irrigation management techniques for grapevines. In: Deficit Irrigation Practices, Water Reports – 22, Food and Agriculture Organisation Corporate Document Repository, Rome, Italy, 79–88, [http://www.fao.org/docrep/004/ Y3655E/y3655e00.htm] accessed 15 August 2015.

Pitt, W.M.; Huang, R.; Steel, C.C. and Savocchia, S. (2013) Pathogenicity and epidemiology of Botryosphaeriaceae species isolated from grapevines in Australia. Australasian Plant Pathology 42:573-582.

Schultz, H.R. (2000) Climate change and viticulture: A European perspective on climatology, carbon dioxide and UV-B effects. Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research 6:2-12.

Smart, R.E. and Coombe, B.G. (1983) Water relations of grapevines. In: Water deficits and plant growth. Ed. Kozlowski TT, New York, USA: Academic Press, 137-96 (vol. 7).

Butterworth, S.C.; Jordan, S.A. and Schilder, A.M. (2005) Eutypa dieback: disease progress and losses in ‘Concord’ grapes. Phytopathologia Mediterranea 44:106.

Sosnowski, M.R.; Shtienberg, D.; Creaser, M.L.; Wicks, T.J.; Lardner, R. and Scott, E.S. (2007a) The influence of climate on foliar symptoms of eutypa dieback in grapevines. Phytopathology 97:1284-1289.

Canny, M.J. and Roderick, M.L. (2005) A second pathway for gas out of the pressure chamber – what is being squeezed? Plant Physiology and Biochemistry 43:15-321

Sosnowski, M.R.; Wicks, T.J.; Lardner, R. and Scott, E.S. (2007b) The influence of grapevine cultivar and isolate of Eutypa lata on wood and foliar symptoms. Plant Disease 91:924-931.

Creaser, M. and Wicks, T. (2001) Yearly variation in Eutypa dieback symptoms and the relationship to grapevine yield. Australian & New Zealand Grapegrower & Winemaker 452:50-52.

Sosnowski, M.R.; Luque, J.; Loschiavo, A.P.; Martos, S.; Garcia-Figueres, F.; Wicks, T.W. and Scott, E.S. (2011) Studies on the effect of water and temperature stress on grapevines inoculated with Eutypa lata. Phytopathologia Mediterranea 50:S127-S138.

Dumot, V.; Menard E.; Courlit, Y.; Ouvrie, M.; Desache, F.; Boursier, N.; David, S.; Dubos, B. and Larignon, P. (2004) Eutypa canker in the Charentes Region: results of a 10-year study on Ugni blanc.

Phytoma 568:4-7.

Hamblin, J. (2015) Factors affecting grapevine susceptibility to Eutypa dieback. Honours Thesis, The University of Adelaide.

Jones, G.V. (2005) Climate change in the western United States grapegrowing regions. Acta Horticulturae 689:41-60.

Kriedemann, P.E. and Smart, R.E. (1971) Effects of irradiance, temperature, and leaf water potential on photosynthesis of vine leaves. Photosynthetica 5:7-15.

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IRRIGATION EFFICIENCY

V II T T II C C U U L LT T U U R R E E V

Increasing irrigation efficiency – technology to save water without risking yield or quality

By Tony Hoare Hoare Consulting, PO Box 1106, McLaren Flat 5171 South Australia Email: tony@hoareconsulting.com.au

Australia is at the forefront of the design and manufacture of soil moisture monitoring technology, yet few of the nation’s growers take advantage of it. Tony outlines the advantages of utilising this technology in vineyards and profiles a couple of locally-designed products.

A

ustralia, one of the world’s most advanced irrigation nations, has only one in five irrigators using some sort of tool to monitor soil moisture (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2006). While this is an old statistic, and relates to all agricultural sectors, it is hard to believe that this was the case even 10 years ago. What makes it especially hard to believe is that Australia was, back then, and remains now at the forefront of cost-effective, user-friendly, soil moisture monitoring technology. The current situation facing many Australian winegrowing regions with the rising cost of irrigation water and difficulties in securing water allocations, especially at peak times of demand, might now provide winegrape growers with the motivation to adopt the current range of technology available. If this wasn’t reason enough, there are other less direct ways in which the technology can be used to assist in more efficient water usage.

RECENT DATA ON SOIL MOISTURE TECHNOLOGY UPTAKE Data on tools to assist with knowing when to irrigate was last collected by the ABS in 2013-14. At 30 June 2014 there were an estimated 128,489 agricultural businesses of which 36,155 had irrigated crops of some form. Irrigating businesses applied an estimated 10.7 million megalitres of water on crops during the 2013-14 reference period. Table 1 depicts estimates of the number of businesses that used tools to help decide when to irrigate during the 2013-14 reference period.

is understandable considering the many management issues facing farmers on a daily basis. However, it might also indicate that farmers are content to irrigate with surplus water rather than potentially risk a crop by saving water. In most vegetable and orchard crops there is a direct correlation with yield and water application through irrigation. In viticulture there is a similar correlation. However, there are periods of vine growth when water can be conserved without negatively affecting fruit yield or quality. For water conservation to be effective and low risk, soil moisture technology should be used to assist with this decision-making process to conserve water without compromising yield or fruit quality.

The old adage ‘If you can’t measure it you can’t manage it’ is relevant to soil moisture information sourced from technology.

Information from soil moisture technology can be as detailed as you wish. The beauty of most soil moisture monitoring equipment available currently is that the interpretation is done by the equipment and delivered to your phone or made visible on the probe in the field. Even the irrigations are recorded, so gone are the days when you need an irrigation diary. The best development in recent times is that there is now software linked to probes that is predictive and essentially acts on behalf of the plant to tell you when it needs a drink.

The next step, which is probably closer than we think, will be automated systems where the plant can water itself. Whilst the Table 1. Estimates of the number of agricultural business that used tools to help decide when to irrigate during 2013-14.

WHY THE POOR UPTAKE OF TECHNOLOGY? Data item The reasons for such a poor uptake of the technology despite droughts, water restrictions, extreme heat events, lower yields and downgraded fruit resulting from heat-affected vineyards are simple. To find out why, a recent phone poll of farmers across the agricultural sector was conducted by one of the innovative Australian soil moisture equipment companies, MEA (Measurement Equipment Australia). In summary, the survey results explained why four out of five farmers were not utilising soil moisture monitoring equipment technology: • convenience • simplicity • price • trust.

The survey found that farmers devote, on average, only 15 minutes of every day to considering irrigation decisions. This

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Number of agricultural businesses

Evaporation figures or graphs

1973

Tensiometers

2788

Soil probes (e.g. neutron probes, capacitance probes)

2227

Government or commercial scheduling service

1816

Calendar/rotational scheduling

16,266

Your knowledge/observation

13,927

Other tools

9865

This data was sourced from the 2013-14 edition of Water Use on Australian Farms (cat. no. 4618.0): http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/ Lookup/4618.0Main+Features12013-14?OpenDocument

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IRRIGATION EFFICIENCY

MEA’s GDot, pictured here in an avocado grove, enables growers to determine if their vines need a drink at a glance, displaying soil moisture tension, or how hard it is for the plant to extract water from the soil.

Sentek’s Drill and Drop soil moisture probe, which also has the option of measuring for soil temperature and salinity.

Sentek’s IrriMAX Live allows growers to access their Sentek monitoring equipment via an internet-enabled mobile device and can be downloaded to a PC.

direct benefits of irrigation are enhanced by this technology, it should not be used in isolation to improve water use efficiency, and there are other indirect ways it can improve water use efficiency.

information for growers to assess the benefits of weed retention under vine.

MIDROW MANAGEMENT

Mulching is an expensive exercise and its effectiveness and benefits are measured over a number of years. Soil moisture technology can be utilised to assess the effectiveness of mulching which can result in more efficient use of mulch to improve productivity.

Midrow management impacts directly and indirectly on soil moisture availability in vineyards. The choice of midrow management options are regionally and site specific and depend on total annual rainfall and its timing, available water for irrigation, soil moisture holding capacity of the vineyard and the many other beneficial ways a midrow can enhance vineyard productivity. It is difficult to generalise, however, there are some principles of midrow practice that apply to different vineyards. The effect of midrow practices on vines can be assisted by information from soil moisture technology. The decision to clean cultivate, use volunteer growth, rolled crops, annual or perennial, broadleaf or cereal crops, when to rip and how deep can all be assisted by knowing how those options affect vine growth and productivity in relation to soil moisture.

UNDER-VINE MANAGEMENT Under-vine management can also have a significant effect on soil moisture availability to vines. The presence of weeds can compete with vines for moisture available from irrigation.

In low rainfall regions this can have a significant effect on vine vigour and productivity. Measuring soil moisture and monitoring plant water availability and usage can provide

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MULCHING

SALINITY A constant and growing problem in vineyards, salinity can be managed and mitigated by soil moisture information. Knowing the depth of irrigations allows growers to use leaching irrigations to flush salts away from rootzones and, therefore, manage the risk of salt uptake on the short term saleability of fruit and the long-term viability of the vineyard.

FERTILISER The application of nutrients via fertigation can be monitored using soil moisture monitoring technology. The technology can be used to deliver nutrients via irrigation to the area of highest root concentration, therefore maximising uptake and reducing loss through leaching past the rootzone.

If you’re thinking of adopting some of the new technology available for soil moisture monitoring, then you might like to consider the two leading suppliers in Australia.

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IRRIGATION EFFICIENCY

MEASUREMENT ENGINEERING AUSTRALIA (MEA) MEA was founded in 1984 by engineer Dr Andrew Skinner.

Andrew has pioneered cost-effective, user-friendly soil moisture tools for farmers across all agricultural sectors. MEA is well known for its Plexus and GDot soil moisture monitoring devices.

MEA GDot The GDot displays soil moisture tension, or how hard it is for the plant to extract water from the soil. It can easily be read at a glance from up to 15 metres away, even from a moving vehicle. Seven yellow ‘flip’ dots indicate the soil is nice and wet and is easy for the roots to access water. Falling yellow dots show the soil is drying out and plants are having to work harder to get moisture, while only a few yellow dots mean the soil is quite dry and most crops are on their way to experiencing water stress – a cue to irrigate.

Installation of the GDot requires burying the sensor in the active root zone and hanging the GDot from a post or on a length of pipe. The standard 1.5m cable can be extended so the GDot can be attached to the end of a crop row or outside a fence line metres from the sensor.

Advantages of the MEA GDot: • easy to install, read and understand • ability to be checked whenever someone is near them • also easy to move around • relatively inexpensive • low maintenance • minimise irrigations.

SENTEK Sentek Technologies has been manufacturing soil moisture technology and exporting it to the world since 1991. Created by growers for growers under the expertise of Dr Peter Buss, the company continues to provide innovative products to farmers to analyse soil moisture and soil salinity.

The company’s current product offerings include the standalone Drill and Drop and All in One soil moisture probes.

Its irriMAX Live software supports the company’s soil moisture products and allows live soil moisture information to be made available to growers’ hand-held devices. The software does all the hard work for growers and gives an easy-to-understand overview of the soil moisture network. It even alerts growers in advance of impending soil moisture stress situations and how much and when to irrigate.

Advantages of the Drill and Drop • available in four probe lengths - 30cm, 60cm, 90cm and 120cm • option to combine soil moisture, salinity and temperature readings to see what’s happening in the soil profile • measure soil moisture, temperature or soil moisture, or temperature and salinity at every 10cm interval • quick and easy installation due to tapered shape • suitable for both short term and long-term use as it can be installed and left untouched for many years • potential water, power, fertiliser and time savings, along with increased yields and quality

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• slurry-free installation procedure, increasing the reliability of soil moisture and salinity readings • less prone to machine damage with electronics completely buried Advantages of the All in One • cable free • bluetooth configuration and diagnostics • long life battery • cellular/mobile phone or satellite telemetry • easy to understand graphs • option to view graph via IrriMAX Live web platform • EnviroSCAN quality data with undisturbed installation.

The benefits of soil moisture technology are that it is now more simple to use, reliable in vineyards over time and provides fast accurate data. There are various options to suit budgets, however the overall cost savings of time, water and reduced risk of crop loss and quality damage make the decision to use our world-class Australian soil moisture technology pretty simple.

Before setting up his own vineyard and winery consultancy business with wife Briony, Tony Hoare established and managed the Ablington Vineyard Estate block in the Lower Hunter for five years before joining Wirra Wirra in McLaren Vale in 2002 where he managed the winery’s estate and contract vineyards. He and Briony also have their own wine WVJ label and cellar door, Beach Road Wines.

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V V II T T II C C U U L LT T U U R R E E

IRRIGATION

A comparative study of traditional versus plant sensor-based irrigation

By Thibaut Scholasch*

First published in the December 2015 issue of the US-based Wine Business Monthly, this article highlights how plant sensor-based irrigation promotes more conservative vineyard water use and improves vineyard economics.

INTRODUCTION In September 2013, reports from San Luis Obispo County claimed that a rapid decline in well levels coincided with a surge in large vineyard plantings. In this climatic context, the goal of this project was to push forward a plant sensor-based approach to optimise water use in viticulture. Prior to this project, various testimonials had reported that a plant sensor-based approach to irrigation has a positive impact on water savings in viticulture.

Additionally, because vineyard water deficit benefits fruit composition, wine quality has been reported to improve. The objective of the study was to compare traditional methods of irrigation (control treatment) with a plant sensor-based method (Fruition treatment) over six vineyards in 2014 located in the Paso Robles, Napa and Healdsburg areas.

Our main objective was to demonstrate that water savings can be done through better irrigation practices based on plant measurements. The main hypothesis is that a treatment that triggers irrigation according to plant- based measurements saves water and improves fruit composition. Using sap flow sensors, we wanted to quantify how much more conservative irrigation could be. To reach that objective we will: • compare two irrigation treatments: plant sensor-based irrigation versus traditional irrigation and analyse the impact on water savings.

• show the impact of reducing water input on plant water use and fruit composition. If successful, this demonstration should incentivise winegrape growers to switch more quickly to plant sensor-based irrigation and save water without compromising their quality or revenue.

MATERIAL AND METHOD SITE LOCATION Figure 1 shows the approximate site location of each vineyard site where the split treatment experiment took place on the California map. The six vineyard sites belonged to six different wineries located between Paso Robles (PR), Napa (NP) and Healdsburg (HB).

*Thibaut Scholasch holds a PhD in viticulture from the French National Institute of Agronomy at Montpellier, France. His research focussed on vine water status variations under dry climates and their consequences on berry ripening. Scholasch also serves as a scientific consultant for various high-end vineyards in Napa Valley. Prior to his PhD, Scholasch worked as a winemaker for various companies throughout the world (Chile, California, France and Australia). In 2001, he was hired by Robert Mondavi winery as a research viticulturist: his projects focussed predominantly on mapping vineyard variability and analysing vineyard practices and vine water deficit impact on fruit composition. Scholasch earned a master’s degree in viticulture and oenology in 1997 and a master’s degree in winemaking in 1998 from SUPAGRO, one of the top agronomy schools in France.

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VINEYARD PROPERTIES All sites had been planted between 1999 and 2008, with an average of 1700 plants per acre. Different varietals (Cabernet Sauvignon, Syrah and Merlot) and rootstocks (110R, 101-14, St. George) have been monitored for this experiment. Extra information related to block properties and layout are available upon request.

EXPERIMENTAL LAYOUT We used weekly aerial pictures (NDVI) to identify areas of uniform vegetative expression within each vineyard and to select the split treatment location. Experimental areas were divided into two sections for treatment application, referred to as ‘Fruition’, or sap flow-based (experimental treatment), and ‘Traditional’ (traditional treatment). The goal of the experiment is to compare the effect of each irrigation treatment on block performance (yield and fruit quality) across six distinct vineyards (Figure 2).

• Traditional treatment: This is the control treatment where irrigation is applied according to historical vineyard management practices.

• Fruition treatment: This is the experimental treatment where irrigation is triggered according to plant-sensor data. The water deficit index is calculated daily. Irrigations are triggered each time vine water use falls below a threshold of plant water deficit.

Blocks under treatment are divided into two areas where the two irrigation treatments are applied side to side. The boundary line splits the two treatments. The white circles in Figure 2 point to the sap flow devices’ locations that are referred to as the ‘Smart Point’.

It is important to note that experimental sites were selected in situations where row orientation was parallel to the slope and never perpendicular.

Consequently, even if irrigation water could have overflown on surface after irrigation (a potential concern on a steep slope vineyard site), it should not have impacted treatment integrity. In practice, no surface water overflow was reported after irrigation, and water penetrated vertically under the dripper (maximum horizontal wetted diameter of the soil never exceeded 70cm).

ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING Weather station: Climatic measurements include four parameters to compute ETref according to the Pennman-Monteith equation: temperature, relative humidity, global radiation and windspeed. Weather stations were used to compute site-specific climatic demand.

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vineyard sites belonged to six different wineries located between Paso Robles IRRIGATION V II T T II C C U U L LT T U U R R E E V (PR), Napa (NP) and Healdsburg (HB).

Figure 1. Map of California showing block location with code name.

WATER INPUT WDI = 0 percent, there is no vine water use; the vine is dead.

Irrigation at each Smart Point to block location T is daily measured transpiration from sap flow, and Tmax F I G U Rgauges E 1 were Mapinstalled of California showing with code name monitor the amount of water applied through the irrigation line. is daily maximal vine transpiration obtained under dry soil For each treatment, a rain gauge recorded the amount of water conditions when soil moisture is non-limiting, as in Allen et al. from the dripper. To ensure reliability of irrigation gauge data, (20091).

VINEYARD PROPERTIES gauge calibration was tested. For that, we collected the volume Tmax (t)=KcB(t) ETref: ETref is the reference evapotranspiration of water emitted by the dripper into a graduated container and a coefficient linearly related to the leaf area index (Picón-Toro Allcompared sites Study had beencollected planted between 1999 and 2008, with an average of and the of volume with the volume of water et al., 20122).

A Comparative Traditional vs. Plant Sensor-based Irrigation reported by the gauge under the same dripper. Our results (Cabernet Sauvignon, Syrah and 1,700 plants per acre.

Different varietals confirmed that manufacturer calibration was reliable.

FRUIT DATA Material and Method Merlot) and rootstocks (110R, 101-14, St. George) have monitored for berries at each During thebeen maturation phase, we sampled SITE LOCATION PLANT WATER USE site MONITORING Point. We analysed berry weight and juice composition F I G U R E 1 shows the approximate location of each vineyard site where this experiment.

Extra information related toSmart block properties and layout the split treatment experiment took place on the California map. The six Continuous Measurement: In each treatment, one row was at key stages of the fruit production cycle. At each site we vineyard sites belonged to six different wineries located between Paso Robles (PR), (NP)In andeach Healdsburg (HB). selected. selected two vines were equipped with one compared the fruit maturation profile with the vine water use areNapaavailable uponrow, request. sensor each. Each sensor measured the vine sap flow rate every profile. Berry skin composition was also analysed (data not 15 minutes. The two selected vines were within 25 metres of shown). each other within the same row.

Sap flow sensors were wrapped EXPERIMENTAL LAYOUT around the stem section (Figure 3). To ensure good control LEAF AREA DYNAMICS AND SPATIAL EXTRAPOLATION Wetheused aerial (NDVI) areas of uniform over amountweekly of heat applied on thepictures stem, vines used for the to identify At each Smart Point, shoot length was measured over four measurement were insulated with aluminum foil (Figure 4 ). vines on five shoots per vine and during the rapid phase of vegetative expression within each vineyard andshoot to elongation select the split treatment The energy balance method was used to measure sap flow (from early May to the end of June). At the F I G Ua R E Sap 1 Map IP of California showing block locationby withDynamax code name with system (supplied inwere Houston, Texas). into same timesections weekly aerial were provided. After image location.

Experimental areas divided two forpictures treatment Sap flow rates measured on each vine were averaged on an processing, aerial pictures reflected the amount of chlorophyll VINEYARD PROPERTIES application, referred to asaverage“Fruition” or sap flow-based (experimental All sites had been planted between 1999 row. and 2008, with an Deficit of Index Computation: hourly basis within each Water (i.e., biomass) covering the groundtreatbased on the analysis of a 1,700 plants per acre. Different varietals (Cabernet Sauvignon, Syrah and Water Index (WDI) is the ratio between actual and vegetative index of called NDVI. NDVI spatial distribution was used Merlot) andDeficit rootstocks (110R, 101-14, St. George) have been monitored for ment) and “Traditional” (traditional treatment).

The goal the experiment this experiment. Extra information related to blockdefined properties and layout maximum vine transpiration, as: as ancillary data to extrapolate information collected within the are available upon request.

WDI (t) = T (t)/ Tmax(t).

Smart Point area to the rest of the block under treatment.

EXPERIMENTAL LAYOUT WDIweekly represents level of daily water use by reference to Thus, by combining aerial pictures with plant-based and We used aerial picturesthe (NDVI) to identify areas vine of uniform vegetative expression level. within each vineyard and to select the split treatment its maximal fruit-based measurements, we monitored the uniformity of the location. Experimental areas were divided into two sections for treatment WDI referred = 100to aspercent ofAvine water useStudy is observed; plant rate as well as the plant response during the application, “Fruition” ormaximal sap flow-based level (experimental treatComparative of Traditional vs. development Plantvs.

Sensor-based Irrigation A Comparative Study of Traditional Plant Sensor-based Irrigation ▶ ment) and “Traditional” (traditional treatment). The goal of the experiment there is no vine water deficit. season for the whole area under treatment.

F I G U R E 3F Sap flow andsensor stem section: The sensor The is wrapped IGUR E 3 sensor Sap flow and stem section: sensor is

wrapped

F I G U R E 2 Experimental design: Uniform vineyard block is split for around the stem monitor vine sap flow.

Figure 2. Experimental design: uniform Figure 3.around Saptothe flow and stem stemsensor to monitor vine sap flow. treatment comparison vineyard block is split for treatment section: the sensor is wrapped around comparison. the stem to monitor vine sap flow.

PLANT WATER USE MONITORING

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FIGURE 4

Two equipped with sap flowwith sensors F I Gvines URE 4 Two vines equipped sap flow sensors

insulated with aluminum foilaluminum Figure 4.and Two vines equipped with foil and insulated with sap flow sensors and insulated with aluminium foil.

PLANT WATER USE MONITORING ancillary data to extrapolate within the Smart Point ancillary data toinformation extrapolate collected information collected within the Smart Po Continuous Measurement: In each treatment, one row was In selected.

Continuous Measurement: In each treatment, oneselected. row was area toInthe rest block areaoftothe the rest under of the treatment. block under treatment.

55

each selected werevines equipped with sensor each.sensor Each eachrow, selected row, two equipped with UGUST one each. Thus, Each by combining W I Ntwo E & vines VITICULTUR E were JO UR N Aone L JULY/A 2016 www.winetitles. com . aufruit-based pictures withpictures plant-based and Thus, by aerial combining aerial with plant-based and fruit-ba sensor measured the vine sap minutes. two selected sensor measured theflow vinerate sapevery flow 15 rate every 15The minutes.

The two selected measurements, we monitoredwethe uniformity ofuniformity the plant development as measurements, monitored the of the plantrate development rat vines werevines within 25 meters of each other within the same row.

Sap flow were within 25 meters of each other within the same row. Sap flow

d

. In Each cted low sure the

p IP ured

atio

mal here vine daily soil

oef-

We ducvine wn).

five arly were ount lysis d as

V U E I R with R I sap G Aflow TIO N sensors V II T T IIF IC CG UU UR EL L 4T T Two U R Rvines E equipped and insulated with aluminum foil

higher than 50 percent. After veraison, three irrigations were triggered to impose a higher vine water use. Following each irrigation we observed a rise in WDI. • The effect of irrigations last longer in the Fruition treatment due to larger application volumes.

ancillary data to extrapolate information collected within the Smart Point RESULTS area to the rest of the block under treatment.

Thus, by combining aerial pictures with plant-based and fruit-based IRRIGATION we monitored the uniformity of the plant development rate as measurements, ofresponse Irrigation Events: Between June area andunder harvest, wellNumber as the plant during the season for the1 whole treatment. less than five irrigations were triggered in the Fruition treatment versus six to 30 times with the traditional treatment. Figure 5 reports the number of irrigations traditionally applied at each location.

IRRIGATION Volume: On average, 65 percent of water was saved in the Between the Junevolume 1 and harvest, less than Number IrrigationFigure Events: Fruition of treatment.

6 reports of irrigation (in five irrigations were triggered in the Fruition treatment versus six to 30 times mm) applied between 1 June and harvest.

F I G U R E 5 reports the number of irrigations withOn thea traditional treatment. side note, vineyard managers and winemakers have Figure 7. WDI seasonal profile (18 June to 15 September). traditionally applied each location. confirmed that theyatreduced their traditional irrigation volumes because they were observing how vines were responding to • In the FFruition treatment, before veraison, water deficit I G U R E 7 WDI seasonal profile (June 18 to Sept. 15) Volume: average,in65the percent of water was saved in the Fruition treatreduced On irrigation Fruition treatment. index declines more rapidly. A moderate vine water deficit F I GAways: U R E 6 The reports the volumethat of irrigation (in mm) applied between ment.

Take observation more conservative during that period is induced. Early season water deficit is June 1 and harvest. irrigation practices can be adopted has an immediate effect over desired as it benefits fruit quality at harvest. Despite the lack On a side note, vineyard larger production areas.managers and winemakers have confirmed that of irrigation before veraison, WDI remains higher than 50 theyTraditional reduced their traditional irrigation because they were observing farming behavior canvolumes be ‘psychologically percent. After veraison, three irrigations were triggered to how vines were respondingatosmall reduced irrigation in area. the Fruition treatment. impacted’ by observing experimental impose a higher vine water use. Following each irrigation we This is encouraging and suggests that the Fruition strategy observed a rise in WDI. could quickly become a new normal to implement more • The effect of irrigations lasted longer in the Fruition conservative irrigation over large areas. treatment due to larger application volumes.

Take Aways: By computing WDI daily, a threshold to trigger irrigation can be used to apply a lower amount of water. This strategy leads to an average of 60 percent water savings compared with the traditional technique.

Reducing water use in the vineyard does not necessarily translate into imposing more water deficit to the vine.

Paradoxically, applying more water with more frequent irrigations contributes to increasing the severity of water deficit experienced by the plant, particularly during the second part of the season (post-veraison period).

Figure 5. Comparison between number of irrigations under each treatment for each site.

YIELD F I G U R E 5 Comparison between number of irrigations under each Take Aways: By computing WDI daily, a threshold to trigger irrigation can Table 1 shows that yield levels are similar for the two treatment for each site be used to apply a lower amount of water. This strategy leads to an average of treatments. On average, production levels are higher under 60 percent water savings compared to the traditional technique. the Fruition treatment even if less water is applied. In the most Reducing water use in the vineyard does not necessarily translate into dramatic yield increase situation (site PR-1), yield levels are 20 imposing more water deficit to the vine. despite Paradoxically, applying more water percent higher in the Fruition treatment a water reduction with more frequent irrigations contributes to increasing the severity of 75 percent.

Yield decline under the Traditional treatment can of water deficit experienced by the plant, particularly during the second be interpreted as a carry-over effect of more frequent irrigation.part of the season (post-veraison period).

When more water is applied in the early season, maximal berry size is programmed to be larger due to an increase in berry cell Figure 6. Volume of total irrigations, comparison between YIELD However, this strategy imposes higher water needs to numbers. treatments for each site. maintain berry turgidity after berry growth stops, and it increases T A B L E 1 shows that yield levels are similar for the two treatments. On F I G U R E 6 Volume of total irrigations, comparison between treatments berry susceptibility to dehydration. This is particularly noticeable average, production levels are higher theisFruition TREATMENT EFFECT ON PLANT WATER when heatwaves happen before harvestunder (which the casetreatment for the even if for each site STATUS less water is applied.

In the most dramatic yield increase situation (site PR-1), Water Deficit Index: The concept of the Water Deficit Index end of August in site PR-1). yield levels are 20 percent higher in the Fruition treatment despite a water (WDI), the positioning and number of conservative sensors perirrigation area as well Take Aways: The observation that more practices reduction of 75 percent.

Yield decline under the Traditional treatment can method extrapolation are explained in areas. the canasbethe adopted hasfor an spatial immediate effect over larger production Table 1. Yield comparison. be interpreted as a carry-over effect of more frequent irrigation.

When more previous Material Methodcan section.

Traditional farmingand behavior be “psychologically impacted” by Fruition treatment Siteis applied Traditional (tonnes/acre) water in the early season, maximal (tonnes/acre) berry size is programmed to We computed an aggregated observing a small experimental area. daily WDI for each treatment to be larger due to an increase in berry cell numbers.

However, this strategy compare treatmentand effect overthat the the entire season (Figure 7). quickly PR-1 2.58 3.13 This is encouraging suggests Fruition strategy could imposes higher water needs to maintain berry turgidity • In the traditional vinemore water use can beirrigation severely over become a new normal treatment, to implement conservative PR-2 4.67 4.55 after berry growth stops, and it increases berry susceptibility to dehydration.

This is particularge limited areas. after veraison compared with before veraison.

NP-3 2.12 2.08 Consequently, after veraison, the water deficit index drops larly noticeable when heat NP-4 2.86waves happen before harvest 2.91 (which is the case TREATMENT ON <50 PLANT WATER STATUShigher water to lower EFFECT values (WDI percent) indicating for the end of August in site PR-1).

SO-5 1.98 2.03 Waterstress, Deficitwhereas Index: The concept of the (WDI), the before veraison noWater waterDeficit stressIndex is detected SO-6 2.80 2.95 positioning and percent). number of sensors per area as well as the method for spatial (WDI >50 Average 2.83 2.94 extrapolation are explained in the previous Material and Method section.

T A B L E 1 Yield Comparison We computed an aggregated daily WDI for each treatment to compare www.w i n eti tl es .cthe om.au V31N4 treatment effect over entire season (F I G U R E 7 ). W I N E & V I T I C ULTUR E JO UR NA L JULY/A UGUST 2016

Results

56

Site

Traditional

Fruition treatment

FR

Si ob ac

TA

th ap

IRRIGATION

Table 2. Sugar accumulation (average over the last three sampling dates before harvest).

Sugar amount (mg/ Sugar concentration berry) (Brix)

Table 3. Comparison of water volumes applied according to treatment (irrigations are cumulated from 1 June until harvest). treatment Water and cost Traditional (mm) Fruition (mm) savings

Site

Treatment

PR-1

Traditional

261.4

25.1

PR-A

88

25

71%

Fruition

261.2

25.9

PR-D

51

28

45%

Traditional

171.4

24.7

PR-H

57

27

53%

Fruition

177.1

24.6

NP-K

27

0

100%

Traditional

270.6

25.9

NP-M

91

50

53%

Fruition

273.3

26.9

HB-JP

44

26

40%

Traditional

200.5

24.9

Average

60

26

60%

Fruition

187.8

25.3

Traditional

188.6

22.9

Fruition

184.2

22.8

Traditional

216.7

25.1

Fruition

218.5

24.7

PR-2 NP-3 NP-4 SO-5 Average

FRUIT COMPOSITION AND QUALITY Similar maturation profiles (sugar accumulation and berry weight) were obtained for both treatments. From a winemaker standpoint, rate of sugar accumulation was not significantly different between the two treatments.

Table 2 reports variations in the total amount of sugar per berry and the sugar concentration before harvest. Maturity levels were considered appropriate for winemaking purposes, regardless of the treatment.

More complex chemical analyses performed on skin composition (i.e., polyphenols extractibility) revealed that skin polyphenol concentration is systematically higher under the Fruition treatment. Higher colour or polyphenols concentration is generally desirable from a winemaking standpoint.

This overall improvement of fruit quality under the Fruition treatment was reflected through the following winemaker comments: Owner of Site PR-1: “Despite applying less water we observed no decline in yield. Average Brix coming from combined sample of juice extracted while the fruit was harvested: 27° Brix in Traditional versus 26.5° Brix in Fruition. It means that contrary to what one would have expected, there is more dehydration in the traditional treatment (coherent with lower yield).”

In conclusion: “There was no yield difference even though we would have thought that more dehydration should have occurred to the Fruition treatment. The physiological maturity level is better in the Fruition treatment, which suggests that vines suffered less. An asset for wine quality under the Fruition treatment.”

Owner of Site PR-2: “Sections within the experimental block where WDI was maintained lower pre-veraison show more polyphenols. In the Fruition block 11 we have observed a rise of 30 to 40 percent in phenolics. The return on investment increases because the Fruition wine was used in our $100 bottle while before it made it into our $56 bottle. The wine in the Fruition treatment is clearly superior. It is more beefy, darker, more intense.”

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Site

Winemaker of Site NP-3: “In-house phenolic analyses were run during fermentation and at pressing time. We found that the Fruition treatment was higher in color compared to traditional treatment (an 8 percent increase).

For us, color is the most important aspect of phenolic analysis as the color is where flavor and concentration come from in winemaking. When tasting the blocks individually, we gave an edge to the Fruition blocks.”

Owner of Site NP-4: “I feel like the tannins came around faster in the Fruition treatment and perceived less greenness.” [Note: This testimonial was featured on an NPR interview from December 15, titled “Market Place.”]

Winemaker of Site SO-5: “I observed an earlier maturation in the Fruition treatment. Fruit quality is surprisingly good in the Fruition treatment despite having applied less water.”

Winemaker of Site SO-6: “Wine quality has been assessed post-drain, and Fruition treatment was preferred for its broader and more concentrated mouthfeel.”

WATER AND COST SAVINGS Table 3 shows that under the Fruition treatment reductions, in irrigation amount are systematic. Water savings are important, and sometimes dramatic. The lowest amount of water savings was reported in the coolest and wettest area (40 percent water savings, site HB-JP). The highest amount of water savings was reported in site NP-K, which was dry-farmed (100 percent of water savings).

CONCLUSIONS Under the Fruition treatment, the vineyard behaves normally despite the reduction in water volume.

• Aerial pictures reflected no differences between treatments in terms of leaf area development.

• Winemakers have confirmed that no leaf losses were observed under the Fruition treatment.

• Plant physiological ‘behaviour’ is ‘normal’. This is reflected through the maintaining of similar leaf area sizes in both treatments and through leaf photosynthetic activity, allowing proper fruit maturation levels.

• By training the vine in the early season to experience moderate water deficit, irrigation requirements are postponed until after veraison. Berry volume reduction, thus yield loss, is less sensitive to late season heatwaves. This resulted in average yield being higher under the Fruition treatment while more ▶ severe fruit shrivelling is observed under Traditional treatment.

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U ORRET VVAIRTI EI TCAUL LRTE P

IRRIGATION

Take Aways: Dramatic reduction in irrigation, even during a drought, does not necessarily affect vineyard performance or vineyard production.

We used an analytical framework to implement more conservative irrigation practices in vineyards and to monitor their impact on vineyard performance. Vineyard data was analysed, discussed and confirmed with each winery participant separately.

Overall, results show an average of 65 percent water savings compared with the Traditional irrigation strategy.

Moreover, financial benefits in terms of production and vineyard performance have been associated with the implementation of more conservative irrigation strategies in each location: yield is maintained or slightly increased, fruit quality is better and, in some cases, an increase in wine bottle price is reported.

The method was implemented under contrasted climates and over vineyards of various sizes. The method consisted of extrapolating plant-sensing data over larger areas from a few references sites located at strategic vineyard locations. Irrigation was triggered according to a threshold of vine water deficit, which was computed daily.

Our study demonstrates that vineyard economic performance is positively affected by the adoption of a more conservative approach to irrigation, particularly early in the season. The experimental treatment for irrigation optimises vineyard water use and improves vineyard financial performance.

Our study shows that the approach is scalable and can be simultaneously implemented in contrasted situations. Prior to a large scale trial, the same treatment had been implemented successfully three consecutive years in the same block. Results observed in 2012, 2013 and 2014 are similar to the ones described.

By providing real-time analytics to the decision process, the framework successfully enables the adoption of more conservative irrigation strategies and improves vineyard performances.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to thank the Innovative Conservation Program, funded by the Bureau of Reclamation, the Central Arizona Project, the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California and Southern NevadaWater Authority for the financial support in this study. Also, we would like to thank the Fruition team and interns for participating in the fieldwork and technical support. Last, we thank the wineries, which accepted to partner with this project, for their help, trust and financial contribution.

REFERENCES 1 Allen, R.G. and Pereira, L. S. (2009) Estimating crop coefficients from fraction of ground cover and height. Irrigation Science 28(1):17-34.

2 Picón-Toro, J.; González-Dugo, V.; Uriarte, D.; Mancha, L.A. and Testi, L. (2012) Effects of canopy size and water stress over the crop coefficient of a ‘Tempranillo’ vineyard in south-western Spain. Irrigation Science 30(5):419-432.

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Keen for Kerner at Kabminye

By Rick and Ingrid Glastonbury Kabminye Wines, Barossa Valley, South Australia

S

ome 20 years ago, Victoria’s Robinvale Wines became what appears to be the only winery in Australia to take up an offer from the CSIRO in Merbein, Victoria, to supply Kerner vine cuttings, which were planted in its own certified organic and biodynamic vineyard at Robinvale on the Murray River. The Caracatsanoudis family went on to make wine from the Kerner fruit, winning many gold and silver awards.

Around 1974, Rick Glastonbury tasted a Kerner wine from Germany and decided he wanted to make wine from the grape variety. He set about trying to source some cuttings from the CSIRO to plant in his family’s vineyard at Forest Range in the Adelaide Hills but was told none were available, and that he would not see them in Australia in his lifetime.

In 2002, after setting up Kabminye Wines in the Barossa Valley, we discovered that Robinvale Wines was making wine with Kerner, and very good wine at that. We contacted the CSIRO again and was told there was none left in its source block, so we contacted Bill Caracatsanoudis at Robinvale Wines and were pleased to find that Bill was more than happy to let us have some cuttings. We drove to Robinvale and took the cuttings ourselves with Bill’s help, driving back through

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VVAIRTI EI TCAUL LRTE U P ORRET

KERNER

By Peter Dry Emeritus Fellow, The Australian Wine Research Institute BACKGROUND Kerner (kair-ner) is the result of a cross of Schiava Grossa (syn.

Trollinger) and Riesling made at Weinsberg, Germany, in 1929. This parentage has been confirmed by DNA profiling. Authorised in 1969, it has become the most widely planted of the 20th century German crosses.

At present, Kerner is the fifth most planted variety in Germany with 3510ha (2010). It is grown in most regions (mainly Rheinhessen and Rheinpfalz) but does not make up more than 5% of the total planted area of any region. There are also small areas in Italy (mainly Alto Adige), Switzerland, UK, Canada and Japan.

In Australia the current area is very small and there are at least two wine producers (Barossa Valley and Murray Darling).

VITICULTURE Budburst is late and maturity is mid-season. Vigour is high. Bunches are medium and compact with medium berries. Yield is moderate.

Kerner is popular with German growers because, compared with Riesling, it has higher and more reliable yield and can be grown in a wider range of sites. It also has the ability to ripen to higher Brix levels than Mueller-Thurgau. Cane pruning is used in Germany. It is more susceptible to powdery mildew than average but has good cold tolerance.

Wines are fresh and racy, similar to Riesling but with more body and lower acidity. Descriptors include white fruits, apple, grapefruit, mango and Muscat. Although the Australian experience has been mainly in warm to hot regions - where the wines have been good - Kerner may have its best potential in cool regions.

For further information on this and other emerging varieties, contact Marcel Essling (marcel.essling@awri.com.au or 08 8313 6600) at The Australian Wine Research Institute to arrange the presentation of the Alternative Varieties Research to Practice program in your region.

Mildura where the vines were fumigated before crossing the border into South Australia. It seems these were the only cuttings distributed from the Caracatsanoudis’ vineyard.

Once back in the Barossa the question arose, what to do with the vine cuttings? First of all, the precious babies were stored in the Yalumba Nursery coolroom for a year until they were ready to callous and plant out.

We really wanted to plant them in the cooler climes of Eden Valley, rather than the valley floor where the little Kabminye vineyard was, so we looked for someone to plant them for us. Our vineyard contractor offered, but decided they didn’t have enough space. Fortunately, at around this time, Michael and Graham Fechner approached us and asked if we had any grape varieties we would like them to plant in their vineyard in Moculta, about 15km east of Nuriootpa. Yes, we said, and offered them the Kerner cuttings on the basis that they would plant out the 2000 cuttings and Kabminye Wines would take the grapes from the vines and make wine from them.

Kabminye Wines first Kerner vintage in 2008 was made dry in the traditional Eden Valley Riesling style. Rick experimented with various styles, making a dry, late harvest and mistelle version (adding grape spirit to unfermented juice), as well as blending it with White Frontignac.

Tasting notes for the currently available Kabminye Kerner wines are as follows: 2010 Kerner The 2010, our best crop so far, is again a crisp, bone-dry white with lively tropical fruit aromatics that lead into zingy pear, citrus and lychee flavours. Delicious with natural oysters on a hot afternoon.

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Ingrid and Rick Glastonbury, proprietors of Kabminye Wines based in the South Australia’s Barossa Valley.

2012 Late Harvest Kerner In 2012 the mild summer allowed us to let the grapes ripen several weeks longer than in previous years, developing more concentrated tropical fruit flavours without losing Kerner’s trademark crispness. Refreshing, fruity and off-dry.

The Fechners have since increased the size of their original vineyard and gone on to make their own wines with their Kerner grapes as well as supplying their fruit to other wineries.

The Kerner grape variety would appear to be very hardy, growing in the warmer Riverland region through to snowy regions in Japan, and producing good quality wine across all of WVJ these regions.

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UNDERVINE COVER CROPS

Under-vine cover crops as an alternative to herbicide

By Justine Vanden Heuvel Associate Professor of Viticulture, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, United States of America

Justine summarises the outcomes of several experiments she has overseen in the Finger Lakes region of New York into the effects of annual under-vine cover crops on soil, vines, wines and weed management costs.

T

he standard vineyard floor management practice in many cool climate wine regions is to maintain a weed-free strip under trellises using herbicides or cultivation, and sod alleyways between rows. The bare soil eliminates competition from non-vine plant species for water and nutrients but also increases soil erosion and runoff.

Planting cover crops directly under vines has the potential to mitigate the environmentally detrimental features of herbicide application and cultivation, while increasing competition for water and nutrients to reduce excessive vine vigour.

My research program at Cornell has recently completed several experiments and published a series of papers on the use of annual under-vine cover crops.

Over the past six years we’ve worked with a range of under-vine cover crops: buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum), rosette-forming turnip (Brassica rapa), chicory (Chicorum intybus), annual ryegrass (Lollium multiflorum), white clover (Trifolium repens cv. Dutch White), tillage radish (Raphanus sativus), alfalfa (Medicago sativa), fescue (Festuca arundinacia), and what we call ‘native vegetation’ (i.e., we let the weeds grow).

UNDER-VINE COVER CROPS CAN MAINTAIN OR REDUCE VINE SIZE A summary of the cover crops we’ve used on mature vines (therefore, not including the Karl et al. 2016a data which was on young vines) and their approximate impact on vine size is in Table 1. In our experience the range of impacts of the under-vine covers suggests that these crops can be used as a tool for maintaining soil cover and potentially controlling vine size. For example, buckwheat had essentially no effect on vine size or yield at multiple sites, while chicory plots had significantly

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lower pruning weights compared with glyphosate plots.

Under-vine cover crops that provided ample competition for vines – such as chicory - likely did so through competition for both nutrients and water. Some of the cover crops reduced petiole nutrient concentrations at veraison – specifically N – but others had little impact. Due to our high organic matter soils and a climate that in most years provides ample precipitation, we found little to no differences in stem water potential as a function of cover crops. In many cases shoot length, shoot diameter, and/ or shoot growth rate was reduced as a function of cover crop growth, suggesting that stem water potential just wasn’t precise enough to pick up the differences in vine water status that likely caused the reduced vine growth.

We used minirhizotron tubes to image grapevine roots and recorded lower grapevine fine root production in shallow soil layers as well as a shorter lifespan of the vine’s fine roots due to competition with cover crop roots (Centinari et al.

2016).

The timing of competition for water and nutrients was affected by the choice of under-vine cover crop. For example, natural vegetation provided competition throughout the season as senescing weeds were replaced by new species. In contrast, buckwheat emerged early and then senesced by mid-August. These

timing differences with respect to cover crop growth should enable growers to fine-tune the timing of competition in their vineyards.

UNDER-VINE COVER CROPS HAVE AN INCONSISTENT IMPACT ON FRUIT AND MUST COMPOSITION The effect of under-vine cover crops on must composition was negligible in our studies, with soluble solids, pH and TA being minimally impacted or not at all. Small-scale fermentations were completed with fruit from three sites over multiple years (Karl et al. 2016a, Jordan et al. 2016, and an unpublished Riesling study described in Jordan 2014 where buckwheat, chicory, and glyphosate were compared as under-vine treatments).

When subjected to multidimensional scaling analyses to determine whether wines from the under-vine cover crop treatments differed from the control, wines made from vines with under-vine cover crops had different perceived aromatic properties at one of two Riesling sites (Jordan et al. 2016, Jordan 2014), but the aromatic and gustatory properties of Cabernet Franc were not impacted (Karl et al. 2016a). The effect of under-vine cover crops on wine sensory characteristics would be highly dependent on how competitive the cover crop was in a given season, and whether cluster light exposure, leaf-area-to-fruit

Table 1. Under-vine cover crops classified according to their impact on pruning weight and yield of mature vines. Note results will differ based on water and nutrient availability, and climate.

Little to no effect

Moderate effect

Significant effect

Buckwheat

Tillage Radish

Chicory

Rosette-forming turnip

Alfalfa

Annual ryegrass

Fescue Native vegetation (depending on weed composition) W I N E & V I T I C ULTUR E JO UR NA L JULY/A UGUST 2016

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A

B

C

D

E

F

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G

Figure 1. Under-vine treatments used in experimentsl: A) glyphosate, B) buckwheat, C) chicory, D) tillage radish, E) fescue, F) native vegetation, G) cultivation. ratio, or vine nutrient and water status were affected.

UNDER-VINE COVER CROPS IMPROVE SOIL HEALTH WHILE REDUCING LEACHING OF NUTRIENTS AND AGROCHEMICALS Over a four-year period, we tracked the impact of under-vine treatments of glyphosate, cultivation, native vegetation, and dutch clover on soil health, including leaching of agrochemicals and nutrients (Karl et al. 2016b). We installed a set of 16 drainage lysimeters into the block (Figure 2) so that we could collect leachate samples after rain and irrigation events. We used these water samples to track leaching of total nitrogen, dissolved organic carbon (as a proxy for soil breakdown), and the insecticide imidacloprid.

In the fourth year of the study we observed physical differences in the soil structure. Soils in the cultivated plots had greater bulk density, less porosity, and

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lower available water capacity than soils in the white clover treatments.

Dissolved organic carbon is an important source of nutrients for soil microbial metabolism and it influences

biological, physical, and chemical properties of the soil. Averaged over the four-year study, dissolved organic carbon leachate concentrations were approximately 33% greater (Figure 3)

Figure 2. Design and placement of drainage lysimeters for collecting leachate samples from under-vine cover crops.

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UNDERVINE COVER CROPS

in glyphosate compared with native vegetation plots, suggesting soil breakdown and a loss of soil health in the glyphosate plots.

When averaged over the four years of the Karl et al. (2016b) study, the rate of total nitrogen leachate in the glyphosate plots was 174% greater than in the native vegetation plots. As well as being a pollutant of local waterways, greater leaching of nitrate can also lead to increased emissions of the greenhouse gas nitrous oxide from soils.

Under-vine management also affected imidacloprid insecticide movement and persistence in the vineyard. The insecticide was found in nearly all native vegetation and glyphosate plots (Karl et al.

2016b) but imidacoprid and its breakdown metabolites were found in much greater concentrations in the glyphosate plots than in the other treatments, likely because the lack of plant cover resulted in the imidacloprid dripping directly onto the soil. Imidacloprid is toxic to both aquatic and soil-dwelling invertebrates, so reducing leaching of the compound is a priority. However, while we didn’t measure the amount of imidacloprid persisting in the groundcovers, it’s possible that it was absorbed or taken up by groundcovers, which if true may be problematic for nontarget organisms such as honeybees.

UNDER-VINE COVER CROPS REDUCE MANAGEMENT COSTS COMPARED WITH HERBICIDES Economic analyses suggest the cost of planting and maintaining an undervine cover crop is considerably lower than maintaining a herbicide strip (Table 2). The assumptions for this analysis are in Karl et al. (2016a) and included two full sprays plus one spot application of glyphosate, as well as the need to mow the under-vine cover crops. However,

14

Dissolved organic carbon or total nitrogen (mg/L)

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12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Dissolved organic carbon Glyphosate

Cultivation

Total nitrogen

Native vegetation

White clover

Figure 3. Average dissolved organic carbon and total nitrogen leaching from plots with differing under-vine management schemes over a four-year experiment (adapted from Karl et al. 2016b). the partial budget analysis of treatments revealed that glyphosate as an under-vine management strategy increased revenue by almost US$6500 per hectare compared with under-vine cover crop treatments due to greater yields, but this was because the under-vine cover crops were implemented when the vineyard was only four years old. In a mature vineyard where there is little effect on yield (such as those used in Centinari et al. 2016 and Jordan et al. 2016, the effect of under-vine cover crops on total revenue would be positive rather than negative when compared with glyphosate application.

A FEW CAVEATS The impacts of an under-vine cover crop on vine growth and yield will differ significantly based on soil composition and water availability. Our experiments were all conducted in the Finger Lakes region of upstate New York. In most years we have ample precipitation and our soils are high in organic matter (~3%). As a result, excessive vigour can be a challenge in Vinifera plantings. A

good choice of an under-vine cover crop can potentially alleviate some of that vigour, reducing the need for canopy management interventions.

The age of vines will have an impact on how they respond to the competition that an under-vine cover crop may provide for water and nutrients. For example, in Karl et al. (2016a) we initiated our under-vine cover crop treatments when the vineyard was in its fourth year. The vines appeared well-established, but by the sixth year the pruning weight of vines in the native vegetation plots was 0.6kg/ vine, compared with 1.4kg/vine in the glyphosate plots. But when we let the native vegetation grow under vines in a 17-year-old vineyard the pruning weight wasn’t impacted by the treatments after three years (Jordan et al. 2016). While our economic analyses show reduced production costs with under-vine cover crops compared with glyphosate, the effect on revenue will depend on whether yield is reduced.

Extension personnel and industry collaborators are currently working on mechanical methods for seeding directly

Table 2. Partial budget analysis comparing under-vine management strategies (2013 data, third year of experiment, adapted from Karl et al. 2016a).

Under-vine management strategy (1 m strip beneath vine row)

Cost of under-vine management (USD$/ha)

Fruit yield (t/ha)

Crop value (USD$/ ha)

Crop value minus cost of under-vine management (USD$/ha)

Glyphosate

548

15.3

22,200

21,652

Cultivation

1036

13.0

18,863

17,827

Native vegetation (weeds)

84

12.0

17,412

17,328

White clover

169

14.7

21,330

21,151

Summary of partial budget model variables and parameters used to determine revenue per acre can be found in Karl et al. (2016a). Yield was significantly impacted by under-vine cover crops as vines were very young.

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UNDERVINE COVER CROPS

CONCLUSION These experiments demonstrate the potential of under-vine cover crops to be used as a tool for vigour management, to maintain or improve soil health, to decrease the leaching of nutrients compared with herbicide use and to reduce management costs. The effects of under-vine cover crops on the aromatic and gustatory characteristics of the resulting wines requires further investigation.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Adam Karl, Michela Centinari, Lindsay Jordan, Ming-Yi Chou, Ian Merwin, Rebecca Hervieux, Taryn Bauerle, Mike Brown, Steve Lerch, Marc Goebel, Maria Smith, Thomas Bjorkman, Luann Preston-Wilsey, and Pam Raes all contributed their time and expertise to these experiments.

Photos and figures for this article were supplied by Michela Centinari, Andrea Hawk, Ian Merwin, Adam Karl, Lindsay Jordan, and Ming-Yi Chou.

Franc grapevines. Aust. J. Grape and Wine Res. 22:137-148.

Jordan, L.M. (2014) Evaluating the effects of using annually established under-vine cover crops in Northeastern Riesling vineyards. MS thesis, Cornell University.

Jordan, L.M.; Bjorkman, T.J. and Vanden Heuvel, J.E. (2016) Using under-vine cover crops did not impact vine growth or fruit composition of mature cool climate ‘Riesling’ grapevines. HortTech 26:36-45.

Karl, A.D.; Merwin, I.M.; Brown, M.G.; Hervieux, R. and Vanden Heuvel, J.E. (2016a) Impact of under-vine management on vine growth, yield, fruit composition, and wine sensory analyses of Cabernet Franc. Amer.

J. Enol. Vitic. 67:269-280.

Karl, A.D.; Merwin, I.M.; Brown, M.G.; Hervieux,

REFERENCES

R. and Vanden Heuvel, J.E. (2016b) Under-vine

Centinari, M.; Vanden Heuvel, J.E.; Goebel, M. and Baeurle, T.L. (2016) Root-zone management practices impact above and below-ground growth in Cabernet

ONLINE DECISION SUPPORT TOOL FOR COVER CROP SELECTION NOW AVAILABLE Grapegrowers trying to decide which cover crops are best suited to their vineyard can get help from a new website, Cover Crop Finder. The simple-to-use website, which is supported by Wine Australia, provides a guide on suitable cover crop selections for Australian

management impacts soil properties and leachate composition in a New York State Vineyard.

HortScience 51(7): In press.

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under the vines. In our region, a modified rotary spreader and pendulum spreader with a banding accessory are currently being trialed.

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vineyards based on search criteria entered by growers, such as minimum rainfall, whether an annual or perennial crop is desired and the purpose for the cover crop, and then links to detailed information specific to each cover crop.

For further information visit www.covercropfinder.com.au

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TANNINS

Viticultural factors influencing tannin levels in grapes and wine

By Rachel Kilmister Department of Economic Development, Jobs, Transport and Resources, PO Box 905, Mildura, Victoria 3502

What are the various viticultural influences known to affect grape tannin accumulation and extraction into red wine?

INTRODUCTION Tannins are the compounds in red wine primarily responsible for the sensation of astringency. The concentration of tannin largely determines the level of astringency, but tannins are present in many structural forms, which may influence the intensity and flavour characteristics of wine. Tannins are also involved in stabilising colour in red wines because they can form stable, coloured compounds with anthocyanins.

While the majority of wine tannin originates from grape tannins, the pathway from grapes to wine through the winemaking process is not straightforward.

Generally speaking, when a viticultural management intervention results in a change in tannin content in grapes, this change is also reflected in wine.

Winemaking practices, including the addition of exogenous tannins, can be used to manage levels of tannin in wine, but the potential final concentration of tannin in wine is highly dependent on tannin extractability from grapes. In recent years, research at the Victorian Department of Economic Development, Jobs, Transport and Resources (DEDJTR), Mildura, has focussed on understanding grape compositional factors that may influence tannin extractability, which is highly variable between different varieties, vineyard sites and growing seasons. Further research is required to better understand viticultural influences of extractability. This article aims to provide insights into the effects of various viticultural management practices known to influence grape tannin accumulation and extraction into final wine.

HOW, WHERE AND WHEN TANNINS ARE MADE IN VINES Tannins are primarily found in the skin, seed and stem parts of the grape. Tannins are also present in grape flesh, but in

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much lower amounts that are difficult to extract.

Tannin biosynthesis occurs between flowering and veraison, which has implications for the timing of some viticultural management practices to influence tannin levels at harvest.

The timing of maximum accumulation of tannins is also influenced by environmental factors such as temperature and bunch exposure.

A decline in tannin concentration is generally observed at some point during berry development (Figure 1).

The reduction in tannin levels appears to be due to modifications to tannin structure and association with other grape components. Seed tannins appear to become fixed to the seed coat as it hardens, while skin tannins are thought to become bound and entrapped by cell walls as the cell wall structure is modified during grape berry expansion. This makes management of tannins during berry development an important consideration for managing overall tannin levels in grapes at harvest. Tannins derived from skins, seeds and stems differ by size and chemical composition giving rise to different mouthfeel characteristics. Skin tannins are often described as being a ‘riper’ type of tannin, with descriptors such as ‘dustier’ or ‘velvety’, while seed tannins tend to be considered ‘coarser’, ‘harder’ and ‘grippier’. Wines fermented with grape stems are often described as having ‘green’ flavour-like components.

Aside from viticultural factors, the actual tannins that end up in the final wine are highly dependent on the winemaking process and techniques employed.

While stem tannins can be eliminated from the winemaking process prior to fermentation, skin tannins tend to be more easily extracted than seed tannins during early maceration stages. Seed tannins tend to be more readily extracted

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with longer maceration times and continue to be extracted during extended maceration. Extraction of seed tannins can also be facilitated when seeds are cracked or damaged.

GENETIC DIFFERENCES IN VINEYARD PLANTING MATERIAL Anecdotal evidence suggests that tannin levels vary substantially between different grape varieties, with some varieties considered high in tannins, e.g. Tannat and Nebbiolo, and others low in tannin, e.g. Merlot and Barbera.

Determining the extent to which tannin levels vary by variety is difficult given the considerable environmental influences, and that most perceptions of high and low tannin varieties are formed based on wine rather than grape surveys. It should be noted that some of these perceptions can be attributed to stylistic winemaking approaches for different varieties, but also the influence of genetic variability on extractability. A study of skin tannins from 36 different varieties showed that many varieties with high tannin levels were not those traditionally considered mg skin tannin g-1 berry 5 4 3 2 1 0

-8

-6

-4

-2

0

2

4

6

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Weeks post-veraison

Figure 1. Tannin concentration during grape berry development in Shiraz skins from McLaren Vale during the 2000-01 season (---) and in Shiraz skins from Sunraysia during the 2004-05 season (-).

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high in tannin. In fact, some of the grape varieties with the highest levels of tannin were actually table grape varieties (e.g., Red Emperor). Inter-specific Vitis hybrid varieties (e.g., Maréchal Foch and Baco Noir) have similar amounts of tannin in grapes compared with Vitis vinifera, but have very low amounts of tannin in wine.

The low amounts of tannin found in wines made from the grapes of Vitis hybrid varieties can be explained by the greater capacity for grape cell walls and proteins to bind tannins preventing their extraction and retention in wine compared with Vitis vinifera varieties. While the tannin binding capacity of Vitis vinifera grape cell walls is not as extreme as the hybrids, the difference between varieties demonstrates how genetic variation can strongly influence extractability.

Other sources of genetic variation that may influence tannin levels in grapes are rootstock and clone, but these have not been well studied. In the studies to date, it is not clear whether differences in tannin levels can be attributed to rootstock genotype or indirect effects of the rootstock on scion water supply and canopy vigour.

SEASONAL, SITE AND TEMPERATURE EFFECTS Large season-to-season differences are often observed in grape composition and resultant wine characteristics from within the same vineyard. In many cases, the variation observed between seasons can often be larger than effects attributable to viticultural treatments within a single season.

These between season differences are attributed to differences in weather patterns, particularly temperature, observed during a given growing season. Differences in vine water and nitrogen status from year to year and throughout the season may also play a part influencing the observed variation in grape composition. These two aspects are discussed later.

Increasingly in Australia, we are referring to the influence of ‘terroir’, a French/European concept that seeks to encompass the unique combination of a site, a district or a region’s environmental conditions, especially soil and climate, in which grapes are grown, and contribute to a wine’s unique flavour and aroma profile. However, very little is still known

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Figure 2. Tannin variability (mg/g berry) across three Shiraz vineyards located in Langhorne Creek (LC), Mildura (MIL) and Griffith (GRI) from three different growing seasons, Season 1 (2005-06), Season 2 (2006-07) and Season 3 (2007-08). about why some sites, even within the same growing region, can give rise to vastly different wine tannin levels and profiles compared with others. Again, many of these site differences can be traced back to variation in temperature and plant water availability experienced throughout the growing season. Even within an individual site, tannin levels in grapes vary substantially across a vineyard and between different growing seasons (Figure 2).

Temperature is considered the main driver of variation in grape tannin levels between seasons. As with most other biological processes, temperature plays a significant role in the biosynthesis of tannins in grapes.

The effect of temperature on tannin accumulation and biosynthesis has had little attention compared with anthocyanins. Anthocyanins are clearly affected by higher temperatures with hot climates producing grapes with lower levels of anthocyanins. It would appear from both laboratory and field trials that the optimum temperature for enzymes common to the synthesis of both anthocyanins and tannins in the flavonoid biosynthetic pathway falls between 15 and 35oC. Despite this, field trials have not shown a consistent relationship between temperature and tannin accumulation, most likely because the effect of extreme temperatures are still not known. Current climate change research at Mildura is likely to establish a clearer picture of the effect of temperature on tannin biosynthesis.

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VINEYARD MANAGEMENT PRACTICES AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON TANNIN LEVELS Bunch exposure and vine vigour effects Canopy management and bunch exposure management techniques have long been touted as tools for managing anthocyanin/colour levels in winegrapes.

The effects of bunch exposure on grape tannins are variable for reasons not well understood; however, it appears grape variety, growing season and site are important.

Some studies have demonstrated that grape tannin levels and composition can be greatly influenced by bunch exposure to direct sunlight throughout berry development. However, differences in grape tannin levels at the time of harvest due to whether the bunches were shaded or exposed during development may not be as great. Low vigour vines tend to produce wines with higher levels of tannin than those produced from high vigour vines within the same vineyard. Vine vigour influences the level of bunch exposure and can be managed by any number of vineyard management practices such as leaf removal, summer pruning, midrow cover crop, irrigation and nutrition management. Variations in vine vigour across a vineyard are most likely the result of variations in soil water-holding capacity and water availability.

Leaf removal during early development looks to have promise for increasing levels of tannins. Leaf removal around the bunch zone to increase exposure just prior to

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flowering, during flowering and early on during berry development has been shown in a number of studies to favour the accumulation of both anthocyanins and skin tannins. However, it’s important to be mindful of the potential unintended consequences of significant leaf removal at such an early stage of development; reduction in the percentage fruit set, smaller berries at harvest and higher than acceptable levels of bunch exposure in hot climates are some potential consequences.

Irrigation effects Aside from the use of irrigation for controlling vine vigour and therefore bunch exposure, generally, increases in both anthocyanins and tannins from deficit irrigation practices appear to result from a reduction in berry size thereby increasing the concentration of tannin on a per berry basis. The application of a deficit before veraison appears to be the most effective for inducing these changes. However, differences in tannin levels from deficit irrigation have been shown to increase independently of berry size so it remains unclear whether a deficit irrigation strategy directly affects expression of genes involved in tannin and anthocyanin biosynthesis. Abscisic acid (ABA) is a plant hormone that increases as a response to drought stress.

A response in the accumulation pattern of tannin and the expression of genes involved in biosynthesis during grape berry development has been observed through the application of exogenous ABA. However, the ability to mediate an ABA response through deficit irrigation remains unclear.

The influence of grape maturity Although a general decrease in total amounts of seed and skin tannin are observed at some point during berry development, this does not necessarily reflect the levels of tannin that may end up in the final wine. During the ripening phase, as grapes soften, the structure of cell walls change, and skin tannins start to associate with anthocyanins, which affects the extractability of tannin and anthocyanin into wine. As grapes ripen, the proportion of skin tannins extracted into wine appears to generally, but not always, increase. This is most likely due to changes in the structure of the cell walls during berry softening and their associations with skin tannins.

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The increase in extractability may also be facilitated by increasing sugar levels, which leads to higher alcohol levels and associated improvements in extraction and increasing levels of anthocyanins that may improve solubility and retention of tannins in wine. Irrespective of these factors, a number of studies have shown that in the later stages of ripening the amount of extractable tannin may not change or can even decrease. This again highlights the importance of grape variety, site and growing season on determining grape composition.

THE COMPLEXITIES OF TANNIN EXTRACTION FROM GRAPES INTO WINE The extraction of tannin from grapes into wine is a complex process. This is why it is not simple to predict final wine tannin by simply measuring grape tannin. Discrepancies between grape and wine tannin measurements result from interactions between tannins and other components in grapes and wine including cell wall polysaccharides, proteins and other phenolics. Tannins are first extracted from the physical cell wall, and then undergo chemical rearrangements and interactions with other components present in the fermenting must. These interactions can result in tannin precipitating out of wine or forming polymeric pigments and colloids, which influence colour stability and astringency.

Recent research by the AWRI has focused on developing an assay to measure the ‘extractable grape tannin’ (EGT) in grapes with the aim of providing a more accurate prediction of final wine tannin concentrations based on grape tannin levels. The assay uses an extraction method that mimics winemaking conditions using dilute alcohol and provides a stronger correlation between grape and wine tannin concentrations than previous methods.

Further work is needed to understand how this can be applied to different viticultural contexts and varieties within Australia.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Vignerons can manage tannins at every stage of production, from the vineyard right through to the glass. Variety, site selection, climate, season, canopy management, bunch exposure, vine vigour, irrigation and fruit maturity all play an important role in defining the level of tannin and tannin

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composition. Winemakers may then use their extensive toolkit to optimise extraction of the desirable tannins to achieve the best balance, length, intensity, complexity, integration and astringency in the finished wine.

The biosynthesis of grape tannins is a complex pathway influenced by many environmental factors, but research over the past 10 -15 years has provided many valuable insights into how it can be manipulated in the vineyard. The extraction of tannin from grapes into wine adds another level of complexity. Further research to understand the broader effect of viticulture on wine extractable grape tannin will help to bridge this gap.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This article summarised some of the research undertaken by the anthocyanin and tannin research team located at DEDJTR in Mildura, Victoria, over the past decade. The article drew on results from the project DPI 1402 - Identifying vineyard and winery management practices that impact on tannin extraction. Mark Krstic was engaged by DEDJTR to assist in the production of this article and was not involved in the research project DPI 1402.

FURTHER READING Downey, M.O.; Dokoozlian, N.E.; and Krstic, M.P. (2006) Cultural practice and environmental impacts on the flavonoid composition of grapes and wine: a review of recent research. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture 57(3):257-268.

Downey, M. (2010). Tannin management in the vineyard. Grape and Wine Research and Development Corporation (GWRDC) Innovators’ Network Newsletter May 2010: 6 pages.

Kilmister, R. (2015). Identifying vineyard and winery management practices that impact on tannin extraction. Final report to Australian Grape and Wine Authority, project DPI1402 June 2015, 63 pages.

Scrimgeour, N.; Smith, P.; Bindon, K. and Wilkes (2015). New tool shed light on relationship between grape and wine tannins. Australian & New Zealand Grapegrower & Winemaker 613:61-63.

Scrimgeour, N.; Bindon, K.; Wilkes, E.; Smith, P. and Cynkar, W. (2014). Unravelling the relationship between grape and wine tannin and colour. Wine & Viticulture Journal November/December issue:28-32.

Smith, P.; Bindon, K.; McRae, J.; Kassara, S. and Johnson, D. (2014). Tannin: impacts and opportunities along the value chain. Wine & Viticulture Journal March/April:38-41.

Springer, L. F. and Sacks, G. L. (2014). Proteinprecipitable tannin in wines from Vitis vinifera and interspecific hybrid grapes (Vitis ssp.): Differences in concentration, extractability, and cell wall binding. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 62(30):7515-7523.

Zerihun, A.; McClymont, L.; Lanyon, D.; Goodwin, I. and Gibberd, M. (2014). Deconvoluting effects of vine and soil properties on grape berry composition.

Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture WVJ 95:193-203.

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BUSINESS & & MARKETING MARKETING BUSINESS

Drink pink: a cross-cultural examination of the perceived image of rosé

By Natalia Velikova1, Steve Charters2, Tatiana Bouzdine-Chameeva3, Joanna Fountain4, Caroline Ritchie5, and Tim Dodd1 1 Texas Tech University, USA ²Burgundy School of Wine and Spirits Business, France ³KEDGE Business School, France 4 Lincoln University, New Zealand 5 Cardiff Metropolitan University, UK

In France today, there is more rosé wine sold each year than white wine – an unimaginable possibility only 20 years ago. Its impact in the rest of the world might not be quite so extreme, but nowadays, rosé is trendy; it is hip, it is stylish. Rosé also has a distinctive reputation in consumers’ minds. It is often assumed to be unsophisticated and seasonal. But is this image universal? A group of researchers put this question to a test, conducting a multinational project to examine consumer attitudes towards rosé wine across a range of countries in order to construct a perceived image of rosé in a cross-cultural context.

BACKGROUND The vast majority of studies on wine consumer behaviour focus on red or white wines, whereas research on rosé is virtually non-existent. However, recent trends indicate a growing popularity of rosé around the world. A report by FranceAgriMer (2013) reveals that world production of rosé has reached 24.1 million hectoliters. Sixty-five percent of the world's rosé production

is concentrated in Europe, with France the leading rosé producer, accounting for 28 percent; next come Italy, the US, and Spain. Europeans are also the main consumers of rosé. France ranks first and represents one-third of the world's consumption of rosé. The UK, Germany, and Italy are also among the top rosé consumers with steady consumption rates over past years. Consumer interest in rosé in other countries has also grown, especially in the US, where

imports of French rosé alone increased 29 percent by volume and 38 percent by value (Gevirtz 2015).

Despite the global increase in consumer interest, the industry knows little about consumer preferences for rosé wine. The study presented here aimed to fill this gap by exploring consumer attitudes towards rosé in different markets and to offer managerial-oriented implications to help producers develop effective strategies to target rosé consumers.

STUDY METHOD Participants of legal drinking age were recruited to participate in an online survey. The study was conducted in four markets comprising the US, New Zealand, France, and the UK. The choice of countries was determined to represent the Old and New World; as well as wine producing and non-producing regions.

The markets were also chosen to be representative of various cultures and consumption contexts. A total of 984 completed surveys were collected and used for analysis.

THE FINDINGS

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Preferences and frequency of rosé consumption As a general observation, preferences for rosé were similar across the markets, with less than 10% in each

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sample reporting rosé as their favourite wine style. Nevertheless, preferences for rosé were the highest in the US and UK samples (8.3% and 8.0%, respectively), followed by France (6.0%). The lowest preference for rosé was reported in New Zealand (4.6%).

Oddly, while preferences for rosé were the highest in the US, 30% of American respondents claimed they never drink rosé. This divergent response - with one group giving a preference for rosé but another explicitly against it - was much less marked in the other markets. This could be a reaction to the reputation that ‘blush’ wines have in the US - cheap, sweet, simple, and easily accessible to consumers who like a bit of sugar in their drink. On the other hand, a greater percentage of Americans choosing rosé as their preferred wine signifies that those who prefer ‘blush’ wines do indeed like them. This is also reinforced by the general US preference for sweeter wines.

Interestingly, while only 6% of French respondents chose rosé as their favourite wine, they seem much more likely to drink it regularly than the other markets, with 17.5% drinking rosé once a week or more often, and an additional 28.1% about once a month. This clearly suggests that rosé is more ubiquitous in the life of French consumers; it is more available and more visible in France than in the other markets. Rosé has been marketed in France for many years as the wine of the holidays, with unconscious associations to Provence, the Mediterranean, and southern French cuisine. There is, thus, a very specific regional effect, which is not so obvious in the other three countries.

Perceived image of rosé In order to examine the perceived image of rosé, a set of statements reflecting various rosé characteristics were developed. Respondents were asked to indicate their level of agreement with each statement by checking their response on a scale of 1 to 5, where 1 was anchored as ‘strongly disagree’ and 5 as ‘strongly agree’.

The analysis revealed that the statements loaded on three distinct factors. Factor 1 grouped statements measuring the casual, unpretentious, social nature of rosé (e.g., ‘easy to drink’, ‘good for almost any occasion’) and was thus labelled unsophisticated. Statements in the second factor clearly reflected on the perceived feminine association attached to rosé, thus this factor was labelled feminine. The last factor grouped statements associated with the seasonal appeal of rosé. Interestingly, ‘for special occasions’ also loaded on this factor. It is possible that consumers associate rosé with holidays (thus ‘special occasions’, opposite of ‘almost any occasion’).

Holidays, in turn, are associated with hot summer seasons, thus these consumer ratings grouped together.

The perceived image of rosé by-market analysis The key purpose of the study was to examine how consumers’ perceptions of rosé vary in different markets. Once the factors that comprise a perceived image of rosé were established, a by-market comparison was conducted.

‘Unsophisticated’ There seems to be a general similarity across all markets that rosé is a simpler style, easy-to-drink wine, suitable for

Table 1. The perceived image of rosé.

Factor

Statement

Unsophisticated Rosé wines are easy to drink Rosé wine makes a nice gift (reverse) Rosé is good for almost any occasion I would not serve a rosé if I was trying to impress someone (reverse) Feminine

Rosé wines are for females only Rosé is more ‘feminine’ than ‘masculine’

Seasonal

Rosé wines are for special occasions only Rosé wines are good for any season (reverse) I would have a glass of a rosé wine on a hot summer day

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casual occasions and gatherings with friends. Rosé is also perceived as not a good type of wine to serve when trying to impress someone or give as a gift.

Some differences in perceptions of the unsophisticated nature of rosé between the markets were observed though, with the most pronounced difference between France and the other markets. The French agreed most overtly that rosé is an easy drink but, at the same time, they most definitely would not serve it to impress someone or give it as a gift.

Americans also expressed higher agreement that they would not serve rosé if they were trying to impress someone or give as a gift. This could be a reflection on the undesirable image of rosé in the US associated with cheaper sweet rosés like white zinfandel, especially among those consumers who never drink rosé (likely for that reason). The other Anglophones also claim they would not give rosé as a gift or serve it to impress someone, but it does not seem to have the same negative image. New Zealand was the least likely to perceive rosé as a casual, simple drink; and not as a drink for any occasion.

‘Feminine’ Significant differences were also found on the perceived femininity of rosé, with the French sample especially strongly opposing the idea that rosé is a wine for females only. It is important to note though that the disagreement on this factor was not very strong across all markets, indicating that respondents in all markets feel rather neutral about this matter. Nevertheless, the dissent was most marked in France and least obvious in the US. ‘Seasonal’ Seasonality, yet again, played an important role in distinguishing the French sample from the other markets.

The French strongly agreed with the idea that rosé is a drink for a hot summer’s day and not a wine that is good for any season, which is indicative of the French preference for rosé primarily during the summer time. Americans expressed the least agreement on the seasonal nature of rosé, perceiving it more as a wine for any season. New Zealand and the UK showed relatively similar and moderate perceptions of rosé being a seasonal drink. Understandably in both markets, where summer months are not associated with consistently warm weather, rosé may have less of a seasonal appeal.

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Figure 1. By-market comparison of the perceived image of rosé Note: The mean values represent scores on a five-point scale anchored between 1 (strongly disagree) and 5 (strongly agree) DISCUSSION Effectively, we can see four different market structures, shaped by different attitudes and cultural issues. We can suggest that this is focussed by a ‘story’ that surrounds the drink. These stories appear most strongly in France and the US. Both countries see rosé as a casual wine, are equally neutral about its potential as a gift, and would not use it if wanting to impress someone.

In these factors (none of which are especially positive) France and the US show a closer fit with each other than with the other two markets.

However, France and the US are the most polarised on a series of other attitudes. French consumers are very opposed to the idea that rosé is a feminine drink and especially prone to think that it is particularly appropriate for a summer’s day. Thus, the results of the current study confirm that in France rosé seems to have a reputation of being an inexpensive, light, summer drink; enjoyable and acceptable for all. This image is tied into a ritualistic form of drinking, specifically for holidays, with outside eating, which is much less formal than a typical French meal, but appropriate for particular foods. In France, rosé is seen as a lifestyle accessory rather than a serious wineA and a key symbolic marker of relaxation and family time.

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The US story is a dichotomous one.

While sweeter style ‘blush’ wines are popular, especially among new younger (often female) consumers who move from soft drinks and seek softer, fruitier, sweeter wine styles (yet are not willing to pay much for wine), more ‘connoisseur’ US consumers disagree strongly. Unsophisticated rosé wine fulfills the need of new consumers for a simple (thus unthreatening) wine in contrast to an institutionalised ‘elite’ of educated consumers who consider rosé unacceptable in any context, preferring dry-style wines.

In New Zealand, the story is less strong. Rosé is generally less popular, perhaps at least partly because New Zealand is largely a white wine producer with abundant availability of light, fresh white wines. White wines therefore fill the segments that rosé would otherwise cover, and rosé becomes less necessary.

Yet, rosé is different, and therefore seems to be perceived less as a simple, unpretentious drink, and perhaps more as a special one. It may be, paradoxically, that this is where the future marketing of rosé in New Zealand must focus, in contrast to the approaches taken in other countries.

If winemakers are beginning to focus on making quality rosé in New Zealand, this may lend itself to a marketing focus on special occasions.

The UK is not considered a wineproducing country; it is, however, a mature market with a long and significant

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BUSINESS & & MARKETING MARKETING BUSINESS

history of international importation and consumption including, recently, rosé wines. It may be that two dichotomous stories about rosé are represented here.

The more mature and involved participants do not have negative stereotypes of rosé.

In addition, proximity to France plus its romance for the British (especially Provence and Mediterranean cuisine) lend it a certain cachet. Even if it is not a profound wine, it is seen as reasonably appropriate for a summer’s day, probably in France itself, drunk with relish and then forgotten. At the other end of the spectrum are rosés that are sweet, cheap, and available in supermarkets and pubs (Ritchie 2009), such as White Zinfandel or pink Pinot Grigio. These appeal to less involved, predominantly female UK participants. In neither case is the engagement with rosé strong, which shows that rosé consumption is being challenged by flavoured ciders in the young female market.

MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS There are several implications from this research relevant to managers of roséproducing companies. Most obviously, yet worth reiterating, is the cultural variation in perceptions of rosé. Additionally, the relationship of rosé wine to sugar content and the management of the perception of that relationship is crucial. Finally, the success of French producers in shifting the perception of the context in which the wine can be consumed should be noted in other countries. While there was no initial concerted attempt by French wine producers to link rosé wine with holidays (there is no ‘professional association’ of rosé wine producers) – nevertheless, the increasing demand for the style as a holiday drink prompted individual French companies to start making the link. That fact that a wine’s image can be modified should be an example to producers in the New World who wish to adapt consumers’ perceptions of their wine.

REFERENCES FranceAgriMer (2013) Observatoire mondial des vins rosés, available at http://www.franceagrimer. fr/content/download/24721/205277/file/SYN-VINobservatoireros%C3%A92012-A13.pdf Gevirtz, L. (2015) Foreign, domestic rosé wines vie for bigger share of U.S. market, Reuters, available at http://www.reuters.com/article/us-wine-rosidUSKBN0MK19J20150324 Ritchie, C. (2009) The culture of wine buying in the UK off-trade. International Journal of wine Business WVJ Research 21(3):194-211. www.winetitles. com . au

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EXPORT MARKETS

US consumers continue to rely on varietal cues for their purchase decisions

By Mark Rowley, Senior Analyst, Wine Australia

W

ith an annual turnover of US$40 billion, it’s no secret that the USA is the world’s largest wine market. Even at its current rapid rates of growth, the Chinese wine market is not projected to exceed the USA market until after 2030. To succeed in the US wine market, it is important to provide the consumer with what they are seeking. Keeping informed on how trends and innovations are evolving in the market will enable this.

In the last year, the major trends in the US off-trade market were the continuation of consumers enjoying certain origin and varietal combinations, such as New Zealand Sauvignon Blanc, and the rise of the red blend, which is often targeted at younger consumers.

Country of origin is very much aligned with a particular varietal and has been for some time. These combinations often become widely popular in a short amount of time and then wane as the consumer moves onto something new. Over the years, there have been some outstanding success stories.

Australia is aligned to Shiraz, and Australian Shiraz accounts

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Billion USD 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5

China

USA

0

Figure 1. Comparing the USA and China wine markets.

Source: Euromonitor for a 63 percent share of the varietal’s sales, while Australian wine has a 4% share of the total market (according to IRI).

Likewise, Argentina dominates Malbec with 70% of all sales compared with its 2% share of the wider market. Germany is similarly aligned with Riesling.

More recently, Italy and New Zealand have benefited from the shift in consumer preferences. For Sauvignon Blanc, USA is the number one producer, however, New Zealand punches far above its weight accounting for 38% of the Sauvignon Blanc market while holding 2% of the total market. A similar trend is present for Pinot Grigio/Gris, where Italy is ranked second with a 40% share compared with a 10% share in the wider market. Italy also accounts for almost all of the Prosecco sold – a category that was up 31% by value in the last year.

This paring also holds true for wine styles. France dominates rosé, holding 70% of the rosé market but only 3% of the wider market, and Spain hangs its hat on the variety Rioja and style Sangria with a 27% share of the market.

This kind of consumer behaviour can be risky when preferences shift, and a more diversified portfolio of varietals can help mitigate that risk. Some countries are better at diversification and the following countries have a more diversified sales distribution across the varietals. In each case the primary varietal accounts for the following share of each country’s sales: USA Chardonnay (22%), Chilean Cabernet (27%), Australian Chardonnay (20%), French rosé (19%), Argentinean Malbec (68%) and Spanish Rioja (26%).

Other countries have a much higher reliance on a single varietal or two, which places them at a higher level of risk from changing consumer sentiment, for example, Italian Pinot Grigio (33%) and New Zealand Sauvignon Blanc (94%).

Varietal trends are important to analyse as it is a key

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Growth rate 80%

70%

French rose

60% 50% 40%

New Zealand Sauvignon Blanc

30% 20%

Italian Prosecco

10%

Argentinean Malbec

Italian Pinot Grigio

0% -10%

Australian Shiraz

German Riesling

-20% -30% 0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

120%

Market share of varietal

Figure 2. Major origin by varietal combinations.

Source: IRI Choice cues for Australian wines Whether or not the wine has won a medal or award

Alcohol content The region where the wine is made within Australia Recommendation by wine guide books The region of origin Appeal of the bottle and/or label design Recommendation by wine critic or writer Recommendation by shop staff Promotional offer

A brand I am aware of Recommendation by friend or family Grape variety (e.g. Cab. Sauv., Chardonnay, etc.)

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

Figure 3: Choice cues for Australian wines (percent who agreed the statement is important or very important).

Source: Wine Intelligence choice cue when a consumer is choosing a wine. According to Wine Intelligence, 77% of regular wine drinkers regard the varietal as important or very important when selecting an Australian wine. Additionally, a 44% share of responders agree that the country of origin is important.

Despite the strong consumer recognition of the connection

BUSINESS & & MARKETING MARKETING BUSINESS

between origin and varietal, there is some room to musclein on a country’s signature varietal, which is exactly what Australia is doing. For example, over the year to March 2016, Australian Pinot Grigio sales in the USA increased by 2% to US$41 million, Australian Cabernet Sauvignon increased by 2% to US$78 million, and Australian Sauvignon Blanc increased by 8% to US$10 million. However, the rate of growth and sales volume is far exceeded by the primary source country’s sales. Conversely, Australia has not gained traction in other growing categories. Australian Pinot Noir declined by 8% while the market grew by 9%.

Pinot Noir is an interesting prospect with some fine examples being produced – particularly in Victoria and Tasmania. However, the domestic market may be too hard to resist for Australian wineries and the opportunity in the USA may go unfulfilled. Domestic sales have been increasing strongly at an average rate of 9% per annum (a 41% gain in total) over the last five years. In contrast, the domestic Pinot crush has been quite variable, with a particularly low 2014 vintage and the 2015 crush only 24% above the 2011 figure.

Even in China where there seems to be an insatiable demand for Australian red wine, the varietal is exported at half the volume that it was in 2013, while other categories have gone from strength to strength.

The other category that is finding success in the USA is the red blend category. Sales increased by 10% in the last year and the category is now the ninth largest category/varietal.

These wines tend to be sweeter with higher residual sugar, a style that seems to be going down well with the American consumer – particularly younger segments. Furthermore, the growth isn’t limited to any particular price point, with sold rates of growth across the board. The market leaders in terms of growth are Apothic, Dark Horse, 19 Crimes, Bota Box’s RedVolution and Troublemaker. Although your author is a marketing layman, these seem to me to have a common theme of being brooding rebels.

All these trends and insights can be found in Wine Australia’s US Sales Report. I have only skimmed the surface of the sales dataset and there are many further insights to be gathered.

To access the full sales report, levy payers should go to Wineaustralia.com/winefacts. The report can be found in Overseas Market Intelligence > United States.

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THe ABCs of making GSM Twenty-nine Australian blends of Grenache, Shiraz and Mourvedre (aka Mataro) with varying portions of each variety were tasted for this issue of the Journal, the results of which can be found on page 75. The makers of the best aged and youthful examples in the line-up take us behind the tasting counter to find out how their examples came together.

Chester Osborn, Chief Winemaker d’Arenberg Mclaren Vale, South Australia Wines: d’Arenberg 2012 The Ironstone Pressings GSM (70% Grenache, 25% Shiraz, 5% Mourvedre (RRP$65.00/bottle); d’Arenberg 2013 The Bonsai Vine GSM (47% Grenache, 45% Shiraz, 5% Mourvedre, 3% Viognier) (RRP$29.00/bottle) The following information pertains to both wines, The Ironstone Pressings and The Bonsai Vine. The best barrels from the best vineyards are combined to create The Ironstone Pressings while the next best are used for The Bonsai Vine.

VITICULTURE The fruit for The Ironstone Pressings and The Bonsai Vine are both estate grown and purchased from other growers determined from vintage to vintage pending fruit quality.

The Grenache is sourced from three main geologies. The first is the oldest Grenache vineyard in McLaren Vale - 104 years old - located on the d’Arenberg estate. This vineyard lies on red brown earth on limestone known as Blanche Point formation geology which is 34-56 million years old. Located close to the sea, with an altitude of approximately 120m above sea level, the cool night and warm day time temperatures are not quite so extreme which contribute a rich, earthy structure. The limestone provides an intense, medium chunky tannin.

The second Grenache vineyard is also located on the d’Arenberg estate on a grey loam on sandstone geology 2.4 million years old called Pirramimma sandstone. This geology gives quite a lot of earthiness, a wide array of tannins from mineral through to chunky broad tannins and complexity. Typically, this geology is sand on sandstone but this particular spot, with grey loam, is quite rare which makes for a bigger wine with more weight, complexity and more earthiness.

The last Grenache vineyard is located

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further south of Blewitt Springs in the surrounding sand hills. Again, this features Pirramimma sandstone geology, 2.4 million years old. Compared with the previous vineyard on the d’Arenberg property, this vineyard is sand on sandstone. Sand always contributes elegance to wines but these particular vines are very old and wound back hard so they result in wines with a lot of earthiness, complexity, fragrance and length. Using fruit from a combination of vineyards and geologies is very important as each enhances, builds and influences varying characters in the resulting wine.

Grenache yields are very low, with half a tonne per acre being fairly typical and even as low as a quarter of a tonne per acre. The vineyards on the d’Arenberg estate are managed with minimal inputs with no tractors passing through them.

Sheep do the mowing in winter, while pruning and picking is done by hand and horses used to collect the grapes so there is zero CO2 output. A larger quantity of parcels are used from these vineyards for The Ironstone Pressings.

The mean January temperature in McLaren Vale is around 20.7°C, half way between the mean temperatures of Chateauneuf-du-Pape and the Northern Rhone. Owing to the temperatures and free-draining soils, the dry-grown, old bush vines in this area produce elegant, perfumed wines with pure fruit characters. I am very particular about picking the Grenache fruit before any shrivel happens to avoid oily, baked notes and promote a more fragrant character to the wine.

Our Shiraz vineyards grow from these same geologies with very old vines from several geologies selected to promote character and complexity in the wines.

Shiraz yields average one tonne per acre. Again, to distinguish The Ironstone Pressings from The Bonsai Vine, more old vine parcels are contributed to The Ironstone. Ironstone also receives the top parcels from Dead Arm-grade Shiraz which looks more like Grenache, by which

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d’Arenberg chief winemaker Chester Osborn.

I mean spicier in style than traditional Shiraz. Ironstone is 70% Grenache and only 25% Shiraz so it has more Grenache influence.

The Shiraz for the Bonsai comes from Laughing Magpie components co-fermented with a small amount of Viognier. The Viognier contributes lovely white blossom, apricot and smoky bacon fat notes which cut through the boldness of the Shiraz and work well in the middle palate with the sweetness of the Grenache. The Viognier also provides fine and long white wine tannins, further enhancing the already long tannins of the Grenache.

In both wines the Mourvedre is sourced from a single vineyard located north of the d’Arenberg winery. The vineyard grows on a sand-on-sandstone geology 2.4 million years old. The ironstone deposits make this a very expressive geology and, as I do with the Grenache, I am very particular about picking before the fruit is too ripe to avoid any dried or dead characters.

Planted in 1918, it is the oldest Mourvedre vineyard in McLaren Vale.

Comprising 100% bush vines, the vineyard only covers three hectares and is low yielding with one tonne per acre common.

Instead of the big, heavy, tannic, animal style of Mourvedre typical of Bandol or Chateauneuf-du-Pape, we produce a very fragrant style of Mourverde which

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ripens late. The berries show red, flowery fruits, spices and strong iodine, earthlike aromas. The palate is not heavy but quite vibrant and fruit forward with long spice and different tannins to the Shiraz contributing even more complexity.

All the Shiraz, Grenache and Mourvedre vines that supply the fruit for these two wines are old vines of unknown clones which are growing on their own roots.

The Shiraz is all trellised and machine picked. Nearly all the Grenache vines are bush vines with no trellis, meaning that all fruit must be handpicked which is much more labour intensive. We don’t employ any canopy management, we don’t even trim as the vines are low vigour. No shoot thinning or bunch thinning is carried out either. Over time the vines have found a natural balance producing consistent yields without interference.

All of our Grenache is dry grown.

Shiraz and Mourvedre are irrigated only when needed. All vineyards are certified organic and biodynamic but our external growers are not. We have not fertilised the d’Arenberg vineyards for 20 years, nor has cultivation occurred in this time or herbicides added. In some of the blocks no spraying is done at all so they have a complete natural disease resistance due to the lack of fertiliser.

We don’t plant any cover crops, only whatever grows naturally and we let the sheep do the mowing. Some vineyards are occasionally mowed with a tractor but only if needed.

All vines are spur pruned at a relatively high number of buds per vine, but because they are consistently pruned to the same

level the vines self-regulate and don’t give higher yields than needed.

Pest and disease threats vary from vintage to vintage but we manage any problems naturally.

WINEMAKING The fruit is crushed through a very gentle, modified Velo crusher with softer fingers than traditional crushers. A beautiful aspect of the Velo is that it has a screen spinning in one direction and the fingers rotate the opposite way so it can run quite slow. This gentle process avoids bruising skins, seeds and stalks compared with the old crusher d’Arenberg used prior to 2009. We open up the rollers following the destemmer to allow as many whole berries as possible to pass through.

The five-tonne, stainless steel, submerged cap fermenters are located very close to the crusher to allow pumpovers which would otherwise be difficult with a large volume of whole berries. The whole berries contribute elegance and fineness to counter the highly tannic and highly acidic grapes. When the grapes come into the winery their pH level is typically around 3.1. We commence the ferment between 15-18°C and follow this with must cooling. We only half yeast the ferment at this stage of crushing and on Day 3 we add more yeast.

Using this approach we start the ferment quite slow and aim for a peak temperature of 30°C halfway through the ferment. In-place cooling is then used to slow the ferment down. The juice is drained off and half returned back. Foot

Two of the Grenache bush vines in the d’Arenberg vineyards that yield fruit for The Bonsai Vine and The Ironstone Pressings GSMs, with the small shoots of the vines on the left giving a bonsai appearance and giving rise to the former wine’s name.

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treading then commences but only for a few minutes which achieves more of a foot mixing as opposed to treading, cooling the warm skins with the cool juice. The cap is then reformed and submerged with no additional plunging or working of the cap until we achieve the desired level of tannin. We have found we can leave the grapes in contact with the skins for approximately 15% longer in the new crusher to gain the same concentration of tannin but with more elegance and quality.

The d’Arenberg wines look significantly different from 2009 since the introduction of the new crusher.

The wine is then basket pressed twice into barrels on lees. Fifteen percent of the Grenache goes into stainless steel with the remaining 85% and 100% of the Shiraz and Mourvedre going into 100% French, low impact oak for one year. No new oak is used to retain a fruit-driven style and fragrance.

No racking is used because the barrels are oxidating while the lees are reductive so we achieve a balance here. The lees are not very thick due to no jetting or plunging during the ferment and are made up of mostly pulp and yeast. The yeast scavenge the oxygen and the pulp adds minerality helping the wine to age longer. Both The Ironstone Pressings and The Bonsai Vine are extremely fresh and long and will last for 40-50 years.

MARKETING We sell both wines through our cellar door and distribute throughout Australia and to approximately 80 countries worldwide. Our distribution now sits at approximately 50% domestic/50% export.

We have recently changed our labels back to a more classic style where the red stripe is more pronounced on the white label which has elevated the packaging to a more premium level. Our wines all have stage names (developed by Chester) and they all sit within distinct product tiers.

The Bonsai Vine is part of our Artisan range. The name stems from the bush vines that yield the grapes, which are very small for their age, their tiny shoots giving them a bonsai appearance.

The Ironstone Pressings is part of our Icons range. Its name is derived from the ancient, decomposed laterite granite known as ironstone which is impregnated in most of McLaren Vale’s acclaimed and ▶ historic vineyards.

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Peter Huffam, Sales Manager Vinrock Wines McLaren Vale, South Australia Wine: Vinrock 2015 Grenache, Shiraz, Mataro (Grenache 49.6%, Shiraz 44%, Mataro 6.4%) (RRP$25.00/bottle)

VITICULTURE The Grenache and Shiraz for this wine were harvested from our own Luca Vineyard while the Mataro was sourced from a local grower.

Luca Vineyard is located just southwest of the McLaren Vale township and approximately 5km from the coast. It is situated on a gentle, north-facing slope with grey and red mottled alluvial clay known as the Ngaltinga formation.

The Mediterranean climate brings an average rainfall of 520mm/year, but in an El Nino cycle can be as little as 365mm/year.

Soil moisture is then supplemented with drip irrigation of approximately 40-50L/vine/ week using reclaimed water.

The vines were planted in 1999 on their own roots and trained onto a double cordon Lazy Ballerina style trellis. The rows are 3m apart and run north-south; vines are 1.8m apart, and the under-vine strip is mounded.

Every year we plant a cereal type cover crop in alternate rows which is later cut and thrown under vine. This reduces fluctuations in soil temperature, improves water retention, and assists with weed suppression.

The vines are mechanically pre-pruned followed by hand spur pruning giving us approximately 48 buds/vine, resulting in average yields of 3.5 tonnes/acre. Selective bunch thinning is done to even up the ripening of the grapes and adjust the balance of the vine. In early summer we carry out a light trimming of the canopy on the sides to allow more UV light and airflow to pass through the canopy. This helps reduce humidity within the canopy, therefore reducing disease pressure.

Grenache vines in the Luca Vineyard in McLarenVale which are the sole source of the variety that go into Vinrock’s GSM.

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Careful monitoring is done prior to any spraying in order to reduce our chemical footprint, with consideration given to beneficial insects etc.

The Mataro is sourced from a local grower in Sellicks Hill. The vineyard is on a north-west facing slope, situated on the Christies Beach formation of alluvial clay, sand and gravel. The vines are trained to a single cordon Lazy Ballerina style trellis, with rows running east-west to reduce the exposure of the vines to wind.

Irrigation is with reclaimed water via drippers.

A permanent sward of grasses is maintained in the mid-row in preference to planting cover crops, so minimal cultivation is carried out in this vineyard. The vines are pre-pruned by machine and then hand spur pruned to achieve an average yield of 3 tonnes/acre.

WINEMAKING Gentle winemaking techniques are pursued in making this wine to ensure genuine varietal expression of flavours and tannin.

Harvest scheduling is based on monitoring the phenological ripeness of flavour and tannin in the vineyard. The aim is to achieve optimum flavour and tannin development while timing the harvest when grapes still display some ‘savoury’ flavours to accompany the bright fruits of McLaren Vale.

The Grenache and Shiraz grapes are machine harvested in the morning and delivered straight to the winery. They are immediately destemmed/crushed to fivetonne open fermenters. Conversely, the Mataro is hand harvested then destemmed/ crushed.

No must cooling is required as the grapes are normally delivered at less than 20°C. The must is then inoculated with DV10 (a neutral yeast with a low nitrogen requirement) and tartaric acid used for acid adjustment. Excessive acid adjustments are avoided on the Shiraz and are minimal for the Grenache and Mataro as these varieties tend to retain their natural acidity during ripening.

Until the fermentation commences the ferments are only pumped over twice per day for five minutes each time. The temperature is maintained at less than 24°C. Once the fermentation rate increases

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Vinrock Wines sales manager Peter Huffam. the temperature of the ferments is allowed to heat up to 28°C and then maintained at 24-26°C. The frequency and length of the pump-overs are increased during this peak fermentation period.

The ferments are tasted twice daily to evaluate extraction and subsequent cap management. Fermentation is normally completed after seven days with the frequency/duration of pump-overs wound back towards the end to avoid extraction of the astringent tannins from the skins and seeds.

Post-ferment maceration is dependent on the level and quality of the tannin extraction and the condition of the skins.

As Grenache has more brittle skins the fermenter is normally pressed out after eight days, while the Mataro and Shiraz fermenters are pressed out after eight to 10 days.

When it is time for pressing, the skins are pressed via a tank press utilising and a long, gentle cycle. The free run and pressing components are combined together. After 48 hours the tank is racked off gross lees and then transferred to two, three, four, five and six-year-old French oak.

On completion of the natural malolactic fermentation the wines are racked off lees into tank. The wine then receives a small SO2 addition and is returned to oak.

The barrels are again racked and returned after five months with SO2 adjustment. After 14 months in oak the wines are then racked out of oak for blending.

As the wine has clarified naturally, no pre-bottling filtration or fining is required.

MARKETING Our GSM sells primarily through two major New South Wales wine clubs. We have no cellar door but since producing our first GSM in 2010 and some wine show successes, we have a loyal following.

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TASTING NOTES

GSM - generous, sophisticated and moreish It has been 12 years since the Journal last tasted blends of Grenache, Shiraz and Mourvedre (aka Mataro), so we thought it was time to get a feel for what this category offers today.

P

roducers of Australian-made blends of Grenache, Shiraz and Mourvedre with varying blends of each variety were invited to take part in the latest tasting by the Wine & Viticulture Journal.

When the Journal last tasted GSM, Australian wine industry consultant Nick Bulleid said in his introduction to the results, “To date, [GSMs have] established themselves well at high price-points, a good place to be. Most are over $20 and many over $30. This suggests that the blend is best understood at the top end of the market...it still has room to move elsewhere.”

Our latest blind tasting was undertaken by Chester Osborn (d’Arenberg), Charlie Melton (Charles Melton Wines) and Corey Ryan (Sons of Eden), and comprised 29 wines of which 13 were from McLaren Vale and 13 from the Barossa Valley, where the blend has become something of a signature style.

“As you’d expect of the one-year-old wines, there’s some lovely examples that are bright, fruity and juicy, and drinking beautifully right now,” Chester summarised. “As you get into the slightly aged wines, you can see some complexity developing. Some are starting to fall over, some have a bit too much oak, and some are still looking quite youthful. Then, another year or so on, there’s some quite varied styles – in some the oak is sticking out, others are beautifully tight wines.

For all the vintages – '12, '13, '14, '15 – all the wines were relatively good. There wasn’t an overly ripe or really jammy wine in there, for example.

“Personally, I quite enjoyed the old wines – there were some really good wines in there,” Chester said.

Charlie Melton agreed.

“I found more interest in the old wines. As a group, it was overall a pretty strong category,” he said.

“When I look at Grenache there are two styles that I enjoy: rustic and plump with mid-palate sweetness as well as the really poised, darker and more elegant, more modern styles.

Some can have elements of both. The same goes for GSM. The wines I least enjoyed were the spicy, quasi-Shiraz styles that didn’t speak to me of anything in particular.”

Corey said the key to a standout GSM was for all three varieties to be “harmonious”.

“It can’t look like Shiraz or Grenache. There is a couple in there like that but generally they were well put together.

The older wines were the most intriguing. I found myself gravitating towards them because there’s so much complexity running through them. And the three varieties are definitely harmonious after that sort of time in bottle.”

Among the younger wines in the line-up, Vinrock’s 2015 GSM attracted the highest acclaim of the judging panellists, with d’Arenberg’s 2013 The Bonsai Vine, due for release in the next few months, and 2012 The Ironstone Pressings rated most highly of the older vintages.

From left, Corey Ryan (Sons of Eden), Chester Osborn (d’Arenberg) and Charlie Melton (Charles Melton Wines) made up the panel for our GSM tasting.

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D’ARENBERG 2013 THE BONSAI VINE GSM (47% Grenache, 45% Shiraz, 5% Mourvedre, 3% Viognier) McLaren Vale, South Australia 14.2%v/v – screwcap RRP$29.00/bottle Best of tasting: Bright and youthful in colour with crimson hues. Nose is brooding and complex with youthful fruits, including mulberries and blackberries, purple and blue blossoms, exotic white flowers, smoky reductive characters, and meaty notes.

Big, full and powerful palate that is well integrated with slick texture, good acidity and length, and gritty medium to high tannins. Purple, red and white blossoms evident. “An attractive, well-balanced wine with long spices on the end; moreish and youthful,” noted one taster. Another thought the wine lacked plushness and flair. “Very food orientated, very moreish and very long,” said another.

D’ARENBERG 2012 THE IRONSTONE PRESSINGS

VINROCK 2015 GSM

(70% Grenache, 25% Shiraz, 5% Mourvedre) McLaren Vale, South Australia 14.4%v/v – screwcap RRP$65.00/bottle Best of tasting: Bright, dense colour with brick brown hues.

Lifted, complex, youthful and savoury nose featuring dried herbs, purple, red and blue fruits - including blackberries, mulberries and plums - anise and liquorice, graphite, earth and gravel notes and lots of iron and soot. Chewy and textural in the mouth where the big, full-bodied, robust palate balances power and elegance, showing good concentration, richness and intensity; good acid line with medium tannins. Tonnes of graphite and purple fruit characters. “An outstanding wine with interest and intrigue,” noted one taster.

“This wine will age well,” said another.

(56.5% Grenache, 37% Shiraz, 6.5% Mourvedre) McLaren Vale, South Australia 14.7%v/v - screwcap RRP$25.00/bottle Best of tasting: Bright dark red in colour. Deep and complex nose of ripe berry characters and brooding notes along with some liquorice, jam, earth and slight peat and nuttiness; a touch porty. Full-bodied, soft, plush and complex palate of earth and game characters with Grenache sweetness in the middle, some dark plums and black fruits and a slight iron and sooty note running through. Good weight, acidity, texture and length; medium tannins. “An attractive, brooding style,” noted one taster. “As a young wine has some interest and character,” said another.

“Could be at its peak,” said another.

MASSENA 2015 MOONLIGHT RUN MGS (47% Mourvedre, 38% Grenache, 12% Shiraz, 3% Cinsault) McLaren Vale, South Australia 14.0%v/v – screwcap RRP$35.00/bottle Bright, dark crimson with youthful hues. Very loud fruits on the fresh nose –mulberry, plums, and brooding Mourvedre complexity as well as some blackberry, bubblegum, a bit of liquorice and butter and lots of spices. Nice medium weight palate with a rich mouthfeel featuring mulberry and plum fruit, medium tannins, and a slightly gravel length. “A buoyant, well made and wellbalanced wine but needs some more time to come together,” noted one taster.

SHINGLEBACK 2015 RED KNOT GSM (52% Grenache, 26% Shiraz, 22% Mourvedre) McLaren Vale, South Australia 14.4%v/v – cork RRP$14.95/bottle Bright colour with youthful hues. Complex leafy notes on the lifted, clean nose along with Shiraz berry aromas; red fruits, violets, bubblegum, spicy cherry and some interesting dried herb characters also evident. Palate is quite juicy, simple, fresh and fruity with a dash of Ribena, fresh Grenache fruits, some earth and gravel notes with low to medium tannins. An easy drinking style with good acidity.

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TASTING NOTES

KALLESKE 2015 CLARRY’S GSM (43% Grenache, 42% Shiraz, 15% Mourvedre) Barossa Valley, South Australia 14.0%v/v – screwcap RRP$21.00/bottle Bright and deep dark red in colour. Fresh, flowery and perfumed nose featuring mulberry, mixed fruit, nice earth and gunsmoke notes and some slight oak spices that work well to give a lift. Nicely balanced, full-bodied and brooding palate which has a lovely globule of fruit in the mid-palate and medium tannins deriving mainly from oak which could be better integrated with the fruit tannins. Oak pokes through the palate about two-thirds of the way through but dances away at the end. Touch of heat. “A complex, well put together, big style,” noted one taster.

HENSCHKE 2015 JOHANN’S GARDEN GMS (70% Grenache, 25% Mourvedre, 5% Shiraz) Barossa Valley, South Australia 14.5%v/v – Vinolok RRP$56.00/bottle Bright red brick in colour with youthful hues – almost a Beaujolais brightness, said one taster. Fresh purple and red fruits on the nose including plums, blueberries and cherries as well as a touch of violets, spices and earthy/oaky notes.

Creamy oak characters in the mouth along with some nice red Grenache characters, particularly cherries, but they drop away a bit at the end; some good earth notes also apparent.

Good acidity, weight and length but lacks complexity and alcohol a touch high.

CHAPEL HILL 2015 THE PARSON GSM

RUSTY MUTT 2015 ROCKY OX GSM

(60% Grenache, 34% Shiraz, 6% Mourvedre) McLaren Vale, South Australia 14.5%v/v – screwcap RRP$18.00/bottle

(66% Grenache, 21% Shiraz, 13% Mourvedre) McLaren Vale, South Australia 14.5%v/v – screwcap RRP$28.00/bottle

Bright, dark red in colour with a nice Grenache typicity. A complex, brooding, somewhat restrained nose featuring liquorice, spice, slight mulberry notes and vanillin oak which adds complexity.

Full-bodied and textural palate with chewy tannins, lots of sweet oak and a good acid line. Lacks a mid-palate, is a little extractive and drying and finishes short.

Bright, densely coloured wine. Lifted, jammy, ripe fruits on the nose along with some cooked meats, dark cherries and plums, and a hint of liquorice and some raisin/port aromas. Full bodied, balanced palate with good integration of the varieties, excellent flavour and richness married with good acidity. “Brambly and lacks freshness; youthful – needs time,” noted one taster.

SCHWARZ WINE COMPANY 2014 GSM

SONS OF EDEN 2014 KENNEDY GSM

(60% Grenache, 25% Shiraz, 15% Mourvedre) Barossa Valley, South Australia 14.10%v/v – screwcap RRP$28.00/bottle

(55% Grenache, 35% Shiraz, 10% Mourvedre) Barossa Valley, South Australia 14.5%v/v – screwcap RRP$31.00/bottle

Bright dark red with brick hues. Complex and inviting nose of red fruits typical of Grenache, spice and leather, earth, red bubblegum and dried herbs with a hint of plasticity and strawberries and cream. Creamy fruit palate with loads of red juicy cherry and plum characters, sour cherries and medium tannins that are somewhat hidden by the syrup character of the wine. Well integrated and balanced but is a little simple, lacks richness, and finishes a little short.

Bright, densely coloured wine with aromas of lifted, ripe, jammy characters, quince, bruising fruits, red plums, liquorice and spice with gun smoke undertones; a touch porty. Full bodied, rich, complex and balanced palate with nice weight, rounded tannins and good integration of the varieties. “Slightly high alcohol,” noted one taster, adding “oaky finish”. “Good short-term drink,” said another. “Full throttle style,” said yet another.

WE BRING TOGETHER TA

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TASTING NOTES

NICK HASELGROVE WINES 2014 BLACKBILLY GSM

DOMAIN BAROSSA 2014 TODDLER GSM

SHOTTESBROOKE 2014 ESTATE SERIES GSM

PERTARGINA 2014 TWO GENTLEMEN’S GSM

(60% Grenache, 32% Shiraz, 8% Mourvedre) McLaren Vale, South Australia 14.5%v/v – screwcap RRP$23.00/bottle

(60% Grenache, 30% Shiraz, 10% Mourvedre) Barossa Valley, South Australia 15.0%v/v – screwcap RRP$17.00/bottle

(56% Grenache, 26% Shiraz, 18% Mourvedre) McLaren Vale, South Australia 14.5%v/v – screwcap RRP$19.99/bottle

(50% Grenache, 35% Shiraz, 15% Mourvedre) McLaren Vale, South Australia 14.8%v/v – screwcap RRP$22.00/bottle

Bright, dark red in colour with brick brown hues. Lifted, perfumed, ripe and slightly dank nose of fruitcake, lowintensity fruits, gun smoke, liquorice, spice and forward oak. Full bodied and rounded palate with chewy, slatey tannins and good acidity; lacks fruit.

Bright dark red with dense hues. A complex, alluring and oak-driven nose of earth, dark fruits, fresh biscuit, baked Christmas cake and vanilla bean characters. Quite plush palate with creamy oak flavours and hints of plums and mulberries; good weight, texture and acid line, balanced tannins and good integration of the varieties, but the oak is a little clumsy. “Well made in the ‘power pack’ style; slick and interesting but too much oak,” noted one taster.

Bright crimson in colour with brown hues. Quiet but not unattractive nose which is youthful and complex: spicy red fruit aromas as well as dried herbs, iodine and some exotic green spice fruits and meat/ game characters.

Predominantly red fruits in the mouth, particularly cherries and red plums, with a hint of spices. Palate is medium weight and lacks some richness and complexity. Well integrated oak, medium tannins, and long finish.

“Well made but lacks fruit to carry it off,” noted one taster.

Bright, dense and youthful colour.

Brooding, ripe, forward but somewhat restrained nose of dark berry and purple fruits and very ripe strawberries; anise and liquorice undertones. Big, fullbodied palate which is rich and concentrated and youthful. Some blue and purple mulberry fruit and earth characters. Good acid line, weight and tannin structure. Slight gravel on the finish. “A brooding, closed style – needs time,” said one taster. “Needs a touch of sweetness,” said another.

BERESFORD 2014 GSM

TAHBILK 2014 GSM

(70% Grenache, 15% Shiraz, 15% Mourvedre) Adelaide Hills, South Australia 12.5% v/v - screwcap RRP$30.00/bottle

(45% Grenahce, 40% Shiraz, 15% Mourvedre) Goulburn Valley, Victoria 14.5%v/v – screwcap RRP$25.70/bottle

Bright, dense and youthful colour.

Somewhat restrained aromas on the brooding nose which is complex; some red fruits apparent, including mulberries and plums, together with earth, spice, lifted Ribina and smoky oak. Slight game characters in ripeness opens to a spicy fresher fruit lift. Lovely balance and weight in the mouth which lacks a midpalate but has juicy, chewy tannins; plum, mulberry and earth characters evident; oak is little forward. “Lacks charm and flesh,” noted one taster.

Bright, dense crimson in colour with brick hues. At first the aroma seems too ripe, fruit is hidden, and a slight aldehyde character is present.

After breathing, some mulberries, plums and earth characters become evident, although the nose is still quite ripe. Lifted savoury, baked vanillin and fruitcake characters can also be detected.

Aromas are harmonious but one-dimensional.

Fruit is slightly faded on the mid-weight and well-balanced palate which is built up by oak.

Drying tannins. Some dark fruit notes with slight gravel at the end.

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TASTING NOTES

SIEBER ROAD 2014 GSM (45% Grenache, 31% Shiraz, 24% Mourvedre) Barossa Valley, South Australia 13.9%v/v – screwcap RRP$20.00/bottle Bright, dense crimson in colour with brick brown hues. Lifted liquorice on the nose which is quite spicy. Some complex dried herbs also apparent, along with fennel, iodone, a mixture of red and blue fruits, and a slight bubblegum character.

One taster thought he could detect dank wet wood and menthol notes. Wine is juicy and chewy in the mouth – a well-constructed, balanced, mid to fullbodied palate. Low to medium tannins which are chewy but supple and well integrated.

Lovely texture with lots of different and longlasting fruits and some bubblegum.

ST JOHNS ROAD 2014 MOTLEY BUNCH GMS (47% Grenache, 36% Mourvedre, 17% Shiraz) Barossa Valley, South Australia 14.5%v/v – screwcap RRP$22.00/bottle Bright, dense crimson in colour with brick hues. Sweet, full nose of earth, gravel, lifted bright fruits, anise, and fruitcake but with a fresh fruit lift. Rich oak flavours together with some nice mulberry characters evident on the rounded, harmonious and chewy palate which has good integration of the varieties; fruit characters persist with a slight spicy, rich oak creaminess at the end.

“The slick, plump palate balances the alcohol with freshness of fruits,” noted one taster.

VINROCK 2014 GSM (49.6% Grenache, 44% Shiraz, 6.4% Mourvedre) McLaren Vale, South Australia 14.8% v/v – screwcap RRP$25.00/bottle Bright, dense crimson in colour with youthful purple hues. Nose is lifted and ripe with blackberries, purple bubblegum, purple blossoms, complex savoury characters with dried herb undertones and a nice gravel note; iron and soot notes also present. “Nose suggests a serious style,” said one taster.

Palate is full-bodied, rich, powerful and juicy with purple fruits, mocha coffee and bubblegum. Good acidity and length with low tannins. “Lots of complexity,” noted one taster, while another noted, “lacks subtlety of diversity of flavour”.

KELLERMEISTER 2014 THE FUNK WAGON GSM (65% Grenahce, 25% Shiraz, 10% Mourvedre) Barossa Valley, South Australia 14.5% v/v - screwcap RRP$27.00/bottle Bright crimson in colour with youthful hues. Simple red fruits and some spices on the nose with savoury undertones, some earth and red plum characters and a slight bubblegum lift; somewhat restrained aromas. Palate is fullbodied, well-integrated, has nice weight and balance but is largely oak orientated with some red plums and jubey fruit. Medium, primarily oak-derived tannins which are chewy; good acid line.

A slick mouthfeel and finish. Lacks complexity overall.

JOHN DUVAL 2014 PLEXUS SGM

GOMERSAL WINES 2013 GSM

(47% Shiraz, 32% Grenache, 21% Mourvedre) Barossa Valley, South Australia 14.5% v/v - screwcap RRP$43.00/bottle

(51% Grenache, 25% Shiraz, 24% Mataro) Barossa Valley, South Australia 14.5% v/v - screwcap RRP$15.00/bottle

Bright crimson in colour with brown hues. Dark, brooding nose of lifted spice, liquorice, and dark berry fruits. Oak is slightly intrusive at this stage but will sweeten with time. A soft, rounded and oaky palate which has a poised structure, medium tannins derived mainly from oak and some gravelly fruits, juicy cherries and Satsuma plums that prevail.

Some sweetness on the finish. “Could perhaps benefit from a touch more intensity,” noted one taster. “An easy drinking, well-made and balanced wine,” noted another.

Bright crimson colour with brown hues.

Nose has an attractive rusticity with desiccated fruits, gravelly fruits, lifted savoury and earthy notes, some anise and liquorice characters and slight creamy oak. Creamy oak flavours continue onto the palate which has good structure, is dry and textural; red fruits evident along with some spices, medium tannins and a slatey acidity. “Lacks life and zest,” noted one taster.

WE BRING TOGETHER TA

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TASTING NOTES

CHARLES MELTON WINES 2013 NINE POPES GSM (56% Shiraz, 40% Grenache 4% Mourvedre) Barossa Valley, South Australia 14.5% v/v - screwcap RRP$70.00/bottle Bright and youthful colour with crimson hues. Quite a perfumed nose in a cedar oakforward style. Very complex aromas of red plums and cherries, lifted earth and savoury notes in amongst spicy tar and stockcube notes and some meaty characters. Lots of creamy oak flavours dominate over the fruit characters on the palate which is concentrated and full-bodied. Nice weight and balance with a slight touch of heat.

“An interesting wine but needs more time to integrate,” noted one taster.

CRADLE OF HILLS 2013 GMS (70% Grenache, 17% Mourvedre, 13% Shiraz) McLaren Vale, South Australia 14.5% v/v – screwcap RRP$29.00/bottle Bright colour with hints of brown hues.

Restrained and simple nose with anise and menthol notes, brooding berries, ageing red fruits, mulberries and plums. “Quite jubey in a negative sense,” noted one taster. A textural, chewy and forward palate with a juicy midpalate; some rich fruits.

Good line, length and acidity. Slightly hot and cooked finish.

RUTHERGLEN ESTATES 2013 BURGOYNE’S BLOCK MSG

NICK HASELGROVE WINES 2012 BLACKBILLY GSM

(46% Mourvedre, 35% Shiraz, 19% Grenache) Rutherglen, Victoria 13.5% v/v - screwcap RRP$18.00/bottle

(65% Grenache, 25% Shiraz, 10% Mourvedre) McLaren Vale, South Australia 14.5% v/v - screwcap RRP$23.00/bottle

Bright colour with brown hues appearing.

Open nose with nice mulberries and plums with some red and dark cherries and savoury and earthy notes; lacks freshness. Lovely bubblegum and jubey red and blue fruits on the palate which is mid to full-bodied, well-made, rounded and textural with good acidity. Low tannins but tonnes of length.

“Sweet, rural and rustic but attractive flavours,” noted one taster.

Bright and forward in colour with browning hues. Lifted savoury notes, simple red fruits, and Christmas cake spice on the nose.

Lovely red and blue fruits on the palate which is rich, creamy, juicy and textural with slatey acidity and medium tannins. Good line and length. Well integrated with good balance. “A well-made, simple, mid-weight wine that is drinking well now,” noted one taster.

MURRAY STREET 2012 GSM (60% Grenache, 20% Shiraz, 20% Mourvedre) Barossa Valley, South Australia 14.5% v/v – screwcap RRP$25.00/bottle Bright colour with browning hues. Lots of lifted strawberry character on the nose with twists of spice, iodine, herbs and cherry. One taster noted the nose lacked freshness. Mid to fullbodied palate which has lovely poise and balance, is textural and exhibits slatey acidity.

Strawberries and plums evident along with some gravel notes. “A complex wine, but lacks freshness,” noted one taster.

ROLF BINDER 2012 HEINRICH SMG (50% Shiraz, 30% Mourvedre, 20% Grenache) Barossa Valley, South Australia 14.0% v/v – screwcap RRP$35.00/bottle Bright, dense colour with brick brown hues.

Reasonably oaky nose but with nice gravel, red fruits, plums and red spices. Palate is also reasonably oaky with low fruit intensity; it is textural, slatey, well-balanced and integrated, with slick tannins. “Complex but lacks freshness,” noted one taster.

ALENTED AUSSIE & NZ WINE GROWERS WITH OUR WINE LOVERS.

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PRODUCTS & SERVICES

Consistency of Avatar the key in large vineyard

T

he ability of DuPont™ Avatar® insecticide to consistently control light brown apple moth (LBAM) larvae under a range of conditions has made it a backbone product for a large vineyard operation in the south-east of South Australia.

Darren Backler, of Padthaway Investments at Padthaway, in South Australia, said his company looked after a 450 hectare vineyard comprising Shiraz, Cabernet, Malbec, Merlot, Riesling, Chardonnay and other varieties which was first planted in the 1970s.

“The biggest issue is light brown apple moth for me. We have a lot of farms that are banked up against us so it’s a beautiful place for the LBAM to stay in. That is an issue for us.

“They get into bunches, do damage to the bunch and that is the perfect place for botrytis to start. Botrytis is one of the few things that is very hard to contain in the vineyard. You will have some on a bunch and then three or four days later it can spread quickly and by the end of the week you’ve lost your crop.

“You will nearly always see it if you open up a bunch that has had LBAM. You can open up the bunch and pick out the rotten

berries and generally, down the bottom, an old light brown has been in there.”

Avatar insecticide has been used over many seasons to control the LBAM and has been a very effective option.

“We’ve used Avatar over a number of years,” Backler said. “It always works.

With other products, sometimes you get a good result, sometimes you are not too sure. With Avatar, you put it out [and] you know it is going to work.

“With other products, I’ve seen results that I’m not that happy with. There could be a number of reasons but, generally, you wonder whether it’s a mixing issue or a spraying issue or the time of the day, but with Avatar we’ve used it day and night and even with moisture coming in, we still haven’t had those issues. With an area as big as what we have, it's hard to spray in ideal conditions.”

Backler said the size of the vineyard meant they didn’t have time to go back over it if a product didn’t work.

He said it took five to six days to spray the whole area early in the season and longer later in the year.

“If it takes you 10 days to spray, you don’t want to find out that you’ve had poor results.”

Darren Backler, of Padthaway Investments, says Avatar insecticide has been an effective option to control LBAM over many years.

Backler said monitoring and spraying had changed a lot over the years with a product like Avatar a good option to use as part of an integrated pest management (IPM) program to protect beneficial insects in the vineyard.

“Twenty years ago if you saw two LBAM you would go at it with Lorsban or something and you would kill everything,” he said. “We’ve all changed a lot since then.

You don’t want to take out the beneficials.

That is one big thing that is an integral part of sustainable practice."

He said Avatar was also very compatible in the spray tank and readily mixed with copper, sulfur and other products.

“I haven’t yet found anything that can’t be mixed with Avatar.”

Tartaric stabilisation and pH reduction system for wineries

D

ella Toffola’s DTX systems take advantage of the action of ionexchange resins, specifically cation resins, which can be regenerated through the use of a sulfuric acid solution.

The product inside the resins undergo ion exchange during which the cations are withheld and hydrogen ions are released, reducing the pH level as a result.

Exhaustive research at Della Toffola’s laboratories has led to the selection of a specific resin suitable for use in winemaking.

The DTX tartaric stabilisation and pH

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reduction systems comprise the following: • feed pump • regeneration acid dosing injector • two tanks in steel or plastic, reinforced by fibreglass, containing the support required for ion exchange • two pH-meters for checking the level of progress and pH value of product leaving the system • magnetic induction flowmeters • electric flow regulation modulation valves • PLC with touch screen for automated control These systems can also be equipped with the following options: • regeneration water softener • regeneration water pH regulator The systems treat a portion of the product equivalent to 10-35% of the total volume, depending on the reduction of W I N E & V I T I C ULTUR E JO UR NA L JULY/A UGUST 2016

potassium required for the wine to achieve stabilisation, which is subsequently mixed back into the original product. The quantity treated depends directly on the conditions of the potassium, tartaric acid and pH in the product being processed.

These systems can be used for wines, various types of must, and fruit juice.

The advantages of the DTX systems, which are available in a number of models, include: • stabilisation of tartaric precipitation • decreased pH improves a wine’s aromatics • lowering of the wine’s metal content • increase in total acidity • fully-automatic systems • PLC control.

For further information contact Della Toffola Pacific, info@dtpacific.com or phone +61 3 9924 4040.

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Australian owned software development company specialising in winery management since its commencement in 1993, assisting more than 360 commercial wineries and wine distributors across several countries processing in excess of 1,000,000 tonnes of grapes each year.

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Ezy Systems Pty Ltd 17 Hopetoun Street, Bendigo, Victoria 3550 P: +61 (0)3 5441 2044 F: +61 (0)3 5442 3132 E: info@ezysys.com.au W: www.ezysys.com.au

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EXCITING

NEW TECHNOLOGY

FROM

SMART LEES SMART LEES is a tangential cross flow unit utilising spinning ceramic discs for the filtration of Lees from Juice and wine.

It is suitable for the filtration of products with a high suspended solids including those with Bentonite. The action of the filter ensures a high quality permeate and allows for a recovery of up to 97%.

MMR PLUS – DEGASSING The Juclas MMR Plus enables the control of gases including the reduction and impregnation treatment of gases in wine… the reduction of oxygen and carbon dioxide in young wines, deoxygenation of wines prior to bottling or addition of carbon dioxide to refresh whites or roses when bottling. The MMR Plus can also be used for dealcoholisation.

For further details, contact us on: Melbourne 59 Banbury Rd, Reservoir Ph. 1300 882 850 Adelaide 12 Hamilton Tce, Newton Ph. 08 8365 0044 Western Australia 5/1 Ostler Dve, Vasse Ph. 08 9755 4433 New Zealand 3M Henry Rose Place, Albany, Auckland Ph. 0800 699 599 E. sales@winequip.com.au www.winequip.com.au www.winequip.co.nz