Biodiversity and Tourism Symposium Placing Tourism in the Landscape of Diversities: A Dialogue between Nature and Culture SEPTEMBER
20-23, 2000
FRENCH ISLAND OF PORT CROS, MEDITERRANEAN
SEA
The TOTAL Foundation and the Scientitic Committee on Problems of the Environment (SCOPE) are sponsoring a debate on the evolution of island tourism, from an economic activity likely to degrade environment and culture, to a potential catalyst for biodiversity enhancement and empowerment of local people. Tourism is fundamentally dependent on diversities: biological diversity of landscapes and species, cultural diversity of local residents and tourists. Rapid changes in the post-industrial, global information society create new opportunities and new risks for the tourism industry, local cultures and society, and biodiversity. Since 1992, the TOTAL Foundation supports biodiversity conservation projects worldwide. Through scientifíe research and local development initiatives, the Foundation contributes to the conservation and restoration of mangroves and coral reefs in Thailand, Oman, and Polynesia; Ethno botanical research in Indonesian rain forests; Creation of jobs for South African youth working on management of invasive species; and Mediterranean botanical conservation in France. Today, with the collaboration of individuals qualified to discuss island tourism and biodiversity -natural and social scientists, economists, planners, tourism operators, decision-makers, and representatives of international organizations- the TOTAL Foundation is preparing the first Port-Cros Symposium on biodiversity and tourism. Thirty individuals will meet to exchange, debate, and advance our understanding of how tourism and biodiversity interactions are changing in the information society, and how they can be positive factors for island people, flora and fauna, today, and into the future. The Symposium objectives include: l. IIIustration of how tourism can be a driving force to maintain biodiversity and local empowerment, while specifying exactly what are the critical elements required for such positive interactions. 2. Analysis of case studies that highlight both the positive and negati1: .g ve outcomes of tourism on biodiversity . ••¡¡:; 3. Debate on the role of information technology on the future of the tourism industry and its implications for biodiversity management. Background documents along with Symposium fíndings will be available on the TOTAL Foundation website, in a book, and in scientifíc journals. The information will be widely disseminated for the public, natural resource managers and policy makers, the academic community, tourism operators, and tourists.
FONDATION D'ENTREPRISE
TOTAL
OPE
(f)
u edleorlaL
by
PIER GIOVANNI D'AYALA
_
5
_
6
_
7
The european islands and their governance: From the nation states to the european union _
13
unesco's
Daoe
e
v iJ
e
o
u
oosscr- ist.ono aouernances Japan's small and remote islands: Development policy and performance HIROSHI KAKAZU
by
JEAN-DIDIER HACHE
by
The recent decentralisation in greece and the impact on the islands' development perspectives
_
.&n---
DR. IOANNIS SPlLANIS
by
The case of islands under the french littoral act
27
_
EMMANUELLESAUVION
by
32
Economics the propensity for political dependence in island microstates JEROMEL. MCELROYAND MEGAN MAHONEY
by
36
East Timor: a drama, a hope NELSON EURICO CABRAL
by
39
The Governance of Small Jurisdictions; The Case of Cyprus CHRIS. 1. MAVRIS
by
ISLanders
oc
worh
49
Kurilsky Zapovednik: The wonderful world of extreme phenomena __ GRIGORIEV E. M.
by
ncu.e =rrxn ono
..,
ooouc
ISLandS
53
The "trinomial" energy - water - tourism ----------v.wr: CIPRIANO
by
cuLeure
coc
~"路I~._路,路L ..
MARiN
eradltlonaL
hnowLedoe
Ecological Constraints and Human Adaptive Strategies-in a River Island Ecosystem by
65
LINO BlANCO
InSuLo'S
oooc
New means of transport in the cities of tomorrow A strategic question for islands
68
Models for European Digitallslands Medis Project
71
by
OOOh
MIGUEL MONTESDEOCA reulews
or-o
SUDDore
____
_
announcemencs JOln
57
JESURATHNAM DEVARAPALLI & R. YATHIRAJKUMAR
The significance of gift exchange in the Maltese Islands by
21
1
InSuLa
fi~~~----
73 74
77
-
rnsula International
Journal ofIsland Affairs
ISSN 1021 - 0814 July 2000 Year9 N° 1
Editorial Board Editor:
Pier Giovanni d' Ayala
The "sabina" (Juniperus phoenicea) is the emblematic tree 01 the island 01 El Hierro that has been recently declared Biosphere Reserve. INSULA collaborated in the elaboration 01 its sustainable development strategy, which resulTed to be an excellent reference joining innovation and the idea 01 conservation 01 island territories.
Co-editor:
Cipriano Marín Scientific Advisory Committee:
Prof. Salvino Busuttil, Malta Dr. Ronald G Parris, Barbados Prof. Nicolas Margaris,
Greece
Prof. Patrick Nunn, Fiji Prof G Prakash Reddy, India Prof. Hiroshi Kakazu, Japan Dr. Henrique Pinto da Costa, Sáo Tomé e Principe Prof. Lino Briguglio, Malta
Production coordinators:
Giuseppe Orlando
Graphic designer: \
Luis Mir Payá
Published by INSULA, the Intemational Scientific Council for Island Development, with the support of UNESCO. Artieles published in this joumal do not necessarily retlect the opinions of INSULA or of UNESCO. Material appearing in this joumal cannot be reproduced without the prior permission of the Editor.
Photo: INSULA
•Inaula the International
Journal of Island Affairs is distributed free to INSULA's individual and institutional members. For subscriptions and information, please write to:
tnsula c/oUNESCO 1, rue Miollis 75732 Paris, FRANCE Te!': +33145.68.40.56,Fax;
+33145.68.58.04
E-mail: insula@insula.org ". Produced
4
by: TENYDEA
International
Journal
S.L. Canary Islands
of Island Affairs
Island Governance
lJ
PIER GIOVANNI
D'AYALA
by
ISI,"d
~
governance is the therne chosen for debate for the present issue of INSULA the
Intemational Journal of lsland Affairs. A tricky word indeed. It incIudes local authorities policy making, the enforcement of local or national regulations, social and economic measures applied to the island context together with all practices concerning the planning and management of a given territory and its resources, natural and man made. For us and for the islanders, governance has a more complex and multi facetted meaning. It addresses not only choices but also the difficulties of choosing within a horizon of generally limited geographical space, scarce resources and time scale uncertainties. The case of the ÂŤIle d'YeuÂť off the French coast of West Brittany is, so to speak, paradigmatic. Its territory is a slim stretch of land. A national law imposes the full protection and consequent non-use of a strip of the whole island's coast extending Ă?'or 100 meters from the main sea leve\. A little bit less than one third of the island territory. The inland is occupied by the continental owners of summer houses. The fishermen cornmunity has however developed during the recent years. A profitable tuna fishing industry attracting other fishermen from the nearby islands and French coasts wishing to settle on the island. The municipal council considers this move as a sound economic diversification trend but is simply unable to provide the incomers with land where to build their homes. Facing this reality and having no other choice than to leave the island to summer houses and empty for the rest of the year the whole municipal council resigned from their elected charges, as an expressive protest. Governance is therefore something whose effects directly citizen's life and the democracy that should rule it. Governance is in other words the art of turning the island's structural disadvantages in a viable compromise made of acceptable civic life and progress. Govemance is hence also a political issue as it is well explained by Jean-Didier Hache for the European context and Hiroshi Kakazu for the Japanese one. Finally, governance is also the traditional way by which island communities deal with the optimal use of their resources, as in the case of the inhabitants of a small island on a large lndian river. An interesting and unusual experience indeed. Others authors contribute to explore, from their point of view and experience several other facets of island governance. But the debate is not cIosed, because governance inevitably invol ves future and future as we all know, calls for new and unexpected choices.
o L
o o V
un Te
h" started
in
The reorganisation ofthe Programme
specialized human resource is an ur-
UNESCO with a new Director General:
structures promoted by the new Direc-
gent need for the protection and man-
year 2000
Mr Koichiro Matsuura, an experienced
tor-General seems to privilege objec-
agement of fragile island and coastal
Japanese diplomat wishing to restore
tive-oriented administrative units with
Mediterranean
UNESCO in its original institutional
consistent interdisciplinary operational
role of intellectualleader and think-tank
patterns.
Such a perspective,
in the
For the "MOST" social sciences programme directed by Dr. Ali Kazancigil
of the United Nations system and be-
words of Dr. Peter Bridgewater, secre-
the cooperation with CIES
yond. INSULA wishes him best suc-
tary general of the Intergovernmental
the setting up along the Mediterranean
cess! We would suggest him al so to
Man and the Biosphere Programme (to
shores of a network of "sensors of so-
take the best advantage from the good
which INSULA is historically related),
cial change" This definition alone is we
will and dedicated work of NGO's such
will restore together with the other Inter-
believe inadequate to uncover aJl as-
as INSULA - a vital partnership indeed
governmental
pects of this challenging endeavour. In
for UNESCO, if bureaucracy does not
with the oceans
refrain the needed permanent open and
tional services
frank dialogue. The institutional
rel-
programmes 01'
dealing
with hydrology func-
best adapted
to the
ate national institutions
present needs of Member States, es-
following
pecially
protocols
aison Committee will contribute, we
States.
cooperation among our organisations.
Small Island
Developing
concerns
fact the network based upon appropri-
evance taken by the NGO-UNESCO Lihope, to enhance a recognized fruitful
common
will collect, standardized
and indicators aJl informa-
tion concerning structural and socio-
Intersectoral
economic changes especiaJly in terms
and multidisciplinary
activities have already started with IN-
of innovation. These sensors may also
On our side we look forward to Mr
SULA as a catalyser. We wish to men-
be caJled permanent observatories ena-
Matsuura's insularity, because as a Japa-
tion as an example the recent agree-
bling the elaboration of computerized
nese, Mr Matsuura is inevitably an is-
ments with the Italian CIES Centre for
forecasting scenarios that can be veri-
lander, fami liar with island problems.
economic consortium
and social engineering.
A
leaded by the University
try will take advantage of the informa-
ian Universities and the main public or
tion made available for its own policies.
private corporations such as Telecom,
Furthermore the information while pro-
Alitalia, etc. The agreements ,converg-
duced by the countries, will be e1abo-
ing with the European Comrnission's
rated and diffused trough the network
policies aim at the cooperation among
by a balanced
Mediterranean countries on the north-
tional source. The proposed system is
ern and southern shores including the
in our view is the best adapted to un-
The subject matters are for the MAB
of Island Affairs
interna-
derstand the trends and challenges that each single Mediterranean
country is
programme ajoint project with CIES ad-
confronted to, within a global context. Looking together to the common fu-
learning telematics- based technologies
ture means to reduce conflicts and build
of managers of protected areas such
peace.
as parks, reserves, etc. Within the phi-
Both UNESCO-CIES projects will be
losophy and experience developed by
submitted to the EU Commission for
Biosphere
Reserve
network. Such a presently insufficient
Journal
independent
dressing the training, including distant
the international
International
fied and reoriented perhaps at a two years intervalo Each participating coun-
of Calabria, bringing together other Ital-
island states of Cyprus and Malta.
6
areas.
shared financial support in the frame of the EUMEDIS programme.
v
Japan's Small and
U
e 10 e L v
emote Islands:
::::::l
o o o e
g (J)
L
V (J) (J)
o o
by
A'OCd;ng
HIROSHI
Hokkaido Island area, Sikoku Island
primarily aimed at reconstructing its war-
Land Agency (NLA), which is respon-
area and Kyushu
devastated
sible for Japan's
Okinawa Development
lo lb, National
land development
Island- area; The
socio-econornic
structure
& Promotion
and standard s of living to that of the prewar levels. The major focus was to
plan including small and remote islands
Special Measures Act covers 39 SRIs;
(SRIs), there are 6,852 SRIs extending
Amami Development
2,500 miles (4,000 km) from Northern
Special Measures Act covers 8 SRIs;
mandated to institute long-term as well
tip of Hokkaido to Southern tip of the
and Ogasawara Development
& Pro-
as mid-term development plans and pro-
Ryukyu archipelago.
& Promotion
increase food production.
The Law
Of which about
motion Special Measures Act covers
grams. In the process of implementing
450 SRIs are inhabited at the end of
2 SRIs. The island areas covered by
these national development plans, the
1999. The largest inhabited SRI is Sado
the Special Measures Acts were ad-
regional imbalances in terms of social
Island with land area of 855km2 and
ministered by the United States mili-
infrastructure and income became evi-
74,900 resident population, while the
tary forces after the second World War.
dent. Local governments, remote island
smallest
of
In this paper we would focus on the
governments in particular, strongly re-
Okinawa Prefecture with land area of
SRIs under the RIDA and Okinawa is-
quested to enact regional development
1.58km2 and 1 resident population.
lands which cover97% ofJapan's SRIs
policies focusing on smalI and remote
Japanese
one is Shinjo
Island
SRIs are so diversified
geographically, culturalIy, historically and economically,
designated
by the above
laws for
island areas. As a result, the RIDA was enacted in 1953.
policy measures.
four different na-
Five years after the defeat of the Pa-
laws and plans
cific War, the Japanese government im-
Ph.D. is Vice President
have been enforced. They are the Re-
plemented socio-economic reconstruc-
Development
mote Island Development Act (RIDA)
tion prograrns under the National Land
mally a Professor at the Graduate School
which covers 272 SRIs located in the
Comprehensive
of International
vicinity ofthe Japanese mainland area,
which was enacted in 1950. The Law
tional development
Development
Law
University.
of the Okinawa
Finance Corporation.
Development,
For-
Nagoya
KAKAZU*
THE REMOTE ISLAND DEVELOPMENT ACT (RIDA) According to the RlDA, inhabited SRIs are classified into the following four categories:
a. outer ocean islands with easy daily access to mainland city centers; b. inland ocean islands with easy daily access to mainland city centers; c. cluster of very small islands with difficult daily access to mainland city centers; d. large, isolated islands with difficult daily access to mainland city centers; and e. very small isolated islands with difficult daily access to mainland city centers. The following major criteria must be satisfied to be designated by the Act as an outer ocean island: a. it must be surrounded by ocean with population about over 100; b. it is distanced more than 5km or 3.1 miles from mainland; c. islanders'
daily life de-
pends heavily on mainland; d. transportation
system is
not reliable; and
e. SRl authorities'
Fig.J:
principIe" is adopted to be included in theRlDA. The criteria for other categories are more or less similar to the above. The
1953
followings:
Remate Islands Area
RIDA
covered
the
I
the welfare of the people. These devel-
be considered with a high national pri-
opment measures would at the same
ority.
time contribute to the growth of the
4. A Remote
national economy.
Council is established for the purpose
2. In order to achieve this objective,
of studying and identifying key devel-
Island
Development
the Remote Island Development Plan
opment issues and proposals.
and Project Plan are prepared.
The RlDA was revised every ten years
1. A major objective of the RlDA is to
3. The national govemment would ap-
to incorporate socio-economic changes
improve relative underdevelopment
propriate an annual budget for the im-
surrounding the SRls. The latest 1993
of
the SRIs through implementing socio-
plementation
under the
revisions c\early stated the three national
economic projects as to improve island-
plans. The funds for the projects re-
roles of the SRls, namely (a) national
ers' livelihoods as well as promoting
quested by the local authority would
land conservation, (b) utilization of ma-
1
8
Map a/ Japan's
"request
of projects
National Institute for Japanese Islands, Japanese Islands, Tokyo: undated, p.2.
International
Journal
of lsland Affairs
elude projects with priority. After the
conservation. Under the RIDA, ten regions were initially designated as remote island development regions for actual implementation
of the developrnent
Q)
SMALL ISLAND careful deliberation and assessments, DEVELOPMENT the NLA will determine the projects PROJECTS AND which should be subsidized and the , INCENTIVES
rine resources and (e) environmental
'
projects which should be implemented
u
e 10 e L
Currently the NLA imp1ements vari-
Q) ::::::J
should also be noted that each pre-
islands development projects, study on
o o o
mented under separate and individual
fectural government
fiscal and monetary incentive systems
g
government agencies. After the enact-
own SRJ projects such as subsidizing
to stimulate SRIs' economic activities,
(J)
ment of the RIDA in 1958 fiscal year,
transportation
(e) projects to facilitate exchange be-
L
however,
land events.
plans.
directly by the national agencies.
Initially, all SRI projects were imple-
the Economic
Planning
Agency, and currently the Division of
It
implements
its
costs and various is-
ous projects including (a) cornmunity
tween SRIs and the rest of the world and (d) infrastructure development.
Following
the First Ten- Year Plan
Islands Affairs of the NLA shoulders
(1953-1962)
which focused on basic
These projects are imp1emented with
the sole responsibility
human needs, the Second Plan (1963-
fiscal as well as monetary incentives
ing the island affairs ineluding planning
1972) emphasized the improvement of
such as (a) higher rate of subsidy for
and budgeting for the SRIs. The con-
basic socio-economic
infrastructure development, (b) special
in administrat-
conditions
to
solidation of SRI affairs into one agency
narrow the existing socio-economic
depreciation for machinery and equip-
was a remarkable breakthrough in Ja-
gaps between the remote islands and
ment for manufacturing and hotel busi-
pan's remote island development poli-
the mainland. The Third Plan (1973-
nesses, (b) exemption of special land
cies considering notorious administra-
1982) focused on improving the facili-
holding tax for manufacturing and ho-
tive
red
tape
and
cumbersome
interagency negotiations
and coordi-
nation.
THE REMOTE ISLAND DEVELOPMENT PLAN (THE PLAN) The Plan serves as the basis of such
ties for the living environment and pro-
tel related businesses, (c) national sub-
duction activities while the Fourth Plan
sidies for exempted local business and
(1983-1992) was concerned with im-
property taxes, and (d) speciallow lend-
proving social infrastructures
to im-
ing rate of the government affiliated fi-
prove the living environment.
Under
nancial institutions, and others.
the Fifth Plan, which was enacted in 1993 and will continue though to 2002, both hardware
and software
ap-
PERFORMANCE More than 40 years after the imple-
island development, and is revised ap-
proaches have been adopted so that
mentation of the RIDA and the Plans,
proximately
a more comprehensive approach to de-
the performance is mixed, As can be seen
every 10 years. These
plans are devised by the local authori-
velopment
may be taken. Thus, the
from Fig.2, the total population of the
ties, which are then presented to the
concepts of the Plans ha e changed
SRTs has continuous1y declined from
NLA which in turn presents it to the
over time to respond to specific needs
over 1 million, or 1% ofthe national to-
Diet. The Plan and programs must in-
of the SRTs.
tal in 1960 to about half rnillion, or 0.4%
Fig.2:
POPULATION
TRENDS OF JAPAN'S
REMOTE ISLANDS,
1960-1995
140.0 120.0 100.0 o o o
80.0
• AII Japan
11
60.0
• Remate islands
o (J) m
40.0 20.0 0.0 1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
Source:
1990
Statistical
1995
Yearbook of Remote
Islands,
1997
e
Q) (J) (J)
o o
of the total in 1995. The depopulation in
Table 2: EMPLOYED PERSONS
the SRIs was particularly accelerated
BY INDUSTRY, 1985-1995
(percent composition)
during the period of Japan's high economic growth in the 1960s and early 1970s. Japan needed to mobilize its human and non-human resources to catch up with the Western industrialized
1985 1990 1995
economies in a short period to time. Resources including human, technology,
Primary Industry
Remote Secondary Industry
Tertiary Industry
Primary Industry
Al! Japan Secondary Industry
34.7 31.2 27.5
21.8 21.1 21.2
43.5 47.7 51.3
9.3 7.2 6.0
33.2 33.5 31.8
Source: Statistical
capital, infrastructure were concentrated
Tertiary Industry 57.5 59.3 62.2
Yearbook of Remote lslands
in metropolitan industrial belts such as Tokyo, Oska Nagoya areas. As a result,
(Table 1), may become zero population
massi ve labour force migration from re-
islands within the foreseeable
future
away from mainland Japan. Fourth, they
mote areas began to fi11the labour de-
unless the effective policy measures are
are far distanced from each other within
mand gap caused by high economic
implemented.
Okinawa Prefecture.
growth in the metropolitan areas.
Under the plans, the National gov-
Fifth, they are
much more diversified in terrns of size,
There were many very small islands
ernment spent about 3.6 trillion yens
flora and fauna, industrial structure,
which out-migrated the entire popula-
for the period of 1953-1998 in various
income and resources
than islands
tion by the early 1970s. Japanese style
infrastructure projects such as indus-
nearby Japanese mainland. In this con-
of large-scale development process in-
trial development (45%), transportation
text, Okinawa may offer many interest-
evitably accompanied a massive relo-
(37%), land conservation
ing aspects and lessons for socio-eco-
cation of human resources from remote
social and environmental improvements
underdeveloped
areas to metropolitan
(14%) and
(4%). The amount of public expendi-
nomic development of sma11islands. The Special Measures Act have de-
high growth areas. Although the out-
tures increased from \741 million in 1953
signed (a) to narrow socio-economic
migration from the SRIs has slowed
to \167,948 million in 1998, or an in-
gaps existed between Okinawa and
down in recent years as a consequence
crease of more than 200 times. SRIs'
mainland Japan, and (b) to achieve, in
of Japan's stagnated economic growth
share of public expenditure in Japan's
a longer run, a self-sustainable devel-
rate as well as changes in lifestyle, the
total public expenditure increased from
opment. The Act mandated to draft a
population is still declining due mainly
0.73% to 1.8% during the periodo The
ten-year development plan which re-
to lower birth rateo Japan's total popu-
share is more striking considering the
newed three times. The plan is now its
lation will absolutely decline by 1907
fact that SRIs' population accounts for
last stage of the third ten-year plan
according to the National Institute of
only 0.6% of the 単ational total.
(1992-2002). In order to implement the
Population.
If current depopulation
Special Measures Act, two important
continues, those very sma11 SRIs under population
THE OKINAWA DEVELOPMENT & PROMOTION SPECIAL MEASURES ACT
less than 500, which
account for nearly 60% of the total SRIs Table 1: JAPAN'S REMOTE ISLANDS: BY SIZE OF POPULATION, 1995 Population Size (person)
Number of Islands
Percent Composition
1-99
97
29.8
100-500
98
30.2
500-999
46
14.2
1000-1999
25
7.7
2000-2999
14
4.3
3000-3999
10
3.1
4000-4999
8
2.5
5000-9999 10000-29999 30000-49999 50000 and over
Source: Statistical
International
mentioned,
were established
at the
same time. One is the Okinawa Development Agency (ODA) which is a central government organization directly responsible for Okinawa's overall de-
Okinawa or Ryukyu Islands are
velopment.
covered by the Special Meas-
Okinawa Development Finance Corpo-
ures Act because of special
ration (ODF) which is a government
historical,
affiliated, long-terrn development bank.
geographical
and
The other
one is the
characteris-
ODA's public investrnentin infrastruc-
tics of these small islands.
ture such as roads, sewage, harbour, ru-
Okinawa islands differ many
ral developrnent, hurnan resources, wa-
ways from those covered by
ter and housing amounted to 6 trillion
Japan's Remote Island Devel-
since the Special Measures Act implemented. On an annual basis, these pub-
socio-economic
13
4.0
6
1.8
was an independent kingdom
lic expenditures accounted for more than
1.8
until 1872. Second, Okinawa
30% of Okinawa's GDP in any given
2
0.6
islands were under the direct
year. The massive inflows of public ex-
325
100.0
United States military admin-
penditure together with United States
istration for 27 years after the
military expenditures and rising tourists'
Yearbook of Remote lslands
Journal
As we have
institutions
opment Act. First, Okinawa
6
Total
10
end ofWorld War 11.Third, they are far
of Island Affairs
Yonaguni islands are increasingly de-
bers of strengths that could be exploited
pend on eco-tourism,
while Minami
in the drive towards its future economic
Daito island is a large-scale producer
development. In this age ofhighly com-
of sugarcane with the highest per capita
petitive and interdependent
income in Okinawa. Except local cot-
easy and instant capital movements, and
tage industries, modern manufacturing
expanded global trade and investment
activities are not viable mainly due to
markets,
ing, in terms of per capita income and the
trends for the 21'1 Century including a
L
level of infrastructure, have improved
knowledge-based society, low-birth rate
remarkably during the post-reversion
and an aging society, and globalization
periods, the economy's capacity and ea-
and environmental limitations. I have
pabilities to transform from a dependency
proposed a "Diversified Development
through internally generated incomes,
posed model is intended to make full use
Okinawa's higher growth rate than that
has not been achieved successfully like
of Okinawa's strategic location, natural
of mainland. Despite higher population
many other island economies. General
and human resources capacity and ea-
growth rate than that of mainland, per
problems
pability, and aspirations. It would com-
capita income increased more than three
economy such as rising pressure on the
pete in the global market because it is
times in real term, making Okinawa's
limited land resources, rising unemploy-
designed to harness Okinawa's com-
standards ofliving comparable to those
ment, heavy reliance on government and
parative advantages in tourism through
Group Eight industrialized
countries
U.S. base expenditures as major sources
promoting tourism-related "niche" in-
whose leaders will gather in Nago,
of income and employment, reliance on a
dustries.
Okinawa in July 2000.
Limitednumber of primary products and
and characteristics
of the
The first objective of Okinawa's de-
tourism for export eamings, chronic trade
velopment plan, namely bridging socio-
balance deficits, diseconomies of scale
economic gap s between Okinawa and
and high transportation costs are still re-
Japanese mainland, has been achieved
mained unsolved. Particularly creating
with near satisfaction. The second ob-
job opportunities for the young has been
jective, namely self-sustainable devel-
the most pressing task for sr単all islands.
opment, however, is still a long way to
Despite these development problems,
go. As we have seen, economic de-
Okinawan small islands have many num-
pendency on government and U.S. miliTable 3:INCOME SHARES BY INDUSTRY: OKINAWA'S SMALL ISLANDS, FY1996 (percent)
Under the Special Measures Act, Prefectural government is responsible for drafting and implementing Okinawa's
Population
Primary
Constructior
Mfg
Tertiary
(Public
(persons)
Industry
Industry
Industry
Industry
Service)
remote island development plan. As can
AII Okinawa
1,281,766
2.3
15.2
5.2
77.3
18.7
be seen in Table 2, these major islands
Ishigaki
41,993
4.8
19.3
6.1
69.8
24.3
are diversified in population and socio-
Miyako
33,236
3.1
20.5
3.5
72.9
25.5
economic
Kumejima
9,791
6.8
26.9
7.7
58.6
12.6
Ishigaki and Miyako islands have in-
Lejima
5,067
32.1
19.0
1.7
47.2
16.5
creased
Taketomi
3,489
10.5
37.7
5.9
45.9
20.4
neighboring small islands experienced
Yonaguni
1,813
5.1
29.0
11.1
54.8
35.0
depopulation. Public expenditures, rep-
Minami Daitic
1,486
57.1
8.1
25.0
15.1
resented by construction activities and
Theya
1,448
9.8 6,4
54.2
2.7
36.7
22.2
public services, are major sources of
Aguni
966
5.2
40.6
2.8
51.4
35.5
income accounting for more than 50%
Tokashiki
710
1.7
19.0
1.3
78.0
46.5
years,
while all
for some very small islands. Some islands such as Taketomi, Tokashiki and
o e
S (f)
these
spending were the main engines of
in recent
::::J
o
strengths. Following Japan's anticipated
highlight
for other island economies. The pro-
of
u
opportunities, these islands must start
Model" (Fig.3) which will also be useful
Population
L
to more effectively
structure to self-reliance, that is to say,
structure.
e o e
D
financing its mounting trade deficits
past three decades.
U
Although Okinawa's standard s of liv-
"small, isolated markets.
tary expenditures has deepened in the
u
Note: lshigaki Source:
and Miyako
Statistics
Division,
islands are city areas only Okinawa
Pretecture
u
(f) (f)
o
D
Fig. 3:
OKINAWA:
A DIVERSIFIED
DEVELOPMENT
MODEL
TRADE- ORIENTED SFTZ, DFS, Erfrepot. 9:ockp::lint Tradng Center, Offshore 8anking
CUL TURE, WELLNESS & S'ORTS Music & Dances Historical Heriteg:s Wellness, H63Iing, ~rts
ZERO- EMlffilON
•.•
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
TOURlSM (Mass & Eco) •..•
Cal Certers, CG, Telev.ork Multirreda Cyter Pcrk Distance Ec:i..cél. ion, Medca. Care
/~
I AGRO-I NDUSfRY H63Ithy Focx:is,Medcina Plants Tropical Fruits, Flov.ers, Ostrich Urethan Resins, Cookies
Refuse Derived Fuel GIé5SBott les, Ba;p;se Waer,Pa¡::er
Source.Hiroshi
FUTURE PROSPECTS: LOOKING TOWARDS THE 21 ST CENTURY
any Japanese
regions. Depopulation
important
current
tidal
together with a rapidly aging popula-
wave is a revolution in "Inforrnation
tion has become a source of much pes-
Technology (lT)" which may free the
simism, since it may eventually deprive
SRls from the "tyranny of distance."
SRls' socio-economic dynamism, while
The information revolution is particu-
taken up from now into the 21 SI cen-
leaving heavy welfare cost burdens to
larly important to the SRls because it
tury. These challenges are categorized
future generation. Of course, the nega-
may solve a seemingly eternal problem
into the following five components:
tive consequences of depopulation can
ofthe SRls, namely the high socio-eco-
1. "Think globally, act locally" has
be avoided if SRIs' human resources,
nomic costs arising from its smallness
been a Japanese catch world in recent
particularly women's labour force, are
and isolation. On the other hand, the
years. The Japanese island communi-
utilized more efficiently with the higher
IT revolution may bring the so-called
ties which have heavily depended on
fertility rateo
"digital divide" between mainlands and
Japan's SRls are facing many socioeconomic challenges
government
subsidies
which must be
the SRIs unless it is left for a unbridled
and special
measures are also facing the con se-
market forces.
quences of globalization and deregu-
5. Finally, the role of and relationships
lation of the Japanese economy. SRIs'
between the SRI authorities and the
future plans and programs must shift
national government must be carefully
its emphasis from a domestic orienta-
reviewed in revising development poli-
tion to a global perspective.
cies and programs of the SRIs. The
2. "Sustainable
development"
recent promulgation of"Decentraliza-
is an-
. other key word for SRls' future devel-
tion Act" encourages
more positive
opment path. The SRls are particularly
roles and initiatives
in conducting
vulnerable
socio-econornic
to environmental
disrup-
..
tions and natural hazards. How to bal-
development
Rishirr-tó
and environmental protection are prob-
SRIs. lt is obvious now that the winSRIs which can seize development op-
ably the most difficult tasks for all is-
portunities
land communities.
eco-business,
3. As we have seen, the SRIs are expe-
resources of biodiversity
riencing more rapid depopulation than
lnternational
JournaJ of Island Affairs
of the
ner of the 21SI century will be those
ance between economic development
U
4. Another
Kaka;u.
'"
tralization.
offered by globalization, IT revolution, "niche" and decen-
'he' Europ-ean Islands anil Iheir Governance:
l) U
e 10 e L
l)
::::J
o o o e
S (J)
from 'he Nalion Slales lo 'he European Union by
A
'island region', -
"y,
the European Parliament - is a segment
So what do these islands and their
how linked to the rest ofEurope by the Channel Tunnel), it covers so me 13
JEAN-DIDIER
people have in common?
of a Member State whiclt is entirely
million european citizens who live in
Their common geographical charac-
surrounded
one ofthe E.U's 21 Island regional au-
teristic, of course, and the various prob-
by sea, has no physical
links to the mainland and is not the
thorities, or in one of its many hundred
lems or hurdles they entails. As recalls
seat of the capital city of any Euro-
inshore islands. Altogether, these is-
the European Parliament resolution on
landers represent about 3~5% of the
island regions-:
Community's 380 million inhabitants.
"The handicaps from which island re-
pean Union country",' Although this definition does not in-
These islands offer the most extreme
elude the "mainland" part of the Re-
variety of population, elimate, environ-
them from mainland regions, arise -
public of Ireland, or of the Ll.K. ( any-
gions suffer, whicti clearly distinguislt
ment, economy, culture and political or
albeit in varying degrees - from the
administrative institutions. They spread
limited availability of usable land and
(for example) from the Isle of Wight, 3
fisheries
miles from the South-East of England,
water and energy supplies,
to Reunion Island, in the Indian Ocean,
and coastal pollution, a particularly
9.400Km away from the French Main-
difficult waste and sewage manage-
land. They range from the 5 million in-
ment problem, depopulation,
habitants of the Sicilian archipelago, to
erosion, the shortage of skilled labour;
resources
and of potential marine
coastal
the few hundreds of the coastal islands
the fact that businesses have no possi-
ofIreland or Brittany; or offer a popula-
bility of benefiting from economies of
tion density from over 3201Km2 of Ma-
scale, additional transport and com-
deira, to under 10 in the Westem Isles
munications
of Scotland. As for the island' s elimates,
vantaged
costs, the doubly disad-
status of smaller
islands
they span from the tropical environment of Martinique or Guadeloupe
(in the
*
Executive-Secretary
West Indies), to the frozen seas of the
Commission
Baltic for Gotland, Bornholm or the
ripheral
Ă land islands. And so forth ...
(CPMR).
of the ÂŤlslands
of the Conference
Maritime
Regions
of Pe-
of Europe
L
l) (J) (J)
o o
HACHE*
forming part of an archipelago ('dual
border areas which, on one hand, had
insularity'] and the higñ cost of infra-
to be controlled for strategic reasons
islands played a key role in the Greek
structures, to which, in some cases in
but, on the other hand, were difficult
national struggle for liberation, with
the North, must be added isolation in
and expensive to control.
some of them (such as Crete, or the 10-
winter caused by ice".
Being instrumental in the protection
nian Islands) having brief spells of in-
But seen from a political angle, Eu-
of Europe's maritime highways or trad-
dependence.
rope's island regions also have another
ing routes, in the shaping of it's na-
Sardegna also played an important part
largely shared characteristic:
in spite
tions colonial empires, or in the defence
in the movement towards Italian na-
of belonging to countries of widely dif-
(or attack ) of the neighbouring main-
tional unity. In the XIX and XX cen-
In Italy,
Sicily
and
ferent histories, cultures and institu-
land of warring States, the majority of
tury, the Áland islands were succes-
tions, they have, in their vast majority,
Europe's islands have had a turbulent
sively Swedish, Russian and eventu-
a special polítical and administrative
history of conquest, occupation,
and
ally Finnish, but witha special regime
status or regime of some sort within
liberation. Such circumstances proved,
of autonomy and demilitarisation guar-
in many case, a suitable background
anteed by the League of Nations.
their own nation. Moreover, this characteristic
is not
for the emergence of different forms of
Together with this historical back-
just the remnant of a distant historical
administration. Forexample, in islands
ground, other factors played an impor-
inheritance, but it has followed the po-
with a colonial past, such as the Fae-
tant role in the shaping of special re-
litical evolutions of Europe, and in par-
roes, Greenland, or the French West
gimes in many islands territories. One
ticular the process of European inte-
Indies or Réunion, original statuses
was the usually distinct cultural iden-
were inherited through the process of
tity of the island's inhabitants or even
managed to "worm" themselves into the
decolonisation.
In islands such as the
their linguistic difference. Another was
Treaties shaping the European Union,
Channel Islands, they were a legacy of
their reluctant acceptance of central
first individually, through the adhesion
mediaeval privileges granted to ensure
government rule, hence the consider-
negotiations of their country, then col-
the goodwill
and
able lore - mythical or real - surround-
lectively, through the inclusion of spe-
their loyalty in wartime. In the Canary
ing the tradition of"rebellion", "piracy"
cific articles and declarations
gration. Progressively,
islands have
in the
of the inhabitants
Islands special rights were conceded
or "banditry" in many of these commu-
more recent Maastricht and Amsterdam
because of the archipelago's
impor-
nities, from Crete to the Hebrides. And,
Treaties.
tance as a trading outpost. The fortunes ofEuropean wars, poli-
the mere difficulties and costs associ-
THE RECOGNITION OF ISLANDS AS SPECIAL CASES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF THE NATION-STATES The statuses or regimes which the majority ofEuropean island regions enjoy are diverse in nature and intensity. Some of them are very extensive, up to the point of infringing upon the borders of State prerogatives. Others are just a mild form of decentralisation, or even a different
shaping of administrative
boundaries. Yet, from Greece to lreland, from Portugal to Finland, their is an acceptance - even if a limited or grudging one - that islands must be somewhat treated differently. How did this come?
A new phenomenon with old roots. Probably, the most prevalent factor to explain this situation is that, by their very nature, European
14
French. In the XIX century the Greek
International
Journal
islands were
of Island Affairs
more prosaically, there were of course
tics and diplomacy shaped the identity
ated with the administration
and institutions
of many
remote territories.
through comple
and numerous up-
While the roots of the phenomenon
heavals. For example, in the Course of
generally run deep in history, most Eu-
islands
of such
the XVIII century, Corsica was succes-
ropean islands which have acquired a
sively Genoese, independent, under the
special political and administrative sta-
influence of Britain, and eventually
tus have nevertheless done so compara-
Wight, Bornholm, Gotland, the Ionian are generally under 200.000 people, and often under 50.000) would benefit from
Q)
a separate regional authority. More than likely, they would be considered as "too small", and probably be integrated into broader and more populated administrative units. The acceptation that islands are requiring special treatment has also influenced the structure of central government itself in some countries. In Greece, a specific Ministry has been set up in 1985 to deal with the development of the Aegean lslands. In Finland, there is an "Islands
Commission"
tively recently. This process, which took
of the taxes which, in the rest of the
within the Ministry of Interior to deal
place essentially in the second part of
country, pertain to the State. In a
with the countries
the XX century, must be associated of
number of cases, islands also ben-
"part-island" municipalities. In Ireland,
course with the emergence of demo-
efit from national laws providing
one of the government Ministers has
cratic, modern, and decentralised forms
them with special direct or indirect
special responsibility over all the small
of government in Europe. Thus, Sicily
tax regimes, or specific legislation to
inshore islands, and in Denmark there
and Sardegna became autonomous re-
support economic development and
is a special Parliamentary Committee to
gions in 1948. The Faeroes also became
reduce transport costs.
deal with the small islands.
fifty "island"
or
autonomous in 1948, to be followed by
• Last but not least, the most exten-
It can henceforth be said that, across
Greenland in 1979. TheAzores, Madeira,
sive autonomy statuses also involve
the European Union, Member States
the Canary Islands and the Balearics
the possibility of being consulted or
have usually accepted that the island
acceded to autonomy in the 1970's, with
associated in international
negotia-
factor was worth so me form of recog-
the downfall of the dictatorships
tions affecting directly the island's
nition. Though the roots of this recog-
Salazar and Franco. In France, it was in
interests.
nition are generally old, it is by no mean
...
the 1980's that Corsica and the French
an anachronism, but a lively and ongo-
(D.O.M)
Of course, in Europe, autonomy or
ing process. There are - usually pas-
were conceded a special status of some
special statuses are not limited to is-
sionate - debates in many islands on
sort, in the wake of a general decentrali-
lands only: for example, a number of
how the existing politico-administra-
sation reformo
Spanish or Italian mainland regions with
tive status is going to be improved,
"special identity" also have different
how the islander's interests are going
regimes (e.g: Catalonia,
to be safeguarded,
Départements
d'Outre-Mer
Some original forms of Island governance. The extent of political concessions granted to islands varies from one case to another according to circumstances,
Lombardia,
and on how their
etc.). Moreover, not all European is-
autonomy
lands have a recognisable
these lines are being written, the French
home rule
status or special regime. Nevertheless,
should be extended.
As
Parliament has to decide the modifica-
even in those who
U
e o e
Islands or the Aegean Islands (which
of
Q)
tion of the law regarding the D.O.Ms,
but, while it would be difficult to as-
don't, there are perhaps more discreet,
while
sess them without undertaking
indi-
but nevertheless real forms of differ-
Territoriale is debating whether or not
vidual as well as comparative studies,
ence. Thus, while most of the smaller
it should require legislative powers. In
a general pattern may be outlined.
sized European Island regions do not
Sweden, Gotland is one of the selected
• Islands with some degree of autonomy
Corsica's
Collectivité
have any special form of self-govern-
local authorities experimenting a new
usually have legislative powers of
ment, they undoubtedly
owe to their
form of local government. In Scotland,
some kind, or may at least propose
insularity their mere existence as re-
the Western Isles and Orkney expect
amendments to national legislation.
gional authorities. It is doubtful that,
some form of recognition within the new
• They also tend to have a higher de-
should they live on the mainland, the
autonomous Scottish institutions. And
gree of financial autonomy as they
populations of areas such as the West-
in Denmark, the Faeroes are presently
may receive the proceed from so me
ern Isles, Orkney, Shetland, the Isle of
negotiating independence ...
L
:::J
o
o o e
S (f) L Q) (f) (f)
o o
ISLANDS IN THE EUROPEAN UNION: INTEGRATION OR DIFFERENTIATION?
In fact, those Islands which were mentioned in the original Treaty were largely dealt with as an inheritance from the colonial past of the founding Mem-
Over the last forty years, Europe has
ber-States.
undertaken a major political upheaval with
First of all, Part 4 of the Treaty dealt
the building, through successive Trea-
with the "Association of the Overseas
ties, of the European Economic Commu-
Countries and Territories", all depend-
nity (later European Union). But in inte-
ant territories, most of which were is-
grating 6, then 9, then 10, 12 and eventu-
lands. All these Territories ( such as the
ally 15 Member States (and tomorrow
Dutch West Indies, French Polynesia or New Caledonia, British Bermuda, etc.)
perhaps up to 25 ... ), the European Community also had to take on board their islands ... and their differences. How could it do so? To what extend was it prepared to accept that islands were different, and adjust its institutions,
It is no understatement
were not integrated into the Community, but declared "Associated Territories", As such, they could freely export into the Common Market, maintain duties
to say that,
and tariffs against European imports to
its laws and its policies to that effect?
at its inception in 1957 with the Treaty
protect their industries, but were to have
Was the recognition of islands as "cases
of Rome, the European Community had
only minimal access to European Funds.
apart", observed in many national poli-
hardly any interest in its islands. Nei-
The Treaty ofRome also dealt, some-
cies, going to be echoed in the work-
ther, in fact, had it any interest in its
what surnmarily and imprecisely, through
ings of this supranational structure?
regions.
Treaty
article 227.2 with the four French Over-
stated the general principIe of promot-
seas Departments (3 of which are is-
Two patterns were to be observed.
While the original
The first one was that of the recogni-
ing "an harmonious
tion of individual islands' case in the
economic activities", it was not before
RĂŠunion). Significantly, the issue ofthe
development
of
lands: Martinique,
Guadeloupe,
and
various Treaties of Adhesion. Such rec-
1975 (17 years later!) than one saw the
D.O.M was raised alongside French AI-
ognition took place in the course of the
emergence
geria, which was to become independ-
negotiation
of a meaningful
regional
process, when candidate
development policy, with the creation
Member-States asked that, as a condi-
of the European Regional Development
tion of their own adhesion, specific pro-
Fund.
visions should be granted to some of
ent a few years later- . Matters began to change in 1972 with the integration ofthe United-King-
Such a situatiorÂĄ may easily be ex-
dom, Denmark and Ireland, which gave
their island territories. As a result, those
plained. The fundamental
islands were given the benefit of more
the Treaty was to establish a freedom
EEC. All these three countries were
or less extensive derogation to the com-
of circulation of goods, people, capital
made, in totality or in parts, of islands.
mon rules (such as the right not to ap-
and services, and these aims appeared
Also, the two former one had sover-
purpose of
a stronger mari time emphasis to the
ply Value Added Tax, or Excises Duty).
so ambitious and far reaching at the
eignty over islands which were either
Others were even given the option of
time, that little effort was spent consid-
very remote and/or enjoying special
not integrating the Community, and to
ering the potential economic and so-
status: Denmark with the Faeroes and
have a limited relationship with it.
cial implications of such policies at re-
Greenland, the Ll.K. with the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man.
The second pattern was the even-
gionallevel, not to mention on the more
tual inclusion in European legislation
remote outposts of Europe. Moreover,
Consequently, special protocols had
of provisions acknowledging
4 of the original 6 countries of the Eu-
to be included into the 1972 Treaty of
ropean Economic
Adhesion to take the situation of these
that is-
lands or outermost regions were, as a
Community
(Ger-
whole (and not as individual excep-
many, Holland, Luxembourg, and Bel-
islands into consideration. Strikingly, alJ
tions) territories deserving special con-
gium) were hardly concerned by islands.
of these islands decided that they were
sideration.
In France,
Thus, E.U islands which
Corsica,
then under
a
better off outside, than within the EEC.
were unable to benefit from specific
strongly centralised form of govern-
Their motivations were diverse. In the
measures
ment, had no special status, and was
Faeroes and Greenland, the issue of the
not remotely
right to retain control over fishing re-
when their Member State
joined the Community became covered
16
The European integration process and the islands: Europe 110 la eerte",
in position to suggest
- although to a much lesser extent - by
specific policies. Even Italy, which had
sources - vital for the economy of these
these provisions. Of a much more re-
two major island regions, Sardinia and
communities, was a major point of con-
cent origin, this second pattern took
Sicily, both enjoying an autonomy sta-
flict. Yet, in the Faeroes as in Jersey,
considerable efforts to materialise.
tus since 1948, did not raise the issue.
Guernsey and the Isle of Man, another
International
Journal
of Island Affairs
crucial point was the potential threat of
degree of centralisation
prevailing in
or America. Moreover, these regions had
a restriction to local autonomy through
that country at the time, and perhaps
markedly different climate, agriculture
European legislation. When it had taken
by a certain lack of foresight. There is
and economy. This situation gave rise
years, if not centuries, to achieve an ex-
little doubt that a different
to the notion of "Ultraperipheral
tensive sharing of powers and respon-
would prevail today, considering
sibilities with the State, could this be
involvement
of the later days Greek
progressively in the implementation of
put in jeopardy with little or not guarán-
governments
to raise island issues at
specific policies to their benefit.
tees? How could a decision taken in a
the table of the Council of Ministers.
attitude the
"Outerrnost")
(or
Regions", and resulted
Q)
U
e o e L Q)
=:l
o o o e
The island issue arose once again with
g
European Council of Minister, or a leg-
A new turn took place in 1985 with the
the adhesion of Finland, Sweden and
(f)
islation drafted by a European official
adhesion of Spain and Portugal. Both
Austria to the European Union in 1994,
L
from an unknown country take into ac-
countries had archipelagos, character-
with the inclusion in the Treaty of a spe-
count the islands' special needs and
ised by their extreme remoteness in the
cial Protocol for the Áland Islands (Pro-
situation? How could an impersonal re-
case of the Canary Islands, Madeira and
tocol N°2), which was granted to Áland
lationship with Brussels administration,
Portugal. Emerging from a long period
should the islands decide to join the E.U.
replace an old - even if at times difficult
of undemocratic and extremely central-
It excluded them from the implernenta-
- special relationship with the central
ised form of governments, both Spain
tion ofEU Directives in the field of indi-
government of their country? As a consequence,
the Channel Is-
and Portugal had granted their islands
rect taxation (VAT,Excise duty...).lt also
(albeit in varying ways) substantial au-
enabled them to keep their special rules regarding the right of settlement, land
lands and the Isle of Man opted to stay
tonomy status. Consequently,
out. Under Protocol 3 of the Treaty, they
negotiated special dispositions for the
agreed to be part ofthe Community for
Canary Islands under Protocol 2 (but
lt is interesting to point out that this
trade, but for nothing else. The Fae-
not for the Balearic Islands Islands)."
Protocol was granted "because of the
roes eventually decided in 1974 not to
Portugal requested the approval of a
special status which the Aland Islands
integrate the Community,
and later
«Joint Declaration» on the situation of
enjoy according to international law",
signed a trade agreement with it. Green-
Madeira and the Acores, and various
and not as a recognition of their insu-
land, when granted its status of au-
measures in their favour were included
larity. By contrast, Gotland which re-
tonomy so me years later (1979), con-
in the Treaty. The arrival of Madeira, the Acotes and
quested to be granted the benefit of a
draw, and did so in 1995 to become an
the Canary islands also had the con se-
was to be ignored.
Associated Territory.
quence of highlighting the situation of
Consequently,
firmed by referendum its wish to with-
Spain
purchase, etc.
specific Protocol and Joint Declaration' one cannot but ob-
That trend was not followed up in
the French D.O.M. The European Com-
serve that, since the inception of the
1979 when Greece, the "island" coun-
munity now had a whole group of Re-
European Community in 1958, all is-
try par excellence joined the EEC. No
gions, mostly islands (with the excep-
lands which have been given specific
special measures for islands were re-
tion of French Guyana), which were an
recognition in the Treaty are islands
quired by the then Greek government
integral part of its political territory, but
which, in their past, were granted a
during the negotiation
of adhesion.
yet located so far away frorn its shores
strong status of autonomy
This may be explained by the extreme
that most of them were closer to Africa
Member State. In the reverse, all the
by their
islands which had not previously been granted a special status of autonomy were unable to obtain any form of recognition in the EU Treaty when their Member State decided to join the European Cornmunity".
The formal recognition of islands regions in the Treaty The acceptance ofthe special dimension of islands by European legislation has been a long, slow, arduous affair. It is still very much an ongoing process. As already referred to important factor has been the implementation of spe-
Q) (f) (f)
o o
cial provisions for a specific island or island group in the Treaties of adhesion signed by the Member States. But, beyond individual cases, there has also been a growing acknowledgement, expressed on diverse occasions by various European Institutions, that insularity as a whole was a factor which deserved special consideration. Various factors led to this recognition. The first one was probably the emergence of islands regions as a small, but dedicated, political lobbying force in the Community. Such a move was a novelty, for if neighbouring European in the
in the Baltic Sea, the IMEDOC group
inclusion of an article 129b (now 154)
Baltic Sea or in the Atlantic) tradition-
for the Western Mediterranean Islands.
on "Transeuropean
ally had trading, and more rarely politi-
There is al so a specific cooperation
underlined that such networks would,
cal links, there had never been a join
structure for the Outermost Regions.
amongst other consideration, have to
islands (in the Mediterranean,
all
These moves and representations got
pay special attention to the need oflink-
from North to
some echo in the European Parliament,
ing island regions to the central regions
South, and East to West. These devel-
which
ofthe Community.
opments fostered in the fold broader
number
political approach encompassing these communities,
structures
or organisations
such as,
initially, the Standing Conference
of
produced of reports
over the years
a
and resolutions
In 1997, an important breakthrough
stressing the need for specific policies
occurred with the Inter Governmental
for islands. The Harris Report (1983), the
Conference
and the adoption of the
Local and Regional Authorities of the
Barret Report (1987) or, more recently,
Amsterdam Treaty. After considerable
Council ofEurope, and such as the Con-
the Viola Report (1998) are some of the
lobbying efforts - once again spear-
ference ofPeripheral Maritime Regions.
most noticeable examples. It is also note-
headed by the action of Greece -, Arti-
worthy that the European Parliament
cle 130a (now 158) of the Treaty deal-
strumental in bringing the island issue
eventually set up within its ranks an "Is-
ing with the Community social and eco-
to the fore by organising, in 1981, a first
land Intergroup", gathering island Euro
nomic cohesion was amended to in-
"European Islands Conference" which
MPs across national or party political
elude a specific reference to islands.
was held in Tenerife, and which issued
divides. This concern for islands was
an important Declaration. More confer-
also expressed by the European Com-
"... the Community shall aim at reduc-
ences were organised later on in the
mittee the Social and Economic Com-
ing disparities between the le veis of
The Council of Europe role was in-
Acores and in the Áland Islands. The Conference of Peripheral Maritime Regions (CPMR), born in 1973,
The article now specified that:
mittee (Vassilaras Report, 1987), and was
development
later addressed by the Committee of
and the backwardness of the least fa-
of the various regions
Regions when it was set up.
voured regions or islands"
acting in close relation with the Coun-
It was thanks to these initiatives and
cil ofEurope, also furthered and devel-
lobbying efforts", that the concern for
oped this action. In 1980, it created
islands rase gradually in Europe over
Governmental
within its ranks an "Islands Commis-
the years, to reach eventually the table
Joint Declaration
sion'? which now gathers every sin-
ofthe Council ofMinisters. This resulted
which stated :
Amsterdam also resulted in the Inter Conference approving n030 on Islands,
gle regional island authority ofthe E.U,
in the adoption of a number of modifica-
"The Conference recognises that island
as well as a number of other European
tions in the European Treaty itself.
regions sujfer from structural handicaps
islands. The lslands Commission
is
The first move was made in 1988, at
linked to their island status, the perma-
the initiative of the Greek government,
nence of which impairs their economic
group, entirely directed and financed
when the European Council of Heads
and social development.
by the Island Regions. Other lsland
of Governments, which met in Rhodes
The Conference accordingly acknowl-
groupings were also set up in Europe
issued a first declaration underlining
edges that Community legislation must
in various geographical zones at a later
the special situation of islands. Then,
take account of these handicaps and
date: the «Baltic 7» Island association
in 1993, the Maastricht Treaty saw the
that specific measures may be taken,
now the main European Island pressure
18
Networks" which
International
Journal
of Island Affairs
wherejustified, infavourofthese
re-
power costs, and with whom they
the POS El, contradiction grew more acute
gions in order to integrate them bet-
have very little trading links.
between the need to apply special rules to
ter into the internaL market on fair
The term "ultraperipheral"
conditions" .
The issue of Ihe "Outermcs}" regions
tU U
answer the needs of these regions, and the
e 10 e
did not appear in the original Treaty
trend to greater legislative harmonisation
tU
of Rome, which nevertheless granted
at Community leve\. The Ultraperipheral
o
so me specific measures to the French
Regions considered that the existing legal
regions
L
:::J
o e
D.O.M; but, as we have seen before,
framework was getting progressively out-
D
In parallel with these moves to
the concept arose when the adhesion
dated or unsatisfactory. New instruments
g
achieve some recognition for islands
of Spain and Portugal in 1985 brought
had to be provided within the Treaty itself
(f)
in European legislation, a specific lob-
the Canary Islands, Madeira and the
to cater for their condition, and provide a
L
bying took place in favour of the
Azores.
sound basis for specific legislation.
Ult:raperipheral Regions. The Ultraperipheral
The issue ofthe ultraperipheral (or or " Outer-
"outermost")
regions was first tack-
The first move in that direction was taken at the opportunity of the Maastricht Treaty,
most" regions
are the 4 French
led by the Member States and the
under the pressure of France, Spain and Por-
"D茅partements
d'Outre-Mer",
Commission in 1986 by the setting-
tugal. lt materialised with the approval of a
the
Canary Islands, the Azores and Ma-
up on a "Interservices"
group within
Joint Declaration acknowledging their excep-
d~ira. Their total population is about
the European Commission, to co-or-
tional difficulties, and stating that specific
3,5 mili ion people, scattered across
dinate and monitor the implementa-
measures
the globe from the Indian Ocean to
tion of Community policies in these
ultraperipheral regions in order to enable
South America, those seven regions
regions. In 1989, the first of an impor-
them to integrate better the Community in-
belonging to France, Portugal and
tant set of legislative proposals was
ternal market, and catch-up with their social
Spain.
conceived with the POSEI, or "Pro-
and econornic difficulties.
----
While 6 of them are islands, one
grammes ofOrientation specific to re-
could
be
applied
to the
Further political action to obtain a instru-
(French Guyana) is not. AlI these re-
moteness and insularity." There was
ment of a more legally binding nature than
gions also share a number of com-
to be one of such programme for each
a Joint Declaration was undertaken in the
mon characteristics: while being an
country
1989,
course of the lnter Governmental Confer-
integral part ofthe European Uni贸n",
POSEICAN and POSEIMA in 1991).
ence. The outcome was the redrafting of
(POSEIDOM
in
they are located well beyond the geo-
A Programme ofCommunity lnitiative
article 227(2) (now 299b)) by the Amster-
graphical confines of Europe, and are
named REGIS was also set up in 1990
dam Treaty. This article reads:
either totally isolated in the Atlantic
for the benefit of these regions, to be
"2. The provisions ofthis Treaty shaLLappLy
Ocean, or close to the shores of Af-
followed-up by a second one in 1994.
to the French overseas departments, the
rica and America. Moreover,
they
The POSEl provided the letal back-
have a distinct tropical climate, spe-
ground for substantial measures, ei-
However, taking account of the structuraL
cific agricultural productions;
they
therfinancial or juridical, which were
sociaL and economic
are prone to natural disasters such
well justified by the extreme condition
French overseas departments, the Azores,
as cyclones or volcanic eruptions;
met by the ultraperipheral
regions,
Madeira and the Canary IsLands, which is
and their immediate neighbours are
whose characteristics were so mark-
compounded by their remoteness, insuLar-
less developed countries with whom
edly different from those of the rest
ity, smaLLsize, difficuLt topography and cLi-
they cannot compete in term of man-
of the European Community. Yet, with
mate, economic dependence on afew prod-
Azores, Madeira and the Canary IsLands. situation
of the
ucts, the permanence and cambination of which severeLy restrain their deveLopment, the CounciL, acting by a quaLified majority on a proposaL from the Commission and after consulting the European ParLiament, shaLL adopt specific measures aimed, in particuLar, at Laying down the conditions of application of the present Treaty to those regions, incLuding common policies. The CounciL shaLL,when adopting the reLevant measures referred to in the second subparagraph,
take into account areas
such as customs and trade policies, fiscal poLicy, free zones, agricuLture and fisher-
tU
(f) (f)
o
D
The answer to this question lies be-
ies policies, conditions for supply of
hind the way the E.U will -or won't-
raw materials and essential consumer goods, Sta te aids and conditions of ac-
implement effectively, in its legislation
cess to structural funds and to hori-
and in its policies, the various instruments concerning islands recently laid
zontal Community programmes.
out the Treaty.
The Council shall adopt the measures
referred
to in the
second
Notes
subparagraph taking into account the sp ecial
characteristics
1
and con-
straints of the outermost regions with-
of issues involving its own governance
out undermining the integrity and the
and its own institutions (can Europe'
coherence of the Community legal or-
Member States still retain a right of veto
lslands", Luxembourg, 1994 (see the lore-
on certain decisions? How should the
word
votes be shared in a Council of Minis-
Christophersen) .
der, including the internal market and common policies. "
ters where sit countries of widely dif-
CONCLUSION
28/5/98. Such a delinition was also applied by EUROSTAT in its book "Portrait 01 the
States having responsibilities
and
tota. In fact, one had to wait till 1978 for a Europea n Court 01 Justice ruling to decide that
over is-
affect the islands, because the new
-albeit in
members (with the exception of Malta and Cyprus, and but for two small is-
ries were deserving some form of spe-
land regions in Estonia) are massively
cial consideration in political and ad-
mainland based. The balance of power in the EU will geographically
Millan
3
The process of enlargement will also
many varying ways- that these territo-
lands have acknowledged
by Commissioners
s
ferent size and influence? ...).
In their vast majority, the European
the "O.O.M" were eventualiy fu"'! ;:~..• ~the European Community. 4
The Canary Islands were then excluded from the implementation of policies as the Common Agricultural Policy, the Common Fisheries Policy, and were kept outside the Customs area. This status was modified in
shift
1991, at the request of the Spain and of the
The process of European integration
"eastward", and the already small in-
Canary Islands. AII EU policies now apply
has given a new dimension to the is-
tluence of islands will still diminish in
to these islands, but with specific provi-
sue of island governance by raising the
proposition. In such a context, asking
ministrative terms.
question of how a supranational body
for special treatment for islands in Eu-
of380 million inhabitants.
ropean policy and legislation will prove
Confronted
with such a major up-
increasingly difficult. So will access to
sions regarding the implementation of EU , law. 5
C.f., Gotland's White Paper «Gotland in the
6
On 11 European Island Regions with no
Baltic Sea, in Sweden and in Europe», 1994.
have
European Funding, as an increasing
special status in nationallaw, none got any
fought to reiterate, in a supranational
portion of Europe's Structural Funds
recognition in the Adhesion Tretay of their
context, this request for special con-
will go to the Eastern Countries which
heaval,
the European
islands
sideration. In doing so, they have de-
are much poorer that the existing 15
veloped politicallinks
Members.
with each other
which were hitherto unknown, or even unthinkable. This struggle has met with some success, first with the inclusion
in the
Member State. On 14 Island Regions or groups with a status of autonomy, only 3 (the Balearics, Sicily and Sardegna) did not get any recognition. These figures exclude
While the enlargement will undoubt-
those islands listed as Associated Territo-
edly have great benefits for the Com-
ries in the original Treaty (French Polynesia,
munity, it will most likely favour those
the Outch West Indies, etc.)
areas in the heart of mainland Europe
Treaty of a number of derogations and
which have a sizeable market and pro-
measures
duction capacity, and have privileged
7
concerning
individual
is-
For further information
on CPMR, see
www.crpm.org . 8
This lobbying process has been described in Fernandez Martins's book, "Les lIes et
lands, then with the adoption of some
acccss to the futures territories of the
provisions raising the issue of islands
Union. Such is not, for obvious rea-
Européenne», Editions de l'Aube, 1999. For
sons the case with the islands.
an online reading, see www.eurisles.com .
and outermost
regions
as a whole.
More substantial instruments were also
So is there a risk that the islands will
included to deal with the specific case
loose out, and be -politically as well as
of the Outermost regions.
economically
-be
increasingly
les Régions Ultrapériphériques de l'Union
9
Unlike other territories such as New Caledonia, French Polynesia, the Falkland Islands, the Outch West Indies,etc ... which are under the sovereignty of a Member State,
marginalised in a broader Community?
but only Associated Territories of the Com-
what extent the European Union will
Faced with such a prospect, will the
munity.
go to implement these measures.
European institutions ignore the needs
The question now is, of course, to
At the present time, the European
20
Resolution on the problems 01 island regions 01 the European Union, A4-0118/98,
of these communities? Or will they ac-
This paper is an abstract 01 a larger paper pub-
Union is striving to enlarge itself pro-
cept, more than ever, that they consti-
gressively to up to 25 members. This
tute a special case deserving special
Editions de L'Harmattan, Paris,2000. The views
will raise even more acutely a number
consideration or policies?
expressed hereby are the author's own.
International
Journal of Island Affairs
lished in "What Status for Europe's lslands?»,
I
I
I
I
I Ă“ N
I O
'1
'he Islan s Perspectives::' K
r
Ă
t
I
by
G",ece;,
well known from the big Mediterranean
DR.
IOANNIS
islands along
Finally, in the Ionian Sea, more or less
the numerous islands and islets sur-
with Sardinia, Sicily, Corsica and Cy-
closed to the coast of western Greece,
rounding the country, extending its ex-
prus- is a section of the southern exter-
there are 15 islands of different size,
clusive economic zone far beyond its
na! borders of the EU with Africa. Crete
grouped in 4 departments
land area. 112 of those islands are in-
is also one of the thirteen Greek regions
Ionian Islands' Region.
habited today, while another 107 - once
(peripheria), composed of four depart-
Among a!l the Greek islands, the ma-
inhabited - still keep the administrative
jority (73 islands) have less than two
status of a settlement. 78 of them are
ments (nomos). " In the Western Aegean, relatively
the seat of at least one autonomous
close to the coast, there are several is-
and ten thousand, 9 between ten and
local authority (community or demos).
lands under the adrninistration of dif-
fifty thousand and 6 with more of fifty
Roughly
ferent departments of the mainland -
thousand: Crete, Corfou, Lesvos, Rodes
J
3% of the population
of
within the
thousand inhabitants, 24 between two
Greece lives on those islands (1.489.230
mainly Attiki, Magnissia
and Evia-,
and Evia. 54 of them are smaller than 25
people -census 199 J), occupying J 9%
named "coastal islands". The rest of
km", 3 1are between 25 and 100 km2 and
of its territory (24.739,4km
Excluding
the Aegean Sea, lying between Greece
only Crete is bigger than 5.000 km'.
Evia - which is not considered as an
and Turkey, with an area of approxi-
2).
2
How these islands are adrninistrated?
island according to EUROSTAT, since
mately 480.000km , is scattered with 58
Besides the fact that the different islands
it is linked to mainland Greece by a
smalJ and medium-sized inhabitant is-
are depending from regional authorities
bridge - and Crete, which both have a
lands and a multitude of non-inhabit-
of different adrninistrative level, they are
large surface area and population size,
ant ones. They are grouped into 5 de-
managed in the same way as all the other
we are referring to a large number of
partments and 2 Regions, which are
equivalent
small and medium-sized islands. These
exclusively insular: Cyclades and Do-
Greece. The Greek politica! system has
islands comprise about 50% of the to-
decanese
tal land surface of the islands and re-
South Aegean, and the departments of
composing
spective populations (Spilanis, 1999).
Lesvos, Samos and Chios composing the Region of North Aegean. These de-
istrative situation can be found in the
partments, with the exception of Cyc-
Greek archipelagos.
lades are a section of the eastern exter-
Aegean, Crete, - which is ranked among
administrative
entities in
the Region of
Islands of different types and adrninIn the South
SPILANIS*
nal borders of the European Union.
Assistant Professor Laboratory of Local and Insular Development Department
of Environmental
Studies
University of the Aegean Mytilini, Greece
been marked by the concentration
The first level is a decentralised tier of
of
power at the level of the central admin-
the state administration
istration and the government, without
others are part of local governance.
regional differentiation. During 1833, the
The Region as level of administra-
newly independent Greek state adopted
tive division has very short tradition in
the French system of centralised state
the country, granted the fact that it was
with power vested in the centre and the
established
control exercised over the periphery by
come into effect in 1987 with the divi-
a "prefectoral"
sion of the country into 13 regions.
system. The local au-
as recently as 1986 and
thorities, whose origins come from the
Structures
administrative system that existed dur-
General Administration, Regional Ad-
ing the Ottoman Empire, used to have
ministration)
similar to the Region (as were introduced in the
until recently very restricted economic
past, lasted only for very short periods
and political power.
oftime(l912-15,
1935-36,1941,1970-
This situation can be explained pri-
73) (Velonias, 1988). The creation of the
marily by the fact that when the new
region as a political authority and an
Greek state became independent
administration
in
body beca me almost
especially
the Mediterranean
ones
necessary for the implementation of the
36% of the present territory. The re-
(Monteiro
Da Silva (ed), 1993 and
regional programs funded by the EU's
mainder was added after regional or
EURISLES' Network website).
1832, its surface area consisted of only
Structural Funds (precisely the Medi-
In the following paragraphs, firstly,
terranean Integrated Programs). Their
The most recent an-
we will try to describe the most impor-
regulations had initiated the concepts
nexation took place in 1947 and con-
tant modifications and the actual struc-
of subsidiarity and partnership among
cerned Dodecanese, that was still re-
ture of the three levels of regional ad-
the different levels of european and
ministration and, secondly to evaluate
national adrninistration,
world wars and revolts against different occupants.
maining under Italian governance. Secondly, the fact that Greece has not
how these modifications
have or can
frontiers with any western european
influence the development
democratic state, but was surrounded
of the islands.
strategies
to be an important argument for the preservation of this very centralised administrative system. The ruling elite-a small number of families of notables-, interested in maintaining their control
The General Secretary of the Region, who is appointed and removed from office by the Government, heads each region. He (or she) is the representa-
by real or potential enemies -as the excommunist countries and Turkey- used
THE STRUCTURE OF THE REGIONAL ADMINISTR'ATION WITHIN THE GREEK ISLANDS: THE NEW COMPETENCEl
tive of the Government within the region, presides over all civil, police and port services at the department level as well as of the inter-departmental (named now regional) services. The planning and the co-ordination
all over the different levels of adminis-
The structure and the philosophy of
of regional development, but also the
tration and the implementation of poli-
the regional adrninistration of the coun-
control of the implementation of the re-
cies, was tended to view any demand
try are specified in the artieles 101, 102
gional and sectorial operational pro-
for more local autonomy as a threat to
and 118 of the constitution of Greece
grammes financed by the Structural
the integrity of the nation.
of 1974, as amended in 1985. Although
Funds, were assigned, by the law 1622/
The stabilisation of the internal de-
the constitution specifies in artiele 101
86, as the most important domains of
mocracy after the fall of the military gov-
that "the administration ofthe state op-
responsibility for the Region. The Di-
emment (1974), create a favourable con-
erates under the decentralised system",
rectorate
text for more distribution of power and
however both the analysis of the legal
(Regional Service ofthe Ministry ofNa-
consequently for more decentralisation.
frame work in force and the daily real-
tional Economy) has the administrative
So a progressive change began during
ity can hardly confirm the wording of
duty of these responsibilities. The Re-
the 80's who has modified substantially
the constitution.
gional Council, that is responsible for
Three are the levels of the regional
the administrative map of Greece. Even though, almost no differentiation was
administration
accepted in the structure and the com-
the Department and the Municipality.
petence between insular and mainland 1
22
and the two
in Greece: the Region,
This paragraph is principally based on the
of Regional
the regional
Development
planning
and develop-
ment, is composed of the General Secretary as chairman, of representatives offirst- and second-levellocal
authori-
regional administration as airead y ex-
study of the Committee of the Regions, 1998,
ties and of representatives of business
isted in all the other european countries,
Regional and local democracy in the EU.
and professional bodies.
International
Journal
of Island Affairs
lJ U
By the law 2218/94, who established ment level, the regions become areas
e 10 e
of state administration and by the law
lJ
the elected authorities
at the depart-
L
:::J
trative entity with its own organisation,
o o
its own budget (the regional develop-
D
ment fund) and its own staff. Gradu-
.'S
2508/97 the region become an adminis-
e
ally, the transfer of competence con-
(J)
cerning the regional affairs form the
L
lJ
Ministries, have to complete the decen-
(J) (J)
tralisation of power and the ameliora-
o
D
tion of the effectiveness of the hole administrative system. The Department (or Prefecture) has been, since the establishment
of the
Modern Greek State until today, the institution that provided the stable intermediate level of administration be-
when there was not the seat of the Pre-
"demos" has actually less than 5.000
tween the central state and the local
fecture. The creation of the Districts was
inhabitants. This was the result of the
authorities. Till 1994, the department
the only measure witch differentiate the
migration
movement
that happened
th
was a decentralised body of the cen-
islands' administrative system from the
during the 20 century from the rural
tral administration headed by a gover-
rnainland's.justified
areas towards towns - specially Ath-
nor (nomarchis or prefect), agent of the
transportation between islands and the
ens' and Thessaloniki's
additionaJ cost occurred to the citizens!!!
tions - and abroad. Even if this move-
government with the responsibility for co-ordination
of the activities of the
central departments
in his territory.
by the difficulty of
agglomera-
After the application ofthe law 2218/
ment is now slowed down, the size of
94 at the 1st of January 1995, the elected
the rnajority of the local authorities is
From the '50s, some administrative de-
Prefects and Prefectoral Councils run
very smal\. According to 1991 census
centralisation
turned the prefectures
almost all the competence of the "old"
from 5.775 municipalities (688 on the
into a level ofplanning and implemen-
Prefectures, except those concerning fi-
islands except Crete), 79% has less
tation when each prefecture was allo-
nance affairs (p.ex. perception oftaxes).
than 1000 inhabitants and other 17%
cated a separate public works budget
In an equivalent way, the prefectoral
between 1000 and 5000 people (Min-
(Vernay and Papageorgiou, 1992). Dur-
administration depending till 19940n
istry of Interior, Public Sector and De-
ing the '80s the Consultative
the central Ministries, became the au-
centralisation,
ture Councils have been established
tonomous executive body of the new
palities were extremely fragmented,
with decision-making power in the plan-
local government. The preparation and
their human, technical and financial
ning process and the transfer of funds
the implementation ofthe development
resources
Prefec-
for public works (infrastructures)
in-
creased in a substantial way. By the law 1622/86, the Districts
1997). As the munici-
were limited. So, no sub-
plan remain the most important compe-
stantial action was possible to be un-
tence of the "new" entity, as no finan-
dertaken in order to fulfil their obli-
cial and legislative
gations towards their citizens for eco-
power has been
nomic and social development.
(Eparhio) were established as adminis-
transferred. The budget of the Depart-
trative entities depending from the pre-
ment is totally financed by national and
The reforms undertaken during the
fectures for the islands regions with two
european resources, through an algo-
'80s went towards two main directions.
or more islands. These very tiny enti-
rithm based mainly on the population
Firstly, the transfer of resources and
ties -rniniature of a Department- were
and the GDP per persono
the enlargement of competence, con-
created firstly in order to provide the
The Municipalities
(Demos
and
cern especially the possibility:
Koinotita) have always been self-ad-
a. to create municipal enterprises as an
ers without being obliged to move away
ministrated
in the local
attempt to develop more flexible ways
from home and secondly to run local
leve\. "Demos" are supposed to be the
of providing services, by their own or
affairs, as development
basic administrative services to island-
authorities
urban entities with more than 5.000
jointly with private entrepreneurs, co-
Districts have been created in the big-
people
operatives etc.,
ger islands as Lemnos, Naxos, Ikaria,
ones. In practice, this rule is not en-
b. to create development
tirely
mainly in collaboration with other bod-
planning. 14
Kos, Santorini, Thassos, Kythira etc,
and "Koinotites" respected
the rural
and the half
of
agencies,
In order to facilitate the new municipalities to face the new reality, the governrnent provides for thern, during the hole face of implementation of the program- (1999-2006), with: • technical equipment, • financial resources for investments in basic infrastructures of local interest, • scientific staff specifically trained in order to be able to undertake development initiatives and to manage the new "enlarged" municipalities. To day, after only one year from the beginning of the implementation ofthis historical reform, the first outputs are airead y obvious, even if, a lot of problems remain. These problems have to be solved in order to maximise the overall ies in the level of the department, in
• there is not enough human resources
order to undertake development initia-
able to exploit all the possibilities of-
ti ves,
fered by the new legislation,
impact for the revitalisation and the development specially of the rural areas. Finally, the establishment of the Min-
C. to draw up planning contracts with
• the measures did not last for long
istry of the Aegean in 1985, has to be
the public sector bodies in order to co-
time, as ten years later, in 1994, the
added to this brief description, even if
ordinate the provision of a service or
collaboration became obligatory be-
it can not be considered as part of the
to implement different aspects of a de-
tween municipalities leve!.
regional administration, but of the cen-
velopment programme.
in national
tral one. It is not the only "territorial" ministry existing in Greece, as another
Secondly, the facilitation of the col-
Nevertheless, the ten years of expe-
one, the Ministry of Makedonia and
laboration between the local authori-
rience with voluntary co-operation be-
Thrace, has been created almost 35
ties, in order to reinforce their capabil-
tween communities, was extremely valu-
years before for the same purposes. Its
ity for intervention, by:
able because it made people aware, es-
role is to analyse the specific problems
a. encouraging the voluntary amalga-
pecially in rural areas, that the problem
of the Aegean islands and to propose
mation between municipalities,
of strengthening the municipalities had
specific and adequate policies.
b. encouraging the voluntary collabo-
to be faced in some way. In 1997, the
ration between them in associations,
government decided to accelerate the
had to face:
in order to obtain grants form the pub-
movement towards bigger and more
a. the hostility of the "classic" secto-
lic investment prograrnme.
powerful
rial Ministries to accept the transfer of
AII these measures, even ifthey were
and to
change completely the map ofthe local
competence
administration
measures for the islands (p.ex. for the
by merging them into
and/or to adopt specific
very important, didn't had as signifi-
only 900 municipalities and 133 com-
taxation, or the agriculture) and
cant impact as hoped, because:
munities. Ir was considered necessary
b. the lack of sufficient public funds in
• the central government did not fulfil
to create units big enough, able to face
order to implement the specific policies
the new opportunities
that are necessary to overcome the is-
all the engagements towards the ap-
and threats
plicants. So, some ofthem have been
within the EU for the 21 st century. On
lands' disadvantages, its action can be
disappointed and a lot of others have
the islands, 135 municipalities
were
globally evaluated rather as positive.
been dissuaded,
formed and 20 communities were main-
The Ministry of Aegean has contributed
• the local "elites" were more or les s
tained, especially in the small islands.
to the recognition of the "insularity" as
opposed to the "fusion" of their com-
Now, only the a few medium and all the
a particularity -and not as a handicap-
munity, for fear that they would loose
big islands have more than one munici-
that can be overcome with a specific and
their identity,
2
24
local authorities
Even if the Ministry of the Aegean
.pality on their territory.
coherence policy. This idea was sup-
The program is named "Ioannis Kapodistrias" who was the 1" Governor 01the modern greek state in 1828.
International
Journal
of Island Affairs
ported from the Greek and other Gov-
definitely more important in the Greek
cal Park, Chamber of Cornmerce and
Q)
ernments during the Inter-Governmen-
regions. This is true especially within
Industry, Innovation Centre, Chamber
tal Conference of 1996. The result of this
the EU structural policy, where the ap-
of Agriculture, etc).
e 10 e
initiative was the adoption of an explicit
plication of the subsidiarity's principIe
An other main problem was the diffi-
reference of the island problem in rela-
not only permits but also calls for ac-
culty to find the necessary resources
:::::l
tion with the economic and social co-
tive local participation.
in order to finance the participation in
herence in the Amsterdam Treaty (arti-
strong enough regional authorities has,
meetings, the preparation of proposals
o o e
de 158) (Spila.rus 1996). In the nationallevel, the Ministry has
The lack of
(f)
tor of the evolutions.
other local authorities
L
used to have
tion was particularly obvious, used to
very good ideas have never been trans-
2006) financed by the EU, ofthe prior-
be the interregional co-operation on the
formed into operational programs.
ity axe "Island's space". The Ministry
european leve\. Difficulties has existed
has recently launched the programs
for an active participation in the differ-
"Asterias" and "Hippocrates"
the regional
managed to acquire useful experiences
as the Committee of the Regions, the
that will certainly be exploited in the
health
Assembly
future by the "new" more powerful au-
Region, the
telematics and other modern organisa-
Conference of Peripheral Maritime Re-
tional schemes involving directly the
gions (CPMR) and the Conference of
In the national level, the participa-
municipalities.
the Regional and Local Authorities of
tion of the local authorities in the deci-
the Council ofEurope. The treated sub-
sion system during last decade has
THE NEW COMPETENCE, A TOOl FOR DEVElOPMENT?
jects in these forums were for the Greek
permitted them to influence the regional
The decentralisation
of competence
thorities.
case usually of the competence of the
policy for transport infrastructure, for
national government
the protection of the environment, for
and where was
needed a high level of preparation and
tourism and agricultural development,
expertise of the regional administration,
for culture, for education, for research
ministration towards the different lev-
that in a Greek region simply did not
and innovation etc. Naturally, this in-
els of regional authorities is of course
existed. Difficulties of the same nature
tervention was not always very suc-
a positive evolution, as more democ-
were faced for the participation
in
cessful, as the lack of experience and
racy is introduced within the decision
interregional projects, werethe domain
competent staff in the matter, are still
process system of local affairs. The lo-
for action proposed by the different
significant. Therefore it was extremely
cal societies can now express more eas-
participants are in relation with their
difficult for them to elaborate a strategic development
and the
plan with coherent
ily their wishes and their expectations
competence
for the future of their own and their re-
expertise that could found either in the
gion through the different levels of re-
administration or in the collaborating
translated into operational programs.
gional authorities. They can participate
institutions (i.e. University, Technologi-
The presence of the University of the
on the decision concerning
for intervention
o o
authorities
ent interregional political organisations of European
Q) (f) (f)
In spite of all these obstacles and handicaps
to reorganise the administrative and the
from the central governm~nt and ad-
g
the region had not a budget and the
Regional Development Program (2000-
using
o
and the implementation of projects, as
money only for running costs. So, many
on islands
Q)
until the recent years, marginalised the
One of the domains where this situa-
services
L
Greek islands to the role of the spectacontributed to the inclusion in the new
in order
U
goals and objectives,
that could be
the eco-
nomic development, the environmental policy, the social intervention etc. Is it enough and is it a more efficient system capable to drive the islands towards more development?
Can the is-
lands decide now on the development strategy they would Iike to follow? A clear response is extremely difficult, as, everyone knows, that now-days
the
globalisation of the economic system impose severe Iimits to the degree of freedom of any regional entity. But, given these limits, and in comparison with what used to happened a few years before, now the degrees of freedom are
-
acteristics of insularity and mainly the lack of an «insular development theory» capable to transform them fram handicaps to comparative
advantages that
can be exploited taking in account all the technological
changes that trans-
form the activities and their location (Spilanis 1999). These obstacles could be overcome only if the collaboration among the islands is strengthened with the use of interregional organisations and institutions.
References - Committee
of the Regions,
1998, Re-
gional and local democracy
in the Eu-
ropean
Union,
Bruxelles,
nancial power and the transformation
Union,
p.335.
- EURISLES
Aegean could cover this lack, but the
European
website,
(www.
eurisles.
com) - Ministry of the Interior, Public Service
collaboration with the local authorities
of each island into a place where the
was accidentally.
citizen can resolve a important part from
and Decentralísation,
his transaction with the administration.
tation of the elected departmental
It has to be stressed that even if the perspectives are better than previously
A special care has to be given to differ-
after the administrative reform, it does
entiate the sectorial policies in order to
not mean that the reform was sufficient.
incorporate the islands' particularities.
A lot of local affairs are still run by the central administration that is not ready to share its power.
Finally, there are two main obstacles that keep away from achieving goal for a sustainable
the
development
of the Interior, Public Service
and Decentralisation, modernisation
tion and local authorities,
tive structure and competence for main-
able human resources able to under-
land and islands, is an other point that
take all the necessary initiatives to make
Delgada,
have to be discussed shortly. The rein-
the islands attractive places for the in-
Azores, p.187
forcement
stallation of new (modem) activities and new people ready to cope with the char-
Athens, p.92
- Monteiro Da Silva (ed), 1993, The polití-
european
especially with so me legislative and fi-
1997, For ths
of the greek administra-
cal
of the elected bodies and
au-
thorities, Athens, p.91 - Ministry
process on the islands: the lack of suit-
The maintain ofthe same administra-
1994, Implemen-
administrative island
of the Ponta
Autonomous
1, 1996,
- Spilanis european
For
Region
an
of
islands'
policy, Greek Center of Eu-
ropean Studies, - Spilanis
systems regions,
p.32
1, 1999, Islands' space, study
for the Regional
Development
Greece 2000-2006,
Plan of
Mytilíni, p.85
+
ta-
bles, - Spilanis l., 1999, Qualité versus quantité: une stratégie durable pour les 1Ies, in - Velonia, tration,
E. (1988), Regional Adminislocal self-government:
current
in the administrative
reform,
situation Athens
- Verney S. - Papageorgiou fecture Councils sation
F, 1992, Pre-
in Greece: Decentrali-
in European
Community
Con-
text", Regional Politics and Polícy, vol.2, nos 1-2, p.109-137. - Review "Local tralisation",
26
lnternational
Journal
of Island Affairs
Government
different articles
- Decen-
QJ U
e o e L
QJ
::::::l
o o o e
S (j) L
QJ
'he case of Islands under Ihe French LiHoral Acl *
(j) (j)
o o
by
The
small French islands
situ-
EMMANUELLE
agement, protection and development
ofthe littoral depending on the proxim-
ated not far from the coast do not enjoy
ofthe littoral", called "Littoral Act", also
ity to the shore. The closer the land is to
a specific legal status. As France is a
applies to the small French coastal is-
the sea-shore, the more the protection
one and indivisible Republic
regulations are restrictive.
(Section
lands. The well know provisions of this
2, Constitutional law 1958), the law is
Act regulate the limits of littoral urban
uniformly applied through the whole na-
development in order to protect the at-
unanimously
tional territory, except for the Overseas
tractiveness of the coast and to prevent
session, the implementation ofthis Act
Dominions
anarchic urbanisation, These legal pro-
has caused many disagreements
visions establish a different treatment
tween the French government which is
\
and Overseas Territories
(DOM and TOM). Therefore, ''The man-
In spite of having
been adopted
by the 1986 legislative be-
responsible for its enforcement and loLa Meule harbour
(August
/990).
cal coastal authorities in charge of its practical implementation. local representatives
Even if the
agreed with the
objecti ves of the Littoral Act, they had some reservations, particularly in the island cornmunities. In fact the 1986 legal provisions ignore the special case
of islands. The case of the Ile d'Yeu is a good example of a small coastal island where the reactions to the Act were particularly strong.
*The management,
protection and devel-
opment of the littoral Act, 1986, published in the Official Journal
of the French Re-
public (JORF) 4 January 1986, page 200.
SAUVION
To the south of the Loire estuary, eighteen kilometres from the nearest VendĂŠe coast, the IIe d'Yeu Island has about five thousand inhabitants (Ogiens or Islais) in an area of twenty-three square kilometres. The two principal urban areas are Port Joinville and Saint Sauveur. The charm of the island is a result of the diversity of its landscapes. Facing the Ocean, there are sheer and sharp cliffs of granite covered with heather. Facing the continent, there are long beaches of fine sand and dunes. Small white houses with blue shutters and roofs of round tiles, green forests of pines and oaks and mimosas and oleanders, all endow it with a very Mediterranean look. Since the end of the First World War the island has definitively tumed from agriculture to fishing, especially tuna fishing' . Tourism? is the other pillar of the insular economy.
Fort-Joinville.
The following arguments try to pro ve and explain to what extent the French
cerning the littoral, which is a very at-
Littoral Act has disregarded the insu-
tractive area. The Government's
larity question.
IS THE INSULAR DECENTRALlSATION FICTITIOUS? The Littoral Act appears as a real challenge for the principie of decentrali-
posi-
munities actions, the prerogatives of the
tion in the preparation of the Act has
State representative cannot be avoided.
been influenced by these responsibili-
In addition to the legal provisions
ties. The Government has ensured its
that confer on the State a real right of
preerninence in order to better super-
inspection of the local authorities' de-
vise the autonomy of the local authori-
cisions, the interpretation of the provi-
ties, which is against the decentralisa-
sions made by the state services and
tion reform ofthe '80's.
the administrative judge have caused
sation. The French Government is guar-
The objecti ve of the 1986 legal meas-
the disagreement of the insular repre-
antor of the national equilibrium and
ures is to limit the prerogatives-of the
sentatives. The text of the Act contains
interests. It is responsible for the arbi-
local authorities, in order to protect the
many vague terms and concepts. In
littoral environment. The local and the
several situations the authorities have
insular representatives
consider these
to request an opinion from the State
legal provisions a denial of their pow-
services, which opinion they will be
ers. They considered themselves as le-
obliged to follow in most cases. This
gally in charge ofthe community ground
procedure allows the administration to
tration of the different interests con-
urban planning, but in fact they are
impose its own reading of the law, to
bound by the evaluations of the central
pro pose its interpretation
!nternationaJ
JournaJ
of !sJand Affairs
and to de-
govemment services. Indeed, consider-
velop a local doctrine on the Littoral
ing the importance of the central gov-
Act implementation. The local elected
ernment
in the
officials consider themselves dispos-
dĂŠpartement, it can be questioned if the
sessed of their powers by the Prefect's
Government has not resumed its pow-
authority and also by the administra-
ers concerning the littoral urban plan-
tive judge when he censures a deci-
ning. Since then the interaction between
sion on the grounds of a breach of the
the central administration services and
legal provisions.
and
its services
the local authorities is out of balance.
28
control over the legality of the local com-
The judges are responsible for the
Due not only to the rnechanism of "in-
enforcement
of laws and regulations
forming the prĂŠfect"? but also by the
and have to sanction any behaviours
much as possible the whole coastline from aesthetic and ecological deterioration. In order to manage the urbanisation economically, it is not enough to forbid to building. It is more efficient
D
selected according to legal and juris-
S
small French coastal islands. Nevertheless, so me protection measures raise doubts concerning their pertinence in the insular territories. Two examples follow to illustrate the difficulties that the law has to adapt itselfto the various aspects of the coastallandscape. Except for the land aIready urbanised, building is forbidden in a 100 metres land strip from the high tide limitofthe shore. Therefore, the Littoral Act reserves from urbanisation a littoral band Therefore, this control of the legality question is the only way for the judge to influence behaviour. The adminis-
The insular authorities in charge of
bordering the shore. But it is possible to modify the limitation by enlarging this land strip. In the islands, this legal division of the territory depending on
trative judges are reproached for hav-
the implementation
ofthe Littoral Act
the distance from the shore implies a
ing used the law as a "weapon" to pro-
consider that the coastal rules are con-
concentric vision of the land. The whole
tect the environment.
straints imposed by the State without
coastline is a circle. In an island this
Due to the im-
precision of the law, the judges have
taking into account their special situ-
100 metres land strip become a not
gi ven themsel ves prerogati ves that
ation. As the islands do not comprise
building area that surrounds the whole
they are not supposed to have. The
large areas of land which could be
insular territory. On a small island,
administrative judge not only has in-
available for urbanisation (urban plan-
where the concept of space has a dif-
terpreted the law in a protectionist way
ning), the Littoral Act adds legal restric-
ferent value, this 100 m land strip can
but also has assumed
tions to the physical ones. The Littoral
become disproportionate and arbitrary.
"preacher" in littoral rules. The adrnin-
law intends to promote an integrated
That is why the Littoral Act allows ex-
istrative jurisprudence
coastal-zone management to protect as
ceptions to this rule.
the role of is a reference
code, a guide to interpret and to implement the law. However as long as the judge's present tendency does not turn into absolute protectionism, it is exaggerated to fear a "governrnent of the judges" on the littoral. Not always welcomed or badly interpreted, the Littoral Act has caused many disagreements between the local authorities and the services of the central administration.
There have been
disagreements on the I1e d'Yeu. As a result of the conflicts brought about by the Littoral Act, the town representatives resigned in summer 1996.
:::::l
opment by giving to each specific area,
suitable to the insular territories of the
A CERTAIN FAILURE IN ADAPTING THE LAW TO THE INSULAR CONTEXT
e 10 e L v
to limit it in order to control its devel-
development plan. These goals seems
which is contrary to the legal provisions.
U
o o
prudential criteria, a place in the urban
Anse des Soux.
v
e (J)
L
v (J) (J)
o
D
the insularity to a "particular constraint
Iinked
to the lie of the land". The
word is
just mentioned once, in the section stipulating the construction
A greater
islands
as specific
entities
could
of answering
the identity demands of the islands, but it could also risk marginalizing them. Due to the absence of a special status for islands, there is a gap between the theoretical provisions and the local implementation.
The Littoral Act
ofthe Littoral Act that il-
new roads cannot be situated too near
denies that the islands are living terri-
lustrate the failure to adapt the theory
the coastline unless the lie of the land
tories of insular communities. The hu-
to the reality of small coastal island, is
imposes its proximity for practical rea-
man side of living in an island is for-
the "land near the shore" concepto This
sons. The legislator stipulates one sub-
gotten. The richness
idea is usually applied to the land fac-
sidiary exception to constraints linked
heritage
deserves
of the insular
to be protected.
ing the sea with a dominating relation
to the lie of the land and that is for is-
However this protection cannot give
with it. There is neither a legal nor geo-
lands. Therefore, in the Littoral Act in-
the islands a "natural sanctuary" sta-
graphical definition of these "near the
sularity is just considered as a special
tus, which would be Iike an artificial
shore" territories. Jurisprudence
topographicaJ situation, a particular lie
status for the coast. The islands de-
different factors (distance, visibility, re-
of the land.
mand the recognition of their singu-
lief and lĂe of the land ... ). However none
Insularity
uses
is not recognized
at all
ofthese criteria is decisive in itself. It is
within the provisions
a question of defining the relations be-
Act. Insularity does not involve any
of the Littoral
larity in order to protect their living environment
without
having to re-
. nounce their economic and social de-
tween the community territory and the
legal mechanism to relax the legal pro-
velopment. The LittoraJ Act does not
seaside. Is it fair to identify such "near
visions apart from this section con-
provide the means to highlight the in-
the shore" spaces on islands when the
cerning the building of new roads. Is
sular specificities within the manage-
totality of the land can be incIuded in
it necessary to assimilate,
ment/littoral protection "tandem".
this category? The entire area of small
the insularity to an objective and spa-
coastal islands must be considered as a
tial dimension?
to reduce
Would a greater con-
The populations of the small islands are aware of the importance of sus-
"land near the shore" category due to
sideration of insularity risk the effec-
tainable protection of their territory,
the sea influence in the insular life: spe-
tiveness
but they expected more from the law,
cific vegetation, continuity of the land-
Which legal qualification
scape, protection barriers against the
in order to taking into account the
action of the waves, urban planning influenced by the existence of harbours. To assert the existence of the "land near the shore" category there should exist other land not "near to the shore". In insular territories the determination of such "land near the shore" is quite discretionary. The provisions of the LittoraI Act do not take
account
of the
complexibility of urban planning, protection and improvement of a smaIl island.
THE NEGATION OF THE INSULARITY PHENOMENON The case of islands is ignored by the Littoral Act. The legal provisions of 1986 do not address the specificity of the coastal islands, thus reducing
30
of new
roads along the littora\. The
other rule
phenornenon"?
legal recognition of the small coastal present the advantage
"insularity"
An-
"insularity
International
Journal
of Island Affairs
and thĂŠ- scope of the law? is suitable
which
they soon discovered
only
made the situation more complicated. The "Notre
Dame de Bonne Nouvelle"
chape/o
The Littoral Act cannot meet French law commit itself to a
e o e
better recognition of the insu-
lJ
lar phenomenon? To what ex-
:::::::l
all these demands.
Should
tent should be this official recognition without making all the small islands exactly alike? Each island claims to be unique, indeed. Do the islands really want to share a common legal status? Moreover by trying to "disinsulate" the small coastal islands is to betray their difference. Finally, perhaps the real charm of these small coastal islands wouldn't it be that they consider themselves
beyond
the law? Cóte saLlvage.
THE OPPORTUNITY OF A DEEPER APPRECIATION OF INSULARITY
hoped that tourist activity will not transform islands into territories with just a recreational function. In Ile d'Yeu the
The richness and diversity of the in-
vacancy residences represent the 51 %
sular heritage do not compensate for
of the habitat (total housing). The is-
its fragility. Thus, the small coastal is-
land cannot become a tourist site empty
lands should not have to bear all the
of its native population, which has mi-
expense of environmental
protection.
At the same time a strengthened protection does not resolve the land management problem. To conciliate eco-
grated due to unemployment and overpriced real estate. The badly regulated flow of tourists brings on the saturation
of the
nomic development with preservation
insular equipment and infrastructure.
of the insular identity is the daily chal-
Drinking water, the waste treatment
lenge of the island authorities. Faced
and wastewater drainage system raise
with the decline of traditional activities,
serious problems.
tourist specialisation of islands is una-
connected to the continent through a
voidable. But the multiform pressure of
drinking-water
the tourism can be devastating.
ter-treatment
Notes 1
The Ile d'Yeu is
Fishermen of lIe d'Yeu use drift nets for the capture of tuna. From January 2002, it will be prohibited to use this fishing-tackle (Decision of the Euroean Union Council of
pipe. However its wa-
Ministers dated 08/06/98). Fishermen of lIe
network is not finished
d'Yeu appealed against this decision they
The organization of the tourism visits
and its waste treatment site is obso-
is a core challenge in sustainable devel-
lete. To satisfy the summer demand
Instance of the European Community filed
opment terms for most of the small
on infrastructure
the appeal (22/02/2000). The future of this
French coastal islands. The tourism op-
the permanent community of the is-
consider prejudicial but the Court of First
is too expensive for
tions that are chosen will affect the fu-
lands. Besides over construction
ture of each island. The Littoral Act pro-
infrastructure
fishing and its market is in danger
if the
fishermen of lIe d'Yeu do not take mesures
of
to diversify their fishing methods.
can risk damaging the 2
Concerning tourism, the 2000 season risks
littoral and make it too artificial. Ifthe
to be perturbed by the shipwreck of the oil
dation capacity and aims to set up an
island looses its authenticity,
tanker Erika along the coast of Bretagne
acceptable tourist development depend-
also loose the reason for the success
last winter. At the opening of the season,
ing on the forms of tourism. Even if for
as tourist
all beaches of the island are cJosed to the
many small coastal islands are losing
tempting to hold back the island in a
vides for the study of tourist accommo-
destination.
it will
Without
at-
public. 3
Translator's note. Préfect is the head of a
population due to rnigration, and even
rigid past it is necessary to preserve
though tourism
its uniqueness which is also its prin-
départements (admnistrative divisions) in
cipal econornic resource.
France.
is the only way to
achieve economic development,
it is
lJ U
Préfecture, which administers each of the
L
o o o e
:9 (f)
L lJ
(f) (f)
o
o
Economics 'he Propensity
lor Polilical Dependence in
Island Microslales by
JEROME L. MCELROY
AND MEGAN MAHONEY
INTRODUCTION
(1988), the Dutch Antilles (1993, 1994),
tonorny." Few authors emphasize the
Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands
role that territorial economic advan-
territories (DTs) have achieved inde-
(1993), and in Bermuda (1995).3 Out-
tages play in the politics of depend-
pendence.'
comes have been similar in the Pacifico
ence.?
Since 1960 over 60 former dependent Roughly
two dozen of
these have been island microstates di s-
According to Connell, « ... demands for
tributed rather evenly between the Car-
greater incorporation
into the centre
ibbean and the Pacifico Since 1983,
have been stronger than pressures for
however,
independence.
no Caribbean
island has
With the principal ex-
This paper argues 1. that the key determinant of continu-
achieved autonomy and, with the ex-
ception of New Caledonia, independ-
ing dependence
ception of the move to Free Associa-
ence movements in,small island territo-
awareness
tion with the United States by mem-
ries are absent. ..»~.
economic benefits associated with ter-
bers of the former U.S. Trust Territory (Federated States ofMicronesia, Palau, Marshalllslands),
the situation is simi-
lar in the Pacific.?
ELECTORAL
RECORD
As a result, there remain over 40 de-
is the islanders'
of the substantial
socio-
ritorial status.
DETERMINANTS
2. that such affiliation provides a le-
A variety of factors have been sug-
gal/institutional
framework especially
gested to explain this propensity for
conducive to mass tourism develop-
dependence.
ment, the postwar strategy of choice
In the Caribbean litera-
ture, the external determinants
range
for small dependent microstates.
from deliberate metropolitan attempts
In the first case, the general socio-
to thwart independence,' to a lack of
economic advantages of dependence
across the globe. Although they vary
overall status strategy and/or neglect."
are substantial for particularly small,
in size and colonial history, they are
The internal determinants include prag-
resource-poor
relatively small (usually less than 1 mil-
matism and political conservatism, lack
free trade and export preferences for
pendent
32
S'COPE
oceanic
islands
scattered
islands. They include
lion in population) and share a propen-
of consensus
among pro-independ-
island produce and manufactures, ac-
sity for dependence. This is repeatedly
ence groups,
inter-island
cess to lucrative metropolitan capital
evident from electoral results. In recent
archipelagic states where secessionist
and labour markets, grants and wel-
Caribbean status referenda, independ-
tendencies are more apparent, and even
fare assistance, the subsidized provi-
ence failed to garner more than a quar-
demands for greater assimilation such
sion of quality infrastructure, external
ter of the votes in the French Antilles
as in the French Antilles and Puerto
defence, and disaster relief. In the sec-
rivalry in
Rico.? In the Pacific, internal ethnic
ond case, two inter-related
Saint Mary's College
cleavages and the acculturation proc-
have considerably
Notre Dame, Indiana
ess of «Europeanization»
USA
edly delayed
International
Journal
of Island Affairs
progress
have allegtoward
au-
forces
stimulated the de-
velopment of dependent islands in the postwar
era: the robust worldwide
growth of international the transformation
tourism and
Table 1: AVERAGE INDICATORS
of insular econo-
DEPENDENT
mies. Since 1960 tourism has grown in
VERSUS
CARIBBEAN
r:
FOR
L
O
INDEPENDENT
:3
ISLANDS*
L)
excess of 5 percent per year. It has be-
Indicator
come the largest global industry ac-
Area (km
1,232
9,936
counting for 10 percent ofworld GDP
Population
(000)
451
1,764
and 7 percent of capital spending.!"
Population
Density (km2)
323
195
This same period has witnessed the
Per Capita GDP ($US)
11,214
5,898
restructuring
Migration
of small island econo-
mies away from traditional
colonial
Rate
Unemployment
Rate
monocrops (sugar, copra) to tourism,
Visitar Spending
related construction
External Debt Per Capita
and off-shore fi-
Per Capita
4.5
-9.0
11.1
22.4
4,727
1,390
2,055
1,030
nancial services. As a result, tourism
Life Expectancy
75.7
69.4
now dominates the landscape and fi-
Infant Mortalitv
12.3
27.0
nances of the DTs.11
Crude Birth Rate
16.0
22.1
6.3
7.0
Crude Death Rate
METHOD In order to indirectly quantify the socio-economic differences assumed to be the result of these general and specific (tourism-induced) territorial concessions, a group of 39 islands was selected based on data availability. This group was divided into Caribbean (22) and Pacific (17) subgroups. Each subgroup was divided into dependent and
Rate of Natural Increase Adult Literacv Telephones/1,000 Radios/1,000 TVs/1,000
POPo
Popo
Popo
9.7
15.1
94.6
86.3
364
126
600
765
361
SOURCES: Calculated from raw data in Compendium and C/A World Fact Book (1997).17
10
Independent
Dependent 2)
of Tourism Statistics
(f)
L
V
O
e
S (f)
208 (1997)'6
*DTs include Anguilla, Aruba, Bermuda, Bonaire, British Virgin Islands, Caymans, Curacao, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Montserrat, Puerto Rico, Turks/Caicos and U.S. Virgin Islands; Independents include Antigua/Barbuda, Bahamas, Dominica, Dominican R., Grenada, Haiti, Jamaica, SI. Kitts/Nevis, SI. Lucia, SI. Vincent and Trinidad/Tobago.
independent clusters: I l each for the Caribbean and 10 and 7 respectively for the Pacifico On the basis of these clus-
the independents while the unemploy-
tem that is well documented: from An-
ters socio-economic comparisons were
ment rate is only half as large (11 % vs.
tigua/Barbuda
and St. KittslNevis to
made of average behaviour across 17
22%). This contrasting economic per-
the U.S. Virgin Islands, from Dominica
indicators for the Caribbean islands and
formance is primarily due ID the aggres-
to St. Maarten/St. Martin, from Haiti to Turks and Caicos and so on."
15 for the Pacifico To preserve uniform-
sive specialization ofthe dependencies
ity and reliability in so far as possible,
in rapid tourism growth. Average per
all data were taken from two standard
capita visitor spending is over three
social quality of life measures. Aver-
sources: the CIA Fact Book (1997) and
times the level of the more diversified
age life expectancy is over six years
the World Tourism Organization's Com-
and balanced independent economies.
longer in the Dts while the average in-
pendium ofTourism Statistics (1997).
In addition, the Dts have been able to
fant mortality rate is half (12.3 vs. 27.0).
RESULTS
and enjoy significantly higher rates of
The same contrast emerges from the
leverage twice as much debt per capita Despite the relatively small number of observations and the potential for
telephone and TV usage. The emphasis on labour-intensive
mean distortions, the contrasts in socio-
tourism services for export also largely
economic performance are visible and
explains the sharp differences
in the
striking. For example, in the Caribbean
average migration rate, 4.5 per 1,000 net
according to Table 1, results indicate
immigration into the territories versus
the considerably smaller average popu-
9.0 per 1,000 net emigration from the
lation size (25%) and resource base
sovereign islands. This may reveal one
(12 %) of the Dts as well as their mark-
of the more telling contrasts between
edly higher population density and as-
the two island subgroups: the propen-
sumed poorer labour/land ratios. On the
sity to migrate from independent
other hand, per capita income in the
lands to their more affluent dependent
is-
territories is nearly twice the level of
neighbours. This is an inter-island pat-
-
The social standard of living con-
Rico and the mainland to set up and
trasts are also analogous to the Carib-
staff tourist related businesses. Citizen-
bean pattern. Life expectancy
in the
ship, along with geographical proxim-
average five years higher
ity, also enabled the USVI to gain a
while infant mortality is nearly halfas
strong foothold in the lucrative U.S.
low than in sovereign
islands. Both
travel market. It eased the burden of
birth and death rates are lower in the
mainland tourists who still make up 85
Dts, but the rate of natural increase
percent of the Island's total annual visi-
average s roughly the same. Adult lit-
torso They enjoy a common currency, a
eracy in the dependencies
common
territories
averages
about five points higher (90% vs. 85%).
language,
no passport re-
quirement, the farniliarity of similar US-
On this and several other socio-eco-
VI regulatory regimes, and of course
nomic indicators, the Pacific depend-
the protection ofthe U.S. flag."
ent approach levels achieved by the
There are other territorial
advan-
independent islands in the Caribbean.
tages. U.S. visitors receive roughly
U.S. VIRGIN
for personal goods bought in the USVI
twice the duty-free customs allowance
ISLANDS
Although it is difficult to specifically pinpoint the impact of the territorial
US competing
ther along the demographic transition,
package of concessions on dependent
They also receive a significantly higher
another index of modernity. For exam-
island tourism development and the is-
duty-free liquor allowance. The USVI
pie, birth rates are significantly lower
landers' standard of living, the experi-
also enjoys a special «freeport» legacy
and the rate of natural increase about
ence of the U. S. Virgin Islands (USVI)
inherited from its Danish past. As a re-
half the level for the independents (9.7
is presented as illustrative of similar
sult, gifts, liquor and other luxury
vs. 15.1). Finally, adult literacy in the
cases in other small U.S. Territories
goods enter the Territory with low or
dependencies
averages
(Guam, Northern Marianas, American
no tariffs. This preferential treatment,
points
and approaches
higher
over eight
tourist destinations.
the
Samoa), and analogous to the experi-
along with other concessions,
standard s (95%) that obtain in affluent
ence of British (Bermuda, Caymans,
helped establish the American Virgins
industrial societies.
Cook Islands),
within the space of a generation as the
Similar socio-economic differences are
Maarten,
Dutch
(Aruba,
Curacao),
St.
French
apparent in the Pacific figures although
(Guadeloupe, Martinique, French Poly-
the level of modernization is a rung be-
nesia) and other dependencies.
has
luxury ghopper's premier bargain paradise in the Caribbean.
CONCLUSION
low the Caribbean. Among other things,
TheAmerican Virgins were purchased
this is partly due to the remoteness of
from Denmark in 1917. In the 1960s the
In the postwar era, island societies in
the Pacific islands, their relatively long
former sugar exporter experienced a mas-
the Caribbean and Pacific have been en-
tradition of subsistence agriculture, and
sive tourism boom stimulated in part by
gaged in political and econornic moderni-
their relatively brief colonial exposure
the U.S. embargo of Cuba, America's
zation. They have followed two distinct
and tourism experience. The small Pa-
former Caribbean paradise. During the
paths. The larger, more resource-rich is-
cific Dts record significantly higher lev-
decade, the annual number of visitors
land nations have opted for independ-
els of per capita income, visitor spend-
increased five-fold, personal income
ence and diversification of the colonial
ing, and external debt by multiples of
rose four-fold, and the population and
export base with an emphasis on manu-
two, three and larger. They also enjoy
housing stock doubled. Hotel and in-
facturing and import substitution, and
markedly higher rates of telephone, ra-
frastructure construction, fed by irnmi-
tourism to a lesser extent. The smaller,
dio and TV usage in comparison with
gration and foreign public and private
more vulnerable microstates have opted
their independent
As a
capital flows, were at an a11-timehigh."
for continuing dependence and prima-
result, the differential migration rate (0.9
Much of this growth was facilitated
rily a strategy of export substitution, i.e.
vs. -1.9) again may suggest the pos si-
by the territorial connection. One new
replacing the tradition colonial staples
bility of emigration from the autono-
airport was built and another signifi-
with tourism and related services.
mous to the dependent territories (as weU
cantly expanded while a modern road
As a result of this wholesale restruc-
as elsewhere). According to ConneLI,13
network was established through reli-
turing, the Dts have experienced supe-
«.... approximately
34
versus those purchased on other non-
The territories have also proceeded fur-
counterparts.
halfthe population of
ance in great part on U.S. federal dol-
rior economic performance and social sta-
American Samoa has migrated from
lars. U .S. citizenship allowed the immi-
tus in comparison with their sovereign
Western Samoa .... »
gration of many nationals from Puerto
island neighbours. Their success has
International
Jo~r~al
of Island Affairs
been partly due to the buoyant growth
Table 2: AVERAGE INDICATORS
of worldwide tourism, their leading sec-
PENDENT
tor of choice, and partly due to the pack-
Indicator
age of concessions embedded in the ter-
Area (km")
ritorial relationship that facilitate the ges-
Population
(000)
tation of rapid, mass tourism development. Small islanders' awareness of-t6eir
Population
Density (km2)
58,471
94
702 110
443 6,148
3,218
0.9
-1.85
3,125
146
5,882
1,607
69
63.9
Infant Mortality
23.8
41.0
Crude Birth Rate
27.1 5.3
29.6 7.4
Rate of Natural Increase
21.8
22.2
Adult Literacy
89.6
85.3
Migration
combination with the expected expansion
Rate Per Capita
of tourism in the 21'1 century, suggests
External Debt Per Capita
they will continue to vote their pocket-
Life Expectancy
books in favour of the status quo for the
Crude Death Rate
has stalled at the
Independent
e 10 e
2,630
Visitor Spending
It is small wonder, then, that the march
iIJ
PACIFIC ISLANDS*
Per Capita GDP ($US)
foreseeable future.
VERSUS INDE-
Dependent
lucrative dependent political economy, in
of decolonization
FOR DEPENDENT
shores of small dependent oceanic is-
Telephones/1,000
lands. Despite their periodic chafing
Radios/1,000
Popo
Popo
TVs/1,000 Popo SOURCES:
Calculated
from raw data in Compendium
156
25
363
337
180
10
of Tourism Statistics
(1997)16
and C/A Wor/d Fact Book (1997)-" *DTs include American
Samoa, Cook Islands, Micronesia,
Marshall Islands, New Caledonia, pendents
include
Northern
Marianas,
French Polynesia,
Guam,
Palau and Wallis/Fortuna;
Fiji, Kiribati, Papua New Guinea, Solomon
Inde-
Islands, Tonga, Vanuatu,
and Western Samoa.
and complaints of neglect, territorial
remain unwilling to trade the visible se-
residents-in
curity, affluence and standard of living
the face of intensifying
destination competition for tourist dol-
of affiliation for the less tangible but
lars and the pressures of globalization-
more costly rewards of autonomy.
Notes 1
..,
G. Boughton
and P Leary, A Time for
pp. 42-50; and U.S. Government Account-
Indian Migration to the United States Vir-
Change: Relations Between the United
ing Office, U.S. Insular Areas: Development
gin lslands,» International Migration Review
States and American Samoa, Guam, the
Strategies and Better Coordination Among
Northern Marianas, Puerto Rico and the
U.S. Agencies are Needed (Washington,
13
J. Connell, op. cit., p. 138.
United States Virgin Islands (Atlanta, GA:
D.C.: GAO/NSIAD, 1994.
14
J. McElroy and J. Tinsley, «United States
CBW-Elbow Graphics, 1993).
7
16 (1982): 61-101.
F P Constant, «Decolonization Revisited:
Virgin lslands,» in S. B. Seward and B. K.
2
Ibid.
The Case of the Non-Sovereign
West
Spinrad, eds., Tourism in the Caribbean:
3
J. McElroy and K. de Albuquerque, «The
lndies,» Caribbean Affairs 3(1990): 151-162.
The Economic Impact (Ottawa, CA: Inter-
Social and Economic Propensity for Politi-
See also Constant's «Alternativa Forms of
national Development
cal Dependence in the Insular Caribbean,»
Decolonization in the East Caribbean,» in
1982),23-65.
Social and Economic Studies 44 (1996):
Hintjens and Newitt, eds., pp. 51-63.
167-193. 4
8
Virgin lslands,» in S. B. Seward and B. K.
seas Frontier (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
Spinrad, eds., Tourism in the Caribbean:
ment, Autonomy and the Ties that Bind,»
University Press, 1992).
The Economic Impact (Ottawa, CA: Inter-
R. Aldrich and J. Connell, The Last Colo-
national Development
J. Scnernbri, eds., The Development Proc-
nies (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univer-
1982),23-65.
ess in Small
sity Press, 1997).
Island
States
9
(London:
Routledge, 1993). 135-136.
10
ism: An Economic Perspective (New York:
Political Economy of Small Tropicallslands.
St. Martin's Press, 1995).
See D. Marlow, «Constitutional
II
change,
External Assistance, and Economic Development
12
Research Centre,
W. Boyer, America's Virgin Islands: A History of Human Rights and Wrongs. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 1983.
16
World Tourism Organization, Compendium
J. McElroy and P Olazarri, «Developinq a
of Tourism Statistics (13th Ed.) (Madrid,
Tourism Penetration Index for Small Island
Spain: WTO, 1997).
Destinations,» Journal of the Academy of
in Small Islands: The Case of
Montserrat,» in Hintjens and Newitt, eds.,
15
F Vellas and L. Becherel, International Tour-
H. M. Hintjens and M. D. D. Newitt, The
Exeter, UK: University of Exeter Press, 1992. 6
R. Aldrich and J. Connell, France's Over-
J. McElroy and J. Tinsley, «United States
J. Connell, «lsland Microstates: Develop-
in D. G. Lockhart, D. Drakakis-Smith and
5
14
Research Centre,
17
Centrallntelligence Agency, The CIA World
the Social Sciences Vol. (1997): 66-75.
Fact Book (Washington, DC: Government
K. de Albuquerque and J. McElroy, "West
Printing Office, 1997).
U
L iIJ
=:l
o
o o e
S en L iIJ
en en
o o
M A R
o
1
S F
R
de
Newcal1le
by
NELSON
EURICO
THE DRAMA
ope
CABRAL
The U.N. Commission
on Human
Vieira de Mello,
seconded
by the
Since the referendum of 30 August
Rights have been trying to determine
former french prefect M. lean Chris-
1999, opting for the independence of
if the Indonesian forces are responsi-
tian Cady, UNTAET has the responsi-
the east part of Timor, the anti-inde-
ble for the atrocities; even now about
bility of management
pendence milicia backed by part of In-
one hundred thousands east timorese
tional period and preparation
entire sovereignty of the country.
of the transiof the
donesian army has destroyed about 70
are hostage in western part. On Sep-
percent of the official buildings, 40 per-
tember l S" the Security Council au-
cent of the city civil houses and dis-
thorized deployment of a multinational
.Nacional de Resistencia Timorense) is
placed more or less 80 percent of the
force (MNF) which arrived in situ on
improving itself with a view to assum-
urban and semi-urban
population.
On the national side, CNRT (Conselho
of
ing the totality of power after independ-
Among the displaced people 60 per-
the UNTAET (Unjted Nations Transi-
ence; it has been strongly supported by
cent have survived eating the wild in
tional Administration
the Catholic Church and several na-
the through forests, the rest are ac-
was established
counted for missing.
Headed by the Brazilian
September
20, and establishment
for East Timor) 25.
tional associations, working mainly in
M. Sérgio
the field of health and education. The
on September
task is enormous because not only have Rebuilding
the museum
buildings
been destroyed,
but al so
documents, administrative files, registries and cadastral survey have been bumed. The choice of the official language and education is also a «cassetéte» since 1974, when Indonesia, taking the opportunity of the collapse of colonial dictatorship
in Portugal, in-
vaded East Timor and forbid the use of Portuguese which was the official language during the 400 years of colonialism. CNRT has restored the Portuguese, again as the official language and the national one. Nelson Eurico Cabral Specialiste UNESCO
36
International
Journal
of Island Affairs
du Programme
SHS/CFD
WlIte"o
N
v U e 10 e
But officials insist that the young Indonesian educated people will not lose anything, because never they would
L
cornmit the same rnistake as did Indone-
v
sia in 1974, related to Portuguese.
::::J
CHALLENGE
D
o
o e
Nacionalleaders such as Nobel peace
~ (J)
laureates Bishop Ximenes Carlos Belo, Ramos Horta and Xanana José Gusmáo,
L
V
former guerrilla leader imprisoned in Ja-
(J) (J)
karta, have worked closely with senior
o
UNTAET staff to start programmes on
D
education, health, building reconstruction and the establishment of adminis-
Dili harbour
trative structure in Dili, the capital as well as in the countryside. Dili was par-
port; Frank Fowlie acting administra-
are still waiting for the total execution
tially destroyed, including the colonial
tor of the Dili district and his staff, in-
of decisions taken by donors, in Tokyo in December 1999.
adrninistrative building called «Casa do
cluding
Govemador»; for the moment priority
Rurniana Decheva, as public service
has been given essentially
to recon-
the very motivated
Miss
Portugal, which ruled Timor under
officer, are dealing daily with security,
colonial
struction and projects that could regen-
civil administration,
years and is sometime accused of aban-
erate intensive labour, but for the mid-
cial problems. In spite of difficulties
doning the colony in 1974, without any
die and long term plan s, education has
same progress has became visible in
negotiation
the favour of all partners.
the city. The museum will be open soon
nevertheless gave rnillions of dollars
and the administrative
last year to its old colony. The Presi-
The reconstruction
of Dili is going
housing and so-
building
is
on, with the active determination of lo-
completly
cal authorities and U N T A E T sup-
problems of employment and education
restored,
but the crucial
administration
during 400
with national leaders .It
dent of Portugal, Dr. Jorge Sampaio, during his official visit to Dili from 12
Dili. Administrative
city burned down by militias.
The old Polytechnic
school destroyed
by militias
Director of Human Affairs, defined, in
ment of co-operation with CNRT and
consultation with timorese representa-
for grassroots
UNTAET, mainly by sending additional
tives, some specific areas in which the
ban junior civil servants and social
leaders, rural and ur-
troops to support peacekeeping force,
Organization
expects to act as a spe-
workers. In the field of culture, CNRT
(INTERFET), estimated at about 9,000.
cialized Agency, as soon as possible.
'(National Committee ofTimor Resist-
Portugal is also training hundreds of
Now the urgent task is to convince
ance, after rehabilitation
teachers for primary and secondary
donors about the efficiency of its pro-
seum, (burned during the conflict), has
schools in Timor.
posals, mainly with the support of the
requested Unesco support to develop
UNTAET Inforrnation
di-
cultural values in view of consolidat-
in
according to an executi ve of FRETLIN.
UNESCO
EXPECTATION
The entire U.N. System has been
Service,
Unesco is invited to participate
mobilized to contribute to the restora-
the present
gency education programme with the
setting-up
of the mu-
ing national identity and sovereignty,
rected by Mr. Manuel Almeida.
tion of East Timor, according to their fields of competence.
of an erner-
Further building restoration, opening of hospitals
and c1assic schools
is
On the invita-
view to open c1asses al! over the coun-
needed, local representatives
tion ofUNTAET, Unesco has sent sev-
try, early in October 2000. Priority is
as UNTAET agree that technical as-
eral missions to Dili, to evaluate, in
also given to communication
sistance should be provided to design
situ, the national
formation, including the utilization of
needs within the
and in-
institutions
as well
at the sub-regional,
re-
framework of its mandate. To ease this
gional and nationallevels
approach a Task Force on East Timor
forcement of state as well as decen-
Rumiana Decheva,
UNTAET service officer,
was set up, headed by the Assistant
looking al the desolation
Director General for the Programme for
front
Freedom of Expression,
Democracy
of the Dili harbour
of Timor people in
for the rein-
tralized structures Iike municipalities and regional administrations. In the short term the task is to set
and Peace, Mr. Alain Modoux. The last
up training in different areas to assure
Unesco
good governance, democracy and the
intersectoral
mission,
co-
ordinated by the head of Jakarta of-
observance
of human rights; In the
fice, Mr. Stephan Hill, after discussion
long term, it will be to develop cur-
with M.M. SĂŠrgio Vieira de Mello and
ricula on major disciplines in social and
Jean Christian
economic sciences, as well as in those
Cady, respectively
UNTAET Administrator Administrator,
38
radio and T.Y. for training programme
to 14 Feb. 2000, promised the reinforce-
International
and Deputy
Mr. Cecilio Adorna,
Journal
of Island Affairs
concerning technologies.
the natural sciences and
'he Gove nance of IlIIall JurISlllctlon.; pZ;-:
Qj
u
e e
10
L Qj
lile ea.
PENINSULA
~
o o o e
S (f) L Qj (f) (f)
o o by
PROF.
CHRIS.
l. MAVRIS*
The objective of this paper is to deal with the governance of small jurisdictions in the case of Cyprus, with particular reference to the new institution of the Ombudsman (Commissioner of Public Administration) and his jurisdiction in the public administration and management of Cyprus. Reference is made for comparative analysis to the EU Countries, the Scandinavian region, Australia, Canada, the United States, Africa, Israel, India and Poland. INTRODUCTION General Introduction
Assyrians,
Persians,
the
higher than most of its neighbours, with
of Alexander
Egyptians,
the
the exception of Israel. This progress
The island of Cyprus lies in the east-
Great and his successors, the Roman
was substantially assisted by various
Greek monarchies
ern Mediterranean, about 40 miles (64
Empire from its successive capitals of
agencies of the United Nations, operat-
kilometres) south of Turkey, about 40
Rome and Constantinople, French Cru-
ing through the UN Development Pro-
miles westofSyria, and some 480 miles
saders, Genoese,
Turks,
gramo Generous financia! assistance was
southeast of mainland Greece. Its maxi-
and, more recently, the British. Britain
given by the World Bank and the Inter-
mum length, from Cape Arnauti in the
Venetians,
maintains two military bases, at Akrotiri
national Monetary Fund in the form of
west to Cape Andreas at the end of the
and Dhekelia, in the south of the is-
loans for specific development projects
northeastern peninsula, 140 mi les; the
land. They have a combined area of 99
(electricity supply, port development
maximum north - south extent is 60
square miles. (Tornarides, 1974 and
and sewerage among others). Aid was
miles. With an areaof3,5n
Alastos, /976)
square miles
also made available by individual for-
(9,25 I square kilometres), it is the third
The British rule began in 1878 and
eign countries. Experts were provided
largest Mediterranean island (after Sic-
ended in August 1960, when Cyprus
to advice on economic planning and to
ily and Sardinia). The general pattern
became independent as the Republic
initiate productive projects, and schol-
of its 486 miles coastline is indented
of Cyprus, with its capital at Nicosia.
arships and grants encouraged training
and rocky, with long sandy beaches.
The long-standing conflict between the
for Cypriot specialists. During this pe-
(Greek Heritage ofCyprus,
Greek-Cypriot
the
riod, the gross domestic product grew
Turkish-Cypriot minority intensified, in
at an average annual rate of over 7 per-
Neolithic period, at a date now calcu-
1974 an invasion by Turkish troops
cent, and capital national income by
lated as well before 6000 Be.. The im-
produced an unrecognized partition of
about 6 percent annually. Agricultural
migration of settlers from Greece, which
the island. (Koumoulides,
production doubled industria! produc-
began in about 1200 Be. let to the foun-
Eric Soisten, /993)
tion and exports of goods and services
dation of Greek kingdoms covering al-
more than trebled. Tourism became the
most the whole of the island and to the
The Economy
largest single eamer of foreign exchange.
dominance
The econorny after independence
(Christodoulou,
1964)
The first human settlement was in the
of the Greek language.
majority
and
1986 and
Since then Cyprus has come under the
Between J 960 and 1971, the Republic
influence or control of the various peo-
of Cyprus, operating a free enterprise
pies that have exercised power in the
economy
eastern Mediterranean
trade, achieved a standard of living
Phoenicians,
based on agriculture
and
*
Coordinator Cyprus
1992)
Tourism Studies,
College
-
Effects of partition
majority began to
The Judicial power of the Republic
The Turkish occupation of 37 per-
regard many ofthe provisions, particu-
of Cyprus is exercised by the Supreme
cent of the country in 1974, involving
larly those relating to finance and to
Constitutional Court and by the High
the displacement of about a third of the
local government, as unworkable. Pro-
Court and its subordinate Courts.
population, dealt a serious blow to eco-
posals for amendment were rejected by
nomic development. Losses of land and
the Turkish Cypriot community in late
The main jurisdiction' of the supreme Constitutional Court relates to
the Greek-Cypriot
personal property in the occupied ar-
1963 and the constitution went largely
the determination whether a law or de-
eas were very great. The gross domes-
into abeyance. In the territory control-
cision of the House of Representatives
tic product of the free areas of the re-
led by the government ofthe Republic
is either in toto or in any part thereof
public of Cyprus dropped sharply, the
of Cyprus after the Turkish occupation
contrary or repugnant to any Consti-
reduction amounting to 33 percent (at
of 1974, the constitution's
tutional provision.
constant 1973 prices) between 19p and
are considered as still in force where
provisions
1975. By vigorous efforts, real growth
practicable; the main formal change has
ther on a recourse judicial proceeding
was resumed in the area left under the
been the gradual increase of the number
by any party thereto (Under article 144
control of the government of the Re-
of seats in the House of Representa-
of the constitution).
public of Cyprus, and between 1975
tives, all of which are held by Greek
and 1983 the annual rate of growth was
Cypriots. (Eric Solsten, 1993)
The per capita Gross National Product
If the law or decision is declared by the Supreme Constitutional
estimated to average about 8 percent.
unconstitutional
Local government
Court as
in the case of a re-
course by the President of the Repub-
(GNP) was US$7,200 in 1988, and the
Local government in the Republic of
lic under Article 137 and 138 in respect
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) was
Cyprus is at the district, municipal, ru-
of the Budget for discrimination, the
US$5.3 billion in 1990. (Eric Soisten,
ral municipality, and village leve!. Dis-
law
1993)
Government conditions
and social
Greek-Cypriot
President
and
a
decision or the Budget is an-
trict officers are appointed by the gov-
nulled". (Tornarides 1968,1975, 1977. May 1977, 1979, 1980, Loizou (1989)
are the mayors
and Evangelides
of municipalities.
1972)
(1996))
The Supreme Constitutional
Court
furthermore shall have exclusive juris-
The constitution of the Republic of the executive power be exercised by a
01'
ernment; local councils are elected, as (Tomarides,
Cyprus, adopted in 1960, provided that
JUSTICE
diction to adjudicate finally on a re-
The legal code of Cyprus is based
course made to it on a complaint that a
on Roman law. Judges are appointed
decision, act or omission of any organ,
Turkish-Cypriot Vice President, elected
by the government, but the judiciary is
authority or person exercising any ex-
to five-year terms by universal suffrage,
entirely independent of the executive
ecutive or administrative authority is
and that there be a Council of Minis-
power. There are a Supreme Court and
contrary to the Constitution
ters
an appeals court, district assize courts
or is made in express or abuse of power.
(Cabinet)
comprising
Greek-Cypriot Turkish-Cypriot
and
seven three
members. There was
01'
any law
handling criminal matters and district
Upon such recourse the Court may
courts exercising summary jurisdiction.
confirm, or annul such decision or act
also to be an elected House of Repre-
The Constitution
estab-
or declare that such omission ought not
sentatives with 50 seats, divided be-
lished a tripartite system of govern-
to have been made and that whatever
tween Greek and Turkish Cypriots in
ment. The Executive Power with the
been omitted should have been per-
the proportion of 35 to 15 and elected
President, the independent
formed. (Article 146).
for five years. (Tornarides, The constitution,
1974)
derived from the
of Cyprus
Judiciary
System and the Parliamentary System, that legislates and passes laws.
The jurisdiction
thus given to the
Supreme Constitutional Court is simi-
negotiation in Zurich in 1959 between
lar to the revisional jurisdiction of the
representatives of the governments of
Conseil d' Etat in France or the State
Greece and Turkey, did not inspire en-
Council in Greece, the decisions of
thusiasm among the citizens of the new
which have been guided the Supreme
republic, however. The Greek Cypriots,
Constitutional Court in the exercise of
whose struggle against the British has
such administrative jurisdiction' .
been for enosis (union with Greece) and
40
Such determination shall be made ei-
Apart for the aforementioned juris-
not for independence, regretted the fail-
diction the Supreme
ure to achieve this national aspiration.
Court shall have exclusive jurisdiction
As a result it was not long after the
to adjudicate on a recourse made in
establishment
connection with any matter relating to
lnternational
of the republic before
Journal
of lsland Affairs
Constitutional
any conflict or contest of power or
ministration self-control that takes the
competence arising between the House
form of the hierarchical control, when
of Representatives and the Cornmunal
this is enforced inside the framework
Chambers or any of them or any other
of the hierarchical relationship of one
organs or authorities of the Republic
organ with the other or one employee
(Article 139) on any election petition
with the other, or the public adminis-
Q)
U
e 10 e
L Q)
::J
o
o e
(Article 145) and on any conflict be-
tration supervision, when this is exer-
D
tween the two official texts ofthe Con-
cised from the state administration to
g
stitution (Article 149).
the self-managed public organizations.
(J)
L
Any decision of the Supreme Con-
by his Deputy, all of whom are ap-
The most spread form of "out of court
stitutional Court on any matter within
pointed by the President of the Repub-
control" of public administration is the
its jurisdiction shall be binding on aiy
lic. The first two are not removable from
institution of the Ombudsman as this
courts, organs, authonties and persons
office except on the same grounds and
is internationally known and also men-
in the Republic (Article 148)
through the same procedure as a Judge
tion as Commissioner of Public Admin-
ofthe High Court. (Artieles 112-121).
istration.
The High Court shall be the highest appellate court in the Republic
and
There shall be a Public Service Com-
The Word Ombudsman is a Swedish
o
shall have jurisdiction to hear and de-
mission consisting of a Chairman and
word and origin, meaning the repre-
nine other members appointed for a term
sentative ofthe "citizen" and which the
the Constitution and of any Rules of
of six years by the President. It shall be
free translation is "Lawyer of the citi-
Court, appeals from any court other
the duty of the Commission to make the
zen". This is a form of "out of court
than the Supreme Constitutional Court.
allocation of public offices and to ap-
control" ofthe public administration in
The High Court shall have also origi-
point, confirm, emplace on the perma-
addition to the Judiciary
nal and revisional jurisdiction as pro-
nent or pensionable establishment, pro-
public administration and management.
vided in the Constitution
mote, transfer, retire and exercise disci-
A different form of "out of court con-
Control of
provided by a law and it has also power
plinary control over, ineluding dismissal
trol" of public administration
to issue orders in the nature of habeas
or removal from office of, public offic-
applied in the British Legal Justice Sys-
corpus, mandamus,
that is
quo
ers. (Artieles 122-125). The decisions of
tem is that of Commissions of Inquiry.
warranto and certiorari. (Articles 152 -
the Commission shall be taken by abso-
In Cyprus still applies the Inquiry
156). The subordinate courts shall be
lute majority vote of its members.
prohibition,
TheAuditor-General
provided by law. The High Court constitutes also the Supreme Council of Judicature for the
and his Deputy,
though not independent
Comrnittee Law, which is the chapter 44 of the Laws in Cyprus under the ar-
officers, are
tiele 188 of the Cyprus Constitution.
appointed by the President of the Re-
With this law, many inquiry comrnittees
appointment, transfer, removal and dis-
public but they are subject to, the dis-
were formed till today. The most impor-
ciplinary control over judges of the
ciplinary control of the Public Service
tant was the one that was formed in
subordinate courts (Article 157) The disciplinary
control over the
Commission. These officers shall man-
1980 to inquire
age and supervise all accounting op-
Co-operative (Co-op) Movement.
judges of the High Court exercised by
erations
the Supreme Constitutional Court and
126-128).
of the Republic
(Articles
The independent officers of the Republic shall be the Attorney-General of the Republic assisted by his Deputy, who shall be the legal adviser of the Republic and of all its organs and authorities and shall have, in his absolute discretion, the charge of all criminal prosecutions, the Auditor-General
the actions
of the
In addition, "out of court control" of the public administration is the control exercised by theAuditor-General ofthe
over the Judges of the Supreme Constitutional Court by the High Court.
(J) (J)
D
termine, subject to the provisions of
or may be
Q)
THE INSTITUTIONALIZATION OF THE COMMISSIONER OF PUBLlC ADMI N 1STRATION (OMBUDSMAN) IN THE REPUBLlC OF CYPRUS Except the judicial control, the "out
Republic, according to Artieles 115 and 116 of the Constitution. The AuditorGeneral is not confined in the econornic control only, but expands in issues of efficiency, productivity ment control.
and manage-
The Auditor-General is an independent comrnissioner
of the State. He is
not a judiciary organ, as in the case
assisted by his Deputy who shall exer-
of court control" of the public adminis-
cise the general audit of the Republic
tration, also exist. In the term "out of
Although there is no a general ac-
with the State Council in Greece.
but shall not have any prior prohibi-
court control" it does not inelude the
ceptable model of Ombudsman, every
tive control" and the Governor of the
internal control undertaken inside the
country adjusted
Issuing Bank of the Republic assisted
public administration or the public ad-
cording to its own Constitutional and
its institution,
ac-
-
Political measures, however in the fu-
de Justica (Justice Defender). In addi-
ture to be regarded as an Ombudsman
tion to being an examiner of complains
the following
conditions
is a member of the National Council and
have to be
observed:
the High Justice Council under the
a. The Ombudsman has to be an inde-
president of the Republic and has ju-
pendent figure of the state.
risdiction with the Public Administra-
b. The work is to research complaints
tion appointments, transfers, and dis-
and to suggest recommendations to the
ciplinary control of the judges. Between
Public Administration.
the jurisdictions
c. Is accountable with official reports
Justica is the exarnination of the condi-
of the Provedor de
to the Parliament and to the President.
tional aspects of the law and he has
d. This is readily available to the pub-
the status of the Minister.
lic without any mediation of anybody. Norway: In Norway the Ombudsman From the above it is deduc~
was institutionalized in June 1962. The
that
the institution of the Ombudsman
Norwegian
is
Ombudsman
undertakes
necessary in countries where Admin-
complaints against the "Public Adrnin-
istration Courts exist, such as France,
istration". It is not under his jurisdic-
where the Council d'Etat operates, in
tion the acts of Parliament (Storting),
Greece where the State Council oper-
the King's decisions at the State Council of the operation of the courts and
ates and in Cyprus where the High Court operates. The jurisdiction of the Ombudsman does not substitute the jurisdiction the Administration
of
Court, but it com-
THE FUNCTIONING OF THE INSTITUTION OF OMBUDSMAN IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES
"Defensor del Pueblo" was introduced
does not have an
Sweden: In Sweden exist Ombudsmen
acts as an independent commissioner
He cannot annul an
with the title Justitieombudsman (Orn-
although his budget is part of the Parlia-
The Ombudsman annuljurisdiction.
Act. The Ombuds-
man's control inquiry is wider than that undertaken
Spain: In Spain the institution of the by the Cortes Generales (Parliament). He
pletes its work.
Administration
the General Auditor.
by an Administration
Court, both in spectrum, as well as,
budsmen for Justice). Each has jurisdic-
ment Budget. His jurisdiction ineludes
tion of a separate sector of Public Ad-
the Ministers. Under his jurisdiction are
ministration that ineludes the Courts, the
the "lndependent Communities", as well
Public Prosecutor and the Local Govem-
as the constitutionality of the law.
ment Administration. The Govemment,
substance. The Ombudsman's
inquiry does not
get confine in the control of the Ad-
the Ministers and the Directorofthe control Bank of Sweden are exeluded.
HoUand: In Holland exists the institution of the National Ombudsman elected by the Parliament. The personnel of the
ministration Acts only. It does not get confine in examining the substance of
Finland: In Finland exists the "Parlia-
Ombudsman is chosen by the Queen,
the complaint,
mentary Ombudsman" with executive
subject to his recornmendations, under
within
the narrow
framework that this is filed, but pen-
powers with his jurisdiction covering
rusjurisdictions are the Ministers but not
etrates in the whole Administration Act
the Ministers as well, except the Presi-
the Judges and he does not examine ac-
to examine it, in depth and irrespec-
dent and Chancellor of Justice.
tions under general govemment policy.
tive ofthe claims ofthe one, filing the complaint.
Denmark:
In addition the procedure the Ombudsman
in front
is simple and inex-
pensive.
is elected
The Denmark Ombudsman by the Parliament
(the
Austria:
In Austria the institution of
the Ombudsman was introduced in July
Folketing). From his jurisdiction are ex-
1977, with the establishment
cluded the Judges and high ranking
"Volksanwaltschaft" (Lawyers Office of
of the
The person filing the complaint does
officers of the Courts. Within his juris-
the People), consisting of three Om-
not need to pro ve anything, because
diction are the ministers and the local government.
budsmen, elected for six years and hav-
Portugal:
U.K: In England exists since 1967 the
is the responsibility ofthe Ombudsman
ing the status of Minister.
to find out whether any wrong doing against the person was committed.
42
The Portuguese Ombuds-
and
man is elected every 4 years by the
institution of the Parliamentary Com-
Charalambous lnterview in Sept. 1999)
Parliament and he is called Provedor
missioner of Administration.
(Charalambous,
International
Journal
1995
of Island Affairs
In addi-
tion since 1987 exists a Health Service
Australia:
Commissioner
for England, Scotland
of the Ombudsman exists at both the
and Wales. The Parliarnentary Comrnis-
federal and state level and this system
sioner has a limited Jurisdiction over
is very much affected by the New Zealand model.
governmental departments for acts of "Maladrninistration",
In Australia the institution
Canadá:
made by an M.P. and the Ombudsman
the Ombudsman
not
act
with
self-action
/
In Canada the institution of
Israel: In Israel the Public Accounting Controller (Comptroller) executes the sioner for Complaints from the Public).
is not introduced at
Federallevel, but exists at state level in
such as that of the Ombudsman in 1I states, called Lokayukta. The first state
reaches the 65th year of his age. In
ommendations ofthe Law assembly. In
that introduced
England exists also the function
Alberta are the headquarters of the In-
Maharashtra in 1971 followed by Bihar
"Commission for local Adrninistration".
ternational Ombudsman Instit~e.
in 1973.
Germany: In Germany there is no Fed-
United States: In the U.S. the institu-
Poland: Poland is the first country of
eral Ombudsman. The job of the Om-
tion of the Ombudsman exist at state
Central and East Europe that introduced
budsman is undertaken by the Com-
level and not federallevel. The institu-
the institution of the Ombudsman, the
mission ofComplains ofthe Bundestag
tion of the Ombudsman exists in spe-
"Comrnissioner for the protection ofthe
(Federal Parliament), Consisting of 33
cialized
Human Rights" established on 15 July
members ofParliament, accepting com-
Lawyers Associations,
plaints by individual s and submits re-
the Local Government.
this institution
is
1987 and consolidated by the Constitution in 1989. The function of the Polish Commissioner is based on Scandinavian
sion does not deal with legal com-
Africa: The institution ofthe Ombuds-
prototypes, and is appointed by the Par-
plaints as these are taken up by the
man is adjusted in the specialized state
liarnent for 4 years of services. The Com-
Laender (Local Parliaments). At the 10-
conditions of the various countries and
missioner has an extensive jurisdiction
callevel the institution of the Ombuds-
was introduced at the African Conti-
that includes also the administration of
man exists in Rhineland - Palatinate.
nent. The first country to introduce
the courts, such as for example the slow
this institution was Tanzania with the
judgement
cases. The Commissioner
France: In France, since 1973, the law
setting up of the "Permanent Commis-
can take a case to the "Constitutional
No 73-6 provides for the appointment
sion of Enquiry" in 1966, followed by
Courts", as well as, the "High Adminis-
of "Médiateur de la Republique" (Par-
Zambia in 1973 with the Cornmission of
tration Courts" and can request the dis-
liamentary Commissioner) with the ba-
Investigations,
ciplinary prosecution ofthe public serv-
sic jurisdiction
Zimbabwe and Uganda, that in 1988
plaints
to undertake
of People
Com-
that are passed
and Ghana, Nigeria,
ants. He can act either subject to complaints or by self initiative. The institu-
through an M.P. The Jurisdiction of the
tion des pite the great difficulties that
Médiateur covers all the levels of gov-
met, had succeeded, due to the great
ernment, and he is appointed for six
prestige possessed by the first two per-
years only, with no right to be renewed.
sons that were appointed consecutively.
New Zealand: New Zealand is the first
Epaminondas,
(Charalambous,
1995
and
1994)
country of the Commonwealth that introduced the institution budsman
on the Om-
(Parliamentary
Commis-
sioner) in 1962, and it follows to a large
THE EU OMBUDSMAN The European Ombudsman in one of the most important
new institutions
extent the Scandinavian prototype es-
introduced by the Maastricht Treaty.
pecially that of Denmark.
He is ap-
Its origins can be traced back to the
pointed by the General Governor with
Spanish proposal on European Citizen-
the recommendations of the Parliament.
ship submitted in the framework of the
The Ministers are not included under
Intergovernmental
his Jurisdiction and unlike his English
litical Un ion in 1991.
counterpart, he examines complaints for not following the law.
::::J
o
o o e L
many areas, and he is elected by the
ports to the Parliament; the Commis-
Q)
en
Assistant Governor following the rec-
Hospitals and
L
~
pointed and holds his position until he
areas such as Universities,
U
India: In India exists similar institution
self-initiative. The Ombudsman is ap-
of
Q)
e 10 e
General of Government.
institution ofthe Ombudsman (Commis-
and he is elected
by the Queen. The complaint has to be can
created the institution of the Inspector
Conference on Po-
The working document - The European
Ombudsman
-by Maria
A.
Q)
en en
o o
Petitions of the European Parliament.
Subsequently the E.O. submits a re-
Cited: MariaA. Epaminondas -Editor-
port to the EP, which can include rec-
, "The European Ombudsman ", The
ommendation
European Institute of Public Adminis-
the person who filed the complaint to
as well, with a copy to
the E.O. At the end of each EP year the .
tration (1994). The European U nion treaty that was
E.O. submits to the E.P. and annual re-
signed in Maastricht in Holland on 7
port, for his yearly action and specifi-
February,
cally for the results of his investiga-
1992, made provision be-
tween other matters, for the setting up
tions.
ofthe European Ombudsman (E. O.). The EU citizen can complain to the E.O. for practices of bad Administration (maladministration)
in any of the
member states. The E.O. is appointed
The institution was first introduced in 1972 with the law Number 107 of
by the European Parliament (EP) for the
1972. It was never implemented due o
Epaminondas (1994) contains the pa-
duration of the European Member of
lack of political will and reservation as
pers presented at the colloquium
or-
Parliament (E.M.P.) period and he can
to its objective and usefulness taking
ganized by the European Institute of
be re-eligible. He is paid like a Judge of
into account that the Cyprus Repub-
Public Administration's
Antenna Lux-
the E.D. He is acfng with complete free-
lic was created in 1960. In 1991 with a
embourg on the European Ombudsman.
dom and takes no orders from any gov-
new law, law number 3, the Commis-
The colloquium was chaired by the Di-
ernment or body. The complains can
sioner of Public Administration
rector General of Research of the Euro-
be either directed through an E. M. P.,
budsman) is an independent commis-
pean Parliament, G.R. Ramsay. The Conclusions by the EIPA Direc-
(Om-
within a two years limit from the date of
sioner of the Cyprus Society, who can
the events that taken place. The E.O.
control
the Public
Administration
tor - General, Spyros A. Pappas clearly
has
with
within the framework that is set and
pointed out the progress from national
self-initiative, and can collect any in-
allowed by the Presidential System of
to European Ombudsman, which is an
formation or document from any Com-
element indispensable for the deepen-
munity or National Authority.
jurisdiction
to
act
Government that exists in Cyprus and . within the Cyprus
Constitution
in
the
which the principIe of separation of
The Ombudsmen of Sweden, Spain,
E.O. informs the public service con-
power exists in strict terms. (i.e. the
Ireland, Portugal and of the Flemish
cerned, submits also suggestions / rec-
Presidential System, the Parliamentary
Community
are among the contribu-
ommendations foe necessary measures
System and the Judiciary System of government and power).
ing of the European integration.
In cases of maladministration,
torso The Scandinavian Model, as well
that needs to be taken. The public serv-
as, the German and Luxembourg cases
ice concerned is obliged to give ajusti-
are also examined. The European Om-
fied answered within 3 months.
budsman competences
and relations
The new law make provision for a 6 year appointment for the Cyprus Ombudsman, who is appointed jointly by
with the other Cornmunity Institutions
the President of the Republic and the
and Bodies are discussed, as well as,
Cyprus Parliament,
the New Model of the Ombudsman for
that the Cyprus Ombudsman in an in-
Multinational Companies.
dependent Commissioner
to demonstrate of the Cy-
The research of this working docu-
prus Society; The Cyprus Ombudsman
ment focus on the office of Ombuds-
does not come under the jurisdiction
man, both at National and European
of either the Executive Power or the
Union leve!. They analyze the function-
Parliamentary
Power or the Judiciary
ing and experiences of the national Om-
Power. The introduction of the Cyprus
budsmen and try to draw conclusions,
Ombudsman
which can be of value for the function-
vacuum in the Structure of the Cyprus
ing of the European Ombudsman.
Society.
This research publication also examines the independence,
44
The introduction of the institution in Cyprus
competence,
comes to complete
a
Is a creation of need. The need of establishment
of effective method of
privileges and irnmunities of the Euro-
"out of court control" of public admin-
pean Ombudsman, as well as, his fu-
istration actions that necessitated by
ture relations with the Committee on
the accrued experience from the action
International
Journal
of Island Affairs
of different Cyprus Society Institutions
further del ay the institution ofthe Com-
these services are, correctly and accord-
during the 30 years of the Cyprus Re-
missioner of Administration.
ing to the laws and the principies of just
QJ U
e o e
With the institution of the Ombuds-
and fare administration. This is an inno-
man, the objective is the safeguarding
vation of the Cyprus Law that was im-
tion from a lecture by Mr. G. Pikis, given
of the maintenance of principies of law
plemented to underline the uniqueness
in 1978 with the subject "Equality of
and justice and fair administration that
of the institution of the Cypriot Com-
Citizens against the Law, as part of se-
is the basis of the state of justice. MI.
missioner of Adrninistration, that acts
curing a State ofLaw" published in the
Nicos Charalambous
(the first Om-
within the framework ofthe presidential
"Issues of Cyprus Law and justice",
budsman that served in Cyprus) in his
system of govemment (artieles 5 (1)(b».
(j)
volumeB, pp. 219-239:
book The Action and Control of Public
The definition of "service" according
L
Administration published in Nicosla in
to artiele 2 ineludes not only the public
publico Characteristic
is the following sec-
"The experience of other countries with long tradition in the field of Ad-
1995, and in a personal interview he
service, but also the Public Education
ministration Justice, proved, that the
had with me in September 99, in his of-
Service, the PoI ice and the National
existence of the Administration Courts
fice now as acting - Attorney General
Guard. It does not inelude the Authori-
only, is insufficient to safeguard an ef-
argued that if the above objective is
ties of the Local Self-Administration,
fective control of the actions of admin-
achieved the "moral face" ofthe Public
such as the Councils, Area Improvement
istration. It does not cover all the as-
Administration Service will be change
Councils, the Village Authorities and
to the better,
Local Cornmunities.
pects and issues of the administration
argued that in
They do not fall under the Commis-
ther the private or public justice, that
this, both the (a) Exercise of the Om-
sioners Jurisdiction, the actions of in-
are not inplimenatators, in other words
budsman's powers and (b) The exist-
dependent
does not create rights and therefore can
ence of the Institution of the Ombuds-
such as the Attomey General, the Gen-
not become subjects to be refereed to
man itself, wi 11act as reverse factor for
eral Auditor, the Director of the Central
a revise court. Is worth noting that in
bad administration.
Bank, the independent authorities such
actions e.g. decisions in the field of ei-
Mr. Chara~bous
executives
of the state,
The Commissioner of Administration
as the Commission of the Public Serv-
Courts with great tradition, it was de-
is destined to complete and help the
ice, the President of the Republic, the
cided as necessary
the
powers of the Republic. The services
Council of Ministers, the Parliament
Scandinavian institution of "Ornbuds-
of the Commissioner of Administration,
and the Courts.
man" revised to the needs of the French
are completing, the control of the Ad-
Within the Commissioner's jurisdic-
System with the title "Médiateur" for
ministrative acts that the High Court
tion falls the action of the Ministers,
the safeguarding of the principies of
exercises. The institution of the Om-
unless these actions relate to subjects
budsman will help the Council ofMin-
of general government policy or their
isters to exercise control over the pub-
actions as members ofthe Ministers of Council.
France who operate Administration
fair justice."
to introduce
(See- the Mediator:
French Ombudsman
A
(1974) 90 Law
lic services that is assigned to it by the
Quarterly Review p.211). The institution ofthe "Ombudsrnan"
Artiele 54 of the Constitution. It will
The Commissioner, as it applies in
has the objective of an independent
help the Parliament to exercise parlia-
England, does not have the authority
Commissioner
mentary control to the extent that this
to act with his own initiative. This is a
take place in the state system, which is
weakness of the institution that it is
undertake
of the Society with to
with
bureaucratical
summarital
way
procedures of citizens
the presidential. Basic jurisdiction
of
hoped to be corrected in future, when
complaints against the administration
the Ombudsman is to control, after the
the commissioner's
for the good of law keeping and effec-
submission, of a complaint from a citi-
established.
tive protection of citizens rights.
zen of an act of the administration
And in Cyprus it was found neces-
whether
this violate the individual
sary to introduced similar institution in
rights, or whether this is done in viola-
the form of Commissioner of Adminis-
tion of the law or regulations of just
tration and relevant law was adopted
and fair administration and the correct
in 1972 (Law 107/72). Despite the pas-
behaviour and treatment towards the
sage of 6 years from the day of its crea-
Employees (artiele 5 (1)(a».
tion, it has not yet been operated nor
In addition, the Commissioner can in-
there has been appointment of Com-
vestigate, after directions from the Coun-
missioner of Administration. It was be-
cil of Ministers, any subject that relates
Iieved at the time, that it was in the Pub-
to the functioning of any public serv-
lic Interest to introduce without any
ice, with the view to find out whether
H
~ •••••
f /'
/
institution is well
L
QJ ::::J
o o o e
~
QJ (j) (j)
o o
Services has the duty to provide any
possible criminal human rights offence
necessary information, when asked by
is committed, by the relevant Author-
the Commissioner (artide 8 (7)).
ity, the Cornrnissioner sends a copy of
He will always support the work of
his report to the Council of Ministers,
the public service and the public serv-
the House or Parliament and to the At-
ant against whom the action is directed. If during the investigation, the Cornmissioner judge that is possible that a
Every month the Commissioner sub-
criminal or disciplinary act was commit-
mits a summary report to the Council
ted, he will report the matter to the At-
of Ministers and the House of Parlia-
tomey General or the relevant author-
ment, with special reference to irnpor-
ity, according to the case (artide 8 (3)).
tant cases, according to his judgement (artide 6 (10)). Finally the Commissioner
The investigations carried out by the Commissioner are not public. The Law
submits every year to the President of
protects the Commissioner of Adrnin-
the Republic
an Annual Report, in
istration, such as by artide 10 that holds
which the Commissioner does not stop
certain actions that prevent the Corn-
to the events but also makes general
missioner to exercise his duties, unlaw-
observations, suggestions with regard
The Law provides the Commissioner
fuI and artide I I that protect him in the
to existing law and operating ways of
the discretionary power to examine or
cases of "revolution" against him due
the various public services. This An-
not a complain, despite the fact that
to his actions/ investigati~s
nual Report is copied to the
during his
fails within rusjurisdiction (article 5 (3)).
good faith mission of exercising his
House ofParliament, in which Parlia-
As a guide will always be the interest
duties. The Commissioner writes a re-
ment, a Parliamentary Committee and, a
of the employee in relation to the public interest.
port according to each specific case
"Cornmittee of PrincipIes, Values and
that he investigated, and is submitted
Cornmissioner of Administration" exist,
to either:
who examines the Annual Report of the
A complaint can be filed by any person that Iives in Cyprus, irrespective
a. to the Council of Ministers,
with
Cyprus Ombudsman and makes up a
as to whether this person is a citizen of
copy sent to the House of Parliament
路relevant Report that submits to all the
the Republic or not or is a physical or
(artide 5 (1) (B) and article 6 (4)) or
Members ofParliament. (Charalambous
law persono Basic precondition is that
b. to the relevant Authority with copy
1995, Charalambous lnterview in Sept.
the complain has to do with an action
sent to the relevant person (article 6
1999, Various Working Documentsfrom
that affects immediately and personally
(5)).
the Office ofThe Cyprus Commissioner
\.
so me persono
of Public Administration (Ombudsman)
The complaint can be filed by a rnem-
When with the completion of his in-
ber of the Parliament or a Lawyer on
vestigation the Commissioner finds out
and Loizou,1989)
CONCLUSIONS:
behalf of the person that is affected by
that an act of injustice was committed
the action. Law persons such compa-
against the affected person he may rec-
The cases of different Small Island
nies, union etc can file complains when
ommend to the relevant Authority that
States need to be examined and should
a substantial part of their members is
this be rectified within a certain time
be the basis offuture research, in order
affected.
lirnit set by the Commissioner,
to compare and contrast their individual
With regard to the procedure to be followed, the Commissioner
46
torney General of the Republic (artide 6 (9)).
uses his
When his suggestion is not irnple-
and unique characteristics
of system
mented by the relevant Authority, the
of public administration and manage-
discretionary powers to choose accord-
Commissioner
can submit a report to
ment and it's control through the insti-
ing to the characteristics of each indi-
either the Council or Ministers as well
tution of the Commissioner of Public
vidual case (article 8 (5)).
as the Parliament (article 6 (8)). When a
Administration (Ombudsman).
During the investigation, the Corn-
In addition one has to take into con-
mission has the power to invite any
sideration both the maturity and size of
public servant or any other person, to
a Democratic State, when considerating
provide any evidence
these aspects for comparative analysis
or documents
that relate to the case. The Cornmis-
(i.e. How does one compare for example
sioner has the right to take information
a relatively newly created Island State
from any person or services he consid-
with a matured European Union Coun-
ers right, that relate to the case. The
try with many years of established in-
International
Journal
of lsland Affairs
stitutions and democratic functions and
able public administration institutions
systems of public administration
and
with long-term perspective, are issues of
government. A good example of this is
politica! stability, security and coopera-
Cyprus Island State as compared with
tion in the Eastern Mediterranean. In or-
E.U. Countries in its efforts to enter the
der to understand these aspects of secu-
E.U. family of nations).
rity and cooperation in the Eastern Medi-
v
U
e 10 e L v =:l
o
o o e
An ECPR. Workshop entitled: "Gov-
terranean and their influence, one needs
ernance- new patterns of interaction
to view the work of Theophanous and
between government and society", in
Van Coufoudakis (1997), as well as, the
(J)
Essex, England, in April 1991 (cited:
work of Speros Vryonis entitled "Cyprus
L
kooiman, 1993), deals with many issues
between East and West: A politica! and
of modern governance (new govern-
moral dilemma". The past as prologue to
ment and society interactions), as well
the present" published for The AIexan-
democratic society that is maturing and
as, with conceptualizations
of Govern-
der S. Onassis Center at New York Uni-
airning to become an EU Member State
and therefore
versity, by Crete University Press, (1991).
soon. Hence the need for comparing
provides a good background research
Relevant to this is al so the work of
Cyprus with EU and other matured
for new thought and body of knowl-
Demetrios Theophylactou (1995) entitled
States in the international world arena
edge. A number of important issues are
"Security, Identity and Nation Building".
and world trade.
ance and Governability
considered including:
S V (J) (J)
A good practical example of the ef-
a. Public Policy Planning and Problem
fectiveness
of Governance.
institution of the Ombudsmanin
b. Women's Emancipation as a Ques-
prus, was the recent case of a Russian
of the application
of the 1
tion of Governance. C.
Public-Private partnership : a model
for the Management of Public -Private
Cy-
Supreme Constitutional
Court cf. its ob-
servations in Kyriakides v. the Republic 1
Greek family, living in Paphos, in which case it was proved by the Office of the
Regarding the jurisdiction in general 01the
R.S.C.C. p. 69; 2
The law is not annulled erga omnes the American
Ombudsman, that this family was dis-
system
being
Freund. Southerland.
by public administration,
adopted
cp.
Hew and Brown:
Cooperation (This can be the basis of
criminated
future research for the case of Cyprus
justice
in its transitional efforts to EU acces-
when the man ofthe family was treated
bridge'1955
sion).
unfairly and unlawfully, by deported
The constitution
d. Governance in Interaction: Public
overseas. The State following the At-
1964 pp. 627 seg.
Tasks and Private Organizations
torney general's ruling and recommen-
So the principie 01 separation 01 powers,
e. Public Management and Tnnovation
dations reinstated the famjly, by bring-
f. Governance and the Problem of Rep-
ing the man back to his family with
resentation in Public Administration
State expenses and by paying the re-
sion thereol as contrary to the Constitu-
g .. Modes of Governance and Admin-
quired Compensation, recognizing the
tion is 01 a judicial and not 01 a legislative
istrative Change
physical and psychological
h. The Governance ofEducation Cases
Constitutional
and poi ice mismanagement,
law vol. 1 Boston 1961 p.
112 seg; Schwartz: Constitutionallaw. Camp.9 seg; Small and Jayson: 01 U.S.A. Washingron
adopted by the Constitution is maintained as the decision 01 the Supreme Constitutional Court declaring a law or any provi-
nature CI. 1923 p. 338; Balladore Palliera
hardship
op. cit. p. 342 seg. lor a comparative re-
the family had suffered.
view cf. Mortari: Istituzioni di diritto pubblico
are provided from the UK, Germany,
The conclusion here is that although
Netherlands, Ireland, Finland, Scotland,
the Cyprus Island State taken the politi-
France, Belgium and Denmark, indicat-
cal decision relatively late, for introduc-
law as unconstitutional
ing the variety and different experi-
ing the institution of the Ombudsman,
omnes (art 136 cf. Ballochi e Rovai. La
ences of different democratic states.
this institution since it was in- troduced
Costituzione italiana e gli statuti regionali
proved to be working effec-
Milano 1956 p. 42T the annullment 01the
The major political systems of Europe
vol.
cases of public ad-
in the interesting work of Beer, Ulan,
ministration
Berger and Goldman (1973) and aspects
mismanage-
of the EU institutions, functions and ad-
ment in a
11
Padova 1969 pp. 1250 - 1252.
On the contrary in Italy the declaration 01a operates
erga
law takes effect ex nunc and not ex tunc:
dealing with variety of
and patterns of government are given
Giuliani: op, cit p. 19. The same applies in Austria (art 140 01the constitution) and in Turkey: (Art. 15201 the constitution) 3
el. For details in Tornaritis: Influence 01 Greek law on contemporary, Cypriot institutions, extract Irom the Minutes 01 the
ministration are given in the work of
First International Conlerence on Cyprus
Nelsen and Stubb (1994). Other interesting dimensions for con-
o o
Studies cited Appendix on pp. 393 to 399. 4
cf. Tornaritis: The legal position 01the Au-
sideration and examination in the efforts
ditor - General 1963 and it's constitutional
ofSmall Island States in establishing reli-
and legal problems cited pp. 64 - 68.
-
References - European Institute of Public Administration
"The
European
Working
Ombudsman",
document
edited
by
Epanimondas A. Marias, 1994 Maasticht, The Netherlands, - Brent F. Nelsen
Union",
ropean
Court
Cyprus
Union in ComparaAvebury,
USA, 1995;
ISBN 1 85972 175 3.
Cyprus and its Constitution", presented
Berne,
(Switzerland)
of
Doctoral
at the University in January
under the supervision
of
1996
of Prof. Dr. Peter
Salad in.
and Judiciary
Government";
4
th
Coufoudakis operation
Andreas
and
Van
(Editors) Security and Co-
in the Eastern Mediterranean
Intercollege velopment
Press; Research
and De-
Centre Nicosia, 1997; ISBN
9963-7982-7-6.
sioner
served
and West:
be-
Present",
of the Republic
S. Onassis
of Cyprus).
Herakleion,
Conference November
Greece,
1994; A
held in New York City on 16-17. 1991.
Cyprus,
of Cyprus",
Nicosia,
1968 and it's Constitutional
other legal problems",
Nicosia,
c) "The local Self-Administration
d)"Cyprus Nicosia,
and 1977. in Cy-
1972.
and
its
Constitution",
of Cyprus
and it's Law Impacts", f) "Peculiarities
Republic
Nicosia, 1979.
of the Cyprus Constitu-
tion and the Impacts in the Harmonious Operation
of the State", Nicosia, 1980.
Evolution
Nicosia,
of Human
Rights",
May 1977; (Lecture delivered
at PEON on the 6th of May 1977).
International
Journal
of Island Affairs
Published
22
Examination
Di-
to the
for The Alexander
Centre at NYC (New York Press,
1994.
of various working
docu-
Past and
Department,
Chamber,
Nicosia,
Zeno Publishers,
1976.
- Koumoulides
John. T.A. "Cyprus in Tran-
(1960-1985)", London,
Published
by
1986.
- Soisten Eric "Cyprus: a country study", area handbook
series,
search
Library of Congress,
Division,
Federal
Re-
U.S.A., 4th Edition, 1993. - Christodoulou
Demetrios
"Inside
Minnesota
the
Mediterra-
nean and East European
Monographs,
University of Minnesota,
U.S.A, volume
2, 1992. - Cyprus
Constitution,
prus Republic liamentary
and Various
Cy-
Laws, from Cyprus Par-
Archives.
- Pikis G. "Equality of Citizens against the Law, as part of Securing a State of Law" , published
in the "Issues of Cyprus Law
and Justice",
tice System, as well as, examination various
working
with the Institution 'in various comparative Ombudsman
Cyprus Miracle",
1974.
e) "The Creation
on the Island's Publications
vey of 5,000 years",
sition
prus", Nicosia,
at Mr.
- Alastos Doros "Cy.prus in History: a sur-
Trigraph,
b) "Cyprus
Tourism),
1964.
a) " Constitutional in the Republic
the Past as Prologue
Crete, Greece,
Charalambous office, in Nicosia, Cyprus".
of the Republic of Cyprus): and Legal Problems
and Moral
ments dealing with the National Legal
London,
- Tornaritis G. Criton (Attorney - General
between East
Justice Systems and the EU Legal Jus-
and
Greek Communal
at New
Center, 1995.
(Coordinator of Tourism Studies, Prof. of
Alexander
University
Development
Re-
Management
PresentÂť,
Centre
Van
and Coopera-
University) , by Crete University
Nicosia, 1995.
b) "Interview taken by Prof. Chris Mavris
Random
and
Press, Nicosia,
a Political
lemma,
Handbook
by Crete
"Security
- Vryonis Speros "Cyprus
and now the Assistant Attorney-General
tween East and West" Published for the S. Onassis
Andreas
and
Intercollege
tween 15 March 1991 to 15 March 1997,
lic Administration",
of Europe",
Coufoudakis
search
of Administration)
The Major Politi-
tion in the Eastern Mediterranean",
Ch. Nicos (The first ap-
- Greek Heritage of Cyprus ÂŤCyprus - A
York University,
Systems
- Theophanous
and Kapodestrian
(Commis-
1993.
House, New York, 3rd edition, 1973.
University of Athens.
- Vryonis Speros Jr. (Editor) "Cyprus Be-
g)"The
cal
of the High
pointed Cyprus Ombudsman
London,
terns of Government:
April 1989 in the field of Public Jus-
tice of the National
Governance:
Society Interactions",
Sage Publications,
Control
Court Mr. A. N. Loizou at the Seminar of
Jan "Modern
- Beer, Ulam, Berger and Goldman "Pat-
Introductory
of the President
a French Ombudsman
New Government
and
a) The Action and Control of the Pub-
- Theophanous
Press,
Rights,
- Kooiman
of the High Court of Cy-
- Charalambous
Petros "The Republic
Thesis,
of the
- The Mediator-
(1975) 90 Law Quarterly Review p. 211.
(Judge of the Eu-
of Human
Administration)
Speech
"Security,
and Nation Building",
and the European
48
- Louizou N. Andreas
Forms
1975.
Ex-President
A. Demetrios
- Evangelides
and
prus), Public Justice, "(Judge and Fair
C-G.
don, Uk, 1994; ISBN 0-333-64675-4.
tive Perspective,
System
ISBN 90-6779-083-4
Lynne Rienner Publishers, Boulder, Lon-
Identity
Federal
and Alexander
Stubb (Editors) "The European
- Theophylactou
h) "The
There of", Nicosia, Cyprus,
vol. B; pp. 219 -239.
documents,
of
dealing
of the Ombudsman
countries
and the EU for
analysis from the Cyprus Archives.
L o
1
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T
by
GRIGORIEV
strophic events of various intensity,
parts on the most southern island of the
unique creation of nature, a necklace
The eruption of voIcanoes result in a
Bolshaya Kurilskaya ridge, Kunashir
of islands extending for 1,200 km be-
great amount of mineral matters which
Island (the total area of the island is 120
tween Hokkaido Island and the south-
later determine the high fertility of soils
thousand ha, the length is 123 km, the
he Kurilskaya
ridge is a
and the huge productivity of offshore
width is from 8 to 30 km) and also the
waters. The region can be considered
islands of Demina and Oskolki. Under
are within the influence oftsunami, the
one of the most productive districts of
the jurisdiction ofKurilsky Zapovednik
invasion of strong storms, intensive
the world's ocean.
there is also Malye Kurily Zakaznik in-
ern end of Karnchatka Peninsular. Being at the oceanfront these areas
,
tidal currents, eruption of voIcanoes
The territory of Kurilsky Zapovednik
cIuding the territories of all the islands
and earthquakes, so they are the scene
incIudes parts of some southern Kurils.
of the Malaya Kurilskaya ridge, among
of an active manifestation
They are the northern and southern
them a greater
of cata-
Shikotan
part of the area of
Island.
The area of the
zapovednik is 65,365 ha. The area ofthe protected zone of the zapovednik
is
41,475 ha. The area ofthe zakaznik is 45 thousand ha. The nature of the Kurils shows inimitable contrasts of natural complexes and features of the flora and fauna. Here waterfalls (up to 65 m height) aIong the island coast and mountain river beds neighbour lagoon and voIcanic lakes. The transparent streams with fresh water flow side by side with smoky multicoloured mineral springs. Here the mountain ranges with wild dark coniferous taiga slip into the forbs- meadows on
* Cien
s spruce
wirh Usnea sp. lichen
Photo by Yu. Merkulov
Director, "Kurilsky"
State
Nature
Reserve
E. M. *
northern and southern species. Here lies the northern border of spreading of a huge number of species found, besides the Southern Kurils, also in Japan, Korea, and China. In addition to that the kurilsk species are represented by the populations adapted to the peculiar island conditions of life. A small area of the Southern Kulils ( compared with the other territories of the Far East) has hardly influenced the richness of their flora. It is noticeably richer than that of Sakhalin Island in the taxonomic diversity and little yields to it in the number of species despite such a great difference between their areas. The differences of a zonal character influence the fact that the flora of waterfatl al a shore of the Pacific Ocean
Photo by Yu. Merkulov
the Southern Kurils (1,215 species) is richer than that of Kamchatka (963 spe-
the seashore. The gigantic grasses raise
benches, flats, spits, barrier beaches,
cies) and the Aleutians (431 species).
over man's height while trees may hardly
tomboloes, lagoons, sea terraces, tidal
Kunashir Island and Shikotan Island
teach rnari's knee or be of about 30 m
bore niches etc.
(Kurilsky Zapovednik and Malye Kurily are the richest in species
Kunashir Island has four active vol-
island shore there is a chain of numer(
canoes. Three of them are on the terri-
among all the islands of the Kurilskaya
ous inlets and coves where the sea-
tory of Kurilsky Zapovednik: l. Volcano
ridge .The greatest number of rare spe-
c1ean, beautiful and amazing in all sea-
Tyatya (1819 m) is the most beautiful
cies of plants of Sakhalin and all the
son s- lips. On fine days one can see the
vol cano of the Kurils.
Kulils is also concentrated on the is-
neighboring islands from mountain tops
Golovnina (586 m), a magnificent vol-
- the islands of the Earth among the
cano-caldera with two minerallakes, is
24 species of vascular plants found
boundless ocean.
the most accessible for tourists of all
on the protected areas of the Southern
On
the
Zapovednik
territory
of
Kurilsky
the volcanic phenomena
2. Volcano
lands of Kunashir and Shikotan.
ages. 3. Volcano RUfUi(1456 m), located
Kurils are globally rare and endangered.
in impenetrable
They have been listed in the Red Book
forests, is unstudied
and awaits
manifestations:
Stolbchaty is interesting and surpris-
to be especially strictly protected. On
ern, from local ones( fumaroles, mud
ing being an assembly
of extrusive
the territory of the zapovednik and the
pools, thermal springs) to those occu-
forms characterized by a very regular
zakaznik there are 47 species of mush-
pying large-scale areas (caldera, vol-
pillar c1eavage. These forms are located
rooms, higher and lower plants Iisted
canic ridges, big zones of changes and
on a rather limited area ofthe Okhotskoe
in the Red Book ofthe Russian Federa-
secondary mineralization of rocks). The
Sea shore.
tion. Concentrated here there is a great
geomorphological
shears they have fantastic shapes and
number of vascular species (37), rare
from ancient to mod-
peculiarities of the
its investigators.
Depending
Cape
of IUCN and have been recommended
are represented in the diversity of their
on surface
territory visually reflect the character
form a stone symphony of «castle ru-
for the territory of Russia, also Kurilsky
of ancient and modern relief-forming
ins», «stone organs», «piles of logs»,
Zapovednik exceeds in their quantity
processes displayed within the island
«giants' pavements» etc
ares. The relief here graphically reflect
50
Zakaznik)
height in some forest areas. Along the
Thanks to a special distribution of
the results of volcanism, tectonic ac-
the sea currents,
tion, abrasion and accumulation activi-
Bolshaya
on almost all the
most of Russian zapovedniks yielding only to zapovedniks of the Caucasus. 10 species of the 37 listed in the Red
ridge from its
Book of the Russian Federation can be
ties of the sea. Today's seashore of
northern islands to Iturup Island there
found in Russia only on the island of
Kunashir Island is a c1assical site rep-
are no such strong differences in the
Kunashir and they are located on the northern border of their areal,
Kurilskaya
resenting the seashore processes un-
structure of the plant and animal world
der a high tectonic mobility ofthe terri-
as it can be seen on Kunashir Island.
tory. We can see here the formation of
The biocenoses of Kunashir Island are
perate zone of the Earth are large-grass
such forms of a sea relief as cliffs,
the result of a surprising mixture of
cenoses characteristic of the Southern
International
Journal
of Island
Affairs
A natural phenomenon of the tem-
Kulils. They have a landscape signifi-
of subtropical complex (Pacific saury,
the Russian
eance and define the vegetation pecu-
sardines (Sardinops sagax), tuna, Japa-
mostly the waterfowl
liarities of the region. Under rocks,
nese mackerel) feed in water areas of the
birds fond of fish: Steller's sea eagle,
shore terraces, along the mouths of riv-
zapovednik and the zakaznik. It is here
white-tailed eagle, osprey, black kite,
ers and springs there are thickets of
that the salmon spawning migration
fishowl.
Numerous
many species of strong tal! grasses
routes of the most shoals of the Far East
marila»,
«Anas penelope»,
reaching the height of 2 to 2.5 meters
acuta»,
lie.
or sometimes even 4 meters. The Far
The global significance of this area
East large grasses being a relic archaic
lies in the faet that the Kurils is one of
community,
the parts of a transcontinental
differ from other tal! -
Federation).
They are
and predatory
are
«Aythya
gulls, cormorants,
herons.
Only two pairs of Japanese «Grus japonensis»
«Anas cranes
nest on the island
flyway
of Kunashir, and several pairs nest in
grasses of the Altai, the Sayans, the
of the birds making their seasonal mi-
Malye Kurily Zakaznik In winter one
Caueasus and the Alps in their original
grations to the northern regions of the
can
floristic
see dozens
of white
swans
Far East. The offshore waters of the
«Cygnus cygnus» among ice and snow
unique for herbaceous plants, and gi-
islands are the Far East's biggest loca-
in the sea bays. «Ceryle lugubris»
gantie morphostruetures.
tion for a winter stay of sea birds {dueks
dwells along the river banks. In sum-
(Aythynae), divers, cormorants, gulls,
mer one can hear asad song of «Tregon
fulmars, guillemots}.
sieboldii» coming from the depths of
eomposition,
their height,
The fauna of invertebrates of the indicated site is definitely unique, but it
the forest. Clear warbles of larks ring
has hardly been studied yet. According
The number of birds gathering here
to a preliminary estimate, on the Kurils
during their seasonal flyways in spring
above fields in spring. Dwellers of the
one can expect the minimum of 5 to 6
and autumn is enormous. About 260
Kunashir
thousand species of terrestrial and am-
species can be seen here at that time
(about 25 pairs) of a rare island sub-
phibious insects, 3/4 of them being
(21 speeies listed in the Red Book of
speeies of fishowl «Ketupa blakistoni
Island are the population
found only on the Southern Kurils. The diversity of species of entomofauna of the Southern Kurils is 10 times as big as
\
that of the Middle and Northern Kurils. 37 species and subspecies of endemic insects were discovered on the Southern Kurils only in the last few years. 45% of all the mollusc fauna of the Southern Kurils are endemic species. Besides the taxonomie diversity and the presence of endemic species, the peeuliarity ofthe Kunashir mollusc fauna is a mixture of southern Japanese elements and the taxa spread more to the north. The true richness ofthe Kurils are the representatives
of its ichthyofauna
Va/cano Tyarya. September
Photo by t. Nevedomskaya
-
Salmonidae. The local populations of humpback and chump are characterized by the highest reproduction in the world. Besides, it is the humpback and chump, biggest in all the populations ofthe species known in the Far East, that get into the rivers and lakes of Kunashir Island. In addition to real salmons (ehump and humpback)
East Siberian
char and
Sakhalin taimen also spawn in the rivers and lakes ofthe zapovednik. Numerous shoals of fish both of ternperate-cold eomplex
(pollack,
cod,
navaga,
greenlings, plaice, halibut, salmons) and
Kurilian
bear al a shore of the Sea of Okhotsk
Photo by A. Klitin
L. L
O
:3 U 10 (f)
L
lJ
O
e
~ (f)
Caldera at the Golovnin's volcano.
Photo by Yu.Merkulov
Lake Goryachee
Seeb.» (listed in the Red Book ofIUCN,
Malaya Kurilskaya ridge. The terres-
and invertebrates of all the Kurils are
1 category of rarity). The areal of this
trial flora of the Kurilsky Zapovednik
found here,. So the nature protected
bird's habitat is confined to the islands
and the Malye Kurily Zakaznik
areas of Southern Kurils thanks to the
of Kunashir and Hokkaido.
counts
On Kunashir Island about 200 brown
ac-
for about 60% of the total
number of species of the flora of all the
the
presence
of
active
bears live, also there are sable, red fox,
Kurils. The terrestrial flora of Kurilsky
volcanism, the extreme natural phenom-
hare, Japanese mouse and so me spe-
Zapovednik and Malye Kurily Zakaznik
ena, the great diversity of econiches, a
cies of shrews «Sorex». On the entire
comprises
combination
Southern Kurils there are numerous
number of species of the flora of the
Korean on the
of comfort and severe
conditions, is an ideal natural model of
entire Kurils. AIso all species of the
the North Pacific island ecosystems,
Kulil ichtio- and-herpeto fauna (100%)
the gene pool of the original species of
of Shikotan
and the majority of the species of birds
flora and fauna.
island
shicotanensis»
about 60% of the total
rufocanus», but only
red-backed
«Clethryonomys
mouses «Cl.
The presence of the contradictory
build real «fortifica-
tions» (the system ofholes, paths, feed-
actions of natural factors: great water
ing grounds).
On the islands of the
areas and the underground heat; rela-
Malaya Kurilskaya ridge there are the
tively severe climate and the location in
biggest rookeries ofKuril seals «Phoca
the southern latitudes; fertile ash beds
vitulina stejngeri» (2,500) and Steller's
and the concentrations of gases, acids
sea lions «Eumetopiasjubatus»
and other products of volcanic activi-
(1,000)
(both species are in the Red Book of
ties fatal to living organisms; very un-
IUCN) in the region of the Southern
even relief and frequent winds; endemic biological features and the influence of
Kurils - Northern Japan. According to the specialists' estima-
adjacent contrasting and different na-
tion, 96% of all species of submerged
ture zones, are the specific nature con-
sea fauna (invertebrates)
and 66% of
ditions that have resulted in the appear-
the sea fauna of the Southern Kurils
ance of this quite unique Kuril word of
are located on the littoral zone of the Kunashir Island and the islands of the
52
peculiarities of their geographical 10cation,
International
Journal
of Island Affairs
Lizikhiton
kamchatsky - a common plant
Kuril islands. May.
al
Photo by Yu. Merkulov
the extreme phenomena that Kurilsky Zapovednik is called to conserve.
(f)
D
'he
e
S (f)
ÂŤIrinomialÂť energy water tourism The "Mediterranean Energies"
Conference
on Policies
iJ
:J
o o 10 D
e 10
~
O
L
(L (f)
:3u e
and Strategies
for Desalination
was held on 21-23 June 2000 on the Greek island of Santorini,
and Renewable
organised
by RENES1.
This event has been the starting point of a strategy of future for islands, which integrates aspects like water and energy management
essential
in its development. 1
National Technical University 01Athens - RENewable Energy Sources Unit.
RENES is partner 01INSULA within several projects and programmes
related with water and energy management
on islands.
by
lo
the last years, the trinomia en-
UNESCO's International Hydrological
C/PRIANO
The most frequent values for the Medi-
ergy-water-tourism has been represent-
Programme, these difficulties are spe- .
terranean are between 400 and 600 mm.
ing a great challenge for islands. New
cially expressed by islands maller than
But the worst is that the largest differ-
productive
such as
1,000 km2 and narrower than 20 km.
ences can appear in successive years
tourism or the rapid population growth,
Local hydrological values are also very
or on two different sides of the island
place islands in an extremely vulner-
different from one island to another.
or even at different altitudes.
specializations,
able position. Energy and water, because of their territorial, environmental and economic implications, have always represented a central element of the insular dilemma. The interdependence increasingly
water-energy
is
evident on islands, and
sometimes it even brings to a single management system for both. It is a determining factor of present development models. The problem of freshwater
supply
affects small islands more than big ones, as they have a large part of the water-related problems. According to the works
developed
* Vice Secretary-General
within of INSULA
the
Seawater
MARĂN*
desalination
plant powered
by photovoltaic
Pozo Izquierdo
installations.
- Gran Canaria (ITC)
To overcome these difficulties small Mediterranean
the
islands have de-
the World Tourism Organization,
is-
lands are nowadays the second world
must be added. In Ma-
veloped a very complex culture of wa-
tourist
after the block
in 90,000 cubic metres in winter and
ter to take maximum advantage fram
formed by the historical cities. The Eu-
rise to 130.000 in the tourist season.
destination
their scarce resources: tanks, rainwa-
rapean Travel Monitor says that more
This effect of tourism is even more
ter reservoirs, impluvia, etc .. Further-
than 50 mili ion of tourists visited the
obvious in small islands: Porquerolles
more, we know the need to use solu-
Mediterranean coast; an important part
(a little French island), for example,
tions as the water transportation
of them was directed to islands.
has a domestic water daily consump-
in
tank ships employed fram long time
To get an idea of the island tourism
to bring water to small Italian and
importance, if we compare usual tour-
Greek islands, or submarine water con-
ist island densities within the European
tion of 150 m3 in winterthat in summer increases to 600 m'. But the influence of tourism is not
ducts bringing water frorn the con ti-
Union we find densities reaching 150
only limited to a greater number of con-
nent to the islands of Elba, Tabarca or
beds per square kilometre, higher in
sumers: it also affects the type of con-
to some Dalmatian islands for exam-
many cases than density in many popu-
sumption. Normal islanders' standards
pie. An extreme example of this last
lated areas of the continent.
(l00-125Iitres)
But in
are multiplied afterthe
case can be found in the island of
terms of tourist flow, the results are a
arrival oftourism, and often exceed 250
Djerba: in 1966 began the rapid tourist
lot more striking: Greek islands receive
litres.
grawth and the authorities had to mo-
more international tourism than Brazil,
Furthermore, we must take into ac-
bilize on a large scale the water re-
the Balearic Islands host as many tour-
count that tourism demands an end-
sources of the near continent, and the
ist as Portugal and the Canary Islands
less supply and, because of the lei-
situation has not changed until today.
duplicates the 6 million of international
sure facilities such as swimming pools,
There are several cases showing the
tourists that receives South Africa, the
golf courses and greens, even when
great emerging destination.
there is enough water, there are high
km2 and a population density higher
CorfĂş
70.000 beds
has been the central
than 1,200 people/krrf outside the tour-
Minorca
20 km
2
82.000 beds
twenty-second
ist area. The island is in reality a great
Elba
223 km2
21.000 beds
eral Assembly, within the special ses-
caIcareous slab, fissured and therefore
Rhodes
1.398 km
2
80.000 beds
sion exclusively dedicated to islands,
with Iittle capacity to retain water. Or
Tenerife
2.036 km2
150.000 beds
whose objective was the re-examina-
To these new needs of the tourist
great portion of the world's islands
extreme water-dependency
of islands.
losses in main supply. This subject
Malta, for example, has an area of246 592 km2
area of900 km2 where water supply for its more than 70,000 tourist beds and 90,000 inhabitants comes almost exclusively from desalination. c1early show the current trend of a large part of the Mediterranean
and Euro-
pean islands, and exemplify possible risks and dependences of the future. Nevertheless, the grawing water deficit on islands generates new risks. It is evident that new demands in island economies introduce a factor of competition with the traditional agricultural activities. It is also serious that vital water supplies are diverted fram fragile ecosystems and high-value wetlands, and we know well the risks deri ved fram water extractions in the coast. But we must take into account another factor: tourism. It is a factor of particular importance for Mediterranean islands. According to the statistics of
International
Journal
demand,
prob lerns Inverse
caused osmosis
by experimental
declared that aspects related to tourpla-n connected
/0
Pozo Izquierdo
These are extreme cases but they
of lsland Affairs
idea of the
United Nations Gen-
tion of the Barbados Action Plan. A
Lanzarote, an Atlantic island with an
54
seasonality
jorca water consumption is estimated
the wind power plant. - Gran Canaria (ITC)
Qj
On the other hand we have the fol-
O
O ~
lowing advantages: • Abundant renewable energy sources • Modularity and adaptability to the is-
e
land scale of the solutions and tech-
1:
nologies based on renewable energies. • Island economies
:3
O ~
10
don't have any
e
sector with high energy demando
O
• If we consider islands as a whole, their
lJ
water-renewables combined market is
10
O
L
possibly the largest in the world.
lJ
This attitude is reflected by one of
O
the most important conclusions of the
e 10
Minorca's
Qj
European
Conference
on
L
Sustainable Island Development.
~
:j Within this context, mentioned insu-
~
u
larity features are in favour of an advisable alliance between renewable energies and water production through desalination.
An alliance that is still
more necessary in the increasing tourist specialisation framework of many isSeawater desalination Pozo Izquierdo
systenc-Electrodialisis
- Gran Canaria
lands.
plant powered by aerogenerators.
(ITC)
There are many economic and technological reasons supporting this idea.
ism, water and energy management will
the island ofTenerife,jointly
organised
Typical data per cubic meter of fresh
c1early determine island future sustain-
by ITER, INSULA, the Tenerife Island
water are 8-15 kWh for commercial dis-
able development.
Government,
the UNESCO
and the
tillation (heat consuming
processes)
World Solar Programme. This was one
and 4-7 kWh for commercial membrane
of the most important
island issues
systems (electricity consuming proc-
Small Island Developing States, revised
approached during its course, During
esses). These numbers show the large
during that special session, establishes
the Summit, many outstanding cases
amount
two pressing objectives:
on the relationship
The report of the Global Conference on the Sustainable
Development
of
of supplementary
energy
existing between
needed by certain islands in order to
• Encourage the development and ac-
water and energy on islands were dealt.
secure themselves a sufficient water
quisition of appropriate technology
That is why the line upheld by the Clean
supply.
and training
Energy and Water Programme in the
for cost-effective
desalination and rainwater collection
framework
of the World Solar Pro-
to provide sufficiently high quality
gramme was considered
potable freshwater, including oppor-
lands.
tunities for technology interchange
vital for is-
For island people, it's now evident
But we also know that wind energy is a high competitive form of producing energy, even in islands with a low average wind speed. The usage ofwind turbines
to power
medium
sized
among Small Island Developing
the need to give a reasonable answer
desalination plants is perfect, and sev-
States.
to two problems posed at the some time.
eral pilot plants are being developed,
From now on, we must speak of water
as well as hybrid systems using PV
and energy on the same planeo
panels and wind generators to produce
• Improve access to environmentally sound and energy efficient technologies for the production and delivery of freshwater.
From the energy point of view, we know that islands are characterised by:
fresh water. We should also take into account that
• Isolation and dependence
water storage, compared to electricity
• Limited range of energy resources
or heat, has the added advantage of
• Specialisation of economies
being quite a simple matter. Desalinated
and perfectly fit into the new view of
• Limited markets
water storage is a simple issue for most
islands' energy perspective. Last year
• Highly sensitive environment
islands, and is an excellent solution to
the Island Solar Summit took place on
• Inefficient use of energy resources
technologically
These aspects related to water management demand pressing
attention
harmonize the use of
-
renewable energy sources on a large
The wor/ds'
scale and guarantee freshwater supply
other renewab/e
under small islands' variable consump-
emerging with the promise of eeonomie and environmenta/ viability on
tion conditions. We already know that
sea/e.
renewable energy sources suffer from
water needs are inereasing technotoqies
1. The pressing water needs in most countries
ported.
oping nations, exemplified
Water production plants may playa
/arge
of the warld and particularly the devel·
to the increasing
and the
energy needs and is equally worri-
some. 2. An urgent challenge energies.
for longer periods, water
duction rates.
is economic
This highly
development
demand peak s do not affect water pro-
and sustainable
promising
option
strong environmental
concerns,
efficient for all schemes featured on is-
be increasingly
powered
lands.
environmentally
friendly
• Centralised production and distribution
nomic costs.
production
adequate
with renewable
resources
far further
targets laid down in the Kyoto protocol and
future water desalination
around the world should
by wind, solar and other clean natural resources. systems
are now becoming
potentially
Such
available
at eco-
4. Solar thermal pilot systems in Abu Dhabi and other countries as well as wind and PV powered
• or Combined centralised and decen-
reverse osmosis desalination
are currently
tralised pro~on Under these circumstances, the com-
water desalination
requires
in arder to prove its viability.
3. Keeping in mind the climate protection
This shows us that this alliance is
• Decentralised
a
production
peaks. As water can be stored without difficulties
are rapid/y
by reviews of the situation in the Mediterranean
Middle East can be compared
major role as variable loads for any systo absorb
that ean be used for desa/ination
in Santorini, Greece 23,d June 2000.
creasing demand for water, the penetra-
tem, helping
New wind, solar and
Message from the Desalination and Renewable Energy Conference
irregularenergy supply. But with an intion of renewable energies can be sup-
dramatieally.
demonstrating
5. There is a need to accelerate
bination of RE and desalination is vi-
from renewables
pilot units in the Canary islands and Greece
potentially
cost effective commercial
the development
systems.
of novel water production
systems
and in particular
able end effective for small and mediumsize islands. This is therefore a right
•
solution for the management of elec-
include a closer collabaration
tricity and water demand. On a small scale several important
in Europe, which should
between the RE and Desalination
Industries, together
with research institutes. •
mixed projects have already been carried out, and demonstrate both techni-
A much stronger effort in R&D and D currently inadequate
Capacity terranean
•
buildinQ and co-operation
namely with Europe's
neighbours
in the Medi-
area and Middle East and Africa
Acceleration
of information
dissemination,
education
and training.
cal and economical viability of these solutions. But on a large scale, we are witnessing the arising of important initiatives that endorse these hypotheses. A demonstration project that can be used as an exampie is the initiative that is being carried out by the island of El Hierro, a mixed wind-hydraulic project with the objective 100% renewables. It includes the desalination plants in the system and also the decentralised production. As things stand, desalination strategy through renewable energies is an option of sustainable development not only for islands. It is the only reasonable solution for the next future. From there the importance that INSULA and its associates are giving to this subject within the initiatives: European Island OPET and the Altener project named "Island 2010", whose objective is to pro mote Renewable energy sources on a large scale on island territories.
56
International
Journal
of lsland Affairs
u
Ecological Constraints and Human Adaptive Strategies in a River Island Ecosystem
O O ~
:3
O
e
L -.J
o
e
O
o..J
O
o
L
lJ
O
e o
by
& R.
JESURATHNAM DEVARAPAW*
YATHIRN
u L ::J
KUMAR**
~
I
::J
U
s ands are d; sti OC'; ve en ti ti e,
marked with isolation. limited and/or
tation of socio-cultural the natural
institutions to
environment
(Bennett
(bee Fig-2 & Photo-2). The centrally 10cated portion of the land is highly fer-
special resources, restricted area etc.
1969: 14 Orlove 1980:25 1).According to
tile which is black alluvial with a thick
They exhibit distinctive man -environ-
Cohen (1968) cultural behaviour is re-
layer of humus.
mental relationships, warraE!0g suitable adaptive strategies.
adapted systems are established upon
The river island ecosystem, like any
extensive cultural control over environ-
of the island is arranged in different gra-
mental exigencies.
dients with varying concentration
other ecosystem is subjected to ecological constraints
egies by the inhabitants to cater to their needs. The constraints
Here mostly coconut groves are grown (see Photo-3). The peripherallandscape of
sand giving the soil a loose texture. The
and fluctuations
that necessitate suitable adaptive stratsocio-cultural
sponsible for human adaptation and well
THE ISLAND
outerrnost portion of the island periph-
The study is carried out on Ayodhya
ery is devoid of soil and is mere sand
lanka - a river island of Andhra Pradesh,
dune. As such the physical terrain of
may be in the form of availability or
which is located in Vasista Godavari a
the island differentially
non-availability of a resource, the very
branch of river Godavaris India ( See
pattern and doesn't favour a steady irri-
support crop
nature of the available resource and the
Fig-I & Photo-I). The island is elon-
gation due to its elevation above the
natural barriers. This paper specifically
gated over a length of about 6 Km. and
river bed and due to a vast stretch of
of about three quarters of a Kilometre
sand beach separating land mass; lift-
strategies of a river island population
width at it's widest point and is sur-
ing water from river for irrigation is not
to overcome the ecological constraints.
rounded by water round the year. The
feasible. Moreover, the ground water on
island population
to 2768
the island is with varying concentrations
upon socio-econornic fabric of the peo-
persons comprising four major caste
of salinity and is not suitable for irriga-
pIe living in a particular environrnent.ln
groups viz., Kapu, Settibalija, Mala and
tion at many locations. Due to the loose
attempts
to analyse
the adaptati ve
The ecological factors have a bearing
accounts
ahuman ecological niche, environmen-
Marakallu. The first three castes are
nature of the soil the sort ground water
tal limitations, ecological diversity and
agriculture
available at certain points cannot be
natural calamities are successfully met
subsists on fishing.
by the thriving population through the
based while the last one
The island ecosystem, though hav-
mechanism of socio-econornic adapta-
ing fertile soil is constrained in its prop-
tion(Leach 1961;Ward 1970;Brown 1978
erties and profile such as nature of the
scholar
in the Department
and Johnson 1982). Anthropologists
terrain, unsuitability for a steady irri-
pology,
Andhra
used the word 'adaptation'
to refer to
gation system, loose soil that quickly
Visakhaptnam
two distinct sets of relationships, one
absorb water, salinity of water to pro-
530 003, India.
between human physiological
duce staple food except 'budama' (un-
and
socio-cultural
(Bargatzsky
needs
institutions
1984:402; Laughlin and
Brady 1978:3). The second is the adap-
desired country variety rice). The soil
* Dr. Jesurathnam
**
Devarapalli is research
Andhra
of AnthroUniversity,
Pradesh,
Pino
Dr. R. Yathiraj Kumar is professor
the
department
of the island differs in its composition
Andhra
and fertility from one part to the other
Andhra
of
University, Pradesh,
in
Anthropology, Visakhaptnam,
Pino 530 003, India.
-
like low productivity
are adjusted
through complex forms of exchange and subsistence specialisation. The propo-
o N
sition that ecological feasibility is a requisite for the existence and continuation of an exchange system is further
o
lIt
strengthened by the observation made 3 KM
2 t
•.
by Abruzzi (1989).
'
16· 40'
The following discussion attempts toanalyse the systems of exchange in Ayodhya lanka to cope with the ecological constraints
categorising
into
three types - Intra-island, Inter-island and Island-mainland.
l. INTRA-ISLAND EXCHANGE The interdependency of the islanders 16· 35'
32· O'
in a number of seasonal and day-to-day life activities display s a good sense of cooperation
20
and coordination.
The
movement of goods and labour takes
O'
place across the lines of farnily, lineage and caste. The intensive nature of the existing seed cultivation process require a large amount oflabour force which cannot adequately be met by the family alone, especially in the case oflarge land Fig. J Loca/ion
map of Ayodhya
holders. The spatial distribution of fields
Lanka
also compels the farmer to rely for help conducted
to certain
distances.
As
The different sequences in the culti-
such, more number of water lifting points
vation process
are to be identified - some farmers get-
takes place in quick succession, if not
A number of activities involving ex-
ting more than one and so me others
the farmer incurs losses. These time
change of materials and services take
none. The staple food rice which re-
bound, brisk agricultural activities si-
place among the islanders in the agri-
quires
multaneously occuring all over the is-
culture enterprises. The smallland own-
land calls for a high degree or, coop-
ers depend
water stagnation
cannot
be
grown profitability. For a long time, the islanders were
of these cash crops
tive of lineage and caste.
upon the large farmers
eration. coordination and interdepend-
(Kapu/Settibalija)
having an insecure life with hand to
ence. AII these processes can be well
ploughs. The mutual relationship and
mouth existence in the light of these
explained under the exchange system.
understandings play an important role
constraints. But the whole scenario has undergone a sea change with the adop-
for bulls
and
in the timely supply of these and at
EXCHANGE
SYSTEM
times tolerance to delayed payment.
tion of a new technology in the form of
In all human societies procurement
'seed cultivation' (production of qual-
of the scarce commodities and disper-
by all the households,
ity seed especially jowar and maize with
sal of the surplus productions is well
shared in critical times of need, with
The farm tools are generally possessed they are still
assistance ensuring high
served through systems of exchange.
underlying expectation of others to be
profit margins). The existing ecologi-
The exchange systems are consider-
equally generous (Sahlins 1965).
government
cal conditions are beneficially utilised.
ably influenced by the physical condi-
In the process, the people have suc-
tions of the area and other ecological
cessfully adapted new behaviour pat-
factors, apart from the socio-cultural
terns. The following description dwells
and political circumstances
upon those socio-economic
adapta-
tions to overcome these limitations.
58
upon his neighbouring farmer irrespec-
International
Journal
of Island Affairs
Location
of Pump
Sets
Lifting of ground water with the help
(Harding
of diesel engines is the main mode of
1970; Sahlins 1970:79). Moran (1991)
irrigation on this island. A filter point is
observes that the ecologicallimitations
located basing on the availability ofthe
Q.J
copious water with mínimum salinity,
married girls and the aged. Both cul-
or two and in return he is allowed to
which on average can cater the irriga-
tural as well as physical factors have a
cut a bundle of fodder from the farrn-
O O
tion needs of a 10 acre plot.
bearing on the team composition. The
er's field. A similar case is reported by
.-J
In case of multiple ownership of the
teenage girls are not allowed to far
Layton et al. (1991) where the Hutu
plot, cooperation is exhibited by the farm-
away places on the mainland to work,
provided
the Tutsi with labour and
ers such that any one of the farmers can
while the aged women feel it difficult to
agricultural products, while the Tutsi
install the diesel, engine bearing its pro-
walk long distances for work. The age-
provided the Hutu with custodianship
curement and installation costs. It is
old ties between the farmers and the
of cattle.
open for free utilisation by other land
labourers with an underlying principIe
owners, paying a nominal rent along
of mutuality play considerable role to
with bearing fuel costs. Though the rent
provide
payment is unequal a trend towards
cheaper wages.
the labour
at a relatively
Q.J
:3O c::
L .-J
10
c:: O lJ
O
Transport of Agricultural Producfs
L
lJ prod-
O
negative reciprocity, both motor and
A person who has limited resources
ucts especially, maize and jowar re-
land owners display cooperation and
to feed his cattle often goes to the field
quires the formation of two groups - a
10 Q.J
generosity
and work with the farmer for an hour
small group carrying goods from fields
due to scarce
copious
The transport of agriculture
10
ground water. As all the farmers sow seeds almost simultaneously the water lf one farmer starts watering his farm first generally the one close to the filter point, the rest of them follow him. This helps the farmers at the tail end not to spend more on fuel to keep the chagjjel wet and maintain flow.
The institution of Maistry The demand for wage labourers is high on the island during the time of the plants,
turning the soil upside down, weeding and laying the bunds along the rows of jowar or maize. AII these agriculture activities should be carried out at the right time, any delay in their execution results in poor yields and reduced income. The labour shortage during this critical period is accentuated
by two
major factors. The Kapu women not taking part in farm labour due to cultural sanctions and the agriculture labourers are pulled towards the attractive wages of the mainland. This critical period of labour shortage is observed to overcome by the large land owners
through
"maistry!" patron-client
the institution
marked
with
relationships.
of
age old Maistry
leads a team of women - usually un1
Maistry is a person who heads a team of labourers and gets work contracts from the big farmers and is normally an active, senior and entrepreneuring
woman.
L
~ ~ ~
U
requirements also arise at the same time.
sowing seeds, manuring
c::
LEGEND
6""'"
/"
flOOO
:::.:::;;:
RIVER COUI!IlE
-:.-r.: O
O
PATH
r;-;1
l..:!::!J
e,C#...NTY SOlL
D
l> •••••O MA!19
~
w.•.,.(fIt.
&I..AOI< SOn. • &ANO'"
.01L.
Fig. 2 Ayodhya Lanka map
$UllEME"r
to the river bank and a little bigger group
tige. Often the vegetable growers from
Though the islanders are aware of the
carrying from river bank to the disposal
lower castes gives vegetables as gift
difference, they are still obliged for it is
point on the mainland. The farmers who
to their trusted kapu master (Maa kapu)
practical and easy way of disposing the
produce small quantities ofjowar/maize
to win his favour.
home produced coconuts.
constitute a small group such that their
It is also noticed at the local provi-
collective produce would become a cart
sions shop that women and little chil-
load so that the cart hire can be mini-
dren coming with one or two coconuts
mal per head. This group on reaching
to exchange them for provisions. This
Agriculturists and fishermen relations Apart from the intra-island exchange
the river bank dissolves to form bigger
sort of barter system is resorted to, by
practices
group to engage a lorry to reach the
the low-income farnilies, the coconuts
groups, we also find limited interde-
actual disposal point.
among
the agriculture
are often under valued. The barter sys-
pendence
tem though viewed as primitive type of
fishermen
members of the first group are present
transaction by many anthropologists,
eco-niche populations).
in the second group. These groups com-
Humphrey argues that ethnographic
An interesting observation is that no
between
agricultural
communities
and
(different
The dependency of fishermen on their
position is merely based on urgency of
diversity and complexity of distribution
own caste men is more, than on other
the need ignoring kinship of caste tieso
are recognised
castes due to occupational specialisa-
The reason for such a speedy formation
(Thurnwald 1932; Sahlins 1972etc ..). But
tion. However, there are a few areas of
and dissolution of transport groups is
in the present context the barter prac-
interdependency
that sudden precipitation merit the dis-
tice is serving the immediate domestic
and agricultural castes, through money
qualification and rejection of wet jowar
requirements ofthe poor families in the
media. One area of such interdepend-
or maize by the purchasing agency.
ecosystem which doesn't facilitate easy
ency is ferrying across the river. The
contact with the mainland.
villagers have collectively presented 6
Exchange of ~ consumption goods and Pelly Trade
in barter
system
between the fishing
The coconut trees around the house
acres to the terry men for their services.
produce one ripe bunch every I or I 1/2
The edible agriculture produces of the
months. Due to water barrier it is an un-
island are the reserves of carbohydrates
The intra-island exchange can yet be
profitable and difficult affair for the is-
and tile agriculture communities depend
seen in three different areas like pas-
landers to carry these coconuts to the
oil the fishermen community for their
sage of vegetables as gifts, exchange
mainland market, northe mainIand mer-
.protein requirements. Though a number
of coconuts for provisions and petty
chants visit every household to collect
of cattle are found on the island, eating
coconut trader-client
them. This situation has given rise to
beef is a social denigration and chicken
water salinity in some parts of the is-
the development of petty coconut trad-
and mutton involve economic consid-
lands does not facilitate the growth of
ers within the isla単d. Every petty trader
erations. So the only cheaply available
vegetables.
Vegetable
relations.
gardens
The
are
has his own set of clientele to whom he
protein resource for the islanders is fish.
raised at soft water locations by small
advances loans free of interest and col-
The nutritive requirements ofthe differ-
and marginal farmers. They provide
lects coconut in retum at the rate of Re.
ent eco-niche
vegetables to others as a matter of pres-
1/- below the prevailing market price.
through exchange
populations
are met
system (Peterson
1978: 339 and Service 1978).The protein Photo 1: Island - Ayodhya Lanka in the river bed of Godavari.
needs of the agriculture castes and the money needs of marakallu are satisfied through fish trade. There is one other area of interdependence where both agricultural and fishing communities together depend upon an immigrant unqualified Brahmin medicine mano Water barrier restricti ng the transi t, the islanders solely depend upon this medicine man for medical needs as there are not even visiting physicians from the mainland. He is readily available round the clock and every day visits all the ten settlement to meet the primary medical needs of the islanders.
60
InternationaI
JournaI
of Island
Affairs
It is observed that
Q)
'Satyanarayana Vratam' a religious cer-
O O
emony is being utilised by the medicine man to receive remuneration
Q) -.J
in
3 O e .:c
exchange of his round the year medical services. The time selection for the ceremony is also important,
that by
-.J
10
November all the farmers get financial
e
cine mano The intra-island exchange
o o 10
relations discussed so far, show the
L LJ
nature of interdependence,
o
assistance from tile banks and will have
LJ
sufficient money for gifts to the medi-
tion and coordination
coopera-
e 10
among the is-
land agricultural castes on one hand
Q)
and in between agricultural and fish-
L
ing castes on the other. This mecha-
:J~
~
nism of exchange within the island is
u
to counter the natural Iimitations on the island with special reference to the agriculture activities and in meeting to certain extent the dietary requirements. Photo 2: l. Black alluvial soil
11. INTER-ISLAND EXCHANGE
2. Sandy soil followed
Rather each river island is integrated
ÂĄO
the left of the two men.
by sand mass and river course behind the boy.
111. ISLAND-MAINLAND RELATIONS
A chain of islands are found in Vasista
with the adjacent mainland village for
Godavari which are separated from each
assistance and information. It is easier
other by varying distances of less than
to reach a mainland village rather than
In the light of ecological constraints
half a kilometre to a few kilometres. From
the adjacent island due to the reason
explained, the islanders meet most of
Siddantam bridge down to Razole there
of conveyance problems. The only way
their needs mainly through interaction
are as many as seven islands namely
to reach a neighbouring i land is first
with mainland. In the realm of subsist-
Udimudi lanka, Pedamallam
lanka,
to cross the river at his own island then
ence and consumer goods requirements
Ayodhya
lanka,
walk along the river bank and again
and the needs that arise out of the mod-
Kanakaya lanka, Marri lanka and Indira
cross river to enter the destiny island.
ern methods of cultivating cash crops,
lsland / Razole lanka. Of these, there
Moreover,
the islanders
lanka,
Maddi
all the islands are at the
mostly depend on the
are no settlements on Maddilanka due
same level of the technological devel-
to its small size, while Marri lanka and
opment. None of these islands has be-
Contacts with the mainland, however
Indira island are scarcely populated and
come political or power centres in the
are observed to vary depending on the
the rest of the islands are thickly popu-
region nor provides
special skilled
location of the settlement on the island
lated. Though these islands are cIosely
workers to have attracted other island-
and also commercial importance of the
located, the interaction between differ-
ers. The other important reason for the
place on the mainland. The seven set-
ent islanders and the dependency
mainland.
of
limited inter-island dependency is the
tlement dwellers of Marrimula part of
one island upon the other is very mini-
prevalence of more or les s similar eco-
the island purchase consumer goods
mal arid negligible. PoweU's (1965) criti-
logical conditions.
from Gannavaram due to comprehen-
cal observation of inter-island cultural
It may be concIuded from the above
sive availability of goods there and are
and economic exchanges is not directly
description that the inter-island rela-
relatively cheaper. People ofthe remain-
applicable to the braided system of the
tions are mini mal for they could not
ing three settlements get their require-
river. A few reasons may be attributed to the negligible inter-island
account for any of the benefits like
ments from Nagula lanka, Jaggannapet
socio-economic or technological. More
oroBhimalapuram. Nevertheless, some
relations.
importantly, an ecological constraint is
of the vendors from Gannavaram visit
The chain of islands does not function
observed to have bearing on the negli-
the island on non shandy days selling
as integral wholĂŠ Iike the archipelagos.
gible inter-island relations.
aluminium vessels, cloth, ice fruit and
ers are able to minimise the rat menace, ensuring optimum returns. The "Gollalu" (sheep rearing caste) of Doddipatla and Valluru on the west bank and of Kanakaya lanka comes with their flocks to the island during summer every year leading to a mutually beneficial relation. The interaction has not only economic benefits but al so involves ecological and religious parameters. The droppings and urine of these flocks serves as natural manure, enriching the soil fertility. The big farmers encashes this opportunity by providing the shepherds with basic amenities and draw them to camp in their fields for many days indicating differential access to an agricultural input. Photo-3:
/. Jowar and MairÂŤ fields 2. Tal! palms
represent
represent
black alluvial
sandy soil.
On the other hand, the very, small
soil.
grass difficult to pull out is grazed by other edibles
for children
mostly
and Thumma (Acasia arabica) pro-
the sheep, converting it into an avail-
through bartering agriculture products.
duced on the island is sold off to the
able protein in the animals and manure
This type of transaction is rrt.ereprofit-
visiting mainland timber merchants as
to the soil. But the goats fondly feed
able to the mainland vendors. Many of
the islanders are devoid of the neces-
on leaves of seemachinta. The shep-
the requirements that arise out of vari-
sary ski lis to carve them into furniture.
herds are skilful in cutting down the
ous agricultural operations and fishing
The transactions
with the
branches ofthese tall thorny trees. The
endeavours are procured from main-
brick makers and wood merchants are
lea ves being grazed, the branches are
land. In all the island-mainland interac-
more explicit with expectation of imme-
used by the farmers to fence their gar-
tions money is the medium.
diate returns a case of balanced reci-
denso Thus, mutually beneficial ex-
procity (MarshaI196).
change exists between the islanders
Seasonal
visitors
Due to the availability of natural resources such as tile and brick making
Baskets are comrnonly used by al-
and the herdsmen, and a profitable uti-
most all the islanders for both domes-
lisation of by products of the natural
tic and occupational
The
resources such as waste grass, lea ves,
purposes.
clay, basket making fronds and sum-
'Yerukula',
a pig rearing and basket
animal droppings, fencing material etc.
mer grass the skilled workers and shep-
making plains tribe visit the island
Every year the shepherds from each
herds who can effectively make use of
every summer in search of the country
of these three villages present a goat
these resources not only for themselves
date palms which are profusely round
or sheep to the island deity Gogulamma
but also for the benefit of the islanders
on the island. They give a few baskets
as a gesture of solidarity and integra-
visit the island establishing a mutually
free to the owner of the palm and the
tion with the island cornmunity. Two of
profitable relation. The rat menace to
rest are disposed on the island itself.
these animals are sacrificed to the de-
the groundnut farming invites the main
The situation points out that in spite
ity and the third animal is later disposed
land rat trapper.
the availability of a natural resource the
and the amount is equally distributed
In recent years, some of the families
islanders do not possess the necessary
by the priest and the temple treasury.
on the island with increased prosper-
skills to mould it into a daily needed
The flesh ofthese sacrificed animals is
ity started building brick walls and roof-
commodity. As a result, they adopted a
shared equally among the temple staff
mechanism by utilising the services of
and village service castes. The shep-
Though clay, the raw material required
visiting professionals.
herds by providing the sacrificial ani-
for making bricks and tiles, is found on
face rodent menace especially to their
mal s to the island deity strengthen their
the island, the islanders have to engage
groundnut gardens as tile rats eat away
ties with the island community ensur-
ing their houses
62
involved,
with burnt
tiles.
Local farmers
mainland skilled workers to manufac-
nuts and cuts off the roots To capture
ing continuing free accessibility to the
ture them for a direct payment. Simi-
these rats and minimise the menace the
island and feed to their flocks during
larly, the Seemachinta (Pithacalobium
islanders
rat
lean season. The foodstuffs and other
dulcis), tamarind (Tamarindus indica)
trapper on wages. Thus the island farm-
domestic and agriculture needs are ob-
International
Journal
of Island Affairs
employ a professional
tained
through
direct
payment
of
money. Taking the advantage of the
u
References
O
Abruzzi W. S., 1989 - Ecology, resource
island situation, which doesn't permit
redistribution
easy transportation, the mainland rov-
in north eastern Arizona. American An-
ing vendors makes exorbitant profits, while the islanders get access to these
and Mormon
thropologist Bargatzsky,
settlement
ment and the ills of adaptation.
time and energy. The unutilised
Anthropology
sources on the island such as pastures, country date palms and clay are put to productive use by the seasonal immigrants such as shepherds, basket makers, brick and tile manufacturers
etc.,
paving way for mutually beneficial relationships and in the process catering
environCurrent
Bennett, T. w., 1969 - Northern Plains men: Adaptive strategy and agrarian life. Chi-
Edt. Yehudi
The cultural
A. Cohen,
Chi-
Ferdon Jr. N. Edwin, 1957 - Notes on the present
day Eastern
The exchange system of the river is-
Western
Journal
land community is based on the natu-
223-238 Harding,
T. G., 1970 - Trading
east New Guinea.
In Cultures
Pacifico Edt. Thomas Ben J. Wallace,
and caste. The institution of maistry
South 13:
in north of the
U. Harding
and
New York, The Free
C., 1985 - Barter and eco-
nomic disintegration.
American
during the critical periods of agricul-
tural ecology: The Amazon case. Current
ture. The water course round the is-
Anthropology
Paterson,
Laughlin, C. D. Jr. and 1. A. Brady, 1978 Dia Phasis and Exchange
tion. pp. 139 -236.
society.
physiographic
conditions
for the
Edt.
Univ. Press.: 1-48
Layton, R. F. and E. Williams, 1991 - The
of resources.
their dependency
266-274.
upon the mainland
In Extinction and population.
hunting and gath-
ering and the specialized Current
and
New York, The free
London
Service, E. R., 1978 - Profiles in ethnology, New York, London,
Press.
growth of staples gave ample scope for
of the
G. Harding
1972 - Stone age economics,
tive Communities.
between
in cultures
Press.
New York, Colombia
transaction
distribution and power
Edt. Thomas
Charles D. Laughlin and Ivan A. Brady,
the
Edt.
London Tavistock Publica-
since similar economic, ecological and of
In the relevance
of models for social Anthropology.
1970 - Production,
husbandry
Anthropology:
Happer and
Row publ. Thurnwald, R., 1932 - Economics
in Primi-
London, Oxford Univ.
Ward, R. G., 1970 - Distribution sity of population.
and den-
In An Atlas of papua
and New Guinea. Edt. M. G. Ward and WAX. Lea Dept. of Gegr. Univ. Papua, New Guinea. PP 8-10.
for their fool requirements. The locally unutilised
,.
resources
like tiny grass,
The river isJand community was hith-
country dates, clay etc., act as a bridge
erto at hand to mouth subsistence level,
gation thus elevating
technology sol ved the probJem of irrithe economic
in establishing a mutual exchange rela-
making a passive adaptation to the eco-
position of the cornmunity. Inspite, eco-
tionship between the islanders and the
logical constraints which greatly hin-
JogicaJ constraints are manifest in the
mainlanders. Thus, the ecological con-
dered the traditional farming system.
intra-island and island-mainland
straints clubbed with the social situa-
The same ecological constraints round
tions of the people in their pursuits of
tion of the island enforce an exchange
to be beneficial in the sphere of agri-
procuring
system, which in itself is an adaptive
culture with the introduction of seed
socio-cultural
mechanism of the isJand people.
cultivation and the application of new
island resources.
=:J ~
U
M. D., 1965 - On the sociology
M. Banton,
L
=:J
65: A -99.
ers. The island-island relations are weak
unsuitability
/
Oberoi ' s Politics of the Kula ring. Man.
in human population. in human
10 L
e 10
gist. 80: 355-356.
Pacific
D
D
farmer exchange. American Anthropolo-
Sahlins,
O lJ
u
J. T., 1978- Hunter-gatherer
survival
The
anthro-
Tavistock.
23: 413-428. \
-Introduction:
93:
In Ann. Rev. of Anthropology.
unqualified medical man and petty trad-
eral.
Anthropologist.
e
lJ
in turn encouraged the functioning of
technological conditions prevail in gen-
black water eco-
Orlove, B. S., 1980 - Ecological
Ben J. Wallace,
Man: 48-72.
Johnson, Allen, 1982 - Reductionism in cul-
land acts as a barrier due to the lack of
system.
in primitive
Press. Humphrey,
meets the labour demand on the island
proper cornmunication facilities which
egies in Amazonian
of primitive exchange.
tern of the Island. The new and scienoutside the lineage
islands.
of Anthropology
water conditions decides the crop pat-
interdependency
Africa. 31: 231-249.
Powell, H. A., 1965 - Review of J. P.Singh
cago: Aldine Pub.
tific methods of farming expands the
10
9: 235-273.
Cohen, T. A., 1968 - Culture as adapta-
e L. ....J
Anthropology
7: 263"291.
:3O
Kung Bushmen.
pology.
present.
such as soil and
Univ.
D ~
giving: Relief of social tensions among
ogy, Society and Culture. Ann. Rev. of
munity.
logical constraints
Cambridge
361-382.
cago: Aldine. Brown, Paula, 1978 - New Guinea: Ecol-
tion. In Man in adaptation:
ral and social environment. The e~o-
Cambridge,
Press.
Moran, E. F., 1991 - Human adaptive strat-
25: 399-415.
to some of the needs of the island com-
SUMMARY ANO CONCLUSION:
Ceylon.
Marshall, L., 1961 - Sharing, talking and
91: 642-655 T., 1984 - Culture,
commodities at their doorstep saving re-
Leach, E. R., 1961 - Pul Eliya: A village in
consumption
rela-
goods,
needs and in utilising
Biodiversity and Tourism Symposium Placing Tourism in the Landscape of Diversities: A Dialogue between Nature and Culture SEPTEMBER
20-23, 2000
FRENCH ISLAND OF PORT eROS,
MEDITERRANEAN
SEA
Annotated agenda 1- The growing importance of tourism in the information society. Tourism currently represents the economic sector with the fastest rate of expansion and growth in a context of globalization. Tourism is strongly stimulated by more permeable frontiers, cheaper and easier transportation and communication systems, and the increased free-time availability of a wealthier and ageing world population. Tourism is potentially the main economic sector able to make investments for landscape management and biodiversity conservation in the large areas of the world where agriculture and industry are no longer economically feasible. Tourism is a main driving force for cultural exchange among peoples. 2- Analysis of case studies of success and fai/ure of tourism development. Tourism massiveness, intensification and monoculture represent a self-destructing cycle, which results in the degradation of the diversity of both local environrnent and local culture. Loss of diversity due to tourism progressively kills tourism itself as an economic activity. There are, however, several cases of success stbries in the interactions between tourism and diversities. Success is evidenced by the persistence over time of an economically wealthy tourism, the cultural enhancement of local cultures, and the conservation of biodiversity. Factors that have led to either failure or success of tourism development will be singled out through analysis of documented case studies, particularly from the Mediterranean Sea, the European Atlantic coasts, the Caribbean, Polynesia, and Seychelles. 3- Towards an information-rich tourism. Richness of information in tourism depends on the variety of attractors and the diversity of interactions and situations: diversity of local ecosystems, species and landscapes, cultural diversity of residents because of historical traditions, archaeological remains and the subsistence of living cultures and arts, food and gastronomic diversity, cultural diversity of tourist visitors, tourism assiduity and use throughout the year, and ample possibility of mutually-enriching interactions between visitors and residents. Tourism based on a single attraction, the usual triple-S equation (Sun, Sand, Sex) for instance, leads to uniformity and massiveness, and does not ensur sustainability. A new information-rich tourism is in line with the emergence of an information society. lnformation is diversity. 4- Empowerment of local people and cultural adaptation to change. Fair interaction with visiting tourists and responsible care put on local ecosystems and cultures are only possible when local people themselves are strongly involved in, and committed to, tourism deve!opment. Empowerment of local people is based on their renewed awareness and pride on the universal value of their culture and their environment. Empowerment facilitates local peoples becoming actors and operators of entrepreneurial tourism activities, so that economic wealth primarily benefits local societies. Empowerment is promoted through permanent education and capacity building, including on specific tourism skillfulness, distance learning, cross-cultural and inter-cultural exchanges. Culture is the main force pennitting specific and innovative adaptations to change. 5- Use of information technology. Many tourism operations, e.g., tourism advertisement, trave! and hotel reservations, are progressive!y driven and made cheaper and more accessible by new tools of information technology. lnformation technology provides new mechanisms for quality-control of tourism activities. Lnformation now flows in transversal, non-hierarchical ways, and is potentially available even in remote places. This trend facilitates local initiatives and operations of small tourism entrepreneurs, with no need of middlemen or international business chains. Tourism operations become less massive, more diversified and more diffused. Local empowerment and control of local environment improve, and visitor-resident interactions lead to enriching cultural exchanges. Isolated and fragmented populations sharing the same culture and development aspirations can be connected through electronic communication tools, so that they reach a critical size for tourism diversification of products and services. 6- Conclusions: towards sustainability. Tourism is based on the exchange of information among visitors, residents and the environment. A sustainable tourism is foreseeable only through the cultural attachment and commitment of local people, together with diversity of visitors, diversity of ecosystems, species and landscapes, diversity of products, and diversity of uses, from a seasonal to a permanent tourism. Tourism is diversity, and the science of diversity is the foundation for tourism. In a rapidly changing world's system, cultural adaptation to change is the foundation for sustainability. For suggestions and remarks on the symposium program and agenda, contact Francesco di Castri (fdicastri@wanadoo.fr)
FONDATION D'ENTREPRISE
TOTAL
OPE
'he Significance of Gift Exchange in Ihe Mal'ese Islands
Qj
CJl D U
3 O r+ f-
a e
o
...J
v
a L o D
e a Qj
L
::J
=:j by
::J
LINO BIANCO*
U
mode of
was subjected by the world powers of
change has left a mark on linguistic us-
'buying off sorneone's favour as a form
the time were vigorous attempts to con-
age and thus may be examined from the
ofbribery.
trol trade and power in the Mediterra-
The
phenomenon of giftex-
semantic dimension. Besides, it a~so has anthropological
connotations
It is however a recognised
The Maltese archipelago consists of
nean. The population
is ethnically a
Malta, Gozo and Comino with an area
mixture absorbing Phoenician, Arab,
which can be fitted within the context
of246 km2 , 67 km2 and 2.6 km2 respec-
ltalian and British heritages. With an
of Malta's national identity. The prac-
tively. Malta lies in a strategic position
area of 316 km2 and a population of over
tice itself is seen by the Maltese peo-
in the central Mediterranean, about 290
a third of a million, the population den-
pie as carrying both positive and nega-
km north of Libya and 93 km south of
sity of the Islands is significantly high
tive connotations. A distinction is put
Sicily. Its strategic
as compared to other Island States.
forward between gift giving and gift
cross-roads
location
at the
between Italy and North
The inhabitants are descendants of
exchange. Gifts may be a manifestation
Africa strongly dictated its fate histori-
the ancient Phoenicians who carne to
of 'social solidarity'. The giving of gifts
cally. Its potential as a trading centre
Malta circa 800B.C. The Phoenician oc-
to establish hegemony over other indi-
was exploited since the Neolithic Revo-
cupation was subsequently followed by
viduals for the sake of humiliate him!
lution. The numerous invasions and
the Carthaginian and the Roman. It was
her socially is not a common practice.
foreign domination to which the lsland
conquered by the Arabs (870A.D.), the Normans (1090A.D.), and the Spanish (1282) and occupied by the Knights of
MALTESE ARCHIPELAGO AREA (km")
GOZO
MALTA GOZO COMINO
POPULATION
246
320.000
67
25.000
2.6
the Order of St. John (l530A.D.), the French (1 798A.D.) and annexed to the BritishEmpire(l814A.D. until1964A.D.).
3
Historically, the roots of the Maltese national identity are grounded linguistic-cultural
in a
dichotomy. Malta's
geographical position is vital in studying the interplay between the North and South of the Mediterranean,
between
Christianity and Islam. The native language, Maltese, is not European. It is essentially
a Semitic language with
*Lino Bianco is Visiting Lecturer at the Mediterranean Malta
Institute,
University of
offering is done in a generous manner
strong Romance elements and using Latin alphabet, and it is believed to be
and that no haggling is present be-
grounded in ancient Phoenician. As a
tween the giver and the receiver.
language, it is older than either Arabic
Such meanings ofthe word rigal are
or Italian, which have both greatly in-
rather positive. They do not reflect the
fluenced it. Although, the language is
negative connotation which is linked
mainly of the South, the official religion
with it and otherwise manifested in Mal-
is ofthe North. In this geocultural con-
tese proverbs, the reflection of folk cul-
text, the dichotomy between language
ture and tradition. Two such proverbs
and culture widens as the entire popu-
are Ir-rigali
lation is staunchly
fl-ghajnejn
Roman Catholic
and
u bzar l r-rig ali
rather than Muslim. Sant Cassia (1989
jaghmull-ghajn (Aquilina, 1972 pp. 52).
pp. 88) argues that the emphasis on
The former proverb is translated as
Malta's Catholic identity has been de-
"Presents are [like] chains on the hands
liberately used to counterbalance Mal-
and pepper in the eyes" while the latter
ta's linguistic ties with the Arab world.
is translated
The merging ofEuropean Christian and
eye", that is, presents are given as a
Arabic Islamic traits is evident also in
The word 'gift' is translated into Mal-
Maltese traditional townscapes. Secu-
tese as ghoti, haga moghtija, ... rigal
lar vernacular architecture is typically
price
for
as "Presents conniving
blind the at
abuses
(Aquilina, 1972 pp. 52). These are the
(Psaila, 1947 pp. 532). Also, Maltese dis-
only proverbs on rigal(i) given in this
regional Arabic in outlook while reli-
tinguishes between ghoti b'xejn and
Dictionary and they are found in the
gious architecture is baroque - a legacy
ghoti 'l ura (Serracino Inglott, 1976 pp.
chapter entitled 'Craft and EviJ'. The
of Christian culture on the Continent
232). The first signifying a gift given
position of these proverbs with respect
imported in Malta by the Knights of St.
gratis, usually referred to as rigal, while
to the above meaning of rigal throws
John. Parish churches are usually at the
the other signifies a gift given in return
light and elaborates
on this transfer
centre of the town with secular archi-
for something else, that is, a counter gift,
where the giver apparently 'doesn't get
tecture growing
as a radd, hlas, tpattija (Serracino
anything'. Its elaboration partly states
organical~-ÂŞ.round
them. Building forms are cubic save for
Inglott, 1976 pp. 232). Thus, the action
what the giver does in fact get - In this
the circular/oval forms of the baroque
of giving is classified in terms of what
context rigal is a form of bribe. It is
churches fabrico
the giver is going to gain.
which dominate the urban
In many cultures and civilisations one encounters
the phenomenon
essentially a means of corruption. In
Rigal is a voluntary giving of a gift
agreement with the current usage of the
whereby the gi veris not expecting any-
word bribe in 1535, a rigal can be said
thing in return. The giving of a rigal is
to signify "a reward given to pervert
have la-
a demonstration of friendship, respect,
the judgement or corrupt the conduct'
belled as gift exchange. In all socie-
and/or love. Such is the case when the
(Johnson, A Dictionary ofthe English
ties, a gift is a mode of maintaining
godfather gives a rigal to his godson
Language, cited in The Shorter Oxford
social relationships. "Material objects
on his Confirmation. The second mean-
English Dictionary on Historical Prin-
are the chains along which social rela-
which social anthropologists
ing which ll-Miklem Malti (Serracino
cipIes). Hence, here, for a rigal the giver
1940
Inglott, 1981 pp. 355) gives is kull haga
does in fact get something in return.
pp. 89). In Western societies, gift ex-
moghtija la' xejn, b 'xejn, jew mibjugha
Often, the same proverb may be found
change is not a voluntary statement
wisq inqas minn kemm tiswa, jew tkun
in other variants. In Malta this may be
of affection by the giver but a socially
meqjusa ti tiswa.fis-suq;
which essen-
due to the national currency of Classi-
anticipated dimension of certain rela-
tially means something free or sold at a
cal and Biblical sayings. In the Old Tes-
tionships. A theory of the significance
token price. This meaning, together
tament one finds at least two instances,
of gift exchange was first put forward
with the former, further shows that the
both cited in Aquilina's Dictionary (1972
tionships run" (Evans-Pritchard,
by Mauss (1925). His study on simple
pp. 52), which express a spirit found in
societies
the above mentioned proverbs. These
stimulated
anthropologists
to study other systems
66
ktajjen fi-idejn
of gift ex-
are "A man's gift enlargeth his way and
change. This short paper is concerned
maketh him room before princes" (Pro v-
with this phenomenon
erbs, XVIII.l6) and "Presents and gifts
as it occurs in
Maltese society, with particular refer-
blind
ence to semantic and anthropological
(Ecclesiasticus, XX.31). These are strik-
connotations.
ing not only when contrasted with the
InternationaI
JournaI
of IsIand Affairs
the
eyes
of
judges"
Q)
References AQUILlNA,
O
J., A Comparative
ary of Maltese
Proverbs.
Diction-
Malta:
The
Royal University of Malta, 1972. EVANS-PRITCHARD,
E. E., The Nuer.
Oxford University
Press, 1940.
and published
under the title The Gift: Forms and Functions of Exchange in Archaic Societies.
PSAILA,
C., Dizzjunarju
Ingliz
u Malti,
vol./. Malta, 1947.
contemporary positive meaning of rigal,
hances social relationships and prestige
Sunday
but also in view of the fact that the posi-
rather than being an advantage in mate-
pp. 12-13, 1985.
tive ways of looking at gift giving also
rial, economic wealth. Although this fur-
found in the Bible such as "it is more
ther contributes to a fairer distribution
I-Habi."
In Cortis,
T. (ed) L-Identita
blessed to give than to receive" (Acts
of wealth, the donor's
Kulturali
ta' Malta.
Malta: Dipartiment
20:35) are left unnoticed.
strengthened - it was one of the roads
Times [ot Malta],
January
6,
Ghoti 'l ura is cIearly a transaction.
to leadership. In this setting the giver not onIy 'buys' friendship but also glory.
grounds - the main ones are social, eco-
"Giving implies friendship not hos-
SERRACINO INGLOTT, E., II-Miklem Malti,
nomic anc\/or political. Friends expect
tility". To a certain extent, this is true.
Vol. VII. Malta: Klabb Kotba Maltin, 1981.
Yet, it is also true that sometimes, in
needed. Exchange of gifts to establish
certain cultures, one gives in order to
given who seeks out his opponent. The giver 'gets his back on' at his oppo-
propriate occasions such as birthdays,
to his friend but also to his opponent
nent by giving him so much that the
Christmas, etc. It is a social event where
in order to 'shame' him. In turn, not to
giver crushes him, and he cannot make
people broaden and revive relation-
remain
a larger return gift (Sant Cassia, 1985
ships with one another.
presents the giver with arl'-even more prestigious gift. He who is not able to
'garne' which is maintained in various
make an equal or larger gift, loses pres-
societies is not present in Malta.
make a money repayment of a gift, his
tige and becomes a 'client' ofthe more
Malta is governed by social considera-
gift given, to maintain a balance be-
tions. In fact it is nowadays a mutual
tween the value of the two. Implicitly,
expression
and maybe unconsciously, there is an
tween partners. However, there still
element of chalIenge present - A chal-
persists a certain negative connotation
of 'social solidarity'
L
::J ::J
U
be-
lenge not in the sense that the receiver
which implies the 'buying' offavours,
is in competition
with the giver but
especially in dealing with the wielders
rather a return of a gift to cancel obli-
of power. 'Buying off' favours is usu-
gation. Furthermore, if the counter gift
ally through either gifts or money (as
is not at least a balancing one, the re-
distinguished
ceiver ofthe first gift will be 'shamed'.
ĂŠtrennes), a traditional money gift, al-
from strina [French:
Yet this is not the case where the first
ready customary
gift is given on purpose to 'sharne' the
century, given to children and members
receiver. Within the Maltese context,
of the household on New Year's day).
refusal to accept a gift is a refusal of
Furthermore,
in mid-eighteenth
through gifts, one may
'buy over' a persono In these negative
social relations or a protest. trenched notion that gift exchange en-
Q)
In modern usage, gift exchange in
counter gift financialIy wilI be worth the
In Malta there still existed the en-
e
pp. 12). This sort of gift exchange
the recei ver does not
Also, in this social fact one notices that although
O
powerful donor. It is the man who has
prestige and 'sharne' the receiver.
the .opporient
10
Vol. '" Malta: Klabb Kotba Maltin, 1976.
The giver does not only give presents
'shamed',
O
SERRACINO INGLOTT, E., II-Mikiem Malti,
is manifested in presents given on ap-
or renew existing social relationship~gain
O LJ
1989.
Such a transaction may have various
to give and receive help when this is
e
~
Sant Cassia, P.,"L-Ghana: bejn II-Folklor u
ta'i-informazzjoni,
10
10
Sant Cassia, P., "Fighting with Gifts," The
position was
e
L
L LJ
111., 1954.
Glencoe,
:3O
~
MAUSS, M., Essai sur le Don. 1925. Translated by lan Cunnison
O Q) ~
A vernacular
street in Rabat, the capital city
01 Gozo showing Semitic
origino
a rypical urban setting
01
respects, gift exchange
acquires the
significance of cIientelism and bribery.
-
In
New means
o, Iransport in the cities of tomorrow A sir legic ues i n for islands Reading sions
of the concluthe
at
"Bilbao
2000" Conference Challenge
(The
for cities in
the 21st Century: Transport,
Ener gy and Sus-
toinable Development}, moderated
and coordi-
nated by the representative of INSULA (Cipriano Marin}. Among the Con[erence
pur端ciponts
where
representatives of
European
cities, of the
European
Commission
and Parliament,
o] the
Committ ee of Regions and also big
managers
of
demonstration
projects
dealing
transpon
and the city of
with
the future.
On,
68
ofthe moststriking mes-
For
this
sages that carne out of the United Na-
reason,
the
tions Habitat 11 Conference
fact that the
was that
the sustainability battle will be lost or
European
won in cities. This is an idea that the
Conference
French philosopher,
on "The chal-
Henri Lefebvre,
surnrnarised decades ago when he re-
lenge for cit-
ferred to town- planning and the city
ies in the 21 SI Century" is being held in
meeting. The Guggenheim museum is
by saying that "in order to change our
the Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, un-
a building that 1 would even dare to
lives we rnust first change our urban
derlines to an even greater degree, the
cIassify as one of the first urban cathe-
areas".
importance and opportune nature of the
drals ofthe new millennium.
International
Journal
of Island Affairs
The challenges that modern cities are
sponsibility in the global effect of emis-
lJ
facing are of such magnitude that if we
sions reflected in the Kyoto protocols,
o
are to resolve them, we will have to face
the pressing need to increase the liv-
up to the problem of sustainability from
ing quality and habitability of our cit-
many different dimensions. Amongst
ies and obviously our duty to advance
these dimensions, transport and energy
towards more efficient technologies
are at the heart of the dilemma for de-
from an energy and environmental point
signing tomorrow's cities -cities that are
ofview.
Hybrid
doubled in the last twenty years and it
of urban transport have been broached
port is a conditionant of the quality of
now accounts for approximately
one
from many fronts. These are challenges
life of islanders, determining and limit-
third of all energy used in Europe and
that concentrate mainly on the neces-
ing possibilities for a balanced development.
is on the increase. If this tendency is
sary promotion and implementation of
not reversed, the least optimistic fore-
more efficient and cleaner public trans-
There are many reasons why the Eu-
casts foresee that by the year 2020, the
port systems that use new technologies.
ropean Union should give priority to
consumption of energy in the transport
The experimental and developmen-
these matters. The first is that it is in an
sector will have increased by another
tal levels reached allow us to state quite
urban setting that the problems inher-
35% in comparison to its current level,
clearly that within Europe mature tech-
ent to economic,
whilst the total arnount of energy con-
nologies are available in a whole range
graphic developments, excessive con-
sumed by other sectors
of applications to build vehicles with
sumption of natural resources and en-
greater than 24%.
will be no
tion are concentrated. And yet the con-
unquestionable
ing increasingly visible in urban areas.
reality that is becom-
etc. We have seen how a major part of this tremendous
innovation capacity
Many modern cities are dominated by
has been brought together and pro-
ideal places for innovation, creativity
cars that run on highly polluting,
moted within the framework of projects
and communication. And what is more,
ergy-guzzling, internal combustion en-
such as Jupiter, Zeus, Entire, Belt and
we should not forget that for over a dec-
gines. The chaos produced by trans-
Centauro
ade, the service industry has been the
port and its related effects (pollution,
What is more, the appearance of new,
sector that has most contributed to GDP
noise, the availability of public space)
more powerful telematic resources has
en-
generation within fundarnentally urban
are the things that most affect the hab-
shown over recent years that there is
surroundings, with the logical result that
itability of our cities. This is a tendency
the possibility of emerging technologi-
the cities with the best services gener>-,
that will have to be reversed quite dras-
cal alliances of unlimited scope. The
ate greatest economic activity.
tically for several reasons: our joint re-
development of advanced vehicles and
is also an asset
new fuel technologies is being perfectly
which in the long term and with an ap-
supplemented by the use of telematic
proach aimed at careful conservation,
technologies able to improve manage-
will have to become profitable. If fact,
ment, planning and user information as
th
already in the 5 Frarnework Programme
well as to promote intermodality be-
on Innovation and Technological De-
tween public and private transport with a view to obtaining a necessary reduc-
velopment, the matter of "The City of euROPfAN CONfERENCf 8ilbaoIGuggenheim
Tomorrow and cultural heritage" was a
tion in the amount of traffic.
matter which a great deal of importance
In fact this meeting in Bilbao is a wa-
was attached to. Transport has a key
tershed. Once the technological feasi-
strategic role to play in this new dimen-
bility of change has been proven, once
sion.
the means to overcome barriers in terms
We know that transport accounts for
e
brid vehicles, electric cars, ultra-lights,
tellectual resources in cities malee them
heritage
(f)
zero or ultra-Iow emissions, such as hy-
These are figures that back up an
centration of economic, material and in-
Cultural
S:J
included in Therrnie, the new challenges
cial importance for islands, where trans-
ergy and waste production and pollu-
(f)
ropean trial projects, especially those
buses
ality. the above reflections are of spe-
social and demo-
Q
I recent years thanks to the main Eu-
more habitable, active and innovative at alllevels of social and economic re-
O
...-..
of research have been found and once
61lBAO
.
30% of total energy consumption for
the efficiency of the trial projects devel-
developed nations, and on islands it
oped over recent years has been proven,
often go beyond 50%. Energy con-
new challenges will concentrate on the
sumption in the transport sector has
ability to promote the introduction of
-
new technologies onto the market and
example, in the Conference on Energy
to pinpoint the most appropriate people
Transport and Telematics in Historie
for accepting change.
Cities (SaJamanca 1998- INSULA-EC-
The step which has to be made from
UNESCO), we were able to see that af-
theory to practice is being widely taken
ter the demonstration projects, the new
so the next stage will have to concen-
alliance between the past and the fu-
trate on overcoming risks and reduc-
ture based upon telematic technologies
ing related costs with the introduction
Guggenh eim Museum
and transport, starts to become an area
this
looked at several organisationaJ mod-
tention
the existence
of new technologies transport
operators.
for cities and Inevitably,
pretension presupposes
where we necessarily have to pay atbeauty
els for local public transporto Amongst
spots that contain a large part of Euro-
of a critical mas s that allows the reduc-
the conclusions
obtained it is worth
pea n cultural heritage are going to be
tion of production costs and that lays
highlighting that restricted competition
regenerated and undergo an increase
down the vital foundations for the de-
is the best model to follow "if the po-
in value. The successful outcome of
velopment of a true market. In this con-
litical will and the technicaJ competence
projects, many of which were carried
text, we have seen how the programmes
of the authority are present".
out under the Thermie framework in
of the future will have to include large
It is obvious that the aim of recuper-
such cities as Caen, Ferrara, Trento,
scale demonstration projects in the real
ating the role of cities at all levels is
Evora, Salamanca,
world, once the stage of implementing
behind these strategies. They are strat-
Genoa and Dublin are plain to see.
specific one-off projects
egies that have a direct effect on two
have been
passed. In this sense it is important to remember the European Commission's
Venice, Bilbao,
1should also like to highJight the case
aspects that are essential for improve-
ofEuropean islands as another area that
ment: the environment and the recov-
requires urgent restructuring as far as
paper
ery of cultural heritage. These factors
its transport strategy goes. This is es-
entitled "The urban question, guide-
obviously affect the quality of Iife but
pecially true of those islands that have
lines for a debate" (1998) in which the
what is more they especialJy affect com-
undergone a sudden increase in tour-
following two, very new lines of work
petitiveness
ism and have adopted internal trans-
and economic
develop-
were proposed:
ment in an urban, service-based soci-
port systems that are based on imported
â&#x20AC;˘ Strengthen the role of local councils
ety.
un-adapted
transport which in so me
as main players in technologicaJ de-
With these premises, our accumulated
cases is leading to the island's opera-
velopment and the demonstration of
experience has been able to single out
tional collapse. The enormous environ-
new technologies,
quite specific ĂĄreas of application. For
mental impact and inefficiency of con-
in close connec-
tion with industrial and service companies with a view to meeting thepublic's needs in an efficient a way as possible.
\
ISIS terminal
ventional transport in places such as the Canary Islands and other islands in the Mediterranean,
with the conse-
quential deterioration
of the founda-
â&#x20AC;˘ Search for ways for consol idati ng the
tions of the tourist industry caJls for a
roJe of towns as places for experi-
complete turnaround in public trans-
menting with and disseminating new
port policy.
sustainable urban technologies,
es-
pecially in all the transport and energy technology-related
70
if these exceptional
These cases, together with clear situations in which inefficient transport leads to social exclusion, force us to
aspects.
The promotion of new public-private
reconsider the role of local and national
partnerships (PPP) clearly replies to this
governments and the European Com-
strategy. New types of formal associa-
mission in this field. These are situa-
tions able to bring together all the ac-
tions which we can include as candi-
tors in volved will undoubtedly
open
dates for the necessary development
new areas of technology for co-opera-
of large-scale, integrated demonstra-
tion and will allow the designing of in-
tion projects such as Targeted Trans-
novative ways offinancing investment
port Projects. The possibility that in the
in city transporto In this area, we shouJd
future our cities are going to be more
not forget to mention, as an example,
sustainable, fairer, habitable and com-
that the ISOTOPE project in the FP4
petitive depends upon the appropriate
Transport
choice of these projects.
lnternational
Research
Journal
Programme
of lsland Affairs
has
Secure
Web
Local administration lauthorlties
and SQL
server, e-cemmerce, databases. Platform
Otstrlbuled dalabases
Interfaces
Models lor
E A
e H
Schools
•
of commerce and
industry
::::::::=::::::::::-t=~-+~-
Telecentres
1()
Q
~
=:J
en
Digital Islands Medis
Local
- r.presentatfve en1ltles
O
en
European
Chambre
Q.J
e
Proiect INSULA co-ordinates Framework
a new action in favour of islands that is being developed
Programme
(Information
Society
European islands' competitiveness,
Technologies)
of the European
within the V
expected results are considered
as a
their jobs, their quality of life and the
basic precondition
sustainability
communities, isolated regions and their
of growth, depend on
to provide island
they being at the leading edge of the
administrative
Information
integrated, multiservices telematic plat-
Society
Technologies.
organisations
by
MIGUEL
MONTESDEOCA*
Commission
with an
• Comparing the results with the figures provided at nationallevel by the European Survey of the Information Society. • Profiling alternative network telecom
developed
form and an "easy to use" set of tools
infrastructure
during the last years have demon-
that would allow them to share re-
European islands with potential for
strated that viability of telematic serv-
sources, to be competitive, innovative,
ices for islands depends largely on the
global and connected instead of iso-
integration of new services and prod-
lated, playing an active role in the in-
lic strategies from infrastructure con-
ucts and improving the existing ones,
formation society.
ditioned to service oriented.
Projects and experiences
~
in the
use in IS applications. • Helping local authorities to shift pub-
• Defining and evaluating new models
as well as from ~h~acceptance of such services by the concerned communi-
and services
THE
OBJECTIVE
oftelecommunications
networks and
telematic services for European is-
tieso It also depends on their introduc-
MEDIS' main aim is to expedite the
tion in as many islands and archipela-
contribution ofWormation Society Tech-
lands and other isolated
gos as possible to generate demand,
nologies to the death of isolation, by:
graphically dispersed areas, where
and on the availability of adequate tel-
• Providing an advanced picture ofthe
tele-education,
or geo-
tele-training,
tele-
state of the art about telecommuni-
work and e-commerce will not be the
cations and telematic infrastructures
final objective but a set of useful in-
regions are innovating at such a pace
and services in European islands.
struments used for the benefit of the
that only common effort can allow our
• Facilitating the provision of commu-
local communities and local authori-
islands and isolated regions to develop
nity services and the use of telematics
and keep up with the solutions, meth-
in different
ecommunications
infrastructures.
The more technologically developed
ods and models of innovation
that
tieso
sectors and activities
such as health,
social exclusion,
New models
and methodologies
would satisfy present and future needs.
transport and business. Related to
adapted to specific characteristics and needs of European islands and other
The aim of the MEDIS project is to gen-
commercial
erate an advanced picture of the state
participation of local authorities and
of the art about telecommunications
public bodies (i.e. chambers of com-
and telematic infrastructures and serv-
merce, regional development agen-
ices needs in European islands. The
cies, etc.) is a key aspect.
systems and business,
isolated areas will be defined and ana-
*
MEDIS - Project Manager
Iysed during the project activities. The results wil\ contribute to emphasise the
5HARE
TO COMPETE
an integral platform, enabling them to
Many initiatives are to be developed
local and regional aspect ofthe emerg-
in the European islands mainly in the
ing
field of tourism, but more is needed in
Information
Society,
and
a
act as a catalyst
for developing
telematics in their regions. For island communities,
the high
multicultural vision ofEurope. Not only
other areas such as health, education,
risks involved in investing in infrastruc-
because the local community and re-
training, the promotion oflocal and tra-
tures and interactive information sys-
gion is the foremost point at which di-
ditional products, etc. The problems
tems, oblige the local administrations
versity can be nurtured, enhanced and
arising out of these isolated initiatives
to take the lead and open up new mar-
integrated within the global cornmunity,
are, among others, duplicity of efforts,
ket opportunities路for
private partner-
but also because we wil\ increase the
greater cost and lack of local resources,
ships in the development, implementa-
potential for bridging space and dis-
restricted application of results, which
tion and maintenance of such systems.
tance associated with the new ICTs.
cannot be applied to other European
They also must act as catalyst for in-
The final result will be a "planning
regions.
novators and the private sector at 10-
manual".1t wil\ inc\ude worksheets for
By simultaneously
implementing
callevel. But their resources and knowl-
use during the planning process, de-
technological solutions, infrastructures
velopment
tools and tech-
and services, they will be able to link
available can not be tested at all the
niques, a list of existing and emerging
telematics to cultural heritage, the pro-
European
planning
edge are limited, and any of the options islands because it means
technologies, telematic services, refer-
vision of services, education, training,
duplicating efforts. Sharing experiences
ences to European Standards and or-
health, business and commercial sys-
and resources is a requisite to improve
ganisations and a self-appraisal checklist.
tems and to provide people and enter-
their knowledge and thus invest and
prises with access to tools and re-
stimulate in the correet direction.
WHY
cornmerce.
sources Jike tele-work and electronic
15 IT NECE55ARY?
The last years have seen the emergence of the "Information
Society",
The MEDIS initiative will provide a set of information, statistics, models,
Project activities wilI be carried out colIaboratively
across European
is-
methodologies
and
evaluation
protocols related to telematic services
where the key element is the informa-
lands in order to provide an European
for European islands, These results will
tion, and more of our daily activities
added-value,
enable governments, public agencies,
are dependent on access to informa-
terms of resources and users, and es-
business associations
tion. Broadening this access to all Eu-
tablish
island regions to implement or use ad-
reach a critical mass in
consensus
for sustai nable
and citizens of
ropean Islands is not only the final
growth and standardisation.
objective ofMEDIS project through the
to meet the needs and expectations of
share models that meet their needs and
European Telematic Island Service Net-
island communities for high quality and
expectations,
work, but also an essential social and
affordable services of general interest,
services and applications and promote
In order
vanced
applications
and services,
accredit the quality of
political challenge. We begin to wit-
networking will be an essential aspect
the development, demand and use of
ness the evolution of the "Information
to be taken into account.
efficient telematic systems and serv-
Society" into the "Knowledge
Based
Island peculiarities,
along with a
ices.
Society", and it is obvious that access
grpwing integration and convergence
One outstanding final result of the
to information alone is not the answer.
of information technology and commu-
MEDIS initiative will be the creation
What European islands need are the
nications, make it necessary to define
ODIN Consortium (Open and Digital
tools and skills, which will enable them
new service models and to provide the
Islands Network), a tool of high strate-
to turn that information into knowledge.
local authorities
gic interest for the support of European
Telematic applications and services will
with a set of instruments, designed as
of Europe's
islands
islands in these subjects.
enable cornmunities on islands to overcome isolation and to compete in the
MAIN PARTNERS OF THE PROJECT ANO AREAS OF INFLUENCE
global economy escaping to the risk of unequal regional development.
PROOOOS:
lonian and Aegean islands and archipelagos
The growing importance of informaCIES:
Small islands and archipelagos surrounding Italy
be considered as a necessary criterion,
ITER:
Azores, Madeira, Canary Islands, Balearic Islands
notjust when the service is first imple-
SILTANET: Baltic islands, including Saaremaa, Str贸mstad (Koster), Aland, ...
tion/content
means that quality must
mented, but also in all processes of in-
72
INSULA
dissemination.
French Antilles, Dutch Antilles
International
Journal
of Island Affairs
(co-ordinator):
Other European islands, including British islands,
formation acquisition, up grading and
owing to extremely different reasons and following various modalities, are facing the management of these isolated territories, the solution of their complex problems and the obstinacy of their inhabitants, which affirm their specificity and their difference.
:3
lJ
::::J
lJ L L
The Resourcefulness of Jurisdiction EDITED BY GODFREY
The question of island management
(f)
Lessons Irom the Polltlcal Economy 01 5mall Islands:
&
DAVID
O O O
BALDACCHINO
MILNE
is not recent; it is neither an extraordinary case nor an exclusive subject of
Small islands often enjoy a distinct
only one State. Nevertheless, within an
juridical
European Un ion in rapid evolution, is
fully sovereign
What status lor Europe's Islands?
still a subject far from being regulated.
deploy this "gift of jurisdiction" to eco-
Quel statut pour les ¡'es d'Europe?
Community construction process, ask
tentially adverse effects of smallness,
themselves:
isolation and peripherality. These le-
BY JEAN-DIDIER
Islands for their part, looking at the
What should be the relationship with
HACHE
QUEL STATUT POUR LES tLES D'EUROPE?
offsetting the po-
gal powers, reflected
in supportive
ants,
economic resources in a development
not much
sensible
to their
singularities and the fragility of their
strategy. This book thus argues that
insular condition?
jurisdictional
most of which has been written by the island political
responsibles
them-
selves.
status is, in itself, a re-
source critical for economic development. The book documents
such lessons
from a most unlikely group of North Atlantic islands. It focuses on the experience of six, North Atlantic, cold-
ISLAND'S?
"What statusfor Europe's Islands?
L'I-t::natlan
The status of European Islands has evolved a lot during the last thirty years, and it is still evolving. These not
water islands boasting distinct consti-
- Quel statut pour les lles d' Europe?"
tutional
is a joint publication coordinated by
comparative
Jean-Didier
SOIJSLA HACHE
changes have their repercussions
nomic advantage,
policy and culture, are themselves key
found between the lines of this book,
OliVMGE co~"..ld.Aust COORDI.">ATION DE JEAN-DlOIER
Many, whether
or not, successfully
this Europe and its 380 million inhabit-
Answers to these questions can be
WHAT STATUS FOR EUROPE'S
personality.
- subjects of
research under the aus-
witñ the "Is-
pices of the North Atlantic Islands Pro-
lands Commission" ofthe Conference
gramme, co-ordinated by the Institute
of Peripheral Maritime Regions of
of Island Studies at the University of
Europe. This bilingual (FrenchlEng-
Prince Edward Island, in collaboration
lish)
with Nord-Refo, the Nordic Council for
book
Hache,
arrangements
has been published
byl'Harmattan, Polytechnique,
)
5-7 rue de l'Ecole Paris, France.
Regional Policy Research. The constitutional status of the target islands ranges from full sovereignty (Iceland), to federation (Prince Edward Island;
only within the State's national frame-
Newfoundland
work, but also at the European Union leve\.
federacy or home rule status (Faroe Is-
In the ministerial
lands; Isle of Man;
to
Áland Islands).
in the
The text explores how the different con-
services, in the public
stitutional, political and cultural fea-
administrations and in the Parliaments,
tures of these islands are deployed in
political
strategic economic thinking and plan-
Commission's
and
cabinets,
& Labrador)
administrative
responsibles asked, are asking and will
ning, leading these jurisdictions to craft
keep asking themselves: is it necessary
a real "political economy".
to conceive a particular statute or system for each island? One of the objectives of this collec-
Basingstoke, Macmillan Press (UK) & New York, St Martin 's Press (USA).
tive work is to reassure them: through-
ISBN - 0-333-77817-0
out Europe the responsible authorities,
Published: June 2000
-
CRES-Seminar
RES-Powered desalinalion Syslems in Ihe Medilerranean Region: From idenlificalion lo proiecl implemenlalion Limassol-Cyprus, 1-2 September, 2000 Renewable Energy Sources and in
of the seminar in-
The seminar is organised by the Cen-
tute a "clean" and economically feasi-
Pramotion and dissemination of the
(CRES) with the support of the Euro-
ble supply of energy for desalination and
results, findings and case studies of
pean Comrnission, in cooperation with
provide a reliable tool for rural applica-
the MEDCODESAL project
the NationaJ Technical University of
tions. The understanding of the relation-
• Highlight the tool importance
particular wind and solar energy consti-
elude:
tre for Renewable Energy Resources
and
Athens, EMC (Environmental Manage-
ship between sustainable development,
especially GIS tools in the analysis
ment Consultants),
water management and energy use is
of regional water problem and the
Ingénierie Développement and Forma-
the central objective of the MEDCO-
support of water management deci-
tion) and the UNESCO.
sions and policies.
For information:
DESAL project. It aims to identify and
SIDEF (Service
quantify current and future trends on
• Presentation ofthe international state-
water shortage prablems in the Eastern
of-the-art of the existing desalination
Te!.: +30 1 6039900 Fax: +30 1 6039911
Mediterranean countries.
policies and technologies.
E-mail: minadaki@cres.gr
9th Inlernalional
world's reef resources
Coral Reef Symposium
during the next cen-
The lndonesian government, with the support from the lndonesian scientific cornmu-
74
The objectives
CRES (Mrs. D. Minadaki)
tury. This initiati ve is of particular tance
for
imporislands,
which, as a whole.Jiost a great part of the coral communities ofthe world. The International Coral ReefInitiative
nity and the International Society for
is a partnership among nations and or-
Reef Studies wilI host the 9th Interna-
ganizations seeking to implement Chap-
tional Coral Reef Symposium, that will
ter 17 of Agenda 21, and other interna-
be held in Bali on 23-27 October 2000.
tional conventions and agreements, for
The International Coral Reef Syrnpo-
the benefit of coral reefs and related eco-
sium is heId every four years. Growing
systems.
from humble beginnings in India in 1969,
ments - Australia, Franc~apan,
the most recent, held in Panama City in
maica, the Philippines,
June 1996, attracted around 1500 par-
United Kingdom and the United States
environmental and developmental NGOs
ticipants - especially
of America - the ICRI was announced at
and the private sector.
scientists,
stu-
Founded
by eight governJa-
Sweden, the
dents, managers, policy makers and
the First Conference of the Parties of
conservationists. Coral reefs are in seri-
the Convention on BiologicaJ Diversity
ous decline globally, especially those
in December 1994, and at the high level
near
segmentofthe U.N. Comrnission on Sus-
Hotel Wisata lnternational,
populations. It has been estimated that
tainable Development
Suite 302, J!. M.H. Thamrin
10 percent ofthe Earth's coral reefs have
Meeting in April 1995. Since then, the
shallow
shel ves and
dense
Intersessional
Contact 9th lnternational Royalindo
Jakarta
Coral Reef Symposium
lnternational
INDONESIA
Attention of Ms. Evita Nursanty,
already been seriously degraded and a
ICRI has come to encompass the par-
much greater percentage is threatened.
ticipation of additional partners from
If alIowed to continue, this decline is
governments, United Nations organiza-
Fax: (62 - 21) 334470,3150886
likely to lead to the loss of most of the
tions, multilateral development banks,
email: evita@royalindo.co.id
International
Journal
of lsland Affairs
Managing
Director
Te!.: (62-21) 3140982
European Islanders call lor IWhite Paper on Islands
(f)
LJ
e
v
ll
t;
v
On the ll-13th of May, at the invita-
The outcome of the Kos conference,
States have adopted two artieles (arti-
tion of the Ministry for the Aegean,
which was attended by representatives
ele 154 and 158) and a Joint Declara-
elected representatives corning from all
of the Greek government
tion (Deelaration N°30) addressing the
the European island regions have gath-
various European Institutions,
ered in the island ofKos (South Aegean),
call for the European Commission to
for the XXth annual conference of the
draft a "White Paper" on the practical
cluded to deal with the issue of "outer-
"Islands Comrnission" of the Conference
implementation of the E.U Treaty arti-
most" regions (i.e: the Canary Islands,
ofPeripheral Maritime Regions (CPMR).
eles regarding islands.
Madeira,
The Islands Cornmission of CPMR is
and of the was a
It will be remembered that, succes-
the main Islands "lobby group" within
sively, in the course of the Maastricht
the European Union, and has 25 mem-
Treaty and of the Amsterdam Treaty,
ber regions.
the European
Community
Member
issue of Europe's Islands. Furthermore, a specific article (article 299§2) was in-
the Azores, or the French
Départements
d'Outre-Mer)
most of
which are islands. For further information:
www.crpm.org
Sustainable Hotels lor Sustainable Destinations International
Conference,
Maspalomas (Canary Islands) October 26-28,
2000 Hotels for Sustainable Destinations"
This Conference will be held on 26-
The reason why this Conference is
28 October 2000. Main actors for in-
held in the world's biggest island tour-
will be not only to get together and
novation in responsible
tourism will
ist resort is related to the size of such a
publicize these experiences, but also to
meet in Maspalomas (Gran Canaria -
big change and the new alliance be-
face in a different way the new techno-
Canary Islands): hotel companies, tour
tween technology and tourism in fa-
logical challenges of a responsible ho-
operators, institutes working on new
vour of sustainable mento
tel industry.
technology
research
and develop-
ment, representatives of Governments and tourist destinations,
island develop\
The title of the Conference is "Sus-
Conference's main working areas are
consultants,
tainable Hotels for Sustainable Destina-
centred on:
service suppliers and manufacturers.
tions", It is being organised by the In-
• Renewable Energy Sources
It will be an excellent opportunity for
stitute of Responsible
• Rational use of energy: energy sav-
the establishment of joint actions and
Municipality of S. Bartolorné de Tirajana
ing and efficiency
real practices of co-operation
and the Canary Islands Government,
• Water management:
in the
Tourism, the
key sector of the tourist destinations'
with the sponsorship of UNESCO and
evolution at the threshold of the new millennium,
INSULA
Hoteles Sesteníbles para Destinos Sosteníbles Suslllinable
HOT~151lJr
Sastaínabíe Deslinations
thecooperation ofUN-DSD (SIDS Unit). supports
this Conference
saving, recu-
peration and purification • Waste management: reduction, recyeling and re-using
through the European Islan¿ OPET (Or-
• Bio-elimatic architecture
ganisation for the Promotion of Energy
• Alternative transports in tourist des-
Technology),
which co-ordinates
is-
lands' energy actions within the Euro-
tinations. Low and zero emission • Telematic tools
pean Comrnission contexto "From Theory to Practice" is the cen-
.M~~,:~~?~ ,~
..._,.~..;''''''''''=~lIWm'WAIN
One of the final objectives of the
tral idea of this meeting. Now, almost
Conference will be the consolidation
ten years after Rio and five years after
of the Sustainable Hotels Forum, espe-
the World Conference on Sustainable
cially directed to the hotel and tourist
Tourism, we can witness several suc-
service sector.
cessful initiatives of responsible tourism. The final target of "Sustainable
Web site: www.shforum.com
u e :::J
o
e e 10
New Cenlury, New CII.llenge. On 17 December 1998, the General Assembly of the United Nations adopted resolution 53/202 by which it decided to designate the 55th session the General Assernbly to be opened on 5 September 2000 as " The Millennium Assembly of the United Nations" and to convene a "Millennium Summit ofthe United Nations", In endorsing the proposal for the Millennium Assembly and Millennium Summit, which has been put forward by the Secretary-General,
the Gen-
eral Assembly decided that the tum of the century constitutes a
ahead.
unique and symbolically compelling moment for the membership of
challenges, if its Members share a renewed sense of
The United Nations can help meet those
the United Nations to articulate and affirm an animating vision for
mission. Founded to introduce new principies into
the United Nations in the new era.
international
relations in 1945, the UN has suc-
The new millennium, and the Millennium Summit, offer the world's
ceeded better in some are as than others. This is a
peoples a unique occasion to reflect on their common destiny, at a
chance to reshape the United Nations so that it can
moment when they find themselves interconnected
as never be-
fore. They look to their leaders to identify and act on the challenges
make a real and measurable difference to people's lives in the new century
Businea and Invest.enl Fo•••• for Re~ewa"leEnergy and Energy EfRci~ in AsIa and 'he Paclflc
@
WORLD
( It will be held in Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia) on 4-7 September 2000. The Forum's objective is to serve as a platforrn for establishing
adequate
Secretariat of the Malaysian Organising Cornmittee 35-2nd Floor Jalan Ara
laysia,
The event is organised
Director-General
of
SD 7/3A Bandar Sri Damansara 52200
the Secretary-General
of
Kuala Lumpur Malaysia
the
UNESCO,
business and in-
United Nations, the Executive Director of UNEP and the President of World Bank.
implementation
of various renewable
energy and energy efficiency (RE & EE) projects throughout the world, particu-
76
under the
auspices of the Prime Minister of Ma-
vestment opportunities to support the
funding, financing,
For information contact: Business
and Investment
Forum
for REE&EE in Asia and The Pacific
the Pacifico
2000
Journal
of Island Affairs
Tel: Fax:
larly in 48 member countries of Asia and
International
SOLAR PROGRAMME 1996-2005
+
(603) 635 8187
+
(603) 635 8068 / 635 1187
E-mail: reee2000@ecoenergy.com.my Website: reee2000
www.eco-energy.com.my/
-.Joln ond SUDDOrC InSULo
JOln and SUDDort, InSULa
T
International Scientific Council for Island Development (INSULA) was formally created in November 1989 as an international non-governmental organisation whose aim is to contribute to shape island awareness and develop islands' common future, supporting necessary co-operation and information actions in the scientific and technological fields. The aims of INSULA are to contri bute to the econornic, social and cultural progress of islands throughout the world, as to the protection of island environment and the sustainable development of their resources. Within such a context, INSULA cooperates with UNESCO and other international organisations, as well as institutions at the national or regional level sharing the same goals and interests. Through its international and multidisciplinary network of experts and research.ers, INSULA contributes towards balanced, sustainable development initiatives undertaken by island authorities. Through its initiatives, INSULA seeks to facilitate or favour:
•Inaula ,
the International Journal of Island Affairs, is published by the IntemationaI Scientific Council for Islands Development. The aim of the joumal is to create a worIdwide forurn for all those who consider islands as an irnportant part of mankind's heritage deserving majar attention. Contributors can use the Joumal to share news and views about the islands of the worId frorn a variety of perspectives, including the following: t-
Z LLI
• Environmental management
:e
• Natural resources conservation
O
• Water • Liquid and solid waste management
Z lI:lIIi:
> Z
• Prevention of natural hazards
LLI
z
O ~ ....•
• Technical co-operation in all fields relating to sustainable
:::l A.
island development with a special interest in island cul-
O A.
• Demographic trends • Health • Human geography, human resources • Education and training • Culture • Traditional knowledge
tures and human resources development. • The exchange of information and experience through the publication and diffusion of periodicaljournals,
books and
reports, using the international and multidisciplinary
net-
work represented by INSULA members.
• General economics • Tourism and Transports • Agriculture and aquaculture • Fishing and ocean resources
• Inter-island agreements directed towards the defence of
• Bio-technologies
islands' common interests in the framework of sustainable
• Industry and mining
development, at level of governments and public adminis-
• Applied cornmunication technologies
trations as well as technical and scientific institutions.
• Renewable energy
For the attainrnent of its aims, INSULA promotes intemational co-operation projects, assists islands directly, organises seminars and conferences at national, regional and intemational levels and promotes a direct dialogue with and between the authorities and the populations of different islands and island groups. It also promotes co-operation and exchange of experience and expertise between islands of a given region as well as at the inter-regionallevel. INSULA's task is to favour the passage from theory to practice, supporting the actions which contribute to a sustainable and fair development of every island of the world.
Join and support
• Intemational politics and policies
The journaI will publish articles and communications that provide new insights and understanding about the subjects mentioned above and invites authors to submit their studies and comments. Guidelines of style can be obtained from the editorial office at the address appearing below. INSULA • The International loumal of Island Affairs is distributed free of charge to members of INSULA
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For individual and group membership in INSULA, see overleaf.
~oln ono suooorc InsuLa APPLlCATION
FOR MEMBERSHIP OF INSULA
1wish to become member of INSULA, the Intemational Scientific Council for Island Development
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78
International
Journal
of Island Affairs
I
I I I I I I I I ~I
2010 ISLANDS 2010 is an initiative developed by INSULA and the ITER with the support of the ECls Altener programme
Renewable Eneroy Sources lor Island Sustainable Development Towards 1 00% RES solutions Our objective is to help giving an answer to tnese questions:
hat are the most appropriate technologies? Which specific regulations do we need? W at are our reference experiences? W~ich market strategies we should follow? Wl1at are the island priorities in 1+ D? Instruments
European Island Agenda on RES Island 2010 Virtual Centre 100% RES Guideline of Islands of Europe
o::::
w !::::: ~ •
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•msula * *