Integration of R.E.S. as a vector for sustainable development in the tourism sector in Island.

EUROPEAN COMMISSION DIRECTORATE GENERAL JRC • JOINT RESEARCH CENTRE lnstHuta for Advanced ••••••••••.

I - 2'020 ISPRA • Va,..

- Energy System Testing Unlt - TP 450

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Integration of R.E.S. as a vector for sustainable development in the tourism sector in Island

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Roberto Colombo. JRC - Ispra Cipriano Marín. Insula - Paris Pedro Ballesteros. DG XVII - Bruxelles

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First European Conferenee on Sustainable Island Developme'nt - Minorea 23-26 Apri/1997

JRe Ispra - SP. 1 - 97/27 1

EUROPEAN COMMISSION DIRECTORA TE GENERAL JRC - JOINT RESEARCH CENTRE Institute for Advanced Ma.terials.· Energy System Testing Unit - TP 450

I - 21020 ISPRA- Varese -Italy

Integratíon 01 R.E.S. as a vector for sustainable development in the tourism sector in Island

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Roberto Colombo. JRC - Ispra Cipriano Marín. Insu!a - Paris Pedro Ballesteros. DG XVII - Bruxelles

First European Conference on Sustainable Island Development - Minorca 23-26 April 1997

JRC Ispra - SP. 1 - 97/27 1

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INDEX 1. SUSTAINASLE

TOURlSM. IMPLEMENTATlON

OF AGENDA 21

1.1. Tourism and Environment. The Rio's Summit.

1.2. Tourism policy and the sustainable development

in lile European Union.

2. EUROPEAN

ISLANDS:

3. TOWARDS TOURISM

COMMON PROSLEMS,

A NEW TOURISTlC INDUSTRY.

4. OBJECTlVES

CULTURE.

SHARED SOLUTlONS.

APPUCATlON

OF THE WORLD CONFERENCE

OF THE AGENDA

ON SUSTAlNABLE

21 TO THE ISLAND

TOURISM

4.1. Contents of lile WCST declaralion 4.2. Energy and Transport 5. RENEWABLE

ENERGIES IN THE INSULAR

ENVIRONMENT

A contribulion for sustainability and adaptalion of tourislic aclivilies.

6. ISLANDS

ANO TOURISM. OBJECTIVES

7. INTEGRATlON

Of ENERGY EFAClENCY

S. SECTORS OF APPUCATlON

OF THE EU ENERGY POUCY ISSUES IN THE TOURISM

AND TECHNOLOGICAL

INDUSTRY

FEASlBIUTS

8.1 Buildings 9. TRANSPORT 9.1 - Ba::kground fa !he sector 9.2 Tralds in a1eI"gy' demand in lile road tra1spcrt sector 10. TECHNOLOGIES

TO DEAL WITH

10.1 - Current staIUs el technologies 10.2 - AcWe Soler HEHing a-ld CcoIing: 10.3 - AcWe solar healing: 10.4 - AcWe solar cxxing 10.5 - CdJectors éIld lriI1Sparent insulalioo technoIogy 10.6 - Swirnming-pooI heaIing: 10.7 - Pass;..e sola' hea!ing a-ld cxxing: 10.8 - Tr.I1Sport Tectroogies 10 deaI wi1h 10.9 - AppIication in comtxJsticn engipes:

,

11. RENEWABLE ENERGYSOURCES HOTEL SECTOR. 12. MARKET

AND IMPLEMENTATlON

OF uSEST

PRACTlCE"IN

THE

ACTORS 12.1. Ins1itulional actors

12.2 Private actors: manufacturers, dealers.

12.3 Market-trncking EvaluaIions:

12.4 Cha1ges Ama1g Manufacturers: 12.5 Cha"iges Among DeaIers, Distributas éI1dContr.álrs 12.6 Market l:a;áine studies.

12.7 Annual inlelVieNs a focus groups wilh key ma1<et~.

12.6 Market ba;eline s1Udies.

12.7 Anrual inBvieNS a focus groups wi1hkey ma1<et~.

12.8 Sales tracking éIld oIher ma-ket S1aIis1ics 13 • END USERS 14. RESlDENTlALSECTOR 15. COMM ERCIAL SECTOR: 16. LABEWNG AND CQ.OPERATIOO SCHEMES 17. ANANCING 1S. PROGRAMNE OF ACTJON FOFI SUSTAlNABLE 19. TOURISM RESOURCES

DEVELOPMENT IN SMALL

ISLANDS.

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1. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND TOURISM. IMPLEMENTATION OF AGENDA 21. TOW ARDS A RESPONSffiLE TOURISM The option for sustainable development is based on the idea of conservation of our natural resources without extinguishing them. This aspiration can be compatible with economic development. But, what does this criteria implies for the touristic phenomena?

From the Rome Conference about tourism and intemational travels held in 1963, the touristic activity had suffered radical qualitative and quantitative changes. In a relatively short period of time, tourism has become a powerful engine for the economic growth, producing a transference of capitals and human resources from the urban regions, industrialised and developed to the rural developing regions. Nowadays this creates a new fast-changing phenomena. Following the ITO, in 1995 intemational arrivals have grew 3.8 %, reaching the amount of 567 millions of tourists. The touristy activity is the 12 % of the World GNP, it employ one over 16 of the World's workers and represents the 7% of the capital investments. This means that it is the world's largest industry.

Tourism has deeply changed its dimension, as mass phenomena and even its shape, with the systematic appearance of new products, destinies and ways of understand the concept of travelling.

A1l this big changes have produced very important economical, environmental, cultural and even political transformations in most regions.

Today's tourism also exemplifies the contradiction which exists between a society increasingIy concemed to conserve its natural and cultural heritage, and the degradation which results from tourism when this is not planned adequately or if sensible tourism solutions are not employed. In response to these situations, Agenda 21 promotes the concertatiorr of all agents implicated in development processes with the aim of contributing with a cornmon effort to the subject of sustainability. In the case of tourism, this effort would involve drawing up of tourism development programmes that are economically rational and culturally sensitive. \

The considerations above are useful when we focus the debate about sustainability of the touristic development. F!equently this concept is associated with the new and very particular ideas of tourism: ecotourism, green tourism, rural tourism, scientific tourism, adventure tourism, that are a developing local force in rural regions in some countries, but that constitute only a small part of the tourism activity.

Analysing, for instance, classical tourism activity in coastal destinations, following the statistics of the European Travel Monitor, the sun and beach segment attracted in 1993 33% of travels abroad by Europeans, this segment being the most important one in terms of tourist's motivation. This percentage means that in this year over 51 millions of Europeans chose sun and beach, and specifically 45 millions chose the Mediterranean coast and the Big Mediterranean. After considering the aspects of sustainability of new touristic products, it is worth, for its importance, to focus our attention in the field of massive tourism, and in the initiatives that allows a reorientation of the activity over the basis of environmental and local communities respect

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1.1.• Tourism and Environment. Tbe Rio's Summit.

The relationship between tourism and environment is not a new issue. The resolutions of Manila (1980) and Acapulco Conferences, or the topies in the Tourism Act and Tourist Code (1985) emphasised the importance given by the tourism industry to the links between social, economical, cultural and physical environment In 1989, The Interparlamentarial Conference about Tourism (Den Haag Conference), under the auspices of the Interparlamentary Union and the International Tourism Organisation, declared the integrity of natural, cultural, and human environment as the principal basis for touristic development It was emphasised the need to evaluate the capacity of the natural and cultural environment of touristic resorts to absorb the impacts of the activity.

Recent interest for the relatíonship between tourism and environment is growing not only as an ethical aspiration for conservation of the common heritage, but also as a certainty about the links between the protection of the environment and the surveillance of the activity. Touristic industry started to be conscientious of the losses that a damaged environment would cause on the demand, because tourist would choice other place s better protected. It is in the 1980s when the touristic demand started to change deeply, because of the changes in the consumer behaviour. A new era began, massive tourism and a production-oriented supply being substituted by a more flexible and segmented offer.

Meanwhile, the diverse aspects of touristic activity and its environmental effects began to be taken into account in different sectors: transport, water, territory organisation, energy, showing the need to implement sensible policies.

The option for a sustainable development was assumed as a world politícal compromise in the United Nations Conference on Environment andDevelopment, , held in Río de Janeiro in 1992. \

However, one the outstanding fact is that there is not any explicit reference on tourism in the Agenda 21 Resolutíons.except in some cases when it appears as a positive factor in the development of some sensitive mountain and protected areas, and when it is related to sustainable development This is beacuse of the big complexity of the touristic phenomenon, with heterogeneous products and including a diversity of services and agents: tourists, transportation, small businesses, local societies, etc.

Tourism is also ambivalent because it is a global activity. It is, on one hand, a major vector for local development, it helps to achieve economic and social cohesion and it is a way of intercultural communication, as the UNESCO defines it. On the other hand it is responsible of some natural and cultural environmental damages. It is clear the close relationship between economic development and natural environment For all this, it is clear why, from Rio'92, the touristic activity has become one of the main concerns for international organisations and governments. During the United Nations Conference on 4

Sustainable Development in Small Islands held in Barbados, tourism was declared one of the main factors for development and one of the five sectors to survey in the small island environment. This huge influence is clear in the European Union, where 416 inhabited island represents only 5% of the territory, with 11 millions inhabitants. In one out of three European islands tourism has become the main activity and has conditioned the use of resources and the land.

1.2. - Tourism policy and tbe sustainable development

in tbe European Union

Economical analysis proclaim that tourism, that represents 5.5 % of GNP as an average in the European Union and more than twice this percentage in some member states, is one of the economical sectors that has experienced a continous growth over long periods of time.

It is estimated that 9 million people work in the touristic industry, that is, some 6% of all workers are involved directly with products and touristic services. Recent studies of the European Co-operation an Development Organisation (OCDE) confirm the capacity of tourism to contribute in reducing unemployment and generating new jobs.

Following the conclusions of the European Commission's White Book on competitivity employment, published in 1993, tourism constitutes one of the ways towards the 21th century.

and

European Community Programme "Towards Sustainability", has become the major document about tourism development in the European Union, also influencing the policies implemented in this area by the Member states.

In relation to tourism, priorities are: - to repon regularly on pressures and effects on the environment of tourism practices, including the sustainable exploitation of coastal zones. \ ) .. . tallfridl touri - to support awareness campaigns m or d er to promote an envrronmen y- en y use o f tounsm resources, including the means of transport to and from tourist resorts.

- to promote the implementation of innovative good practices in the field of sustainable tourism development.

In this document it is defined the idea of "shared responsibility", as the basic element in the way to sustainability, for all the administrations (national, regional and local), private and public bodies, including associations and non-governmental organisations, and the citizens and consumers associations. In the programme the idea of "culture of agreement" in the field of environment and touristic development appears clearly, involving all the actors concemed.

Conceming the objectives for the end ofthis century, three major strategies are envisaged:

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1. Improvement of massive tourism, specially the development of integrated policies in coastal and mountain areas. The methodology and action framework propose the development of brand new initiatives suitable to be taken as references and demonstrations of the possibilities of sustainable development activities.

2. The second point concerns information campaigns for the tourism industry and for the tourists. As far as tourist behavior is concerned "behaviour rules" are proposed as one of the tools for getting responsible attitudes.

3. It is known that touristic development consistent with the natural environment should go together with a policy of total quality in the services offered, what is called ecoturistic quality. It is specially in this field where the economical turistic policy has to make its greatest efforts. Thus, ecoturistic quality can and should be a business objective, which would allow to improve the products, to decrease the number of mistakes, and to provide more satisfaction to the clients, and therefore more competitive touristic services.

The European Commission's Green Book was devised in the context of the reflection about tourism in Europe and its contribution to sustainable development, and as aconsequence of the discussions held during the informal Council of Ministers meeting held in Athens. This document emphasises the implementation of experimental actions in favour of the tourism in three fields: tourist well-being, protection of the patrimony and the impulse for the growth and more competitive organisations . It should be noted the special emphasis put in the complementary aspects of the touristic development It is declared the need to promote specific initiatives to internalise the external costs of using public resources (natural environment, cultural heritage, highways, etc.) in the touristic activity .

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2. EUROPEAN ISLANDS: COMMON PROBLEMS, SHARED SOLUTIONS. European islands have experienced tourism demand growth rates much higherthan mainland destinations in the last decades. This growth is even more accused in Mediterranean and peripheral islands.

These unexpected expansion from the decade of the 70s have produced complicated situations in the fragile territory of the islands. The effects of the intensive tourist development should be considered differentIy than for other regions. In the island environment is necessary to include the following consideration about their scarce resources: - Island regions are characterised by its environmental and cultural fragility.

- Tourism and its associated activities produce over exploitation of scarce natural resources: water, soil, coast, marine environment, etc., which may cause irreversible situations. This fact is specialiy grave in the case of massive tourism.

- Infrastructure supporting tourism development in the new destinations, is often designed and implemented on a "fait accompli" basis, and usualiy affects the island structure.

- The corporations in the island have a limited capacity of technological response.

The recent tourist specialisation of some European islands is exposed in the following table, where European and non-European island destinations are compared. Tourism occurs in the majority of inhabited islands and in 30% of the cases it represents the key to economical development TOURIST DENSITY Corfu Minorca Rhodes Elba Lanzarote

IN SOME EUROPEAN ISLANDS km2 â&#x20AC;˘â&#x20AC;˘.

)

592 720 1398 223

846

tourist offer 70000 82000 75000 21000 55000

Tourist Destinations (millions of arrivals - absolute terms) Caribbean Bahamas Jamaica Portugal Greece Thailand Switzerland

14.4 1.5 0.9 9.5 11.0

6.5 11.8

South Africa Seychelles Kenya Morocco Brazil.

Balearic Islands Canary Islands

4.6 0.1 0.9 2.5

1.6 9.0 9.0 7

The technological answer to these fast changes and specialisations has to be found in the environmental adaptability and integration of the facilities and infrastructures, always limited by its carrying capacity.

There are two main strategies for dealing with the inherent difficulties that islands have in generating technology. Technological development mnst be adapted to the reality of each island, setting up the necessary filters on the transfer of technology from the mainland. Islands should also increase specific cooperation in this field that willlead to specific technological systems based on their own resources. As island eco-systems are fragile, there is a need for ecologically rational and suitable technologies, conceived as "process and product technologies", whose impacts can be absorbed. It is a question of developing complete systems; including technical studies, goods, services and capital, and organisation and management procedures, rather than individual technologies.

Technology in the fields of energy and renewable resources, environmental investment and transpon especially inter-island transpon - is constantIy advancing and the future is bright. But, islands must define their own options, adapted to their own particular environmental and territorial needs and avoiding the disastrous consequences involved in imposing inappropriate rnodels.

3. TOWARDS A NEW TOURISTIC CULTURE. APPLICATION AGENDA 21 TO THE ISLAND TOURISM INDUSTRY.

OF THE

Agenda 21 establish a number of roles to apply to the tourism activity, which are developed in the different sections and areas of the programme. This implies to create the basis of a new culture in the tourism, taking it no} as an isolated phenomenon, but as an integrated activity in its territorial, social and natural framework.

From all the recommendations that form the RĂ­o Programme, we extract those aspects interesting for the tourist island development Promoting ecologically rational and culturally sensible tourist programmes as a strategy for island sustainable development Developing an integrated approach to land planning and resource management. Natural resources are used with diverse aims interrelated that can compete between them; consequentIy it is necessary to manage them for an integrated use.

This integration should be done in two ways, taking into account on one side, all the environmental, social and economical factors (such the consequence of the tourist activity in the natural environment 8

an the natural resources) and, on the other side, all the components or the natural environment the resources together.

and

The essence of this integrated view consists of the co-ordination of the sectorial activities of planning and management Promotion 01integrated environmental infrastructures: water, energy, and island waste management This means the adoption of policies aiming to reduce to a minimum or even avoid environmental damages and, also, implement a policy to recover the costs of infrastructure services.

Exchange and promotion 01 ecologically appropriate technologies. Rational and ecological technologies can be defined as those "technologies of process and products" that, being integrated in the island environment, generate none or only small amounts of waste. They are not isolated technologies, but form a global system including technical know-how, procedures, goods, services and equipment, as well as management and organisation procedures.

This view is one of today' s greatest challenges for the future of island tourism. The interest is not only the application of these technologies in the fields of building s, urban planning and touristic equipment but also in the services and the conception of new products. The renewable energies have become a specific issue in this field.

Maintenance 01 the biologic diversity and protection 01 the fragile environments. The fulfilment of these objectives depends on the capacity of integrate the touristic activities, changing the attitudes towards the natural patrimony.

Establishing an integrated ecological and economical accounting. It is essential more exhaustive determination of the natural environment as natural capital, that would allow to improve the decision making process in this field.

Local authorities should support Agenda 21 initiatives. It is recognised that problems and solutions emphasized in Afoenda 21 are related to the local activities and because of this it is proposed to implement a consulting mechanism with me native inhabitants to achieve an agreement, an "Island Agenda 21" for each community.

More involvement 01 the main groups. The implementation of agreement and real participation systems with all the social parts concemed in the activity, is essential in the contribution of tourism to sustained development

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4. OBJECTlVES TOURISM.

OF THE WORLD CONFERENCE

ON SUSTAINABLE

The objectives of the World Conference on Sustainable Tourism were expressed in the final Declaration. The contents of this Declaration come from the agreement between various actors of the activity for the sustainability.

Tourism can be integrated irnmediately in the plan of sustainable development because its success depends clearly on the convergence of different policies. The complexity of the activity derives from the private economical activity and the use of public goods (natural spaces, cultural patrimony, equipment, infrastructures of ttansportation, etc.). The activity dynamism, the tourist satisfaction an the conservation of the natural and cultural patrimony are inseparable.

This agreement should not be seen as only a compromise of responsibility to protect the environment, but also as a change of attitude implying a major strategic element towards the surveillance of the tourism business. From this perspective it is necessary to change the quantitative into a qualitative dimension. The idea is to consume less natural spaces, less resources, in a different way, and this because of: - The sustainability is not a threat for tourism, and should not be observed as the opposite. Any touristic product unable to be sustainable, that could produce damage or be spoiled, will have to pay the price that a1l non-competitive products pay. This is because clients would choose always a competitor's better offer. Sustainability guarantees future profitability for tourism.

- The sustainability is not only related to the natural environment, what it is called Ecology. It is a very important pan of the environment, because tourism depends on the attractiveness of the physic emplacement If this attractiveness disappears because of the pollution or the building activities, the expected number of visitors would dramatically be reduced. Tourism cannot desttoy the environment without desttoying itself. \

) - The sustainable tourism idea goes beyond than the ecology point of view, because it should contribute to the improvement of social and economical lĂ­fe-styles of a1l those who live in the touristic destination, as well as it should contribute to the pleasant experience of those on holidays.

- There are many examples proving that a damaged natural environment (water or landscapes) reduces the turistic attractiveness. On the other hand, a preserved natural and cultural environment is a good promotional factor.

4.1. Contents of the WCST declaration 1. Tourism development shall be based on criteria of sustainability, which means that it must be ecologically bearable in the long term, as well as economically viable, and ethica1ly and socia1ly equitable for local communities.

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Sustainable development is a guided process which envisages global management of resources so as to ensure their viability, thus enabling our natural and cultural capital, including protected areas, to be preserved. As a powerful instrument of development, tourism can and should participate actively in the sustainable development strategy. A requirement of sound management of tourism is that the sustainability of the resources on which it depends must be guaranteed.

2. Tourism should contribute to sustainable development and be integrated with the natural, cultural and human environment; it must respect the fragile balances that characterize many tourist destinations, in particular small islands and environmentally sensitive areas. Tourism should ensure an acceptable evolution as regards its influence on natural resources, biodiversity and the capacity for assimilation of any impacts and residues produced.

3. Tourism must consider its effects on the cultural heritage and traditional elements, activities and dynamics of each local cornmunity. Recognition of these local factors and support for the identity, culture and interests of the local cornmunity must at all times play a central role in the formulation of tourism strategies, particularly in developing countries.

4. The active contribution of tourism to sustainable development necessarily presupposes the solidarity, mutual respect and participation of all the actors, both public and private, implicated in the process, and must be based on efficient cooperation mechanisms at alllevels: local, national, regional and intemational.

5. The conservation, protection and appreciation of the worth of the natural and cultural heritage afford a privileged area for cooperation. This approach implies that all those responsible must take upon themselves a true challenge, that of cultural, technological and. professional innovation, and must also undertake a major effort to create and implement integrated planning and management instruments.

6. Quality criteria both for the preservation of the tourist destination and for the capacity to satisfy tourists, determined jointly with local communities and informed by the principles of sustainable development, should represent priority objectives in the formulation of tourism strategies and projects.

7. To participate in sustainable development, tourism must be based on the diversity of opportunities offered by the local economy. It should be fully integrated into and contribute positively to local economic development 8. All options for tourism development must serve effectively to improve the quality of life of al1 people and must influence the socio-cultural enrichment of each destination.

9. Governments and the competent authorities, with the participation of NGOs and local cornmunities, shall undertake actions aimed at integrating the planning of tourism as a contribution to sustainable development

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10. In recognition of economic and social cohesion among the peoples of the world as a fundamental principle of sustainable development, it is urgent that measures be promoted to permit a more equitable distribution of the benefits and burdens of tourism. This implies a change of consumption patterns and the introduction of pricing methods which allow environmental costs to be intemalised.

Governments and multilateral organizations should prioritize and strengthen direct and indirected aid to tourism projects which contribute to improving the quality of the environment. Within this context, it is necessary to explore thoroughly the application of internationally harmonised economic, legal and fiscal instruments to ensure the sustainable use of resources in tourism.

11. Environmentally and culturally vulnerable spaces, both now and in the future, shall be given special priority in the matter of technical cooperation and financial aid for sustainable tourism development. Similarly, special treatment should be given to zones that have been degraded by obsolete and high impact tourism models.

12. The promotion of alternative forms of tourism that are compatible with the principles of sustainable development, together with the encouragement of diversification represent a guarantee of stability in the medium and the long termo In this respect there is a need, for many small islands and environmentally sensitive areas in particular, to actively pursue and strengthen regional cooperation.

13. Governments, industry, authorities, and tourism-related NGOs should promote and participate in the creation of open networks for research, dissemination of information and transfer of appropriate knowledge on tourism and environmentally sustainable tourism technologies.

14. The establishment of a sustainable tourism policy necessarily requires the support and promotion of environmentally-compatible tourism management systems, feasibility studies for the transformation of the sector, as well as the implementation of demonstration projects and the development of international cooperation programmes.

15. The travel industry, together with bodies and NGQ~ whose activities are related to tourism, shall draw up specific frameworks for positive and preventive actions to secure sustainable tourism development and establish prograrnmes to support the implementation of such practices. They shall monitor achievements, report on results and exchange their experiences.

16. Particular attention should be paid to the role and the environmental repercussions of transport in tourism, and to the development of economic instruments designed to reduce the use of nonrenewable energy and to encourage recycling and minimization of residues in resorts.

17. The adoption and implementation of codes of conduct conducive to sustainability by the principal actors involved in tourism, particularly industry, are fundamental if tourism is to be sustainable. Such codes can be effective instruments for the development of responsible tourism activities.

18. All necessary measures should be implemented in order to inform and promote awareness among all parties involved in the tourism industry, at local, national, regional and international level, with regard to the contents and objectives of the Lanzarote Conference.

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4.2. Energy and Transport In the energy and transpon fields is c1ear the need of a strategy to unify efforts and promote new projects in the following range: • Rational use of the energy in buildings.

• Rational use of energy in transporto In islands this topic should be considered as a major one.

• To match energy supply and demand • To considr renewable energies as a major and prioritary resource to cover energy needs.

• To create a sense of responsibility among the tourists as users of natural resources.

• To create an image of environmental quality in tourism servicesin order to achieve at the same time environmentally friend1y behaviors and more of competitivity.

• Patroníse the co-ordination between the various actors in the energy scene and in the touristic industry, specially between the public administrations.

5. RENEWABLE ENERGIES IN THE INSULAR ENVIRONMENT.A CONTRffiUTION TO SUSTAINABILITY AND TO ADAPTATION OF TOURIST ACTIVITIES. The importance of the energy issue related to islands and tourism has been emphasised in several insular fora. It is worth to highlight the relevance of the conc1usions of the 2nd Conference of Chambers of Commerce and Industry (CCn in the European Uníon Insular Regions. Among the more relevant agreements it should be mentioned: ~,

a) The CCI of the EU Insular Regions proposes to the 1996 Intergovernmental Conference the adoption of an integrated common policy in favour of the insular regions of the EU. This policy will have as a major topic the sustainable development as the only way ahead for the islands of Europe, an unique natural resource. b) Tourism. Some actions should be implemented: - Ensure the balance between tourism development and the capacity of infrastructures and services, preserving the quality of the natural environment as well as the local architecture.

- Promote low-season tourism in order to maintain the level of employment and of economic activity in the island throughout the year. e) Energy . Some actions should be implemented: - Rationalisation of electric energy consumption, particularly through the improvement of the efficiency of the energy system and of the management of energy resources with a improved qualification of the specialised workers.

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- Promote the conception and enforcement of action programme in short and long term about the uptake of new and renewable energy sources. To achieve this, a programme of co-operation in the field of exploitation, experimentation should be established and supported.

Energy supply has to overcome many additional difficulties in islands. This situation is stressed in those destinations where the tourist activity is the most relevant. Besides the constraints imposed by the geographical isolation, there are some other problems: - The need to design the energy supply infrastructure in a way that guarantees the supply in all seasons creates problems of inefficiency in highly seasonal destinations. It should be take into account the fact that in some regions visitors are twice, three times or even more the native population. In the Mediterranean this problem affects more than 30 islands.

- Conventional tourist behavior creates a consumption behaviour that affects the energy supply scheme even on a daily basis. Figures on energy consumption in many islands indicate clearly how much can tourists behavior affect those figures.

- Fast growth, without planning and environmental considerations, which has traditionally been tackles in ways similar to those in mainland. Only few island with relatively recent tourist development have established, through mechanism of planning, specific energy considerations in the field of tourist facilities and transportation. In general terms, the implementation of energy policies is inadequate.

-The largest tourist destinations are very much influenced by the typology of the facilities offered. For example, the accelerated evolutiion from apartment inns to high-category hotels does not take into account the fact that this shift implies to double electric energy consumption.

- The over exploitation of natural resources in islands where tourism is the main activity have some direct energy repercussions. This is obvious in those islands that must obtain water from the sea through desalinisati~n devices to supply local needs, and mayas well be applied to the problem of urban waste production, the average in touristic islands doubling the amount produced in the mainland.

Tourism facilities in many insular areas suffer from inappropriate energy models transferred without prior adaptation from continental areas. In addition, rapid social and economic change in the region creates a need to address in a specific way island-specific problems of energy efficiency, environment, etc. At present, and in most of the cases, this challenge is not been faced as it should be.

A remarkable amount of technical information has been produced concerning enery topics for islands, and specifically concerning renewable energy issues. So, there should not be any problem as far as getting the etechnocal information is concemed. Some bodies having produced this information are: - European Commission, Directorates General XVII, XII, XIII, XI, XVI, European Parliament - Intemational Chamber of Commerce and Intemational Federation of Consulting Engineers.

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- United Nations Environment Prograrnme, World Tourism Organization, and Foundation for Environmental Education in Europe.

- International Hotel Association, International Hotels Environment (Action Pack).

- Initiative and United Nations Environment Programme.

Despite the barriers and difficulties mentioned above, the adoption of renewable energies in island tourist destinations is fully justified by the following reasons: - Very good suitability to final energy uses in the tourism sector, as energy vectors.

- Large availability of renewable energy resources, particularly in Mediterranean and ultraperipherical islands - Better technological adaptarion to seasonality and variability circumstances.

- RES strengthen the image of the tourist destination and its environmental qualification, in the framework of the ecotourist quality srategies.

6. ISLANDS AND TOURISM. OBJECTlVES OF THE EU ENERGY POLICY The Maastricht Treaty sets, in article B, Title 1 and in articles l30 A and 129 B, section 2, a number of objectives that provide the framework of the energy policy, with special regard to islands regions and tourist development.

- The sustainability of the economic and social growth anticipated in 'the Treaty needs to integrate the environmental dimension with the rest of policies, especially with the tourism policy. The conditions for the use of the energy are of the key factors affceting this dimension; energy policy should simultaneously provide economic added value and contribute to the environmental protection. ,

- The improvement of the social and economical cohesion and the access of distant regions to the transeuropean ne~orks implies the adoption of energy policy measures. Energy is one of the factors that increase cohesion.

The programme established under the name "Towards Sustainability", has become the main document about tourism and energy. This programme contains relevant strategies regarding tourism and energy in insular areas. With regard to energy, the programme lists the following priorities: - to support the development and application of energy-saving technologies and practices including renewable energy sources, by means of funding, awareness-raising and information measures, and to develop criteria for the screening of subsidy schemes in order to redress incentives which have an adverse effect - to encourage the implementation demand side management measures and the internalisation of external costs and benefits, through tax incentives and by giving more weight to means other than

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taxation, and to improve the co-ordination of Community initiatives aiming to create consumer awareness on energy saving and diversification.

- to reinforce energy-efficiency standards for appliances within the framework of technical and economic possibilities, encouraging energy efficiency labelling initiatives With regard to transpon, priorities are: - to develop measures to achieve more internalization of external costs in transport prices as a prerequisite for influencing user choices in order to arrive at a more rational scheme of transpon demand, - to promote the integration measures.

of land-use and transpon

planning and demand-side management

- to promote the use of more environmenta1ly friendly modes of transpon (suitable for islands).

- to promote exchanges of experience between local authorities in relation to sustainable transpon initiatives.

7. INTEGRATION INDUSTRY

OF ENERGY EFFICIENCY ISSUES IN THE TOURISM

The integration of the energy issues in the tourism industry can be divided into three main areas: - "No-cost" management measures. They represent the set of improvements in environmental quality of the tourist facilities without investment, what implies that the implementation depends on the facility managementl These measures are mainly based on rationalization and energy saving.

- Low and medium upfront -cost measures. They are considered in the range of ordinary maintenance costs of a business, being a mechanism of reorientation of common investment, In this group are those solutions based on renewable energies.

- Measures of co-operation. They include actions aimed to increase the co-operation with other actors in the tourism scene. In this case we refer to renewable energy as a centralized production.

8. SECTORS OF APPLICATION AND TECHNOLOGICAL FEASmILITY Renewable Energies (RE) begin to be real alternatives to fossil fuels and nuclear fuel, as their distinguishing characteristic is that they are virtua1lyinexhaustible and distributed a1lover the world and the technology of commercial exploitation in almost every sector has already been achieved.

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There is no question that the new and renewable sources of energy offer a theoretical potential which exceeds our present needs and any conceivable future energy needs, and something like 76% or 87% of our energy needs could come from RE's by the end ofthe century in the Ee. But we live in an economic world and, at today' s prices of conventional energy sources, which are high intensity, RE' s are, for the most pan, costIy, low intensity, variable and in need of some form of accumulating the energy yielded.

Capital costs are often high and institutional barriers are, if anything, more difficult to tackle than the technological ones.

On the other hand, the increasing awareness regarding local and above all global environmental issues has rnade significant use of RE"s particularty attractive for these resources have the advantages of not depleting reserves, and being low - or non - polluting.

These resources are also less harmful to the global environment as far as the greenhouse effect is concerned, and carry less political and technological risk than fossil and nuclear fuel We will study two sectors, BU and 'IR and see what could be done to bring RE's to a stage of sufficient maturity so that they can contribute significantIyto our energy needs in these two key sectors.

8.1. Buildings Technological feasibility and R+D ofRE in the residential sector addresses the various components ofthe building, such as envelope, furnace lighting, ventilation and water heaters and their interaction and impact on human activities, such as indoor air quality and affordabi1ity.

The energy performance of new construction can be improved to a great deal and the potential for savings in existing buildings is also quite substantial But the ~+D would not be done in isolation, but rather in concert with the a~plicable industry groups or with specific manufacturers or utilities.

Particularly important from the standpoint of environmental and energy policy targets is to reduce the use of non-renewable fossil fuels as sources of energy. In this sector, this means, among other things, the more extensive use of solar energy. Taking generally, the next few decades rnust be seen as a period of transition from fossil fuels to RE' s in the heating and cooling of buildings.

Some figures: Energy demand in the world building sector is projected to increase by an annual average of between 2.0% in a case with rising energy prices and historical trends in energy efficiency (case I) and 2.7% in a case with flat energy prices and the best commercia1ly available technologies are not always used and energy equipment is not used as efficientIy as it could be (case over the 1993 - 2010 period, rising from over 1500 Mtoe in 1993 to between 2200 Mtoe and 2500 Mtoe by 2010.

m,

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Building sector energy dernand is expected to increase more rapidly in countries outside the OECD. However the omission of non-corrnnercial fuels in these regions, due to data limitations, significantly understates the total demand in this sector and overstates the growth rate of total sectoral demand.

The building sector in the OECD is expected to show modest growth over the outlook period, rising from 992 Mtoe in 1993 to just over 1100 Mtoe in the case II, by 2010. This can be attributed to the impact of rising income 1evels partially compensating fOI rnarket saturation of major appIiances, as well as the efficiency improvements in new building.

In case 1, energy demand in the OECD buildings sector is projected to show very low growth.

Electricity is likely to be the muy fuel gaining share. By 2010 it is expected to reach a share of around 43% in case 1, compared with 36% at present. Fuel share trends in the recent past mi.ght suggest that electricity is being substituted directly by oiL Electricity has increased its share through new and specific uses, while some replacement of oil heating systems with gas has taken place. Currently, oil has only a small share of space heating in new buildings.

Taken together, the fast growth of appIiance penetration, the limited scope for further gas for oil substitution in the existing housing stock and the low penetration in new buildings gives the impression that electricity is substituting for oil, but this substitution is more apparent than real.

With regard to the EU, the application of RES can make a significant contribution to meeting the building sector's energy demand, while at the same time serving the market by providing better buildings with more comfonable living and working conditions for their users, and also helping protect the environment.

Continuing improvement in design and technological advances are greatlyenhancing opportunities for RE utilization. In addition, the socio-economic and eroployroent creation dimensions are all rather favourable.

Construction in the EU now accounts for 11% of Gross Cornmunity Product, and employs 8 million people in 2.5 million flrds. Buildings consume about a third of total final energy consumption (1993), retlecting the activities of residential consumers as well as consumption in the connnercial and public administration sectors.

Within the residential sector, there are four principal uses of energy heating (of both space and water), cooking, lighting and appliances. Tbe last two uses mainly consume electricity and do not have the same fuel mix as the first two. The fuel mix of the heating and cooking end users varies considerably across the region.

Climatic effects are important in this sector. Warmer winters and cooler sunnners will, in the absence of widespread air conditioning, lead to lower energy demand Since 1971, total consumption in the building sector has risen by an average annual rate of 1.3%. Over this period, oil and solid fuels have steadily lost share to electricity and gas.

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Climatic effects do not only alter the overa1llevel of energy dernand, they can also change the sectoral fuel mix.

Even without improvements in energy use, energy dernand in the building sector is projected to increase at a slower rate than GDP growth, This is essentially due to the likely development of space heating requirements. Some countries could be expected to reach a degree of saturation in space heating equipment, but not necessarily in residential heat demand. Thus, the less developed European countries have the greatest potential for growth in this use, but the southem location of many of those countries reduces the necessity for space heating and such developments may be small There may, of course, be increased use of cooling equipment in warmer countries. However, the size and population of the area where the weather is sufficiently and consistently warm enough to justify such expenditure is relatively srnal1in Europe. Consequently, the impact of additional air conditioning in Europe as a whole is likely to be small However, the increasing use of air conditioning in new offices in northem Europe is starting to cause concem in some countries as this end use is typically met byelectricity.

Electricity increases its penetration in the building sector from its current level of 31% to around 40% by 2010 in both cases. This occurs through the further penetration of new electricity using appliances throughout the region. Electricity is also the dominant source for space heating in some countries and market segments.

Daylighting design techniques, especially in cormnercial buildings can significally reduce the energy consumed by electric lighting and can reduce consequent cooling loads to the point where mechanical air conditioning is no longer necessary.

Passive and active solar design represent two of the most important strategies for the replacement of conventional fuels and reduction of environmental pollution in the building sector.

Depending on the local climate and the predominant Ileoo for heating or cooling, a wide range of passive techniques is available to the building designer for new and retrofit building applications which can result in buildings which are both more energy-efficient and offer higher standards of visual and thermal comfort to the occupants.

Passive solar cooling technologies has been in use in warm countries for centuries but modero building systems combined with the technical availability of active cooling, imply that the traditional techniques have been largely forgotten.

Passive solar design is characterised by the use of building elements such as walls, windows and floors, to perform the functions of collection and storage of solar thermal energy. Passive cooling also makes use of building elements, but in this case to minimise the effect of unwanted solar radiation; use may also be made of environmental sinks for heat dissipation.

Active solar energy systems may be employed in residential and commerciaJ/ industrial buildings for the provision of space conditioning (heating and/or cooling) and/or hot water. Another connnon application is the heating of swirnming pool water.

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Convenúonally distinguíshed by the use of pumps or fans to circulate the heat transfer nedíum between the specialised collector and heat store, simple water-heatíng are in widespread comnercial production after sorne two decades of developrnent.

9. TRANSPORT 9.1 - Background for the sector Transport is a fundamental elernent of today' S economy. It plays an important role both in industry and in our daily lives. The developrnent and use of transport infrastructures accounts for 4% -8% of GDP and 2%-4% of jobs in the OECD Member Countries. Moreover, our societies place high expectaúons on their transport systems, including efficiency, safety, and cleanliness. The transport sector also has an important impact on both energy security and environmental policy. Key figures in this regard include: oil accountíng for over 99% of all transport energy consumpúon; the growing weight of transport in final OECD oil demand (from about half to more than two thirds in just 16 years); and the preponderance of transport energy demand in overall energy demand (25%). Clearly, the transport sector plays a key role in the evolution of OECD energy and oil demand Road transport in particular is a major contributor to air pollutíon at the urban, regional, and globallevels.

The includes not only greenhouse gas emissions but also tropospheric ozone formatíon (a complex reaction involving NOx and hydrocarbon ernissions) and increases in atmospheric levels of CO, NOx, VOC, lead and congestíon associated with the transport system pose serious problems.

Policy-makers find the transport sector particularly difficult to address effecúvely. Demand for transport services and likewise demand for transport fuels is relaúvely inelastic with respect to price or other supply factors. Transport energy consumpúon goes up with GDP even with price increases and major efficiency improvernents. Furthermore, higher standards of living and more disposable incorne accompanying growth in GPD tend to increase the preference of individual car owners for larger and higher performance cars.

9.2 Trends in energy demand in the road transport sector Road transport account for over 80% of the energy used by the transport sector as a whole, and 99% of the energy used in road vehicles cornes from oil 0i1 use for road transport in the lEA has grown 34% since 1974. Though this is less than GDP growth, the evolution of oil use in road transport is of particular importance becuse it has been growing faster than both total energy requirernents and consumpúon in other end-use sectors, especially since 1985. In addition, the rate of increase itself is growing: 1.9% in 1986, 3.7% in 1978 and 4.5% in 1988. As a result, energy use for road transport is absorbing a growing share of lEA oil and total lEA energy.

Though increase in the price of oil following the two oil shocks did have an effect on the energy use of the road transport sector, this demand reductíon was short-lived, In addition, since 1973, there has been little 20

substitution in the road transport sector, unlike the rnajor shifts away from oil that took place in electricity generation and other end-use sectors. About 1% of road vehicles currentIy use fuels other than gasoline or diesel fuel, such as CNG, LPG ethanol or biofuels.

The only change in the fuel mix of the road transport sector has been an increase in the use of diesel fuels, from 14.5% of oil consumption for road transport in 1974 to close to 26% in 1988. This is an lEA average; actual shares of diesel in road transport in 1988 varied considerably among countries, being 55% for Spain, ltaly, Portugal and Belgium.

So, it seems that in this sector, there have been limited progress in fuel substitution towards less COz emitting sources, such as non-fossil fuels (bioethanol, electricity from renewables, gas, biodiesel,...).

Ethanol stands out today as an interesting alternative to fossil fuels, especially if it can be produced from wooden raw materials, as this is abundant in the EC. Amongst possible alternative motor fuels ethanol is considered to be the most interesting.

Ethanol can be produced by fennentation of simple sugars. This has been done for a long time with carbohydrates obtained from agricultura! crops. Today ethanol is prirnarily used as a fuel by inner-city buses and this use is expected to increase.

Biogas is another possible alternative motor fuel for the future. Anaerobic degradation of organic material produces biogas, which consists of about 50-60% methane. Today, biogas is produced in a large number of digesters in municipal waste water treatment plants as well as in a nurnber of plants for waste from the food industry or industrial waste waters. If the gas is to be used as a motor fuel, it must be purified from COz and corrosive compounds. After purification, the gas is considered to be almost identical to natural gas.

Biofuels, in particular rapeseed oil esthers, seem to have a promising future in the energy supply of traffic and transports in Europe towards the end of the 1990~s. An excise tax relief of as high as 90% is planned within the EC for "biodiesel", Le. rapeseed methyl esther (RME) or rapeseed ethyl esther (REE), and also other biofuels, as they present a big potential for the future needs of energy.

An efficient agriculture is potentially able to provide the mankind world with raw rnaterials for food, fiber and also energy.

The properties of esterified vegetable oils are very similar to those of Diesel fuel, which rnakes feasible its direct utilization in Diesel engines without causing any substantial change in their behaviour. The lack of works contemplating both the efficiency and the emissions in the use of these fuels makes R+D in this field quite interesting.

In Europe, the present situation of surplus for most of the agricultural commodities: milk, grain, meat, sugar, oils for hurnan consumption, and others, leads to two options: . The set-aside of land for cultivation, dedicating the surplus land for forestry, hunting and recreation.

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· To dedícate the surplus land for new crops such as crops for industrial raw materials and fiber or energy crops. In this repon crops for producing biomass, ethanol, plant oils, methylesters and other gaseous biofuels such as biogas and producer gas will be investigated.

The last option, -that seerrsto be IDOstfavourable from the point of view of social and environmental benefits: farmers can stay in their farms, the land is used for agricultural purposes and there are more different cornmodities to produce that can be interchanged with rapidity according to market conditions, -has as counterpart the low cost of fossíl fuels: at a price of approximately $20.00 the barrel of oil, biofuels can not be competitive considering only the point of view of the cost of fuel energy. In this respect, it is necessary to consider that in the use of fossil fuels only the price of exploitation of fossil resources and refining of the crude oil are considered, and in the case of biofuels it is necessary to add the cost of agricuhuraI production of the oil itsdf.

In some aspects, growing crops to produce energy for the fann is not new: in the farms some decades ago it was necessary to dedicate around 30% of the total rural area for feeding animals for work (horses, mules, cows) and now the area needed would be 10-20% to produce ethanol or oil to IDOvetractors and farm machines.

The use of vegetable oils as fuel for interna! combustion engines is not new. Rudolph Diesel, the inventor of the diesel engine, used peanut oil to fuel one of bis engines at the París Exhibition of 1900 and he wrote in 1912: "The use of vegetable oils for engine fuels may seem insignificant today. But such oils may become in the course of time as important as petroleum and the coal tar products of the present time" (Nitske and Wilson, 1965).

"---There are today many reasons for considering the prophecy of R Diesel reásonable: · The foreseeable increase of price in the near future of the fossil oil, due to the world' s reserves límitations tbat can be depleted in approx. 80-100 years. · The interest in the European Community for diversifying agricultural production including energy crops. · Environmental protection: 1. vegetable oil combustion maintains the equilibrium of C~ in the at:m.osphere;2. vegetable oils have lower sulphur content and are safer to manipulate and store than fossil oils (e.g. sunflower oil's tlashpoint is 215ºC compared with 77ºC for diesel).

The European Comrnunity has established to keep the same level of c~ for the emissions in the years 2000 as it was in 1990, in order to control the global greenhouse effect.

The eco-friendly features of vegetable oils and their metbylesters are given by the elimination or significant reduction of major polluting gas emissions typical of traditional diesel fuels. The absence of sulphur in the raw materials makes exhaust gases totally free of S~ emissions. In addition, test for micropollutants have shown a significant reduction in many other polluting emissions, particularly those relative to aromatic compounds, whose toxicity is all too well known.

In the Western countries practically all trucks, ttactors and self-propelled fann machines are diesel-powered. Diesel engines last longer, are better adapted to hard conditions and are more reliable than spark-ignited engines. Diesel fuel is also safer to store than gasoline.

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10.

TECHNOLOGIES TO DEAL WITH

CurrentIy renewables account for approximately 6% of energy oonsumption in the commaniry about half of this coming from the use of wood as a fuel source and most of the rest from hydro-electric generation.

The Connnission wishes this figure to increase by about 2% by the year 2000. Accordingly, the goal of oomrnunity action is to promote the market penetration of energy technologies and to facilitate the uptake of renewables in Comrnunity markets.

Most of the technologies which have emerged in recent years (photovoltaics, solar energy applications in buildings,...) are under-utilised at present in Europe's energy markets. The reasons are: . Most of the recent past has been a period of energy abundance with cheap oil available until the mid-70s and again in the mĂ­d-SĂźs. . Most of the technology required to develop cost -competitive rnarket products from solar and biomass sources is relatively recent.

WĂ­th reference to the first reason given, the fact that Europe must now face the prospect of more complex and more expensive energy supply and utilisation schemes - given possible supply prob1ems and environmental concerns - mean that it is now time to develop and implement new energy technologies and strategies.

With reference to the sefund reason, conventional wisdom in the energy field has it that most RES are too expensive, due to some issues: a) Low energy density: Because renewables are not centrally availab1e, it is claimed that they cannot benefit from economies of scale. On the other hand, it should be recalled that energy utilization is decentra1ized. , However, renewables are flexible enough in use to be integrated into existing networks, avoiding large and costIy distribution ones. b) Intennittency: A number of RE such as solar heating or PV are intennittent. Hence, on a small scale, energy storage systems must be provided if continuous power supply is required. e) The need for large land aTeasfor installation: d) High cost: A stage of oost-competitiveness with conventional energy sources has now been reached by wind power, biomass and solar energy applications in building, though, at present, photovoltaics is cost-competitive for remote applications only,

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10.1 - Current status of technologies In the residential and comaercíal building sector active solar heating and cooling technology may be segmented into four basic applications: swimming-pool heating, water heating, space heating and space cooling.

The residential sector, as considered in this repon, includes energy consumption , related to all building used as dwellings (e.g. for heating, lighting, sanitary hot water, etc). In terms ofintemational averages, in the residential sector most of the energy is consurned for space heating (60%), water heating (18%), dornestic appliances (inc1uding 6% for refrigeration and cooking, 3% for lighting) with other uses accounting for 13%.

The commercial sector includes stores, business, and public buildings.

10.2 - Active Solar Heating and Cooling: The basic building block of an active solar energy system is the collector which contains a receiver or absorber that convens the incident solar radiation into collected energy. Energy collected is transferred to a working fluid for transpon directIy to the loadusing pumps, pipes and valves or to insulated storage tanks for later use.

To meet daily loads during yrolonged periods without sunshine, active solar systems can be supplernented by a back-up conventionaJ/system .

From the outset, heating systems should be considered together with electricity generation, Small-scale cogeneration may be especially suitable for multifamily houses or large public and comrnercial buildings. ,

Technologies that could improve the efficiency with which structures are heated include the following: · Improvernents in traditional heating systems (like condensing boilers). · Developrnent of local and long-range heating and cooling networks to serve campuses. · Integration of RES directIy into building components. · Large underground systems capable of storing hot water for long periods, providing heat during the cold months. · Advanced heat pumps to provide both heating and cooling.

The introduction of such technologies could also be accelerated by a variety of means. · Specific codes for heating systems; · Taking the costs of externalities into account.

10.3 - Active solar heating: It is a well established technology, being the production of dornestic hot water the main application.

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Efficiencies depend on many factors including the collection temperature. In most solar heating systems, the solar collector either satisfies the fullload, or it can act as a preheater, taking a heat transfer fluid from a storage tank and heating is throughout the day.

10.4 - Active solar cooling Work is underway on the development of a number of active solar cooling systems, although existing ones are expensive and connnercialization is still a long way off. At present, solar desiccant and solar driven absorption systems are thought to have the greatest potential Although absorption systems are industrially well developed, the efficiency of solar heated evaporators with flat-plate collectors, is too low to ensure an economic return even with evacuated collectors. With such a low efficiency, the collector area becomes large and costly.

There could be success with some absorption cooling machines-particularty those which work at low temperature (LiBr/H2 O systems using a normal flar plate collector to supply the heat, for example).

With regard to developrnent prospects, considerable attention.

10.5 - CoUectors and transparent

solid-gas absorption-desorption

systems should receive

insulation technology

( Solar collectors have becone more reliable and more efficient in recent years.

Transparent insulation materials are used to improve conventional techniques of collector construction.

FIat plate collectors are the most conn:nercialised at presento Its technology is considered mature. Cost reductions may result from improved manufacturing technĂ­ques and simplified system design.

High efficiency flat plate collectors use today selectiye coating, a glass cover and a Teflon sheet as a convection barrier.

Efficiencies of up to 50% can be reached.

Evacuated tubular collectors are also technically mature, but at present they are only made on a batch basis and not on mass production.

Unplaced solar collectors are suitable for heating at low temperatures only. They are made from polypropylene.

10.6 - Swimming-pool heating: The simplest application for active solar technology is for heating water to the low temperatures needed for residential or public swinnning pools. The pool itself acts as the energy storage system, In most cases, the pool water is passed directly through the panels. Heating systems for outdoor pools are usually 25

operated only in the swnrner when the arnbient temperature is close to the pool temperature. PaneIs made of bare metal sheet with tubes or inexpensive molded or extruded polymers or elastomers are typical.

A typical residential swimming-pool system may employ from 15 to 40 m2 of solar collector. Public pool systems may employ from 30 to 300 m2, ando in some cases, this application use g1azed, medium-temperature collectors.

10.7 - Passive solar heating and cooling: A passive solar building works as an integrated system incorporating solar energy collection, distribution and storage, together with ventilation and auxiliary heating.

Passive solar heating configurations for the design of the building itself include: 路 Direct gain systems: large areas of south-facing glazing. 路 Indirect gain systems: Combining the collecting, storage and distribution functions within some part of the building envelope which endoses the living spaces. 路 Isolated gain systems: Where solar collection is thermally isolated from the living spaces of the building and energy transfer from the colector to the living space or storage and then the living space is effected by convention or radiation.

Passive solar cooling deals with th following technologies or conditions: - Microclimate, .iting and site layout - Building form - Building envelope - Thermal mass - Airflow and the main systems under ongoing R+D are: - Ventilation systems - Ground cooling systems - Evaporative cooling systems

10.8 - Transport. Technologies to deal with We will see the technologies related with the production ofvegetable oils.

We consider two types of plant oils according to the way of obtaining them: by compression and extraction, and by pyrolisis. Plant oils obtained by pyrolisis are more likely for application in turbines for producing electricity than for intemal combustion engines.

10.9 - Application in combustion engines: There are two possibilities for the application of vegetable oils to interna! combustion engines: 26

-Adaptation ofthe engines to the fuel (vegetable oil engines).

- Adaptation of the fuel to the motor (transesterification process).

The major problem when using pure plant oils in direct-injected diesel engines is coke deposition at the injector and at the combustion chamber, pistĂłn, valves,... that impedes the engine running in short - or long - term use. The amount of time before power loss and engine deterioration becomes obvious varĂ­es with engine time, loading and condition, and the type of vegetable oil. It may be as brief as 10 hours for linseed oil or more than 100 hours for sunflower oil in direct -injected engines.

Problems with build-up of deposits around injector tips are caused by much higher viscosity and carbon content of vegetable oils comparison with diesel fuel or oil esters.

The use of oils fuels with high viscosity without suitable injector modification interferes with needle seating and possibly aggravates post-injection dribble from the nozzle.

Coking leads to power reduction, smoke increase and misfiring in multi-cylinder engines. Unburnt fuel washes down cylinder walls leading to ring gurnrning and diluted oil in the sump. The results can be piston ring stickiness and lubricant deterioration leading to the engine breakdown.

All these considerations lead to the faet that vegetable oils can not be used without any transformation in direct-diesel engines. They can nevertheless be used indirect-injected (Deutz) or in special plant oil engines (like the swirl-charnber Elsbett engine).

On the other hand, vegetable oil esters have very similar characteristics to diesel fuel and can be used in the same conditions as this fuel in all types of diesel engines.

However, there are some problems when using bio-diesel in tractor engines, the most important being engine oil dilution, material compatibility and winter performance.

Of environmental concem are:

\

. Fuel transfer from tank to engine: similar to the former problem of winter performance, there can be clogging of the filter and pipes by glycerine and other bio-diesel residues. Clogging can be prevented whilst retaining the normal filler change interval and by achieving high-quality transesterification and very pure bio-diesel As an alternative to high-quality transesterification, unpressurised RME filtering after transeterification can be also a good solution to this problem . Exhaust gases: there is eaeh time more concem about the emissions, particularly to cancerogenic substances in exhaust gases. Carbon monoxĂ­de, hydrocarbons and nitrogen monoxide recur in the same amount approximately as in diesel fuel There is no suIphur dioxide in the exhaust gases of bio-diesel powered engines.

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11. RES AND IMPLEMENTATION SECTOR

OF "BEST PRACTICE" IN THE HOTEL

Due to increased disposable income, and leisure time and improved transport facilities and infrastructure, tourism has grown enormously during the last tbree decades. The nurnber of ovemight stays in the EU in 1992 was 840 million, an increase of21.5% on 1980levels.

Tourist has been growing more rapidly than GDP for sometime. Intemational tourism in Europe has developed more rapidly than domestic tourism RecentIy a EU 12 average annual growth rate of 3.4% for the year 2000 was forecast.

Factors of major influence on tourism in Europe are polĂ­tĂ­cal/ legal, economical and ecological.

In the light of increasing stability and wealth in Europe, the following major trends are expected: - Growth in all regions will continue - Tourists will tend to avoid areas having major environmental problems.

ConsequentIy, there is a specific interest in analyzing renewable energy in relation to tourism and hotels.

Such relations are nonnally not covered by conventional planning methods.

RE has a very big potential as part of such "green tourism". To be able to market it, the ecological concept has to be convincing. This means that the % of RE supply of a "eco-tourism" hotel or resort has to be high, 70% or more of the totalenergy supply.

This "green-tourism" will often be connected to islands, coastal regions, ... Where the potential for RE supply Ă­s good In these areas conventional energy supply many times will be costIy due to small systems, transportation of fossil fuels...

On the other hand, tourism industry is changing into big chains that develop their own technology. There is a trend to the concentration and specialisation joined to a strong technological innovation rateo The concentration into big chains is done though merges, absorptions and hotel association.

In the specialisation of this business, the hotels are less centred in the real state promotion and more in the management of the hotel business and in the developing of technologies.

The termBAT ("Best Available Technology") or BPM ("Best Practicable Means") is used in some air and water emission regulations, with the administrative definition including criteria for cost -effectiveness, However, this BPM standards must be at least al stringent as the uniform national technology standard The implementation of "best practice" has as a major objective to make tourism familiar with this new and clean technologies, by mean of: . Supporting the realisation of projects aiming at the integration of solar thermal or photovoltaic technologies in hotels.

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· Dissemination of information paekages over all the tourist sector in the EU. · Suggestions for financing schemes, advíce to assure technical quality, guarantee of results, In particular, hotels present highly favourable conditions for the installation of solar equipment for the production of sanitary hot water (SHW). However, due to the faet that a detailed analysis is required for each individual case, such systems have only been deployed on a very low scale, In order to be able to provide such a service efficientIy, a structure devoted exclusively to carry out feasibility studies for solar heating facilities for the production of SHW at hotels ís needed, taking into aecount the characteristics or conditions that hotels present. · High annual energy consumption of SHW. · Temperature levels required pennit the use of flat plate collectors. · The architectural characteristics of hotels, norma1ly including fiat roofs and terraces, tend to be favourable for the installation of solar energy systems, · The tourist industry' s concern for environmental conservation ís greater than that of rnany other sectors, These special circumstances connected to the "green-tourism" offer at the same time special technical challenges but also perspectives for utilising RE solutions to a greater extent.

12. MARKET ACT~S Energy technologies and their services may rrade in markets that are not organised in a manner that facilitates efficient decisíons. In end-use markets this is .particularly a problem in the housing and commercial building sector, where the returns to investments in energy efficiency often do not accrue to those who make the investment decisions. Decisions on energy efficiency in buildings are typically made by real estate developers and architects, who tend to \apply aecepted practice as embodied in building standards and codeso Beyond these standards neither group has clear incentives to focus on the life cycle costs of energy- related choices in regard to building design and equipment choice.

New technologies generally have higher initial cost than conventional technologies, though their life-cycle costs may be mnch lower.

This problem is particularly important in the building sector since the initial cost of the building is a primary focus of the developer and architect and energy costs are passed on to and paíd for by the owner or rentero A similar problem may occur in markets for RE technologies; for instance, in relation to the design of buildings to aecornmodate solar energy, or in relation to investment in electricity generating technologies that would work most productively if electric utilities were to make changes to infrastructure or operating procedures.

Let' s see the role than the different aetors may play in this short of market.

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12.1. Institutional Actors Governments are finding great potential for promoting the use of RES and for slowing the growth in energy use and C~ emissions of both sectors, buildings and transpon, without compromising products services, through carefully targeted efficienc specification programmes.

These progrannnes, if designed to facilitate rather than frustrate competition, can be very effective in encouraging the developrrent, marketing and purchase of RE technologies.

This action can be speed up in two basic ways: . Direct means such as the outright sponsorship of relevant investments in research, development and demonstration programrnes, the official promotion of information exchanges concerning RE technologies, and dissemination and training once a new technology becomes available; . Indirect means which increase the chances that new or improved technologies can succeed in penetrating the connnercial marketplace. For instance a govemment might resolve to remove barriers to the market deployrnent of new or enhanced technologies, eliminate distortions from current energy prices, make national investment regimes more stable and transparent, reform obstructive regulations and standards, and provide incentives at various stages of development and/or use.

As more govemments consider and implement a wide range of progrannnes independently, the potential advantages of international co-operation become increasingly apparent.

The main actors in internatio~

technology co-operation initiatives are:

a) United Nations: The United Nations has several vehicles for international technology co-operation; these are the U.N. Economic Cornmission for Europe, (ECE), the D.N. Development Programme (UNDP), the U.N. Environment Programme (UNEP), "QNESCO and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). b) OECDIIEA: OECD concentrates most of its work on environmental technologies in two Directorates: . The Environmental Directorate, for cleaner production technologies . . The Directorate for Science, Technology and Industry, addressing issues to the development of " enabling" technologies.

The lEA has established an energy technology and R+D collaboration programme to facilitate co-operatĂ­on among lEA Member and non-Member countries on energy technology development and deployrnent (" Implementing Agreements"). e) Cornmission ofEuropean Cormnunities:

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The CEC supports the development and the uptake of RES in the market as one of the major items in the Comrmmity energy policy, through a number of programmes, namely Altener, Joule-Thermie and Save.

Altener deals solely with RES, in all topies; Joule-Thermie aims to promote research, development, demonstration and dissemination of energy technologies in the market, including RES as one of the major fields of activity. Save acts on energy policy, energy planning and stanadardisation and labelling issues.

There is a number of other Conn:nunity pro grarnmes which consider RES as a vector for achieving other objectives; the Valoren programme ron between 1986 and 1990 and aimed to ancourage economic and social cohesion by means of the development of indigenous energy resources (including of course rational use of energy) in less developed regions. Other programmes, aiming to technology transfer within the EU or to tbird countries include RES as one of the eligile items.

12.2. Private Actors : Manufactures

Dealers.

Market evaluations typical1y examine various market effects that could be attributed to a governmental energy efficiency programrne. Market evaluations can be categorized into two types: those using national policy models and those using rnarket tracking data that can be gathered through aggregate rnarket analyses such as production data on appliances, stocking practices by dea1ers, and possibly the price of energy equipment.

12.3 Market-tracking

Evaluations:

Market-tracking evaluations involve more focused studies of individual markets. Such analyses examine changes in manufactw¡er, distributor, retailer, and contractor/installer behaviour that cold lead to increased adoption of energy efflcient measures. Examples include: .

12.4 Changes Among Manufacturers:

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· Changes to product lines, Manufacturers may change the features and efficiencies of their products to take advantage of anticipated sales increases due to a government efficiency programme. These prograrnmes could involve labelling, consumer education and information programmes, and efficiency standards. Efficiency standards for energy using equipment most directIy influence product lines by effectively prohibiting the sales of equipment that do not rreet specified base efficiency levels. The extent to which manufacturers attribute these product changes to energy efficiency prograrnmes varies, but there is no question that there has been some influence. · Pricing and discounting. As demand increases for energy efficiency products, manufacturers may compete for a larger share of this growing market through price competition. · Standardízatíon and labeling. As consumers demand energy efficiency products, manufacturers may respond by better labeling and advertising the saving that can be achieved by their most efficient products.

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12.5 Changes Among Dealers, Distributors and Contractors · Stocking practices. Evaluations of some RE progrannnes, as well as some industrial progrannnes have found that dealers and distributors have increased stocks of efficient equipment in anticipation of increased sales due to energy efficiency programmes. · Pricing. Evaluations of some RE programmes in places where rebates were distributed through mass mailings to consumers or provided on-site at retailers have shown that retailers have used the availability of rebates to lower prices and increase sales volume. · Promotion. Retailers who have participated in energy efficiency information or rebate progrannnes repon that they have used point-of-purchase or other forms of advertising to leverage the effect of the programrre to their advantage and sell more high efficiency products.

Enhanced services. Evaluators have found that some contractors have adopted improved installation practices and equipment corrnnissioning practices due to the emphasis given energy efficiency through various progrannnes.

Assessing the impact of an energy effi.ciencyprogramrne on a market requires that judgments be made regarding how the market would have evolved in the absence of the progrannne. Such judgments can be based on the following kinds of infonnation: · Self-reported perceptions of the programrnes impact on the behaviour of market actors such as manufacturers, dealers, distributors and contractors. · An anaIysis of the recent history and trends within the industry pertaining to the energy features of products and pricing. · An understanding of the structure of the industry and the roles of manufacturers, dealers, distributors, and contractors in influencing consumer purchase behaviour. · Analyses of other non-programme related effects that might influence product lines, pricing and promotion decisions. " These could include the overall health of the economy. technical innovations, and other market trends stennning from changes in the consumer population and consumer needs.

Methods for collecting and assessing this king of information include: 12.6 Market baseline studíes. These studies attempt to develop a comprehensive portrait of a given market at a point in time. Sources of information for market baseline studies include interviews with key market actors, reviews of industry literature, primary and secondary industry statistics, and baseline surveys of consumers' homes or businesses to assess the current stock of energy using equipment. The rnarket baseline is one important component of an energy efficiency programme evaluation, It provides the baseline from which changes in the market due to the progrannne can be observed. ·12.7 Annual interviews or focus groups with key market actors. These methods elicit information on the structure and dynamics of a market, as well as on the effects of energy efficiency programmes from samples of manufacturers or trade allies. Since an energy efficiency progrannne will influence a market 32

over a period of time, it is important that these interviews be conducted at specified intervals and consistently gather information on market indicators to develop a time series of indicators of market changes that can be attributed to the programme.

12.8 Sales tracking and other market StatĂ­stĂ­es, Tracking over time the sales of the efficiency ratings of energy using equipment, inventory information, retail display information (e.g., feet of shelf The value of this information can be enhanced if it can be collected over time as well as across geographic regions (e.g. by country). This will allow for comparisons of areas where energy efficiency progrannnes have been heavily emphasized and areas where pro grarnmes either were not in place at the same time or where the emphasis of energy efficient effortshas been different. Cross-sectional analyses of changes in markets are important for attributing market effects to energy efficiency progran:n:nes.

13. END USERS 13.1 TRANSPORT SECTOR: 13.2 Sub-sectors The main sub-sectors are road transpon, mil, air and water (shipping). All of these categories can be further subdivided. Road transport includes passenger cars and srnall trucks (both for business and personal use), trucks for freight hauIage, buses for public transport, and two-wheel vehicles (motorcycles, mopeds). RaĂ­l, air and water can be divided between passenger and freight. There can also be funher subdivisions concerning the average distance of the means of transport (e.g. long-distance haulage versus urban) or by size (e.g. large cars versus compacts).

13.3 Energy-users The energy users are divided between those who own their own means of transport and thus pay for energy use directly and those who operate a vehicle en behalf of an owner. There can be individuals or fleets (which can be owned and operated by individuals or companies). For fleets, the policies and strategies are generally detennined and monitored centrally.

Driving behaviour has a large influence on energy use in road transport.

13.4 Intennediaries There are several intermediaries influencing energy use in the transport sector. They include: - Maintenance mechanics. The maintenance of a vehicle is very important to its fuel efficiency and thus mechanics playa very important roleo - Retailers and distributors.

- Vehicle and parts manufacturers.

- Energy supply industry.

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13.5 Capital stock and technologies There is a diverse range of energy-using technologies in the transport sector. The propulsion system in all sub-sectors is made up of many individual parts. There are also other parts such as drive-trains, body design, tires, materials (because of weight and strength) which influence total fuel consumption.

14. RESIDENTIAL SECTOR 14.1 Sub-sectors The main sub-sectors are single-family and multiple-family dwellings. They can be owner-occupied or rented accommodation.

14.2 Energy-users There is a wide variety of energy users. These include owners and renters. But not all energy users react the same way.

There are different ways of using appliances or lights. Age is considered an important factor because older people, for example, often need warmer homes.

14.3 Intermediaries There are many intennediaries which affect energy use, including: - Energy supply companies which often maintain boilers, do energy audits, provide information and other energy efficiency services. , - Retailers of combustĂ­on equipment, appliances and energy-efficient technologies such as insulation and weather-stripping.

- Developers and builders of dwellings. Builders sometimes install equipment in residences before selling them - Architects who can incorporate energy-efficient features into the design of a dwelling.

- Urban designers who can influence the configuration of a neighbourhood to maximize, for example, passive solar characteristics.

- Manufacturers of equipment and appliances.

- Maintenance staff in mnlrifamily dwellings.

14.4 Capital Stock and technologies There are obvious technologies such as houses, heating systems and lighting that all residents are aware use energy. However, all electrical appliances, televisions, stereos and computers, to name but a few, use energy and the penetration of such equipment has increased greatIy over the past few decades. Focus,

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however, has been on the appliances using the greatest quantities of energy: refrigerators, washing machines, dish washers, freezers,etc.

15. COMMERCIAL SECTOR: 15.1 Sub-sectors

Not all countries sub-divide the commercial sector the same way, but the main categories are: - Office buildings (varying sizes) - Individual shops and large retail complexes - Hotels - Restaurants.

15.2 Energy-users

Because of range of sub-sectors, there is no pattern of the users: they can be owner-occupied or rented A high percentage commercial space is leased.

15.3 Intennediaries

There is a wide range of intermediaries: - Energy supply companies, particularly electric utilities, because of the high share of electricity in total demand - Energy service companies who do retrofits, boiler maintenance, energy audits, etc.

- Retailers and distributors of equiprnent - Developers, builders and managernent companies - Equiprnent and appliance manufacturers.

While the buildings themselves are important, the other energy-using technologis that are important in this sector are: lighting, HV AC systems (heating, ventilation and air conditioning systems), computers and other office equipment.

16. LABELLING AND CO-OPERATION SCHEMES: "Standards" is a somewhat ambiguous term that refers to two distinct concepts: a) Test protocols for measuring products' energy use and efficiency, and b) Legal requirements stipulating maximum or mi.nimum acceptable levels of that energy use or efficiency.

In both cases, labelling will be complementary.

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Tenninologyly, labels are product makings with supporting promotion and advertising, tbat inform customers about the relative energy use or efficiency of different models of products. Compared with ratings listings - "product listings that allow direct comparison of the energy use or efficiency of many different models of products" - they generally convey less information, but in a more visible manner.

Information labels, affixed on all product models, indicate the energy efficiency of a particular model relative to similar models meeting or exceeding a certain efficiency level, indicate by their presence those models of superior energy efficiency, and are, by definition, voluntary.

Ecolabels, often rate products according lo multiple environmental parameters - such as water use, energy use, noise, ..- at multiple points in products' lifecycle:manufacture, use and disposal.

Labels inform consumers about the energy cost consequences of their purchase decisions.

They are meant to alert custoroers to the energy cost of products, which are far less apparent than the sticker price.

The hope is tbat the information will encourage customers to factor energy cost into their decisions, and then to choose products that have lower overall costs than they would have otherwise.

Labels also provide an information foundation for other energy efficiency measures, such as utility efficiency incentive programmes and government procurement directives.

The influences on consumer buying decisions, in turn, signal to manufacturers the need to develop, produce and market more efficient products.

16.1 Co-operation schemes: The market signals sent. when each country implements ~s own particular set of labels and standards are quite often inconsistent.

Co-operation could help increase energy savings by marking the signals clearer and most consistent.

International co-operation would improve information comparability from market to market or market transparency.

This would enable consumers, producers, retailers, government, and utilities to better inform themselves about a wider range of a particular product and its component technologies.

Co-operation would assist governmentt: in their effort to design, implement and monitor efficiency programmes related to labels, reducing the cost of developing test protocols and analysing potential efficiency specification programmes.

The strength and clarity of market signals obviously depends on the level of co-operation tbat is attained.

In order of increasing level of co-operation are: 36

Collaboration in the design of labels, Coordination of the programrne implementarion and monitoring efforts, Harmonisation of the energy specification levels used in the various programmes.

Of the three 1evelsof co-operation, this last one has received the most attention from po1icy markers.

In order to harmonize efficiency specificarion programmes, countries' differing, and sorretimes firmly established, product test protocols would need to be reconciled. If parties cannot agree on connnon test, they will find it nearly impossible to harmonize their systems of labels.

Regarding harmonisation of efficiency specification progrannnes, there are additional hurd1es to connnons labels.

First, differing socio-polĂ­tical attitudes towards voluntary versus mandatory measures would need to be accornmodated.

Second, differing cost effectiveness of labels would need to be resolved.

In shon, harmonisation of test protocols and energy specifications on labels makes most sense for products.

In which product characteristics and usage patters do not vary great1y from country to country and where the level of efficiency that is economica1ly justifiable is rather insensitive to energy prices.

17. FINANCING It will cover actions like: a) Third party financing mechanism plan. b) Financial instrurrents, e) Pre- feasibility studies and training.

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a) Third party financing: A lack of capital for investment in active/passive solar heating/cooling systems is listed as a key barrier to growth of the market.

Prospects for market development are also held back by a lack of awareness on the past of financial institutions, energy distribution companies and building organisations as to the potential contribution that can be made by sorre technologies.

It is therefore proposed to develop methods wich will encourage the availability of new capital to fund RE installations.

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In particular, the availability and application of third party financing (1PF) capital for investment in RE technologies would help to achieve general market acceptance.

Third party financing is the funding of improvements to the energy efficiency of a building or process by an outside energy service cornpany, usíng the energy savings produced to pay for that investment.

There are many different approaches to TPF but they all share these common elements: that the energy efficiency investment is made by an outside energy service company with no up-front capital required by the energy user, and that the cost saving produced are viewed as a stream of income wbich will support a business.

17.1 TPF has great advantages: · The facility owner does not have to raise capital to finance conservation measures. · The third party assurnes all the risk that energy savings will occur. · The facility owner does not have to determine which equipment ís most appropriate for this facility. · The facility owner can still make other investments while reaping the benefits of energy savings. · It ís usual for the facility owner to own the equipment at the end of the contract.

On the other hand, several factors are influential in restricting widespread use of TPF: · Lack of finance on the side of the existing Energy Service Companies. · Lack of knowledge of technical options. · CompIexity of the contracts. · Administration problems.

17.2 Financial incentives: Financial incentives were very popular in the late 1970s. primarily in the forms of grants and tax incentives.

After severe budget restraínts in the early 1980s. many governments abandoned large grant progrannnes, although they have made a comeback in several countries.

Financial incentives can have a valuabIe role in more than simpIy providing financial aid to improve the attractiveness of investments in RE plants, as the following table shows: b) Pre-feasibility studies and training: Training should be addressed, in general, to all parties having a detemñnant role on the building design construction and use and should has as objetives: · To focus on the building physic's phenomena, byanalysing the main performance characteristics of the main thermal and visual processes. · To propose clearly and in a practical way all the scientific and technical alternatives based on the principIes of the bioclimatic architecture and to educate the trainees appropriately on their application. · To present in a global way all design and construction problems related to buildings and not to isolate the energy sector from the all other design and construction parameters.

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· To sensibilize all parties on the important environmental topics related to the building design construction and operation. · To ínform a1lparties on the available European energy technology and the market possibilities and · To establish the necessary contacts for immediate and future collaboration.

More precisely, any program of training should deal mainly with all the topics related to comfort: 1. Sitting and microclimate design 2. Solar control 3. Thermal mass 4. Ventilation 5. Heatinglcooling Each topic wi1lbe treated following the same steps: - Objetives -Typologies of solution - Techniques/availability - Assessment{mteractions - Design guidelines.

18. PROGRAMME OF ACTION FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN SMALL ISLANDS. 18.1 Energy Resources Basis for action- Small island are currently heavily dependent on imported petroleum products, largely for transport and electricity generation, energy often accounting for more than 12 per cent of imports. They are also heavily dependent on indigenous biomass fuels for cooking and crop drying.- Srnall island wi1l continue to be heavily dependent 00 petroleum fuels and biomass both in the short and medium term.

However, the current uses of those fuels tend to be highly inefficient. Increased efficiency through appropriate technology and national energy policies and managerrent measures wi1lreap both financial and envíronmenral benefits for srnall islands.

The renewable energy resources endowrrents of srnall islands vary greatly. A1l have substantial solar resources, which have still not been developed to their full potential Wind potential is highly variable with location, both within and between countries. Hydroelectric power is a possibility only for sorre islands.

Biomass endowment is common but unequal Studies of the potential for geothermal, ocean thermal energy conversion and wave energy are continuing.- Several constraints to the large-scale conmercíal use of renewable energy resources rernain, including technology development, investment costs, available indigenous skills and management capabilities. Srnall-scale application for rural electrification has been sporadic. The use of renewable energy resources as substantial commercíal fuels by srnall island is dependent on the developmenr and con:nnercialproduction of appropriate technologies.

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A. NATIONAL ACflON, POLICIES AND MEASURES 1. Implerrent appropriate public education and awareness programmes, including consumer incentives to promote energy conservation.

2. Promete the efficient use of energy and the development of envĂ­ronrrentally sound sources of energy and energy-efficient technologies, paying special attention to the possibilities of using, where appropriate, economic instruments and incentive structures and the increasing economic possibilities of renewabIe sources of energy.

3. Establish and/or strengthen, where appropriate, research capabilities in the deveIopment and promotion of new and renewabIe sources of energy, including wind, solar, geothermal, hydroeIectric, wave and biomass energy, and ocean thermal energy conversion.

4. Strengthen research capabilities and develop technologies to encourage the efficient utilization of non-renewable sources of energy.

B. REGIONAL ACTION 1. Establish or strengthen research and policy capabilities in the development of new and renewable sources of energy, including wind, solar, geothermal, hydroelectric, wave and biomass energy.

2. Assist, where appropriate, in the formularion of energy policies, standards and guidelines for the energy sector that are applicabIe to srnall islands, and enhance national capacity to effectiveIy plan, manage and monitor their energy sectors.

3. Gather and disseminate information, and promete regional cooperation and technical exchanges among srnall islands on energy-sector issues, including new and renewable sources of energy. \

C. INTERNATIONAL ACTION 1. Support the research, development and utilization of renewable sources of energy and related technologies and improve the efficiency of existing technologies and end-use equipment based on conventional energy sources.

2. Formulate and ratify international agreements on energy-sector issues in relation to sustainable developrrent in such areas as carbon emissions and the transportation of petroleum (for exampIe, the use of double-hulled tankers).

3. Develop effective mechanisms for the transfer of energy technology and establish databases to disseminate information on experience in the use of new and renewable sources of energy as well as on the efficient use of non-renewable energy sources.

4. Encourage international institutions and agencies, including public international financial institutions, to incorpora te environrrental efficiency and conservation principIes into energy-sector-related projects, 40

training and technical assistance, and, where approprĂ­ate, to provide concessionary financing facilities for energy-sector reforms.

5. Develop effective and efficient ways of utilizing, disposing of, recycling and reducing the by-products and waste of energy production.

19. TOURISM RESOURCES 19.1 Basis for action 1. Tourism has contributed much to the development of small islands and will continue to be very important for their future growth. It could also stimulate the development of other sectors. However, if not properly planned and managed, tourism could significantly degrade the environment on which it is so dependent. The fragility and interdependence of coastal zones and the unspoilt areas on which eco-tourism depends calls for careful management. One of the specia1 tourist attractions of small island is the distinctiveness of their cultures. The diversity and fragility of their environments are reflected in the diversity and fragility of their cultures. The protection of the former is an important condition for the protection of the lanero 2. Capital investment in tourism, particularly for the necessary infrastructure, is costly. There is usually great competition for land resources among tourism, agriculture and other land uses. Large increases in tourism and the overdevelopment of tourism in particular areas or in whole islands could be environmentalIy and culturally disruptive and detrimental to other valuable sectors, such as agriculture. It is imperative, therefore, that the development of tourism be carefully planned, particularly in relation to compatible land uses, water management, coastal zone management and the development of parks and protected areas. Tourism, like a11forms of development in the coastal zone, needs to be carefully integrated within the existing cultural and environmental constraints and opportunities present within srnall island Eco-tourism, linking areas of high ecological value to low-impact tourism, may present important and environmentalIy sustainable opportunitĂ­es for tourism development in small island .

A. NATIONAL ACTION, POLICIES AND MEASURES 1. Ensure that tourism development and environmental management are mutually supportive.

2. Adopt integrated planning and policies to ensure sustainable tourism development, with particular attentĂ­on to land-use planning and coastal zone management, requiring environmental impact assessments for a11tourism projects; the continuous monitoring of the environmental mpact of all tourism activities; and the development of guidelines and standards for design and construction taking into account energy and water production and consumption, the generation and disposal of wastes and land degradation, the proper management and protection of eco-tourism attractions, and the carrying capacity of areas for tourism.

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3. Identify and develop facilities to meet specific niche markets, particularly in eco-tourism, nature and cultural tourism, and involve local populations in the identification and management of natural protected areas set aside for eco-tourism, 4. Adopt measures to protect the cultural integrity of small islands.

B. REGIONAL ACTION 1. Ensure that tourism and the envĂ­ronnent are mutuaIly supportive in cooperation schemes at the regional level including, where appropriate, tlrrough harrnonizing standards and regulations.

2. Encourage the assessrrent and development of potential complementarities among small islands, including the development of packaged options covering several islands and joint marketing and training progrannnes.

3. Establish or strengthen regional mechanisms for the exchange of information on the development of a safe and sustainable tourism sector, using, as appropriate, the capacities of regional tourism organizations.

C. INTERNATIONAL ACTION 1. Promote the recognition by the international corrnnunity of both the value of tourism in small island and the fragility of the resources on which it depends, and of the resulting need for international support to encourage its sustainable development.

2. Facilitate efforts, at the national and regionallevels, to assess the overall impact of the economic, social and ecological aspects of tourism, plan sustainable tourism and to develop eco- and cultural tourism

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