Insula

Geographical Perspectives on the Rock of Polynesia

There have been relatively few independent academic studies about the remote and exotic island of Niue, often known as the Rock of Polynesia. Hence, this book provides a welcome and significant contribution to the literature on Niue. The authors have investigated the island from the evolutionary, biophysical, geographical, demographic and economical perspectives, while remaining diligently conscious and attentive to its social and cultural imprints, stemming from long, scarcely known historical processes. They trace the development of the island starting with its distant origins as a submarine volcano, through the formation of an atoll at the ocean surface, to the present-day Niue. The book is as much an academic effort as well as a quest for a better destiny for Niue.

Niue Island

In publishing this book we hope, herewith, to assist the people of Niue and with them, all the Pacific Islanders, in raising awareness about their uniqueness within humankind’s heritage.

Niue Island NIUE Geographical Perspectives on the Rock of Polynesia

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James P. Terry and Warwick E. Murray Edited by:

J. P. Terry and N.E.Murray

© 2004 INSULA International Scientific Council For Island Development c/o UNESCO 1, rue Miollis 75015 Paris France Tel.: +33 145 684 056 Fax: +33 145 685 804 E-mail: insula@unesco.org www.insula.org

Edited by: James P. Terry and Warwick E. Murray Edition reviewed by: Cipriano Marín Giuseppe Orlando Layout: Luis Mir Payá ISBN 92-990023-0-4 Front Cover: ‘Ngutu Ana’ Oil Painting by Mark Cross, Niue Artist This is Anaana Cave in the cliffs of Avaiiki on the north west coast of Niue Reproduced from the original with kind permission of Mark Cross 2

Niue Island GEOGRAPHICAL PERSPECTIVES ON THE ROCK OF POLYNESIA

Edited by:

James P. Terry and Warwick E. Murray

International Scientific Council For Island Development 3

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CONTENTS Foreword by the Honourable Young Vivian, Premier of Niue and former Chancellor of the University of South Pacific .................................

7

Niue’s Place in the Pacific Warwick E. Murray and James P. Terry ........................................................

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PHYSICAL PERSPECTIVES The long-term evolution of Niue Island.

Patrick D. Nunn and James M.R. Britton .....................................................

31

Geomorphic features of Niue Island: chasms, caves and other karst varieties.

James P. Terry ...............................................................................................

75

The soils of Niue.

John A. Soulsby ............................................................................................

89

Climatic hazards facing Niue.

James P. Terry ............................................................................................... 113 Niue’s biodiversity: a foundation for ecological, cultural and economic survival of a small island nation.

Randy R. Thaman, Cassygina Tukiuha, Valu Tukiuha, Misa Kulatea and Sydney Aue .............................................. 125 HUMAN PERSPECTIVES Empty shells? Demographic decline and opportunity in Niue.

Lionel Gibson ............................................................................................... 203 Land use and land degradation on Niue.

Matt M. McIntyre and J. A. Soulsby ............................................................. 217 Food import dependency in Niue.

Imam Ali ....................................................................................................... 227 Globalise or perish? Threats to the sustainability of Niue’s agro-export sector.

Warwick E Murray ....................................................................................... 243 Appendix........................................................................................................... 257 5

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Fakaalofa Lahi Atu, There are many purely unique places throughout the Globe. However, the only one that is of special significance for me is my homeland, the island of Niue, sometimes affectionately referred to as the Rock of Polynesia.

It is unfortunate that very little information is made available regarding Niue and her people. Therefore it is with great pleasure that I make this contribution to this publication. I sincerely hope that the information portrayed in this book will provide to the world at large a better picture of the people, the culture and the history of Niue.

I would like to thank the authors for undertaking this exercise and to all who have contributed.

Fakaue Lahi Mahaki, Oue Tulou

Hon. Young M. Vivian PREMIER OF NIUE 7

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NIUE’S PLACE IN THE PACIFIC WARWICK E MURRAY1 AND JAMES P TERRY2

Institute of Geography, Victoria University Wellington, New Zealand 2 Geography Department, The University of the South Pacic Suva, Fiji 1

Introduction: The Unique Place of Niue

Niue Island is truly an awe-inspiring place. It rises in magnificent cliffs, the only speck of land in a vast area of ocean (Figure 1). Because of this remoteness, whether you approach the island by air or sea it is indeed a welcome sight. When the early Polynesian colonisers saw Niue after their difficult and treacherous sea voyage, they too must have been relieved to see land. The first arrival of Europeans was not such an auspicious occasion, as Fifita Talagi (1982, p111) explains.

“On 20 June 1744 a strange ship appeared on the horizon of Niuean waters.

It was Captain James Cook with his ship the Revolution. The following day Cook landed on the coast three times and received a hostile reception from groups of Niueans who accosted Cook and his party with “the ferocity of

Figure 1: Location of Niue in the South Pacific Ocean 9

NIUE ISLAND

wild boars”. After the third attempt [to go ashore] Cook left. He named the island in the mood of his last impression, “Savage Island”.”

In many respects Niue could still be considered a savage place, although not for the reasons experienced by Cook. The sheer cliff line may look magnificent (Figure 2), but the surrounding reefs are narrow and afford little protection to the shore from constant pounding by the Pacific Ocean. On the limited land area there is only a thin covering of soil which is difficult to work, and every few years tropical cyclones pass by and tear with violent winds at both the vegetation and Figure 2 View along the western coastline human settlements. Finding enough fresh water is also a problem. The limestone bedrock is so porous that any precipitation immediately percolates deep underground, from where it must be extracted by bores and wells. The remoteness of the island means that offshore transportation is infrequent, restricting access to overseas markets for local products, and making expensive the import of fuel, raw materials and manufactured goods. For the people who live on Niue, life can therefore be harsh. One has to respect their tenacity in the way they cope with their narrow resource base and the challenges of surviving in such an isolated place. And yet they do endure in spite of the hardships, with a continuing strong sense of culture and tradition, and are known throughout the Pacific for their generous and hospitable nature. The Niuean people, as well as their island, are easy to admire.

For Geographers, Niue Island is a unique locality in both physical and human terms. With a land area of 259 km2 it holds magnitude records at both extremes.

It is one of our planet’s largest raised coral atolls and simultaneously the world’s smallest independent territory with a resident population of approximately 2,000.

Located in the South Pacific Ocean, Niue lies roughly in the middle of a triangular area bounded by Samoa, Tonga and the Southern Cook Islands, 750 km northeast of Tongatapu, 600 km south south east of Upolu and 600 km west north west of Rarotonga. Niue is one of only two single island states in the Pacific (Figure 3), the other being Nauru.

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Niue therefore presents geographers with unique patterns and processes with which to grapple, especially in relation to the physical and human geography of islands.

Academic investigation of the country is particularly interesting in two senses. First, it provides accounts of the special features of the island, reminding us of the importance of ‘place’.

Second, it provides clues concerning the way in Figure 3: Main settlements and road pattern which exogenous factors are increasingly influencing change in small island states. Whilst geographically isolated, Niue is not immune to the shifting tides of the regional political economy.

This is increasingly so in economic, cultural and technological spheres as globalisation becomes a growing challenge for the people of Niue. In the physical sphere, the impact of regional and global environmental change is also becoming more obvious.

This work engages with some of these challenges from a geographical perspective.

Niue’s Changing Physical Geography

In order to understand why Niue exists as a high limestone island in such an isolated place in the South Pacific, we need to look beneath the sea surface and also a long way back in time. Like every other oceanic island in the Pacific Ocean, Niue has a volcano at its foundation. Incredible as it may seem, the high limestone outcrop we see today is in fact just a thin cap on top of an enormous volcanic edifice that reaches down nearly five kilometers to the ocean floor. During the various stages of its lifecycle, ‘Niue’ has existed as a volcano, an atoll and a now as a raised limestone island. Hill (1996) and Nunn and Britton (this volume) give clear and readable accounts of how these transformations took place, and the following description draws largely from their work.

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The Niue volcano probably erupted during the early to middle Miocene geological period (about 20 million years ago) (Figure 4), possibly as a result of the Pacific crustal plate drifting over a hot-spot in the Earth’s mantle. At great ocean depths where there is enormous water pressure, the magma erupted quietly as pillow lavas forming a dense basaltic volcanic core. As the top of the cone eventually grew up into the relatively shallow waters within 500 m of the surface, the lower hydrostatic pressure allowed escaping gases to produce much more violent eruptions. Fragmented materials such as ash and other Figure 4: Model of the evolution of Niue Island (from Hill 1996, Nunn and pyroclastics were ejected Britton this volume) and draped the flanks of the cone as loose volcanic sediments to thicknesses of almost 3 km. The end of volcanic activity was marked by the collapse of the caldera, maybe accompanied by a cataclysmic explosion, which removed a large part of the south west section of the cone.

After volcanic activity ceased, the extinct Niue volcano probably underwent periods of both subaerial and submarine erosion during the late Miocene because of changing sea levels. The warm tropical ocean encouraged the growth of coral reefs on the flanks of the volcano. The volcanic foundation began to subside as the sur12

NIUE’S PLACE IN THE PACIFIC

Figure 5: Formation of an atoll by volcano subsidence (from Darwin).

rounding crust cooled after passing over the hot-spot, but the reef was able to grow upwards and keep pace with island subsidence. This eventually formed the Niue atoll (Figure 5). A long period of continued subsidence allowed accumulation of reef limestone to a maximum thickness of over 500 m. This carbonate load caused instability in the underlying volcanic sediments, resulting in episodes of landsliding that produced the concave bights around the modern Niue coastline.

In the Quaternary geological period (last 1.6 million years), uplift of the Niue atoll began because of an upward buckling effect in the Pacific plate, caused by its subduction under the Indo-Australian plate to the west at the Tonga Trench convergence zone (Dubois et al. 1975). Thus, the Niue we see today is a raised carbonate island, reaching 68 m above sea level and still rising. The interest in Niue by such famous scientists as Darwin (1842) and Agassiz (1903) is testament to the significance of this island in the formulation of early ideas concerning the evolution of atolls.

Contemporary Physical Geography

A snapshot of Niue’s physical geography can be seen in Table 1 below. The island’s unusual basin-and-rim topography is evidence of its atoll origin. The rim (“Mutalau Reef”) geology comprises coral reef limestones, whereas the basin (“Mutalau Lagoon”) geology is a shelly calcarenite formed from cemented calcareous atoll lagoon sediments. Around the steep coastline are a series of marine terraces and notches cut at different levels into the reef limestone, that indicate the interaction between changing sea levels and island uplift during the Quaternary period. Also cut into the bedrock are deep coastal chasms, networks of underground caves, surface depressions called dolines and rugged areas of pinnacle terrain, all of which are of great interest to geomorphologists. A combination of processes such as submarine landslides, bedrock fracturing and subaerial solu13

NIUE ISLAND

tion weathering seem to be responsible for many of these features. Bare rock is exposed over about 9000 ha or 35% of Niue’s land surface, but over the remaining area there is a covering of red-brown latosol type soils. The best soils tend to occur in the interior basin on the calcareous sediments of the ancient lagoon.

In general, however, Niue’s soils are rather shallow because limestone bedrock, being soluble, cannot produce a thick covering of weathered regolith, in contrast to that which can develop on volcanic islands.

Niue’s tropical maritime location means that it has a warm and humid climate, classified as Af tropical rainforest climate according to the Köppen system. The average temperature is around 25°C, and the 2064 mm of annual precipitation is divided unequally into a wet season (67%) from November to April and a dry season (33%) from May to October. The main influence on rainfall distribution is the seasonal movement of the South Pacific Convergence Zone (SPCZ). This is a regional low pressure zone which shifts towards the equator during the dry season, but drifts back over the island during the wet season. Tropical cyclones can be a problem during the warmer wet season, with about 4 cyclones per decade affecting the island. Although not all of these cause serious damage, the worst ones, such as Cyclone Ofa in 1990, can be devastating. Sometimes prolonged droughts are experienced during the cool dry season, especially in El Niño years.

In terms of freshwater resources, the highly permeable nature of the limestone bedrock means that there are no streams on Niue. However, freshwater is found underground as an extensive lens that floats on top of denser salt water at sea level.

The fresh groundwater can be seen inside many of the island’s caves and flowing out at the base of the limestone cliffs at low tide.

The humid tropical climate supports rich ecosystems of coastal and inland native forests. On his arrival in 1774, Cook found most of the island covered in trees.

Today much of the native forest has been degraded to secondary forest or bushland.

The 12% remaining native inland forest has a relatively open understorey vegetation. This remaining forest is the main habitat for most of Niue’s indigenous birds, flying foxes, a wide range of insects and other indigenous invertebrates such as the giant coconut crab. It is unfortunately also the home of wild or feral pigs, cats and rats, which have all been introduced by humans. Encircling much of the island is a flat fringing reef, ranging from a few metres to just over 100 metres wide. The exception is along most of the south and southeast coast where the limestone cliffs drop off rapidly into deep water. Niue’s fringing reef has a discontinuous cover of living corals, seaweeds and encrusting marine algae.

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Table 1 Snapshot of Niue’s physical geography Location Island type Land area Shape Maximum elevation Geology Coastline Reefs Topography Soils Hydrology Climate Temperature Rainfall Vegetation

19.10°S 169.55°W high limestone−raised atoll 259 km2 roughly oval, with large embayments (bights) in the west and south west coast 68 m reef limestones and associated calcareous sediments steeply cliffed with ‘staircase’ terraces narrow fringing reefs; no barrier reefs or lagoons gently undulating interior basin with steep coastal cliffs shallow and stony; red and brown latosolics (oxisols, mollisols and inceptisols), anomalously high radioactivity no streams or surface water; underground freshwater lens humid tropical; warm wet season November−April; cool dry season May−October average 24.7°C 2064 mm/year virgin forest 2,400 ha; secondary forest 20,000 ha; scrubland 3,000 ha; the balance shifting agricultural gardens and village gardens

Niue’s Changing Human Geography

The indigenous people of Niue are Polynesians. Archaeologists have dated the earliest cultural layer at Anatoloa Cave to 2053-1620 cal yr BP (103 BC - AD 330) (Walter and Anderson 1995). Oral traditions state that they arrived in roughly two groups from Samoa in the 9th or 10th century, and from Tonga in the 16th century1 (IPS, 1982). Niueans themselves have numerous legends concerning the arrival of the first inhabitants2. Niue’s pre-European history is contested, not least because written records do not exist (Talagi, 1982). Niue was less hierarchical than the rest of Polynesia, and hereditary rank was of less importance than elsewhere3. European contact was made in 1774 when Cook landed with his ship Revolution, and although Cook was not successful in his attempts to establish a European presence on the island, European-trained Pacific Island missionaries established their presence throughout the 19th century. George Lawes, the resident English missionary Today there are two distinct dialects of Niuean spoken on the island – Motu (meaning people of the island) used in the north and Tati (meaning strangers) used in the south. Some have explained this difference in terms of the relative inuence of Samoan and Tongan arrivals in the north and south respectively.

2 For a fascinating survey which incorporates scientic and folklore elements see Kumitau and Hekau (1982).

3 See IPS (1982) for an authoritative history of the island.

1

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arrived in 1861, having had the way prepared by a series of Samoan pastors. During the latter half of the 19th century the population of Niue was recorded at a peak of near 5,000. After an unsuccessful appeal to the British for protection by King Fata’aiki and a second by his successor King Tongia, the island was annexed by Britain in 1900. By 1901, unbeknown to most Niueans at the time, this sovereignty was transferred to New Zealand. Under the 1900 annexation Niue was deemed part of the Cook Islands. However, the island was given separate status in 1903.

For some time the governance of the island took place through an appointed Island Council. This was replaced by an elected Legislative Assembly in 1959 (Fono ekepule). Chapman (1982) refers to the 1960s as a decade of significant change.

The Niue Act of 1966 gave greater autonomy to the country’s leaders. Finally, after painful negotiations concerning the respective rights and responsibilities of the colonised and coloniser, and a referendum, Niue became ‘self-governing in free association’ with New Zealand in 1974. Under this agreement Niueans would retain citizenship of, and thus unlimited entry to, New Zealand. Overall, the political status of Niue is described by Chapman (1982, p.137) as follows: “The government of New Zealand would still be responsible for providing necessary economic and administrative assistance to Niue, and continue to manage Niue’s foreign affairs, and Niueans would continue to be New Zealand citizens. In all other things Niueans would manage themselves.”

Contemporary Human Geography

Arguably, the compromise with respect to citizenship, as outlined above, has proven a double-edged sword. Whilst the circular migration of Niueans to and from New Zealand has provided educational qualifications for some and led to the development of significant remittance flows, migration has often become more permanent in nature. This has underpinned the steady exodus overtime of the Niuean population and workforce. Far more Niueans now live in New Zealand (approximately 14,500) than in Niue (McKinnon and McKinnon, 2000). This has led to a range of social, economic and cultural tensions and is clearly visible in the form of widespread abandoned housing on the island.

In the census of 1997 (see Currie, 1999) the population of Niue was 2,088. It is possible that over the past few years this has dropped further (see Table 2 for overview of Niue’s socio-economic statistics). Niue’s demography is indeed unique in the Pacific.

Not only is it subject to the highest rates of out-migration in the region, it is also sub16

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ject to declining fertility. Total fertility currently stands at 3 (measured as live births per woman over 18 years of age) and the crude birth rate is the lowest in the Pacific islands at 18 per 1000. This adds to the problem of maintaining a viable population on the island. Consequently the population density has fallen from around 20 per km2 in the mid-1960s, to just over 8 per km2 in 1997 (UNDP, 1999).

The capital of the country is Alofi (Figure 6), a settlement on the west of the island. The proportional importance of Alofi in terms of total island population has been rising as the country urbanises.

Niue is now officially 32% urbanised (UNDP, 1999), although the rural-urban Figure 6: The commercial centre of Alofi split is not as pronounced as in Western societies given the relatively small distances between places and the low density of Niue’s major urban zone. By far the major form of urbanisation experienced by Niueans is trans-national. The destination of many Niueans living overseas has been cities on the Pacific Rim, especially in New Zealand.

Of the 14,500 Niueans living in New Zealand, the vast proportion are located in Auckland, Hamilton and Wellington.

Table 2 Snapshot of Niue’s human geography Population (1997 census) Population density Annual population growth 1990-98 Annual population growth of youth (<15 yrs) 1990-98 Life expectancy at birth (1999) Crude birth rate (per 1000) Crude death rate (per 1000) Land Use (1993 estimate)

Level of Urbanisation Settlement Ethnicity

2,088 8 per km2 -1.0% -6.2% 74 18 7 Arable land 19%; permanent crops 9%; permanent pastures 4%; forests and woodland 19%; other 49% 32% 14 villages Polynesian (with a small number of Europeans) 17

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Languages Adult Literacy (1997) Population with access to health service (1999) Government expenditure on health (% Govt. spending) (1998) Human development index (1999) Political status

Government type GDP per capita (1998) (US$) Breakdown of GDP (1991) Industries Major exports (Total 1996 = NZ$819,000) Export destinations (1985) Major imports (Total 1996 = NZ$6,607,000)

Import sources (1985) % of adults in subsistence activity (1997) Total national unemployment (1998) Communications

Transport Electricity production

Niuean and English 97% 100 % 8.1% 0.774 (Number 3 in the Pacific Islands) Self-governing territory in free association with New Zealand from October 19th 1974. The latter retains responsibility for external affairs Parliamentary democracy 3,714 Government 75%, Agriculture 14%, Fishing 3%, Other Private 6% Tourism, handicrafts, food processing Taro, honey, coconut cream, passionfruit products, limes, nuts, stamps, handicrafts, footballs New Zealand 88%, Cook Islands 7%, Australia 1.6%, Fiji 1.4% Food and live animals, manufactured goods, machinery and transport equipment, fuels, lubricants, chemicals, drugs NZ 59%, Fiji 20%, Japan 13%, Samoa 2.4%, Australia, US 22% 5.2% Virtually universal telephone system (376 lines in 1991); 1 television broadcast provider; 1 internet service provider.

234 km of roads (86km paved); wharf with offshore anchorage; 1 airport with paved runway 100% imported fossil fuel

Sources: UNDP (1999); Currie (1999); CIA (2001)

Governance in Niue is a mixture of the Westminster system with customary elements. The Constitution Act of 1974 provided for the election of 20 members to parliament, 14 of these to represent the various villages on the island and 6 open representatives. This body has full law making powers and its executive consists of a cabinet chaired by the Premier.4 There are also 12 village At the time of writing Niueâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Premier is Young Vivian, 66, from Hakupu village and former Minister of Education, who won the March 2002 elections with support from the Niue Peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Party and independent MPs, replacing Sani Lakatani who had served since April 1999. Lakatani replaced Frank Lui, who won two three-year terms from March 1993.

4

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(Maaga) councils which operate in conjunction with the parliament in terms of village development. Land is distributed largely according to customary ownership, where the rights of ownership are based on descent as determined by family group. These family groups are known as Magafaoa. Attempts currently under way to title land, together with the problem of absenteeism, are leading to considerable dispute on the island.

Despite the increased influence of Western culture and economics in Niue, Niueans themselves retain a strong sense of tradition (Figure 7). According to Government of Niue (1996) three aspects are central to Niuean life or Agamoie Niue: family, sharing of resources, and the importance of land.

The non-alienation policy which governs the latter Figure 7: Traditional Niuean dance at restaurant ensures that land remains the core of Niuean identity. In terms of traditional resource distribution, customary practices such as ear piercing, the hair-cutting ceremony and other ‘resource sharing’ functions, where gifts are given and their value ‘stored’ in the prospect of reciprocation at a later time, play an important role in contemporary life. Niueans are proud of their relatively egalitarian society, which sets it apart from much of Polynesia. However, there are signs that tradition sometimes sits uncomfortably with modernity. The cultural tastes of the youth, for example, are changing rapidly, as is reflected in their increasingly Western diet and dress.

The Niuean economy is comprised of a mixture of monetary and subsistence based-production. The vast majority of individuals engage in aspects of both, although the former has become increasingly precarious over the recent past.

Waged employment was relatively uncommon until some 50 years ago when a large public sector began to evolve. In the post-independence years this grew markedly, accounting for 80% of total employment by the mid-1960s. New Zealand aid restructuring, particularly from budget to project support, caused a major upheaval in the employment structure of the country in the early and mid-1990s.

As people were ‘downsized’ out of government jobs unemployment rose. This 19

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excess labour has only been partially absorbed into alternative private sector activities. This has added to the already troubling out-flow of migrants as discussed previously. Contrary to the usual trend in ‘modernising’ economies, the subsistence sector actually became increasingly important during the restructuring of the 1990s, when many former civil servants were forced back onto the land for a proportion of their time. By 1998, approximately 22% of Niuean adults were principally engaged in subsistence farming (UNDP, 1999).

By international financial standards Niue is poor. Its per capita income stood at US$3,714 in 1998. In the most recent Pacific Human Development Report (1999), however, Niue was ranked third in the region with a Human Development Index (HDI) of 0.774, and a Poverty Index which was the lowest in the Pacific Islands. Living standards are not low in Niue. Positive trends in education and healthcare, which come as a result of consistent investment and spending (mainly from aid flows) over the years, compensate for low economic indicators and sustain relatively high levels of human welfare. Furthermore, per capita income gives only a partial measure of living standards as a considerable proportion of production is subsistence in nature and life in the Niuean environment brings benefits that are not easily quantifiable. Additionally, there are some remittances in the form of goods that are not always accounted for. At the foundation, however, Niue’s high living standards remain fuelled by foreign aid.

The Niuean government is quite explicit in recognising the difficulty of attaining economic self-sufficiency. Niue is plagued in this respect by the classic problems associated with small island nations in the Pacific. These include: 1) a small population; 2) small physical size; 3) high transport costs to market; and 4) climatic vulnerability. In today’s globalising world factors 1 and 2 are especially constraining. There have been attempts to diversify the economic base of the country and to boost exports, especially since the restructuring period. Attempts include, among other things, the production of footballs, honey, lime juice, pawpaw and passionfruit products, handicrafts, and more recently taro exports, financial services, and internet domain name sales. However, results have been mixed, and none of the diversification attempts have fostered the sustainable autonomous economic development that the country so sorely requires. Consequently, Niue continues to rely principally on aid and, to a certain extent, remittances. In terms of aid receipts, Niue receives among the highest per capita aid in the world (approximately US$1,800 per annum at current levels), with over 80% coming from New Zealand alone. However, aid levels are projected to drop, particularly as New Zealand’s priorities in the region shift. There are plans further to restructure New Zealand aid in ways which may profoundly effect Niue.

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Contemporary Challenges for Niue

Physical challenges As a result of tectonic forces in the underlying oceanic crust, Niue Island is slowly rising. The long term uplift rate is approximately 0.13 to 0.16 mm/year. This uplift will continue for perhaps the next 500,000 years, until the island has risen another 50-70 metres. In the geological history of Niue, this vertical tectonic movement caused sections of the island’s undersea volcanic foundation to collapse in massive submarine landslides. Parts of the coral cap, that is the modern limestone island, were removed when this happened, as evidenced by the large open bays or bights around Niue’s south and west coastline. As long as uplift continues, there is the possibility of further submarine failures, although reassuringly the frequency of such catastrophic events occurs on geological timescales.

Global warming is causing an estimated long term annual rise of sea level in the South Pacific of around 1.5 mm/year. However, because Niue has little low-lying coastal land, it is indeed one of the few Pacific island nations that will be spared the worst effects of sea level rise. Nonetheless, the global warming that causes rising seas is also responsible for changes in weather patterns across the South Pacific.

This is particularly so in regard to climatic variability and the occurrence of extreme climatic events. Projections for the future are that more tropical cyclones of greater intensity will occur in the South Pacific as a result of warming sea temperatures.

Also, the average position of tropical cyclone formation may shift farther east and south than at present, i.e. closer to Niue. A warmer Pacific Ocean also means that El Niño and La Niña events may become more prolonged and severe during the 21st century. This gives greater potential for extended episodes of rain or drought, and associated outbreaks of agricultural pests and diseases. Such scenarios will need to be considered in any plans for water resources and agricultural development. Policy which is designed to optimise the sustainability of Niue as a living community must remain mindful of these changes in the physical sphere.

Human Challenges Cultural and socio-economic change in Niue over the last hundred years has been extremely rapid. From the very broadest human geographic perspectives, Niue faces a number of serious, and sometimes competing, challenges: 1) Stemming the flow of out-migration.

2) Raising levels of economic growth in order to achieve the above.

3) Raising levels of infrastructure to increase competitiveness.

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4) Maintaining levels of public services in the face of decreasing aid and economic change.

5) Developing new, niche, private sector activities to raise locally generated earnings.

6) Maintaining cultural integrity in the face of emigration and the forces of globalisation.

7) Conserving the environment and traditional subsistence production systems in the face of pressure to increase commercialisation.

The Niuean government has recognised these types of challenges. Its publicised national development goal (Government of Niue, 1994, p.12) reads as follows: “The government and private sector of Niue are committed to the creation of a sustainable self-reliant community, united within the framework of a dynamic economy, whilst recognising the contribution of its environmental and cultural values.”

Niue’s future is becoming increasingly fragile in a globalising world that demands competitiveness and efficiency, often only attainable through the operation of significant economies of scale and/or scope. The aspirations encapsulated in the above statement are indeed worthy. The tourism sector is increasingly seen as a major component in Niue’s economy and a number of important aid projects have focused on tourism in the recent past. The construction of the Matavai Resort has raised capacity and accommodation standards on the island. Work by the Niue Tourism Ministry has sought to attract a new discerning kind of tourist, who is interested in a unique ecological experience. However, given infrastructural and associated cost problems, numbers have been relatively disappointing and tourism has failed to replace aid donation as the major component in national income. For the fisheries sector, Niue’s harsh coastal geography is a hindrance for the development of inshore fisheries, although there is scope for expansion in offshore fisheries. This again, however, is constrained by Niue’s distance from markets and the unreliability of transportation systems. Clearly, Niue’s isolation is at once both its greatest potential and its greatest hurdle. Overall, the signals at the start of the 21st century are not entirely positive. It is comforting to recall, then, that the adaptability and ingenuity of the Niuean people in the face of crises have been consistently demonstrated throughout the island’s history.

Views of young Niueans As part of this exercise to determine current challenges facing Niue, we felt it imper22

NIUE’S PLACE IN THE PACIFIC

ative to obtain some Niuean perspectives. We therefore asked several of Niue’s young adults studying at the University of the South Pacific to share their opinions, experiences and concerns for the future. Here are a few of their responses, which clearly echo many of the points raised in the section above: “I am proud of the fact the Niue is one of the safest and the cleanest places in World. There are still strong family ties in Niue, although our culture and tradition have weakened in every upcoming generation. The native language is deteriorating slowly because English is the first language used in schools and most homes. Niuean’s are New Zealand Citizens therefore it is easy for people to leave behind their cultural heritage, land and families. I think the reasons are because Niue is small and still developing slowly, so there are not enough jobs to cater for everybody’s skills. I think the exodus can be controlled although it will take time and money. The best solution would be to increase foreign investment, which will offer more jobs. Increase exports and introduce policies that will benefit everyone. I know I will go back to and serve my country. Fakaue lahi.”

“I love living in Niue simply because it’s my home. It’s a place you anticipate returning to and the further away you are from Niue the more you learn to appreciate it. There are a lot of good things about Niue that people fail to see or take for granted: lifestyle, safe clean environment, crystal clear water (I love the sea and marine life), not at all congested, people are humble and friendly, scenic sites are pretty and tranquil, education and medical treatment are free. On the bad side our tax rate is high, there are few employment opportunities, and small private sector business are closing down due to lack of demand and a declining population.

To improve life on Niue there needs to be more for the youth, more employment opportunities, recreation activities and so forth -simply incentives that discourage people from wanting to migrate. Our environment should be guaranteed full protection so foreigners and ourselves don’t exploit our resources. All of this is easier said than done. The majority of Niueans are overseas (mainly in New Zealand and Australia) so they’re more exposed to other cultures than they are to their own. I think the more we become diffused and assimilated into other cultures, the more we lose our own. For the remaining Niueans on the island (and those that travel back and forth to Niue) there’s great respect for tradition, our roots and family ties. If costly 23

NIUE ISLAND

airfares were to drop, a lot of people would love to come to Niue. That would boost the economy as there’d be far greater tourist numbers. I’m optimistic that I’ll have great opportunities and good career prospects in Niue. I can’t predict the future but I’m hoping in 20 years time Niue will be promising, prospering and flourishing.”

“For the years that I have gone abroad for my studies I have certainly seen and experienced a lot of things that my own country has not been able to offer.

Nevertheless, I am privileged and proud to be a Niuean. I come from one of the smallest villages in Niue. Life in the village is simple but I enjoy it since I was brought up there. Everyone knows each other and you have access to all the basic necessities of life such as electricity and water. You don’t have to worry constantly about having food to eat or having money to provide for your household needs because there are always people, particularly your family, who are willing to help out whenever you are in need. I enjoy the freedom we have because of such a low crime rate. Elders and those in higher positions are always well respected. Free education and health care are a great bonus. We do not encounter problems of pollution. Niue also has many beautiful scenic sites that can be enjoyed by locals and visitors.

Nevertheless, Niue also has its own setbacks. I feel that Niue is not so developed in comparison to other Pacific Island countries. There is a lack of employment opportunity, which has been the main reason behind mass migration overseas. There also needs to be much more emphasis on education. Some families have migrated because they feel that their children will get better education overseas. Niue does not have its own airlines. This means flights are only once or twice a week and airfares are very expensive, discouraging people from wanting to visit. For years there have been many disputes over land titles in Niue and land cases make up more than half the cases that come before the judiciary. Niueans residing in New Zealand have travelled to Niue just to claim rights to pieces of land to make sure that it remains in their name. Niue should have a policy entitling family members remaining on the island to claim rights to their family land. Family members living abroad should have no objections to this so there is no need for disputes. To improve life in Niue there needs to be an expansion of the private sector, as well as the government setting up projects which can offer more job opportunities for the unemployed. This can also slow down and possibly stop migration overseas.”

24

NIUE’S PLACE IN THE PACIFIC

About this Book

The idea for this book first came after a suggestion in 1998 by the former Vice Chancellor of the University of the South Pacific (USP), Mr Esekia Solofa, that more research should be directed towards the smaller islands of the USP region, which seemed to be persistently understudied compared to the larger island nations. Professor Patrick Nunn, then the Head of the USP Geography Department, had already visited Niue in early 1998 to study prehistoric sea- level changes, and came away from the island with the impression that there was a wealth of potential for scientific research on this remote and beautiful island. The Geography Department as a whole warmed to the challenge set by the Vice Chancellor, and decided that Niue, one of the smallest USP countries and the one with the least population, was an ideal candidate for a study of physical and human island geography. Although it may be true that regional studies have been losing favour as a paradigm for geographical research over several decades, for a small island nation in the vastness of the Pacific Ocean, forming part of the largest regional university in the world, this seemed to us to be the ideal approach. Each contributor devised a programme of research within his or her own field of interest, to be carried out as an independent piece of work, but fitting overall within a combined initiative focusing on the physical and human characteristics, and ‘evolution and development’ of Niue, in the broadest possible sense. Several USP research committees, and a special sitting of the Niue government, were all very receptive to the idea of the proposal.

This book therefore represents a collection of primary geographical research studies undertaken over 1998 and 1999 which reflect the specialist contemporary geographical interests of the USP staff at the time. Running throughout this volume is the implicit (and sometime explicit) theoretical position that marrying human and physical perspectives is fundamental to geographical understanding. There have been only a small number of collected studies on Niue in the past. This is a great shame as Niue has so much to offer to scholars interested in both physical and human processes. Most of the writing on the island has come in the form of consultants’ reports, and often these have been linked to New Zealand Overseas Development Assistance. There have been relatively few independent academic articles on Niue. In this volume we intend to add original and contemporary observations to the present literature on Niue. This work should therefore be used in conjunction with more generalised accounts of Niue and its society.

We are conscious that this book comprises reflections of non-Niueans. However, the USP Geography Department academic contributors are, or have been, ‘island25

NIUE ISLAND

ers’, and can to some extent appreciate the unique qualities of Niue’s special ‘islandness’. They also bring an ‘insider/outsider’ perspective, in the sense that they are engaged day to day with people from, and issues pertinent to, both the USP wider region and Niue in particular. Some would also argue that there is value in the perspectives partially external observers can offer – as long as this is done sensitively.

Notwithstanding this, the aim of this project was not to issue any absolute truths, and certainly not to tell Niueans how to govern and organise their country. Rather it consists of a range of academic observations and opinions, written with genuine concern and respect. The fundamental rationales for this book were two-fold. First, the staff at USP felt that Niue was under-researched compared to other countries in the University region. Second, given this, there was a gap in the provision of a geography text suitable for form seven and university students, together with other groups who are especially interested in islands and the South Pacific region.

Following this introductory chapter, this book is organised into two parts, dealing in turn with the physical and human geography of Niue. In the physical section, five chapters examine characteristics of the evolution, landscape, soils, wildlife and climate of the island. The first chapter, by Nunn and Britton, investigates the long-term geological history of Niue, from its distant origins as a submarine volcano, through the formation of an atoll at the ocean surface, and the processes of emergence that finally produced the high limestone island we see today. The importance of plate tectonics is described, as this has been responsible for long periods of both subsidence and uplift of the Niue volcano in the geological past. Changes in sea level during the Quaternary period (last 1.6 million years of Earth’s history) are also illuminated by a detailed examination of the ‘staircase’ of terraces that give Niue such an extraordinary coastline. This adds much to our current understanding of the history of sea level changes in the South Pacific region. Terry’s chapter on geomorphology describes why Niue has such an interesting and attractive landscape, with impressive coastal chasms, networks of underground caves, and rugged pinnacle topography. He illustrates how a combination of features inherited from the original structure of the Niue atoll, variations in limestone geology across the island, and solution weathering in the humid tropical climate all contribute to the remarkable contemporary terrain.

The next chapter by Soulsby looks in detail at Niue’s soils, explaining their origins, characteristics and relationship to environmental conditions on the island. We learn how soils are one of Niue’s most valuable natural resources, but that there are difficult physical limitations to overcome for their effective use. Understanding these limitations is therefore an important step in the right direction for safeguarding 26

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against soil degradation in the future. Then follows Terry’s discussion of droughts and tropical cyclones on Niue. He shows how these hazards are often linked to the much talked-about El Niño phenomenon, and presents short case studies that give graphic accounts of drought and cyclone effects. Current projections into the future are presented, and if forewarned is forearmed, then this information should help in planning so that climatic hazards don’t always have to become disasters. The last chapter in the physical section is about Niue’s biodiversity by Thaman, probably the best known ethnobiologist in the Pacific, and his Niuean colleagues. It is a significant contribution because it is the most thorough account ever written on Niuean biota and ecosystems, and their cultural importance. Thaman stresses how Niue’s terrestrial and marine ecosystems are a living inheritance from the past and warns of the many threats to the biodiversity. Fortunately he gives us guidance with a list of priorities to conserve this living inheritance for future generations.

The human geography section in this book comprises four chapters which span a wide range of issues, some of which were touched upon earlier in this introductory chapter. Gibson grapples with the crucial issue of demographic change and the impacts of population loss. He traces the evolution of Niue’s population over time and carefully relates it to changing economic conditions in the country. His prospects for sustainable demographic evolution in the country are not entirely positive. However, in outlining and discussing positive scenarios also, he avoids some of the negativity of similar work in the past. McIntyre and Soulsby then provide an analysis of land issues and land degradation on the island. The chapter examines the system of land ownership in some detail, and considers the problematic impacts of human activity past and present. The authors conclude by offering some potential signposts towards a solution of the grave problems currently found in this highly sensitive area.

Ali considers an aspect linked to the agricultural sector. In outlining the pervasive impacts of food imports on traditional diets, Ali provides a useful case study that complements work undertaken elsewhere across the Pacific Islands. He notes that food imports are replacing healthier local crops, and that this is having a deleterious impact on people’s wellbeing and livelihoods. In Ali’s conclusion, some useful measures to help reverse this trend are offered. Finally, Murray’s chapter considers economic restructuring and the impacts this has had on the agricultural export sector. In particular he investigates the evolution of taro exports, which rose to become Niue’s most successful export ever by the late 1990s. By illustrating the non-sustainability of agro-export development in the context of Niue, he argues that 27

NIUE ISLAND

policy prioritising outward orientation for the economy is likely to yield disappointing results. Nonetheless, Murray recognises that agro-exports provide important subsidiary income and employment, and that a number of promising niche products warrant attention and support.

To conclude this introduction, we as editors realise that the material covered in this collection is neither thematically nor historically exhaustive. But this was never an intention of the original USP Geography Department research programme.

Rather, we intended to produce something that would be a contribution towards raising the profile of Niue and to foster better understanding of the special geographical problems which this small island nation must face over the coming decades. We also wanted to enrich the geography curriculum with a greater appreciation of Niue, one of the founder members of the University of the South Pacific. In researching and compiling this book we hope to have assisted in some small way to an increased recognition of the place of Niue in the wider Pacific and the global community. If nothing else, we wish to make a few more people aware of the magical uniqueness that is Niue Island.

References

Agassiz, A. (1903) The coral reefs of the tropical Pacific. Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harv. 28, 171-174.

Chapman, T. M. (1982) Modern Times. In: Niue: A History of the Island. Government of Niue and Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific, Suva.

CIA (2001) CIA Factbook â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Niue, accessed April 5th 2001 online at http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/ geos/ne.html.

Currie, C. (1999) Current Economic Statistics: Niue, USPEC, University of the South Pacific, Suva.

Darwin, C.R. (1842) The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs. Smith, Elder and Co., London.

Dubois, J., Launay, J. and Recy, J. (1975) Some new evidence on lithospheric bulges close to island arcs. Tectonophysics 26, 189-196.

Fairbridge, R.W. (1950) Landslide patterns on oceanic volcanoes and atolls. Geophysical Journal 115, 84-88.

Government of Niue (1994) Strategic Development Plan, Govt. of Niue, Alofi.

Hill, P.J. (1996) Niue and adjacent seamounts. In: Manihiki Plateau, Machias and Capricorn Seamounts, Niue, and Tofua Trough: Results of Tui Cruises. M.A. Meylan and G.P. Glasby (Eds). SOPAC Technical Bulletin 10, 31-44.

Institute of Pacific Studies (1982) Niue: A History of the Island. Government of Niue and Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific, Suva.

Kumitau, V. and Hekau, M. (1982) Origins of the Niue People. In: Niue: A History of the Island. Government of Niue and Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific, Suva.

McKinnon, J. and McKinnon K. I. (2000) Mapping Ethicity. In: McConchie, J., Winchester, D. and Willis, R. (eds.)

Dynamic Wellington, Victoria University Press, Wellington, New Zealand Talagi, F. (1982) Early European Contacts. In: Niue: A History of the Island. Government of Niue and Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific, Suva.

United Nations Development Programme (1999) Pacific Human Development Report, UNDP, Suva.

Walter, R. and Anderson, A. (1995) Archaeology of Niue Island: initial results. Journal of the Polynesian Society, 104, 471-480.

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Acknowledgements

We would like to thank the people of Niue their warmth and hospitality, and for sharing with us their knowledge, traditions and culture during the research and writing of this book. Original research for this book was generously supported by the University of the South Pacific.

29

30

THE LONG-TERM EVOLUTION OF NIUE ISLAND PATRICK D. NUNN AND JAMES M.R. BRITTON

Geography Department, The University of the South Paciď&#x20AC; c Suva, Fiji Geomatics Service Centre Network, Ministry of Natural Resources Ontario, Canada

Introduction

Whether you approach it by boat or by air, the island Niue is a magnificent sight. Rising sheer from the ocean depths, you can sense that it must have been thrust upwards and, as you approach closer, you can tell from the sheerness of the cliffs that this movement must have been a rapid one and is probably still continuing.

If Niue looks magnificent, it must also be considered remarkable, for it presents the only piece of land within a vast Figure 1: Regional bathymetry of Niue area of ocean (Figure 1). The first people to have seen Niue - about 1900 years ago - must have been relieved to see the island after so long at sea. They may have been so happy see coconuts (niu) growing on the island that they enshrined this in the name they gave it. And coconuts probably were on Niue and most other islands in the tropical Pacific before people (Ward and Brookfield 1992).

This chapter deals with the long-term history of Niue, from its distant origins as an underwater volcano, through the development of an atoll at the sea surface, and then the process of uplift by which this atoll emerged to become the high limestone island we see today.

Previous observations and ideas

The earliest humans on Niue may have known very well how their island formed. One of the stories of how people first colonised Niue is preserved in the story of Huanaki 31

NIUE ISLAND

and Fao, two men who apparently swam to Niue from Tonga. When they reached Niue, they found the island to be just above the surface of the ocean, and washed over by the sea at high tide. So they climbed up on the island and stamped on its surface with their feet. Up rose the island, and the water ran off and dry land appeared. Then they stamped again and up sprang the grass, trees and other vegetation.

Stories like this are clearly very old, and we must be careful to try and separate the grains of fact from later embellishment. In the case of this story, we can use our knowledge of the islandâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s geology and history to do precisely that. Huanaki and Fao could not have swum from Tonga (the nearest island is more than 600 km away). It is more likely that they set out on a large ocean-going vessel with the intention of finding a new land to settle. By analogy with earlier voyages which resulted in the colonisation by humans of islands to the west (Kirch 1997), it is likely that both men and women were on board, along with a variety of animals including dogs, pigs and chickens. Perhaps the vessel foundered on an offshore reef and the survivors really did have to swim ashore, perhaps that detail (like the swimming from Tonga) is also embellishment, intended to honour the memory rather than record the fact of the first human colonisation of Niue.

The next part of the story is difficult to believe in literally. The island could not have been so low when people first arrived that it was covered with water at high tide. That was the situation millions of years before but, when people first arrived, we know the island must have looked pretty much as it does today. So why does the story say this? We suggest it says it because the people who first lived on Niue were no fools. They could see the fossil corals in the rocks and the giant clam shells in the lagoon sediments. They knew the island must have once been underwater so they preserved their understanding of this fact in this story.

They also knew that their island had risen in the past and was still rising. What is particularly interesting about the last part of the story of Huanaki and Fao is that the island rose only after they had stamped on its surface. Scientists who have studied the geological history of islands like many of those in Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and Tonga, even in Japan, know that uplift in these islands occurs coseismically; that is, in association with large earthquakes. An earthquake occurs (it feels like someone stamping) and abruptly the land rises perhaps 1-2 m. In between earthquakes there is no uplift.

But this poses a problem for Niue because it has generally been thought that the island has been rising aseismically (that is, slowly and continuously without earthquakes) not coseismically as the legend suggests. The only earthquakes felt on Niue seem to be those 32

THE LONG-TERM EVOLUTION OF NIUE ISLAND

which occur far to the west beneath the islands of Tonga. It may be that the earliest inhabitants of Niue came from Tonga and that they brought with them their knowledge of the relationship between earthquakes and uplift. It may of course be that when people first arrived on Niue, the island did experience coseismic uplift but now it does not occur or perhaps only very occasionally. It is difficult to be sure of the right explanation.

A variation on this story was recorded by Thomson (1902). With reference to the origins of Niue, he wrote that “The god Mau’i ... lying in a cave at the bottom of the sea, pushed up the floor of the ocean until it became a reef awash at low water. With another heave he sent it higher than the spray can reach, and birds settled on it; seeds floated to it and germinated, and it became an island ... Uprooting it with a last effort, he forced it up to its present height, and, if you doubt the story, you have only to sail seaward and look back upon the cliff, where you will note galleries eaten into it by waves, marking its successive levels” (1902: 85-86).

Again, we read about the uplift of Niue as being sporadic, probably coseismic (the heaves of Mau’i being the earthquakes), but Thomson undoubtedly heard the origin story from the people of Niue, then saw what he believed to be evidence supporting the story, so came to the conclusion that the island had been uplifted sporadically. The same was true of many early explanations of island uplift in the Pacific (see Nunn 1996, 1998) but what was not understood at the time was that the ocean surface has itself changed in the past and that reef terraces and lines of emerged notches on rising islands like Niue sometimes formed when the sea level was rising at the same rate or, of course, when island uplift slowed or temporarily ceased and sea level was relatively stable.

The earliest Europeans to see Niue also showed remarkable insights regarding its origins. In the 18th century, one wrote “The general resemblance of this island to a coral ledge raised out of the water, almost leads me to suspect that it includes a fertile plain, which was once a lagoon.

Whether a convulsion of the globe, or any other cause, lifted such a large piece of coral rock forty feet above water, is a point which must be left to future philosophers to determine” (Forster 1777: 166-167).

Here is recognition not only that Niue was an emerged coral island but also that its interior (which we suspect Forster did not actually visit) was an emerged atoll lagoon.

A hundred years later, more precise information was being recorded.

“The island is entirely a coral formation, and must have been gradually upheaved, as would appear to be indicated by three distinct layers evidently of successive 33

NIUE ISLAND

superposition, which are observable in one spot [within a day’s walk of Alofi where he landed]. It seems, moreover, from an inspection of the banks that this uprising or upheaving action has not yet exhausted itself” (Brenchley 1873: 24).

The ‘banks’ to which Brenchley refers are probably banks of coral reef which he interpreted as showings signs of recent emergence. It would be interesting to know where these banks were around Niue but Brenchley does not give this information.

Although others, notably Smith (1902) and Agassiz (1903) wrote about the geology and landforms of Niue, their first systematic description was by Schofield (1959), his report remaining the most detailed in many regards. Schofield also studied the hydrology of Niue with a view to providing information which would lead to a more dependable water supply. He found that some of the reef limestone on Niue had been altered to dolomite and that these areas (mostly in the island’s interior) were less well suited to long-term water storage (Schofield and Nelson 1978; Jacobson and Hill 1980). More recent work has focused on the geochemical character of the Niue dolomites and the causes of dolomitisation (Aharon et al. 1987; Wheeler et al. 1999). A recent account of the geology of Niue and its surrounding ocean floor illuminates much of the island’s early history (Hill 1996).

The unusually high levels of radioactivity in Niue’s soils (Fieldes et al. 1960; Wright and van Westerndorp 1965; Whitehead et al. 1990, 1992) may be the result of weathering of the volcanic basement of the island and the upward transport of various minerals. It has been stated that these minerals provide “compelling evidence” that Niue has major mineral deposits of gold and other metals (Avian Mining 1991) but not all geologists are convinced of this.

Several geographers and geologists (Spencer and Paulay 1992; Paulay and Spencer 1992) have tried to reconstruct the long-term history of Niue in much the same way as this chapter does but their reports have been briefer. We have benefited greatly in writing this chapter from the unpublished notes of William R. Dickinson on the same subject (1997a, b).

The regional context

Figure 1 shows the Niue region and the contours of the ocean floor. Niue can be seen as just one of a small cluster of seamounts. There is no moat in the ocean floor around Niue as there is around many large ocean-floor volcanoes in the Pacific (Nunn 1994) implying that the loads of these volcanoes are supported “by regional rather than local isostatic compensation” (Hill 1996: 42).

34

THE LONG-TERM EVOLUTION OF NIUE ISLAND

The other seamounts within the Niue ‘cluster’ which appear to be genetically related to Niue include Endeavour Seamount, 40 km east-northeast, and Lachlan Seamount, 30 km southeast of the island. The summit of Endeavour is 1625 m below sea level, that of Lachlan is 920 m. Since they both lie on a possible southeast-northwest trending fracture zone, along which part of Niue has disappeared, the volcanic part of Lachlan Seamount may be a contemporary of that on Niue (Hill 1996).

If this is so, then maybe the Niue volcanoes are part of an island cluster rather than a linear group of intraplate islands (Nunn 1994). In support of this view, the absence of ocean-floor volcanoes between Niue and Rarotonga makes their origin as part of a hotspot line seem less probable than Hill (1996) suggested.

Yet what is of importance in Hill’s (1996) account is the deduction that, since they have densities which are typical of seamounts (2.3-2.6 t/m3), the Niue seamounts must have been constructed well away from the mid-ocean ridge on cold lithosphere of high flexural rigidity. They are manifestly not then, as Nunn (1994) suggested, volcanoes which originated at a divergent plate boundary but true intraplate volcanoes.

Geological composition and morphology of Niue

Niue Island is made entirely from coral-reef limestone and associated calcareous sediments, such as those which accumulate in lagoonal or back-reef areas.

Yet like every other Pacific island, the composition and origin of Niue cannot be fully understood by looking simply at those parts of the island exposed at the ground surface or above the ocean. The results of drilling beneath the ground surface and beneath the floor of the surrounding ocean have contributed vastly to our knowledge of the composition and origin of Niue, as have the results of other techniques, such as seismic reflection profiling, grav- Figure 2: Contours on the surface of the volcano underlying ity and magnetic mapping, which Niue. Note the asymmetrical shape of the volcano which suggests that a giant landslide occurred in its southern and have produced images of the insides western parts (see Figure 3). Contours derive from magnetic modelling of the Niue edifice by Hill (1996). of the island (see Figure 2).

35

NIUE ISLAND

Today it is clear that, although Niue is a limestone island, that limestone formed on top of a volcano, the highest parts of which now lie 300-400 metres below sea level in the southwest part of the island (Hill 1996). It has not been possible to determine precisely the form of the highest parts of this volcano but it is probably a caldera marking the final phase of volcanic activity. Calderas are landforms which mark the collapse of a old volcanic edifice; they are usually circular in shape with high walls. A modern caldera is found on Tofua Island in Tonga. The horseshoeshaped island Totoya in Fiji is a drowned caldera. Most of the gold in Fiji is mined from the inside of a caldera at Vatukoula on the island Vitilevu. Like Niue, the island Vava’u in Tonga is a limestone island which may have formed on top of an old caldera. This and other examples are described by Nunn (1994, 1998).

The form of the entire Niue Volcano has been mapped by Hill (1996) using magnetic data (Figure 2). The volcano has a characteristic dome shape with its highest parts located beneath Tepa Point in the southwest part of the modern island. Another point of note is the marked asymmetrical form of the volcano. Its limestone capping, which comprises the modern island, appears to have developed on only the north and east sides of the volcano. The most probable explanation is that the south and west parts of the Niue Volcano slipped away downslope before the modern limestone cap began to develop (Hill 1996).

Many mid-Pacific islands, whether they are covered with limestone or not, rise very steeply from the ocean floor. Niue is no exception but it is important to appreciate that the steepness applies both to the volcanic and to the limestone part of the island. Since such islands have very steep sides, these often slip away, particularly if the island is shaken by an earthquake. Such a event happened on the ‘Big Island’ (Hawai’i) on 29th November 1975 (Nunn 1994); indeed all the islands of Hawaii rise from a steep-sided ridge and flank landslides (and the big waves they can cause) are considered a major natural hazard there (Moore et al. 1989, 1994). On Niue it is reasonable to suppose that a giant landslide on the flanks of the old volcano led to part being moved downslope. Supporting evidence for this explanation is the presence of a shelf 3200-4000 m below sea level off the southwest coast of Niue, a shelf which is absent elsewhere around the island and is likely to be the debris which was moved downslope in this landslide (Hill 1996). It is also likely that flank landslides have occurred on Niue since the volcano became covered with limestone, and that such events will occur again (see below).

The limestone capping the Niue Volcano is at least 300 metres thick. Most of the exposed parts of the limestone are coralliferous: that is, they contain abundant fossil 36

THE LONG-TERM EVOLUTION OF NIUE ISLAND

corals and other indications (including bivalves and echinoids) that they originated in a shallow, warm-water reefal situation. It is more difficult to be certain about the origin of the sub-surface limestones, although no fossils have been recovered to suggest that they are not of similar origin to those found at the surface.

No-one has ever sampled the volcanic rocks beneath the Niue limestones so we do not know their character (for example, whether they erupted above or below the ocean surface) or their age. When PN was on Niue in 1997, Sione Talagi told him he had heard a story about a ‘black rock’ on the coast near Vaiea. This was exciting news because volcanic rocks are usually black, and he had never seen any really black rocks on Niue before. So Sione and PN went to Vaiea and, after talking to Touti Talaiti, received detailed instructions about how to reach the black rock. It is located on the coast about 1 km east of Fafangu and was not difficult to spot. It is elongated, about 1.1 m in length, and sticks up from the edge of a platform about 3.2 m above mean sea level. When we were there, the waves were pouring over the platform, threatening anyone who was in their way. There were periods of about 10-12 seconds between waves when we could run out to the rock and tap it with a hammer and then run back again to safety. Eventually we got a sample of the rock but, disappointingly, it was not volcanic but a type of iron-rich deposit which is deposited by groundwater in cracks within limestones, and often resists erosion more effectively than the surrounding limestone.

Given the age of some of the fossils in the limestone close to its contact with the underlying volcanic rocks (see below), it is reasonable to suppose that the Niue Volcano ceased erupting at (or just above) the ocean surface during the late Miocene period, roughly 5-8 million years ago. This gives us a point in time from which the evolution of Niue can be reconstructed. This is done in the next section.

Outline of long-term evolution of Niue

Distant origins All Pacific islands originated as volcanoes rising from the deep-ocean floor. Even high limestone islands like Niue and Vava’u, and atolls like those in Kiribati and Tuvalu, have volcanic foundations. In the Pacific, ocean-floor volcanoes develop either along plate boundaries or in intraplate (mid-plate) situations. Since we have no knowledge of the nature of the rocks making up the Niue Volcano, we cannot know in which situation it formed although, owing to its density and its great distance from any plate boundary at which it might have formed, it is likely that it developed in an intraplate situation (see above).

37

NIUE ISLAND

Intraplate volcanism occurs at a point of weakness in the middle of a plate, through which liquid rock (magma) escapes from the underlying asthenosphere. Such a point is commonly known as a hotspot.

There are active hotspot volcanoes in the Pacific today in Hawaii, Samoa and several places in French Polynesia (Nunn 1994). Many hotspots stay active for tens of millions of years and produce chains of islands, but this clearly did not happen when Niue developed there is no chain of islands, only a small cluster, all of which have their heads underwater except Niue (see Figure 1). So until we get more information about the nature of the rocks making up the Niue Volcano, and the situation in which they formed, we can only hypothesize that it developed at a hotspot which no longer exists.

The Niue Volcano When volcanoes more than about 500 metres below the ocean surface erupt, the pressure of the overlying ocean water counteracts the upward thrust of the eruption, causing such eruptions to be subdued not explosive. Thus, in depths greater than about 500 metres, volcanic eruptions produce only lavas.

In depths shallower than about 500 38

Figure 3: Stages in the evolution of Niue Island, based on Hill (1996).

A. The earliest Niue Volcano was one which rose from the deepocean floor and from which lava was erupted.

B. When the summit of the Niue Volcano entered the hydroexplosive zone, lava eruptions were replaced by the eruption of volcaniclastics until the summit of the volcano grew above the ocean surface when lava eruptions resumed. The giant landslide in the south and west occurred around this time.

C. The debris from the landslide extended southwest. As the volcano subsided below sea level, an atoll reef became established at the ocean surface. This condition was maintained for around three million years.

D. About 2.3 million years ago, the island began to be uplifted as it started to ascend the lithospheric flexure to the west.

The atoll reef capping the island now lies around 70 m above sea level.

THE LONG-TERM EVOLUTION OF NIUE ISLAND

metres, the weight of the overlying water is no longer sufficient to prevent eruptions from being explosive, so within this zone (the hydroexplosive zone), eruptions produce fragmented material called volcaniclastics, produced when liquid rock (magma) meets cold ocean water.

Thus a typical oceanic volcano, such as we suppose the Niue Volcano to be, would be constructed in its lower parts from layers of lava. Overlying these would be layers of volcaniclastics, marking the period of eruptions within the hydroexplosive zone. Had the Niue Volcano then grown above the ocean surface, it is likely that lavas would once again have been erupted, but these would form a layer much less thick than that which formed before the volcano grew into the hydroexplosive zone (Figure 3A). It is assumed that the giant landslide which affected the southwest flanks of the Niue Volcano occurred at this time because the overlying limestone does not appear to have been affected (Figure 3B).

When volcanic activity ceased at the Niue Volcano, a caldera formed by collapse of part of the volcanic edifice into the empty magma chamber which once fed it.

Then, as with most extinct volcanoes in the Pacific, the Niue Volcano began to subside. Subsidence (or sinking) occurs for several reasons, most commonly because the extinct volcano is carried away on a moving lithospheric plate into deeper water.

The deepening of the ocean water is a result of cooling and therefore thickening lithosphere, such as that found as you move away from hotspots in the modern Pacific (Nunn 1994, 1998).

The Niue Atoll As the Niue Volcano subsided beneath the ocean surface, coral reef became established, growing best along windward coasts around the periphery of the island.

As subsidence continued, the coral reef responded by growing upwards. If it did not grow upwards, and maintain itself within the photic zone (the zone into which enough sunlight can penetrate for the symbiotic algae within the corals to photosynthesize), then the corals would die, and the reef with it. So as its volcanic foundations subsided, the reef grew upwards in the form of a ring enclosing a lagoon into which, particularly during storms, fragments of dead reef were thrown and accumulated. This gave rise to a classic atoll form (Figure 3C), similar to those which today exist in Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Tokelau and Tuvalu.

We can assume that the Niue Volcano subsided at least 300 metres following its volcanic extinction because at least 300 metres of reef limestone and lagoonal sediments accumulated above it. If we look at rates of subsidence measured on modern 39

NIUE ISLAND

atolls, such as the long-term rate of 0.03 mm/year for Enewetak in the Marshall Islands, we can see that Niue would have needed to subside for around 10 million years in order to accumulate 300 metres of limestone at this rate. This may have been the case but, since it is likely that the Niue Volcano became extinct (and began subsiding) only 5-8 million years ago, then it is better to suppose that the subsidence rate was faster. For 300 metres of limestone to accumulate in 3 million years, for example, the subsidence rate needs to have averaged 0.1 mm/year. This seems a more likely rate for the subsidence of the Niue Volcano which led to the formation of the Niue Atoll.

Within this period of subsidence, there were changes in the ocean surface, referred to as sea-level changes. When sea level fell (typically at the beginning of an ice age or glacial period), this exposed the atoll reef, causing it to be eroded. Then, when the sea level rose once again (at the end of a glacial period), younger coral reef would begin growing on the surface of the old reef. The line marking the boundary between the old reef and the younger reef is known as a solution unconformity. In some of the drillholes made through the Niue limestone, solution unconformities have been recognized. Solution unconformities 35-140 metres below sea level have been dated to the Messinian Salinity Crisis, 6.5-4.8 million years ago, when sealevel fall caused the Mediterranean Sea (and some smaller seas) to dry up.

On Niue, a ~10-m sea-level fall 6.14-5.75 million years ago was coincident with the first phase of evaporite deposition in the Mediterranean. A second solution unconformity represents a total sea-level fall of at least 30 m beginning 5.26 million years ago. This event coincided with the most severe phase of Mediterranean desiccation (Aharon et al. 1993).

Quaternary uplift of Niue Niue is thought to have continued to subside until about 500,000 years ago. Ever since the Niue Volcano disappeared beneath the ocean surface, all that could be seen until this time was a ring of coral reef enclosing a shallow lagoon - a classic atoll situation - intermittently exposed for several tens of thousands of years when sea level fell during glacial periods. But then the island began to rise. Before discussing what effects this rise had on the atoll Niue, we shall discuss the reason why Niue after having subsided for 5 million years or more - suddenly began to rise.

Although volcanic islands formed along divergent plate boundaries (mid-ocean ridges) or - probably like Niue - in intraplate situations subside for most of their life following volcanic extinction, sometimes, typically when these islands get close to 40

THE LONG-TERM EVOLUTION OF NIUE ISLAND

convergent plate boundaries, they are forced to rise. This is because at convergent plate boundaries, one plate is thrust beneath another. The plate which goes down (often called the downgoing plate) cannot simply bend down when it meets the other plate but must first - because it is so rigid - rise up. Thus running parallel to ocean trenches - about 150-170 km away in the case of Niue - are found ocean-floor ridges marking the places where the downgoing plate is being thrust upwards before being thrust down. These ridges are called lines of lithospheric flexure and, although they are mostly underwater, their highest points (typically limestone-covered volcanoes) sometimes break the ocean surface to form islands. Niue is an example of one of these.

There are other examples. In the Pacific, the line of lithospheric flexure running parallel to the Vanuatu Trench is being crossed by a line of islands known as the Loyalty Islands; the largest, MarĂŠ, rises from the crest of the flexure; the next largest, Lifou and OuvĂŠa, are ascending the flexure (Dubois et al. 1974). South of the Solomons Trench lie the islands Rennell and Bellona which rise from the lithospheric flexure to the south (Taylor 1973). All these islands are emerged reef islands like Niue.

Niue began to ascend the line of lithospheric flexure east of the Tonga Trench about 500,000 years ago (Figure 3D). Much of the early part of the rise would have been very slow, as the gradient of the flexure was much gentler along its fringes than closer to the crest. During the early part of the rise of Niue up the lithospheric flexure, emergence of the atoll reef and lagoon occurred. It was at this time that the lagoon water became hypersaline (see chapter by Terry in this volume) and that dolomitisation of the limestones associated with the downward percolation of magnesium-rich groundwaters occurred (Schofield and Nelson 1978). Support for this interpretation is the observation that dolomitized limestones occur only beneath the former lagoon and not beneath the fringing Mutalau Reef or along the emerged reef terraces which comprise the periphery of the island.

The former atoll reef was named the Mutalau Reef by Schofield (1959). It forms a conspicuous ridge above the island periphery and reaches a maximum elevation of 70 metres above the modern reef at Mutalau village. While the former lagoon floor is composed largely of sediments (sand and gravel) in various stages of lithification, the Mutalau Reef is hard reef rock. In many places, large coral heads in growth position can be seen. The Mutalau Reef represents the earliest part of Niue to emerge above sea level and it would therefore be expected that its highest, oldest parts date from a little after 500,000 years ago. The sediments of the former lagoon may be 41

NIUE ISLAND

much younger because the lagoon would have remained water-filled and perhaps a viable habitat for marine organisms for several tens of thousands of years after emergence began. The only date available for Mutalau lagoon sediments is 700,000 years ago for the youngest sediments (Fieldes et al. 1960). Yet owing to the time when this age was determined, it must be treated somewhat cautiously.

As Niue continued to ascend the flexure, the rate of uplift is expected to have increased for as long as the Pacific Plate (on which Niue sits) continued to move at approximately the same speed westwards. It may be that the movement of the Pacific Plate decreased significantly at times causing the uplift of Niue to stop for a while. At such times, the island may have developed a broad fringing reef. Then, when uplift recommenced, this fringing reef would have been preserved on the flanks of the island as a broad terrace.

Alternatively, assuming that westwards motion of the Pacific Plate remained constant while Niue was ascending the lithospheric flexure, a broad fringing reef could have formed only when sea level was rising at approximately the same rate as the island was rising. This condition is most likely to have been met during postglacial periods - times when water from melting land ice (formed during glacial periods or ice ages) was pouring into the oceans causing their levels to rise.

The emphasis on determining the conditions under which broad fringing reefs could have formed around Niue is important because so much of the periphery of the island is marked by terraces (described in detail below) which appear to be the remnants of just such fringing reefs. The best-marked terrace is the main Alofi Terrace (see Figures 8-11 and Tables 1-2) which stretches around the island at a height of around 23 m above the modern reef. Just because this is the broadest terrace does not mean that it was the broadest fringing reef to have formed around Niue while it was rising; older, higher reef terraces are found in many places and may have been considerably reduced in size because of erosion after the terraces emerged.

Niue is still on its way up the line of lithospheric flexure - there is perhaps 50-70 m of up ward (vertical) movement to go before it reaches the crest of the flexure, after which descend the other side towards the Tonga Trench. This is not a cause for concern; it will likely take around half a million years before Niue reaches the crest of the lithospheric flexure.

Late Quaternary emergence history magnified

Much of our own research on the geological history of Niue has focused on the period of uplift, marked by the Mutalau Reef and the various terraces around its 42

THE LONG-TERM EVOLUTION OF NIUE ISLAND

Table 1. Coast-normal measurements of terraces on Niue island, October-November 1997.

Location

Hikutavake-Toi Hio-Vaipapahi Falepipi Makefu Namoui Tusekolo Alo-Tuila Alo-airport Alo quarry Tamakautoga Avatele-east Vaiea Hakupu Togo Vaikona Liku Motutapu-Motu Lakepa Vaitafe Mutalau Toi (west)

Measured terrace elevations (metres above modern notch oor or shore platform) Mutalau 58-m 52-m 43.5-m 34-m Alo Alo 18-m Reef terrace terrace terrace terrace Terrace Terrace terrace (upper) (main) 65-66 57 43-45 23-25 14-18 63-66 56 49-51 32-33 23 16-18 57-61 52-54 44-45 32-34 23-25 64-70 57-59 53 33-35 23-24 65-68 57 22-23 62-63 57 50 23-24 57 53 41-43 30 22-23 63-64 52-53 23 67 59-60 27-29 62-64 55-56 24 66 54-60 34-35 23-25 18-19 60-62 54-55 27-28 19-20 63 41-42? 32-34?

23 16-18 64-68 50-54 38-40 23-28 65-67 54-55 42-44 38 26-28 22-23 63-64 44-45?

20-25 47-54 38-42 34-36 27-29 22-24 61-64 52-53 23-24 68-70 62 40-46 29-32 18-20 65-69 59-60 45-47 32-35 25-26 18-20 66-68 59-60 43-45 37 27-29 22-24

edge along the island’s periphery. The aim of our research was to determine the times at which these reefs and terraces formed, and then to build that information into a precisely-calibrated history of island uplift. This in turn would then allow important information to be fed into models of regional plate movements and lithospheric flexure.

The first step towards fulfilling this aim was to map the Mutalau Reef and the terraces below it. This process required a survey to be made of the areas in question, which is what is described here.

Three approaches were taken to this survey. First, coast-normal transects from the modern shoreline to the former lagoon were made in 21 places, which allowed the various terrace levels to be identified (see Table 1). Second, coast-parallel surveys were conducted in 11 places, largely in order to map the Mutalau Reef and the broad Alofi Terrace (see Table 2). Altitude measurements were made using 43

NIUE ISLAND

Table 2. Coast-parallel measurements of Alo Terrace on Niue island, October-November 1997 Location

Measured terrace elevations (metres above modern notch oor or shore platform)

Hikutavake-Makalea Limu-Namukulu north Namukulu Hio-Tuapa Makefu central Makefu south-Makapu Point Makapu Point-Alo Wharf Alo Halagigie Point Anaana Avatele-Tamakautoga

23-28 (mode 23) 23 25 23-24 26 28-31 20-26 (mode 23-24) 22-24 26-28 24-26 23-25

two handheld self-correcting Barigo Altimatic altimeters, checked and, if necessary, recalibrated to mean sea level (0) every few hours. Third, detailed surveys were made of the evidence for low-level (less than 12 m) emergence of Niue. Field surveys were supplemented by examination of maps, plans and aerial photographs from the Lands Department.

The Mutalau Reef The Mutalau Reef forms a prominent ridge around most of the edge of Niue (Figure 4), so it is easy to map compared to most of the terraces below. The Mutalau Reef was first identified as having once been at sea level by Smith (1902) and was discussed in some detail by Schofield (1959). It is broadest (~1.9 km) in the north of the island around Toi and Mutalau. South Figure 4: Geomorphology of Niue Island, from field mapping and aerial photograph interpretation. of Liku on the central east coast, it reaches 1.8 km in width. It is narrowest in the southwest part of the island, and is broken by a dry valley (which drained the former lagoon) behind Alofi (Plate 1). It is also absent at Motutapu-Motu.

This distribution is of some interest since it may reflect the general form of the atoll reef some 500,000 years ago. From studies of modern atolls in the tradewind belts, it 44

THE LONG-TERM EVOLUTION OF NIUE ISLAND

is clear that the broadest reefs usually form on the windward sides where wave energy and nutrient supply are greatest and that reefs on leeward coasts tend to be narrower and less diverse. If the reconstructed form of the Mutalau Reef is accurate, then we can infer that the tradewinds at that Plate 1: The only valley on Niue runs from right to left in this time came from the northeast rather photograph. It marks the place where water escaped from than from the southeast as they do the lagoon once the encircling Mutalau Reef had emerged. around Niue today. This might mean that Niue was located farther north than it is today, so that it lay within the zone of northeast tradewinds which today affects islands in the tropical North Pacific, or it may mean that this zone was located farther south. Such interesting thoughts really need more evidence to substantiate them.

An alternative explanation of the distribution of the Mutalau Reef is that we are not looking at an accurate representation of the 500,000 year old reef but rather one which has been substantially altered by post-emergence erosion and mass movements. It is difficult to be certain about the nature of these, but the shapes of the bays within which Alofi and Avatele-Tamakautoga are located are similar to the scars at the backs of large landslides, and may mark places where part of the island slipped away during the process of uplift. We can infer the timing of such events from looking at the terraces which are narrow or absent in that location and those which are of similar width to their occurrences elsewhere on Niue. The narrowness of the Mutalau Reef along the Tamakautoga coast certainly suggests that a coastal landslide may have occurred here during the earliest part of island uplift.

The height of the Mutalau Reef was recorded in 19 places (Table 1 and Figure 5).

The crest of the reef, commonly represented by isolated pinnacles of reef limestone, reaches 70 metres above mean sea level (assumed to be 0.55 metres above modern reef level) at Makefu and Vaitafe, but the highest overall section of the Mutalau Reef crest is around Mutalau village as noted above. The Mutalau Reef (and all lower terraces) is significantly lower at Alofi-Tuila than elsewhere, probably because the reef in this area never grew to the ocean surface because it was located just next to the outlet of the lagoon. The surfaces of modern reefs near the mouths of rivers or lagoon outlets are commonly submerged because of the low salinity and high turbidity of the water in these locations.

45

NIUE ISLAND

The range in height of the Mutalau Reef is reasonably consistent, with variations being accountable for largely by post-emergence erosion.

The form of the Mutalau Reef is commonly more subdued than the forms of lower terraces which, particularly along the windward (east and southeast coasts), display highly variable karst features (see Terry, this volume). It is possible that during the earliest period of island uplift, when the Mutalau Reef was a few metres above the ocean surface and the lagoon was begin- Figure 5: Locations of coast-normal transects ning to dry out, evaporite (see also Table 1 and Figure 6a-c). deposits from the edges of that lagoon were blown by the wind across the uneven surface of the emerged Mutalau Reef, filling in the irregularities and creating the smooth surface found in many parts of it today. Other explanations for the apparent non-karstification of parts of the Mutalau Reef could be sought by looking at analogous situations in Vanuatu (Strecker et al. 1987) and the Indian Ocean (Stoddart et al. 1971).

The 58-m terrace Beneath the Mutalau Reef is found a terrace named the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;58-m terraceâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; although this name is intended as only an approximate guide to its elevation which, as can be seen from Table 1, is quite variable. There is also a problem in deciding whether the measured terrace at some locations (for example, at Vaiea and Vaikona) should be the 58-m terrace (as favoured in Table 1) or the 52-m terrace (see below). In such instances, it was considered it is more likely that post-emergence erosion reduced terrace elevation rather than supposing that this same process left an anomalously high part of the original surface untouched. Yet there is no doubt that there are two terraces within approximately the 50-60 m range; they were clearly delineated along coast-normal transects at four places (Table 1).

46

THE LONG-TERM EVOLUTION OF NIUE ISLAND

The 58-m terrace is best exposed along the present-day leeward coasts of Niue and is absent along most parts of the most exposed coasts, notably between Hakupu and Lakepa. This suggests that it has been removed by post-emergence erosion in these places and may not therefore have been very well-developed in the first place.

Looking at the range of heights of terraces assigned to this level, it is clear that we could be dealing with a number of small reef terraces, perhaps developed only locally, for instance at 55 m, 57 m and 59.5 m but there is not enough information to be sure of this.

The 52-m terrace The ‘52-m terrace’ is identified at just nine locations, at four of which it can be clearly distinguished from the 58-m terrace (see above). It is much less variable in height than the latter, suggesting that it is a single unit rather than multiple units.

It is anomalously low at Hio-Vaipapahi, and at Motutapu-Motu where it forms the highest surface (Table 1).

Both this terrace and the 43.5-m terrace below are missing along the edge of Tamakautoga-Avatele bay, raising the possibility that they were removed by a landslide sometime before the 34-m terrace developed here. It was noted above that the form of this bay and the narrowness of the Mutalau Reef may indicate that a large landslide took place here during the earliest period of island uplift when the Mutalau Reef began to emerge. It may be, as is often the case, that a later landslide occurred within the old landslide here.

The 43.5-m terrace The ‘43.5-m terrace’ was mapped at eleven locations, although at two of these (Hakupu and Liku) it was not possible to be certain that a discrete surface existed rather than simply a localized erosional remnant of a higher terrace. There is more variation in the heights of the 43.5-m terrace than for the 52-m terrace suggesting that the former could be a amalgam of terraces at levels of 39 m, 42 m and 46 m, for example, but at present there are insufficient data to be certain of this.

The 34-m terrace Found at ten locations, the 34-m terrace is generally less variable in height than the 43.5-m and 58-m terraces although it is possible to suppose that two units at, say 33 m and 36 m, occur within the data presented (Table 1).

The absence of the 34-m terrace and some higher terraces from within the southern part of Alofi Bay and the western part of Tamakautoga Bay could be explained 47

NIUE ISLAND

by supposing that they once existed but were removed by landslide events sometime before the formation of the reef which became the main Alofi Terrace (see below).

The 34-m terrace is assumed to be that mapped by Edgeworth David at 120 feet (in Schofield 1959), and that of which Schofield (1959) recorded small remnants 115-130 feet above sea level.

The upper Alofi (28-m) Terrace Several parts of what has been mapped as Alofi Terrace by other authors (Agassiz 1903, Schofield 1959) is at a higher level than the main Alofi Terrace (discussed below) so to avoid confusion it is here referred to as the upper Alofi Terrace. It has a mean elevation of approximately 28 m and occurs on all coasts except the leeward (west) coast of Niue between Alofi Bay and Hikutavake (Table 1). This distribution may well be significant in that this area may (like today) have been the leeward coast at the time the upper Alofi Terrace formed. The broadest reef occurred along the windward coasts where it is preserved still but, owing perhaps to the short time available for a reef to form at this level, it may never have developed along the leeward coast or, if it did, it was only ephemeral and more easily removed by postemergence erosion here than elsewhere.

The main Alofi (23-m) Terrace The main Alofi Terrace is the best preserved terrace below the Mutalau Reef, having been measured along 17 coast-normal transects (Table 1), measured in a coast-parallel sense at 11 places (Table 2), and mapped in detail along four stretches of coast (see Figures 8-11). This terrace is the broadest and most Plate 2: Karst development on the 43.5-m terrace and the main Alofi easily traceable in a lateral sense Terrace at Togo. The difficulties of determining a mean level for along almost every part of the these terraces is exacerbated at windward sites like these where the coast. Its absence at Alofi quarry relative relief within the terrace surface may be 4-5 m. could be a result of quarry operations and road construction.

The main Alofi Terrace occupies only a very narrow height range and generally displays only a small degree of karstification compared to higher terraces suggesting, as 48

THE LONG-TERM EVOLUTION OF NIUE ISLAND

Figure 6: Diagrammatic sections of coast-normal transects.

49

NIUE ISLAND

is implicit in the idea of continuous uplift of Niue since about 2.3 million years ago, that it is younger than the higher terraces. An exception to the statement about karstification occurs along the most windward coasts, notably at Togo, where karst within the main part of the Alofi Terrace has a Plate 3: The Niue Hotel in central Alofi is built on the main measured range of 5 metres (Plate 2).

Alofi Terrace, seen here from offshore.

The main Alofi Terrace has been recognized by most geologists to have visited Niue, including Smith (1902), Agassiz (1903) and Schofield (1959). It is shown from the sea in Plate 3 at Alofi, and in detail in Plate 4 at Anaana.

The 18-m terrace The lowest emerged terrace around Niue occurs at around 18 m above mean sea level and was measured at only six places, although it is likely that it also occurs elsewhere and may include the 9-15 m terrace distinguished from the main Alofi Terrace by Agassiz (1903) and the 11-14 m ter-

Plate 4: Detail of the main Alofi Terrace at Anaana, southwest Niue, showing emerged corals in growth position on the reef surface, and the pair of digital altimeters used for measuring elevations both reading 23 m.

Plate 5: The 18-m terrace (measured here as 11-14 m) at Talava Arches.

50

race found at Alofi, Lakepa, and the Talava Arches near Hikutavake (Schofield 1959; Plate 5).

Its distribution may not be significant, and simply reflect the fact that this was a terrace formed over a comparatively short period of time, and was consequently removed in its entirety in most places following its emergence.

THE LONG-TERM EVOLUTION OF NIUE ISLAND

Detailed terrace mapping

In order to understand the nature of the terraces in as much detail as possible, detailed mapping focused on four areas (located in Figure 7) where reasonably complete sequences are preserved. Each area is discussed and illustrated separately below.

Terraces in the Hio-Namukulu area Six terrace levels are preserved in the Hio-Namukulu area where the main Alofi Terrace is nearly 500 m broad (Figure 8). Below it, particularly in the area around Hio

Figures 7: Locations of detailed terrace maps illustrated in Figures 8-11.

Bay and south of the Namukulu Sea Track, is found a terrace at 16-18 m. The front of the main Alofi Terrace forms a sheer cliff along the rest of this coast.

The main circuminsular road runs along the main Alofi Terrace in this area but where an offshoot Figures 8: Terraces in the Hio-Namukulu area. goes inland, it crosses a series of well-preserved terraces (Figure 8). The 34-m terrace (at a measured height of 32-33 m here) forms a 200-m broad platform in the south with the 58-m terrace (here at 56 m) behind it. The inland road crosses the 52-m terrace (here at 49-51 m) which forms a narrow north-south aligned strip here where it is covered with a taro field. A remnant of this terrace was mapped farther north.

51

NIUE ISLAND

Terraces in the Hikutavake area Although still dominated by the main Alofi Terrace and the Mutalau Reef, the terrace sequence in the Hikutavake area (Figure 9) is more symmetrical than in the HioNamukulu area (see above). At four locations there is a conspicuous 18-m terrace (measured at 14-18 m at Talava and Matapa). The main Alofi Terrace is a maximum of 130 m wide near Talava and is backed

Figures 10: Terraces in the Vaitafe area.

Figures 9: Terraces in the Hikutavake area.

by the 43.5-m terrace (measured here as 43-45 m) in two places, including one crossed by the road as it cuts inland; an outlier mapped only from aerial photographs occurs within the Alofi Terrace east of Talava.

Inland of the 43.5-m terrace is the 58-m terrace (measured at 57 m in two places) with three outliers of the Mutalau Reef. The main Mutalau Reef crest at 65-66 m in this area runs continuously along the back of the 58-m surface.

Terraces in the Vaitafe area The 18-m terrace is broadest in this area reaching a width of around 20 m according to aerial photograph interpretation (Figure 10). Above this terrace runs the main Alofi Terrace and the 43.5 m terrace (measured here at 40-46 m), and two remnants of what is assumed to be the 58-m terrace (at 62 m), before the Mutalau Reef crest is encountered at 68-70 m. This sequence is typical of many of the windward coast sequences.

52

THE LONG-TERM EVOLUTION OF NIUE ISLAND

Terraces in the Ulupaka-Motu area This sequence was selected to show the complexity of the terrace sequence at certain locations. Mapping was done initially on foot, by following paths to the sea at Ulupaka and north of Motu.

The lowest terrace is the main Alofi Terrace, traced continuously through the area at 22-24 m above mean sea level Figure 11: Terraces in the Ulupaka-Motu area.

(Figure 11). In a few places the backwall of this terrace is breached by small landslips and/or debris slides, and access can be had to higher terraces, including the upper Alofi Terrace measured here at 27-29 m. Above the upper Alofi Terrace is the 34-m terrace (measured at 34-36 m) and a continuous 43.5-m terrace (at 38-42 m). Of particular interest are the three remnants of the 34-m terrace (at ~35 m) found seaward of the Alofi Terrace surface in this area.

The highest terrace mapped in this area is at 47-54 m and may be an unusually low occurrence of the Mutalau Reef (which is otherwise absent here) although the interpretation favoured here from field interpretation is that this is a remnant of the 52-m terrace, which is found quite prominently around Lakepa to the south.

Nature and origin of terraces

All the terraces recognised above including the Mutalau Reef are interpreted as coral reefs, the surfaces of which once grew at sea level. Many fossil reefs display an erosional surface but this is interpreted as the product of lowering of the former reef surface by subaerial (above-sea) erosion not a feature produced by marine erosion.

Chronology of emergence

One of the main purposes of our research on Niue was to try and calibrate the emergence of the island. Some work had been done on this previously. The oldest date is on near-surface samples from sediments in the ancient lagoon in the centre of the island which Paulay and Spencer (1992) reported to be 3.4 million years old. This age for the youngest time that the island was a true (not even slightly emerged) atoll 53

NIUE ISLAND

fits with Schofieldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s (1959) identification of the fossils in these sediments as being of Plio-Pleistocene age. Fieldes et al. (1960) reported a date of 700,000 years for the Mutalau Reef but, owing to the time when this determination was carried out, it should not be accepted uncritically.

PN collected several samples from the emerged reefs fringing the ancient lagoon and three of these samples were successfully dated by Akio Omura (Kanazawa University, Japan) using the 230Th/234U technique. Results are shown in Table 3.

Table 3. Acceptable 230Th/234U dates for fossil corals from Niue Laboratory number AO457 AO459 AO458

Location Hakupu Vaikona Liku

Determinations by Akio Omura, Kanazawa University, Japan Terrace Elevation above Date modern reef (m) (kyr) (early) Aloď&#x20AC; Terrace 18 261.5 +9.1/-8.4 Aloď&#x20AC; Terrace 19 231.8 +6.9/-6.5 (early) 43.5 m terrace or (late) Mutalau Reef 45 >450

(234U/238U)0 (activity ratio) 1.147+0.013 1.159+0.013 -

Note: to be acceptable, the 234U/238U activity should be between 1.13 and 1.16

The highest datable sample comes from either the older part of the 44-45 m terrace or from the younger part of the Mutalau Reef and yielded an age of >450,000 years. This is compatible with both dates obtained by previous authors (see above).

The other two samples both come from the Alofi Terrace. The sample from Hakupu came from the older part, as determined stratigraphically, of the Alofi Terrace and shows it to be around 261,500 years old. The sample from Vaikona, from the main part of the Alofi Terrace, showed this to be around 231,800 years old.

These results suggest that the Alofi Terrace began developing around the start of the Penultimate Interglacial stage of the Quaternary (258,000-194,000 years ago) and continued to grow during it. The prominence of this terrace (compared to all the others) is difficult to explain. It may be that uplift slowed during the Penultimate Interglacial stage allowing the contemporary coral reef to grow much faster outwards than at any other stage during the Quaternary.

Assuming, as the dates imply, that the Alofi Terrace is of Penultimate Interglacial age, then it is likely that the 18-m terrace is that which formed during the Last Interglacial. It is intriguing to note that there is evidence for a rapid, short-lived rise of sea level of about 4-6 m at the end of the Last Interglacial about 20,000 years ago (Hearty, 1999) and that this could account for the occurrence of the veneer of young reefs and reef sands near the seaward margin of the higher Alofi Terrace reported by Paulay and Spencer (1992).

54

THE LONG-TERM EVOLUTION OF NIUE ISLAND

Table 4. A possible chronology of the uplift of Niue Oxygen-isotope chronology and other details from Nunn (1999) Terrace/ reef level

Known age (years ago)

Suggested age of initial reef growth (years ago)

The Mutalau Reef

700,000

700,000

Stage 19

end Interglacial, sea level starting to fall

The 58-m terrace

-

658,000

Stage 18/17

end Glacial, start Interglacial, sea level rising

The 52-m terrace

Oxygen-isotope stage

Climate/sea level

-

589,000

Stage 16/15

end Glacial, start Interglacial, sea level rising

>450,000

521,000

Stage 14/13

end Glacial, start Interglacial, sea level rising

The 34-m terrace

-

359,000

Stage 10/9

end Glacial, start Interglacial, sea level rising

The upper (28-m) Alo Terrace

261,500

261,500

Stage 8/7

end Glacial, start Interglacial, sea level rising

The main (23-m) Alo Terrace

231,800

231,800

Stage 7

Interglacial, sea level high

The 18-m terrace

-

125,000

Stage 5e

Interglacial, sea level high. Surge about 120,000 years ago allows a fringing reef to grow on the edge of the main Alo Terrace

The 43.5-m terrace

A plausible chronology of island uplift is shown in Table 4. It is assumed that, with the possible exception of the Alofi Terrace, all reef terraces began forming at the end of Quaternary glacial periods when sea level was rising. It may be that reef growth, both upward and outward, continued during the subsequent interglacial period. It is also likely that, owing to cooler ocean waters, reef growth during glacial periods was subdued. If these assumptions are correct then the reef terraces can be viewed as largely late-glacial, early-interglacial phenomena, probably similar to that which presently exists around the island.

Long-term uplift rates

From the data in Table 4, it is possible to calculate long-term uplift rates. Given the model of Niue uplift discussed above, it is unlikely that uplift rates have remained constant through time. It is assumed that Niue has ascended a lithospheric flexure so that the uplift during the early stages would have been slow owing to the gentle slope of ascent, and that the uplift during the middle stages would have been faster owing to the steeper slope of ascent. Models of such lithospheric flexures (e.g. Dubois et al.

1974) suggest that the crestal slopes would be gentler than those in the middle and that consequently the final stages of ascent should involve slower uplift once again.

Some work has likewise been done on uplift rates before. Some authors have found unspecified evidence for “a deceleration of uplift [rate] with time” (Paulay and Spencer 1992: 22). Calculations alluded to by Hill (1996) “indicate that 64 km of movement towards the Tonga Trench produced the 70 m uplift of Niue” (p 32).

55

NIUE ISLAND

In one of his unpublished reports, Dickinson (1997a) gave the most comprehensive statement about uplift rates arguing on the basis of flexure geometry and the rate of Pacific Plate movement that Niue has been rising at an average rate of 0.13-0.16 mm/year (assuming a uniform rate) or 0.09-0.22 mm/year (if the variations in the shape of the flexure are considered). He notes that this rate is comparable to those for the Loyalty Islands (0.13-0.19 mm/year - Marshall and Launay 1978) and for Christmas Island in the Indian Ocean (0.12-0.16 mm/year - Woodroffe 1988) which are in similar geotectonic locations to Niue. Consequently, states Dickinson (1997a), midHolocene shorelines on Niue are likely to have been uplifted 0.5-0.9 m and Last Interglacial shorelines by 16-20 m. These conclusions are very similar to those derived from this study.

Table 5 shows the data and results of the analysis of uplift rates based on the suggested chronology in Table 4. Note that we cannot assume that the present surface of the particular terrace is the same as that at which it formed. We therefore assume that emerged reef-limestone surfaces were lowered at a rate of 0.01 mm/year, which is an order of magnitude less than Trudgill’s (1976) directly-measured rates for well-cemented algal limestone on tropical Aldabra Island in the Indian Ocean. We justify this low rate by the fact that some of the limestones are dolomitized, which reduces their erodability, and mainly by what we infer to be the slow rate at which the processes of surface lowering operate on low, dry Niue. However, we admit the arbitrariness of our choice of rate.

Table 5. Rates of long-term uplift of Niue since the emergence of the Mutalau Reef Terrace/reef level

The Mutalau Reef The 58-m terrace The 52-m terrace The 43.5-m terrace The 34-m terrace The upper Alo Terrace The main Alo Terrace The 18-m terrace The young reef fringe on the edge of the main Alo Terrace 56

Mean elevation (m)

Suggested age (years ago)

Relative sea level (m)

Surface Mean elevation lowering of original (m) surface (m)

Mean elevation Uplift rate of original (mm/year) surface above original sea level (emergence magnitude) (m)

65 58 52 43.5 34 28 23 18 18

700,000 658,000 589,000 521,000 359,000 261,500 231,800 125,000 125,000

?0 ?0 ?0 ?0 04 -30 +4 +64 +2

7.00 6.58 5.89 5.21 3.59 2.62 2.32 1.25 1.25

72.00 64.58 57.89 48.71 37.59 30.62 25.32 19.25 19.25

?72.00 ?64.58 ?57.89 ?48.71 37.59 60.62 21.32 13.25 17.25

?0.10 ?0.10 ?0.10 ?0.09 0.10 0.23 0.09 0.11 0.14

20

120,000

+9

1.20

21.2

12.20

0.10

THE LONG-TERM EVOLUTION OF NIUE ISLAND

The uplift rates derived from these calculations (Table 5) are all similar; with the exception of the figure derived for the upper Alofi Terrace, the calculation of which may have been distorted by use of an erroneous sea level, all the values lie between 0.09 mm/year and 0.14 mm/year. These figures are compatible with those derived theoretically by Dickinson (1997a) and for other rising limestone islands in a similar location (see above). There are no variations in temporal uplift rate which can be considered significant although this might change were more precise figures available for relative sea-level position for the four highest reef terraces.

We now turn our attention to the most recent part of the emergence history of Niue, and look in more detail at the low-level evidence.

Low-level evidence for emergence

While terrace mapping and chronology must necessarily be quite crude, it is possible to look more in more detail at the low-level evidence for emergence to gain insights into the nature of the process of emergence.

This section looks solely at the evidence for emergence below the 18-m terrace (125,000 years old). This evidence does not take the form of either constructional reef terraces or broad erosional terraces such as characterized the higher evidence described above. Rather it includes emerged erosional notches/caves and narrow erosional benches, for both of which Figure 12: Location of sites where low-level emergence feamodern analogues exist. Measure- tures were measured around the coast of Niue (see Figures ments of emergence (uplift) magni- 13-22 for detailed illustrations). tude are not made above mean sea level with digital altimeters as for higher terraces (see above) but rather measured directly between the same place on emerged and modern landforms. Thus the emergence magnitude of an emerged notch is taken as the distance between the floor of the emerged notch and the floor of the modern notch, for example.

The nature and interpretation of the low-level evidence for emergence is illustrated by 13 key sites, discussed individually below and located in Figure 12. Note 57

NIUE ISLAND

that figures for emergence are those between the emerged feature and its modern analogue. Where the feature formed at mean low-tide level (the vertical scale used in Figures 13-22), then emergence magnitude will be the same as height above mean low-tide level but, where the feature formed above or below mean low-tide level (MLT), the two figures will differ.

Site 1 - Talava The embayments at the scenic Talava arches (see Plate 5) contain many emerged notches and/or lines of shallow marine caves, many which have developed dripstone features, notably stalagmites and stalactites since emergence.

Figures 13: Low-level emergence features at Talava (site 1) A prominent 5.5-6.2 m (cave floors average 6.4 m above MLT) level runs along the cliff farthest inland.

Another notch is found at a lower level emerged 2.3-2.6 m (emerged notch floor averages 2.7 m above MLT) above the modern notch (Figure 13).

Site 3 Matapa Chasm A popular bathing place, Matapa Chasm is a narrow (10-m wide) enclosed inlet, probably a solutionwidened fissure or joint, which extends inland more than 200 m. Several emerged notch lines can be seen in the 20-m high 58

Figures 14: Low-level emergence features at Matapa Chasm (site 3) and Hikutavake north (site 4).

THE LONG-TERM EVOLUTION OF NIUE ISLAND

walls of the chasm. Two of the notches, emerged 1.6 m and 3.3 m above the modern notch (notch innermost points average 2.5 m and 4.2 m above MLT respectively) were measured (Figure 14, left).

Site 4 - Hikutavake north A prominent cave line 6.8-7.4 m above their modern equivalents (platform at front of cave averages 7.1 m above MLT) is found at this site, along with a notch and shore platform complex emerged 20-30 cm above the modern wave-cut platform (Figure 14, right).

Site 5 - Limu Pools The complex embayed coast at Limu has given rise to a number of semi-enclosed pools, popular for bathing and fishing. A prominent emerged notch-platform 2.8 m above the modern equivalent (floor is 2.9 m above MLT) is found throughout the area (Plate 6). A poorly-developed 1.7 m notch (innermost point 2.05 m above MLT) also occurs here. In the cliffs down

Plate 6: The prominent 2.8-m emerged shoreline at Limu Pools (see also Figure 15) together with the 1.7-m notch and modern notch.

All four coral samples from the 2.8-m shoreline here proved to be completely recrystallised and therefore unable to be dated using the radiocarbon technique.

along which the track to the Pools leads, an emerged notch 7.2-7.7 m above the modern notch (innermost point is 8.2 m above MLT) can be clearly identified here (Figure 15).

Figure 15: Low-level emergence features at Limu Pools (site 5).

59

NIUE ISLAND

Site 8 - Tuapa coast Along the coast below Tuapa village, are found two lines of marine caves and/or platform-notch landforms emerged 6.1-6.3 m (cave floors average 7 m above MLT) and 3.8-3.9 m (outer edge of emerged shore platform 3.95 m above MLT).

The lower line of emergence Figure 16: Low-level emergence features along the Tuapa coast (site 8). is notable for the broadness (~7 m) of the emerged shore platform (Figure 16).

Site 10 - Palaha Cave The Palaha sea track takes one down the cliff at this point and into Palaha Cave, from which one can move along the coast at low tide.

There is a notable congruence between the emerged notch on the cliff face here and former floors, often flowstone-covered, of this 45-m long cave.

The lowest emerged notch is 1.9-2.1 m above the modern notch (innermost point 2.85 m above MLT; Plate 7) and corresponds to the main cave floor into which a river channel is Figures 17: Low-level emergence features at Palaha Cave (site 10). incised locally. There is a higher cave level with an old flowstone floor emerged 6.0-6.3 m (averaging 7.45 m above MLT) parallel to that in the lower cave (Figure 17).

60

THE LONG-TERM EVOLUTION OF NIUE ISLAND

Figures 18: Low-level emergence features at Avaiki Cave (site 11).

Site 11 - Avaiki Cave Two levels of emergence are present here (Figure 18), the highest comprising notches and caves 5.3-6.4 m above their modern equivalents (notch floors average 6.35 m above MLT, flowstone floors in emerged caves average 7.15 m above MLT). The lower level, pictured in Plate 8, has emerged 1.7-2.6 m and also comprises both caves (with flowstone and dripstone) and notches (flowstone floors average 3.45 m above MLT, notch mid-slopes average 2.45 m above MLT). The modern notch at this location is fronted by an unusually steep shore platform Plate 7: Evidence for low-level emergence along the coast at the mouth of Palaha Cave (see also Figure 17) at between mean and (see Plate 8) which may be one low-tide level. A geological hammer rests on the upper notch for scale. indication of recent uplift.

61

NIUE ISLAND

Site 12 - Makefu A well-developed emerged notch and shore platform at 6.3-6.8 m above their modern equivalents (notch innermost points average 7.45 m above MLT) is found along the Makefu coast (Figure 19); the emerged platform is 45 m broad in places (Plate 9) and is similar Plate 8: Evidence for low-level emergence at the Avaiki Caves in height and form to the broad (see also Figure 18) under low-tide conditions. Note the modern notch with its unusually steep base, suggesting it might be emerged platform at about the same slightly emerged, and the 1.7-2.6 notch and cave level. height at Namukulu to the north.

The lower notches at Makefu are of two kinds. The first (not shown for Makefu in Figure 19) is a modern notch but with a larger-than-usual height range and a steeplysloping floor (as in Plate 9). Observations suggest that the high-tide level does not reach the innermost point of this type of notch, also found in the bay at the foot of the Amanau Sea Track (Alofi south) and elsewhere along the islandâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s coast, suggesting that it is an emerged notch, the form of which has been modified by wave erosion at present-day sea level. The second type of notch found here (as shown in Figure 19) is one which is still being fashioned by marine erosion, as evinced by its association with an emerged shore platform on its seaward side which steepens landwards, and may signal the recent age of the emergence which carried it to a higher level.

These types of lowlevel landforms are both interpreted as signalling the interaction between recent emergence and wave erosion. The lower emerged notch indicates 1.8 m of emergence (notch innermost point is 2.8 m above MLT). It is possible to recognise a lower level on the emerged shore Figure 19: Low-level emergence features at Makefu (site 12).

62

THE LONG-TERM EVOLUTION OF NIUE ISLAND

platform averaging 25 cm of emergence (40 cm above MLT) but this level may not have been created by processes at a higher relative sea level but rather by those operating under present conditions.

Site 14 - Alofi Wharf The cliffs on the south side of the Plate 9: View north along the coastline at Makefu (see also wharf in Alofi exhibit a series of three Figure 19) close to low tide showing the modern shore platand what is assumed to be its emerged analogue at emerged notches above the well- form 6.3-6.8 m. Note also the form of the modern notch at the developed modern notch (Figure 20, base of the cliff which has a base at modern low-tide level left). The highest level is 8.5 m above yet is interpreted as an amalgam of a modern and low-level emerged notch. the modern notch (innermost point 9.4 m above MLT) and, although reasonably continuous, is not particularly large and may not be a product of marine erosion. The 3.7-m notch (innermost point 4.6 m above MLT) is much larger, and is interpreted as a marine notch whose form has been modified by postemergence roof collapse. The lowest emerged notch, at 1.85 m (innermost point 2.55 m above MLT), is closest in form to the modern notch.

Site 15 - Opaahi The emerged notch series at Opaahi (Figure 20, right) is not the same as that at Alofi Wharf, just 1.8 km away, suggesting that at least some of the levels are not the products of wave erosion at a former sea level but a result of preferential erosion along a locally-

Figure 20. Low-level emergence features at Alofi Wharf (site 14) and Opaahi (site 15).

63

NIUE ISLAND

exposed or locall-developed joint plane, for instance, or a layer of rock which has an unusually low resistance to erosion, such as a sand lens within the reef limestone.

At Opaahi, the highest emerged notch at 8.6 m above the modern notch (notch midslope 9.15 m above MLT) also has an equivalent at Alofi Wharf and elsewhere along the coast of Niue. The 5-m and 2.9-m notches at Opaahi (innermost points 5.9 m and 3.8 m respectively above MLT) do not have clear equivalents at Alofi Wharf . What is shown as the modern notch in Figure 20 (right) is likely to be a conflation of a lower emerged notch and a modern notch, such as the first type of low notch described at Makefu (see above), owing to its uncommonly great vertical range, steeply-sloping floor, and the observation that the high-tide level does not reach its innermost point.

Site 24 - Hakupu Low-level evidence for emergence along the windward coasts of Niue is less likely to be preserved owing to the greater degree of erosion here associated with the higher wave energy. The Hakupu coast is typical of many parts of the windward coasts in that there are no unmistakable signs of emergence between the 18-m terrace (here at 16-18 m) and the surf zone. Within this zone, two platforms can be distinguished. The

Figure 21. Low-level emergence features at Hakupu (site 24).

64

THE LONG-TERM EVOLUTION OF NIUE ISLAND

higher lies 2.4-2.8 m above the lower and is capped by an algal ridge dominated by the red coralline algae Porolithon onkodes (Figure 21). As described from Tongatapu island in Tonga (Nunn 1993), the algal ridge here is thickest along its seaward side and has the form of a series of shallow basins stepped downwards in a landward Plate 12: Close up at high tide of the emerged shore direction. The lower platform lies close platform and algal ridge at Togo as the wave breaks.

Note how most of the algal ridge is covered by surf to low-tide level and is thought to be the (spray) while not being directly inundated, and how modern shore platform although it was not the emerged shore platform receives water but also possible to examine it in detail owing to through spray not direct inundation. This suggests that these landforms are emerged relative to sea level. The the ferocity of the waves on every visit. modern shore platform is inundated directly.

The upper platform is by far the better developed of the two, being around 50 m wide in some places. Plates 10-12 show this platform 7 km north of this site at Vaikona. The upper platform is the one described in this area by Agassiz (1903) as a 5-6 foot terrace and subsequently termed the ‘Blowhole Reef’ by Schofield (1959) who measured it about 8 feet above low-tide level. As on Tongatapu’s south coast, blowholes occur along the upper platform here as a result of overgrowth of shore-normal grooves by the algal ridge; this is able to cover the entire groove except for a hole (the blowhole) at its inner edge through which water is forced during swash (Nunn 1993).

As on Tongatapu, the upper platform here is regarded as the Figure 22. Low-level emergence features at Vaitafe (site 30) and emerged analogue of the modern Mutalau (site 32).

65

NIUE ISLAND

Plate 10: The emerged shore platform and algal ridge south of Vaikona under conditions of mean sea level. The Porolithon algal ridge rises from the outer edge of the emerged shore platform. The modern shore platform is obscured by surf at this location. Similar landforms are interpreted in detail for Hakupu (site 24) in the text (see Figure 21).

shore platform (Nunn 1993, Nunn and Finau 1995). The location of the upper platform within the surf zone has fortuitously provided a suitable base for algalridge development, a development which might be absent or quite different in form and location were this base not present.

Site 30 - Vaitafe A series of three emerged notches are found in the cliffs along the Vaitafe coast above the modern notch (Figure 22, left). The highest emerged notch is emerged 9.2 m (innermost point averages 99 m above MLT) and has the most characteristic notch form of any of the emerged notches here. The lower two emerged notches - at 7.0 m (innermost point is 7.7 m above MLT) and 3.1 m (lower mid-slope is 3.4 m above MLT) - are more subdued in form, which is probably a consequence of their location along the windward coast. Owing to its unusual height, the modern notch may be a composite notch at this site, although notch forms tend to be larger along windward coasts so this may not be so.

Site 32 - Mutalau Just below the termination of vehicle access along the Mutalau sea track, a notch and cave line emerged 8-9 m above the modern notch (innermost point of notch averages 9.6 m above MLT) is encountered. Outrigger canoes are stored in the caves which extend 20 m inland in places.

The cliff between this notch and the modern notch is concave and interpreted as an emerged notch, which probably became so large because of the coalescence of a series of notches within this height range (Figure 22, right). An 2.1-m emerged notch (midslope is 2.65 m above MLT) is visible. The modern notch here is well developed.

Analysis of results and discussion

Low-level emergence data are plotted in Figure 23. It is possible to recognise several altitudinally-discrete groups, enclosed by broken lines in Figure 23. It is 66

THE LONG-TERM EVOLUTION OF NIUE ISLAND

Figure 23: Low-level emergence data plotted by site number (see also Table 6).

acknowledged that some data, typically because of problems of measuring their emergence magnitudes precisely, may have been assigned to the wrong groups; one datum from Opaahi is clearly isolated (Figure 23) and is likely to have been incorrectly measured owing to the difficulties of reconstructing notch-sea Plate 11: Close up at high tide of the emerged shore platform and algal ridge at Togo a few seconds before the next wave breaks. Note the level relationships at this site water pouring off the algal ridge, yet being ponded in pools thereon (see above). Yet, in the and on the emerged shore platform on its landward side. Note also the modern shore platform partly covered by water about 1.5 m below the absence of information to the its emerged counterpart at this site. contrary, it is assumed that each of the groups A-G represent emerged shorelines which formed at approxi67

NIUE ISLAND

mately the same time. There is no way of demonstrating that these emerged shoreline levels are contemporaneous but it seems a reasonable assumption giving the size of the island and the lack of any sign that the island has not been rising uniformly during the late Quaternary.

Working on these assumptions, the data were analysed. The results are shown in Table 6. The seven groups of emerged shorelines have mean emergences of 8.7 m, 7.1 m, 6.1 m, 3.8 m, 2.9 m, 1.9 m and 0.25 m. The differences between these mean figures is also shown in Table 6. The average figure of 1.4 m represents the mean emergence between shoreline groups.

Table 6. Groups of low-level shoreline emergence data.

Group

Number of data

A B C D E F G

4 3 5 2 6 7 2

Range of data (m) 0.7 0.3 0.8 1.85 0.7 0.55 0

Mean emergence (m) 8.7 7.1 6.1 3.8 2.9 1.9 0.3

Difference in mean (m) 1.6 1.0 2.3 0.9 1.0 1.6 1.4

mean of differences as shown in Figure 23.

Many islands in the Pacific (and elsewhere) rise coseismically rather than aseismically. This means that they do not rise slowly and continuously but rather they are stable for long periods then they rise abruptly. This process of uplift occurs intermittently and produces sequences of altitudinally-discrete emerged shorelines such as that described for Niue. Measured coseismic-uplift magnitudes are similar to the differences in means shown in Table 6. For example, both the 1961 earthquake on Guadalcanal Island in Solomon Islands and the 1964 Awashima Earthquake in Japan involved 1.5 m of abrupt uplift (Grover 1965; RothĂŠ 1969). The similarity of the difference in means and their similarity to magnitudes of coseismic-uplift events elsewhere may indicate that Niue has been rising coseismically recently. It is worth noting that this explanation is consistent with the origin stories of the Niuean people discussed early in this chapter.

The main objection to this explanation is that earthquakes are not known to occur beneath Niue nor, given our understanding of the islandâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s geotectonic situation, would they be expected to occur since two plates are not moving against each other here. However it is also possible that the recurrence time between coseismic-uplift 68

THE LONG-TERM EVOLUTION OF NIUE ISLAND

events is so great that there is no memory (except in legends) of such an event having ever occurred.

While data analysis suggests that repeated coseismic uplift may have been responsible for low-level emergence, there are other possibilities. The first is that subtle interactions between aseismic uplift of perhaps variable rate and changes in the sea level have periodically allowed lateral erosion which has produced shorelines A-F at least. It is impossible to write meaningfully about this possibility in the absence of a more complete data set and a better understanding of Holocene coastal processes. It is also possible that the notches represent nothing more than soft layers of limestone which have been preferentially eroded, and that their elevations around the Niue coast cannot be interpreted in terms of either uplift or sealevel change.

The final matter to be resolved with reference to low-level emergence is the time frame over which this emergence took place. Given that the 18-m reef terrace is of Last Interglacial age, all the emergence which took place below this level must have occurred since then, that is during the last 125,000 years or so. For most of this period, however, the ocean was well below its present level - around 17,000 years ago, it was around 120 m lower. So most of the shorelines formed within the last 125,000 years must now be below the ocean surface, preserved perhaps as terraces of dead reef built out from the submerged flanks of the island. It was not until sea level approached its present level around 8000-6000 years ago, that the shorelines which formed might now be preserved above the modern shoreline.

The last 10,000 years or so of Earth history are termed the Holocene, and we now assume that emerged shoreline groups A-G are of Holocene age.

If we assume that coseismic uplift was responsible for the emergence of shoreline groups A-G, then we suggest that uplift events must have occurred every thousand years or so during the Holocene. Sea level has also changed during the Holocene.

According to empirical data from Fiji and Tonga, the sea level reached about 1.5 m above its present level around 3000 years ago (Nunn 1990, 1994, 1995). It therefore seems most likely that shoreline group E (mean elevation = 2.9 m) is the shoreline which formed at the time of the high sea level, a conclusion which is consistent with the field deductions of Dickinson (1997a, b).

Although six fossil coral samples thought to be of Holocene age were submitted for radiocarbon dating, only one proved to be unrecrystallised and therefore able to be dated using this method. This sample was of a fossil Porites coral, 24 cm above living corals, from the reef flat north of Palaha (site 10 in Figure 12) which 69

NIUE ISLAND

yielded a conventional radiocarbon age of 4880 +/- 50 BP (WK-7063). This age was calibrated using OxCal (version 3beta2) and CALIB Marine93.14c curve with no local marine correction factor. The calbrated age range is 5740-5480 cal yr BP or 3790-3530 years Before Christ. This might mean that shoreline group G to which this sample most likely belongs, is more than 5000 years old, a conclusion which markedly contradicts our assumption that each shoreline group formed approximately every thousand years since about 7000 years ago. The only way in which both could be correct is if the coral dated lived 6 m underwater at the time shoreline group C was developing and that it was never covered by younger coral and now it is just 24 cm above the ocean surface. This, however, seems an unnecessarily convoluted explanation. In the absence of secure dating of low-level emergence features, further analysis is premature.

Current condition

The (later) Quaternary history of Niue has been dominated by the islandâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s rise up the lithospheric flexure associated with the subduction of the Pacific along the Tonga Trench (Figure 24). The island has not yet finished its ascent and must therefore still be considered to be rising. It is estimated that Niue will continue ascending the lithospheric flexure for another 50-70 km which may produce an additional 40-70 m of uplift depending on the exact geometry of the flexure encountered. Assuming a rate of Pacific Plate movement in this area of 12 cm/year it is likely to take around half a million years for Niue to reach the crest of the flexure. Only then is it likely to begin to subside as it descends the other side of the flexure.

The critical question remains as to what will be the nature of future uplift of Niue.

Clearly if it is aseismic then that poses a different set of hazards than if it is coseismic. Hazards are discussed briefly in the following section.

Geological hazards

It seems clear from study of the marked asymmetrical form of the ancient volcano underlying Niue that a large landslide once carried away a large section of the island down its steep underwater slopes (see above and Figure 2). Even looking at the shape of the modern island, it is likely that some of the coastal scallops such as those in Alofi and Avatele Bays originated as landslides (maybe a succession of landslides) similar to those which have occurred on similar steep-sided Pacific Islands (Moore et al. 1989, 1994; Keating 1987; Keating and McGuire 2000). A cleft is visible in places 70

THE LONG-TERM EVOLUTION OF NIUE ISLAND

on the Alofi Terrace and elsewhere around Alofi Bay and this may be an indication of a new landslide about to occur in this area. It may not, of course; it may be entirely a solutional feature with no relationship to structural weaknesses. It is also possible that some of the caves, particularly those like Ulupaka and Anatoloa caves in the northeast of Niue, originated as a result of slip down the flanks of the island. All such gravity-driven processes would be exacerbated by uplift; undoubtedly coseismic uplift, on account of its abruptness and magnitude, would pose the severest threat.

However, earthquakes are not needed to drive slips down the flanks of steep-sided islands like Niue. Gravity alone is able to cause slip, although uplift will undoubtedly catalyse the occurrence of such phenomena.

Associated with the threat of landsliding along the island’s flanks is the threat from large waves produced by such phenomena either locally or far away. Such waves may reach tens of metres above normal and can cause immense damage to such islands.

Having said all that, it should be appreciated that geological phenomena such as those we are describing as potential hazards operate on geological timescales. A thousand years, ten thousand years may pass before the next landslide; it is very difficult to predict such the occurrence of such phenomena accurately.

Conclusions

This study of Niue has ranged across various fascinating aspects of the island’s geology and geological history, concentrating on the island’s uplift history. Niue is not unique in the world’s oceans, but it is one of the finest examples of its kind to be found anywhere on Earth. The Rock of Polynesia is truly a monument of global importance.

References

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Aharon, P., Socki, R.A. and Chan, L. (1987) Dolomitization of atolls by sea water convection flow: test of a hypothesis at Niue, South Pacific. Journal of Geology, 95, 187-203.

Aharon, P., Goldstein, S.L., Wheeler, C.W. and Jacobson, G. (1993) Sea-level events in the South Pacific linked with the Messinian salinity crisis. Geology, 21, 771-775.

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Brenchley, J.L. (1873) Jottings during the Cruise of HMS Curacoa among the South Sea Islands in 1865. London: Longman, Green and Co. Dickinson, W.R. (1997a) Preliminary paleoshoreline analysis of Niue. Unpublished manuscript. 5 pp.

Dickinson, W.R. (1997b) Niue shorelines. Unpublished manuscript. 2pp.

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Fieldes, M., Bearling, G., Claridge, G.G.C., Wells, N. and Taylor, N.H. (1960) Mineralogy and radioactivity of Niue Island soils. New Zealand Journal of Science, 3, 658-675.

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Forster, G. (1777) A Voyage around the World in His Britannic Majesty’s Sloop ‘Resolution’. London: White, Robson.

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Hearty, P. (1999) Warm interglaciations, abrupt environmental change, and the Antarctic “Wild Card”. Abstracts Volume, Conference on “The non-steady state of the inner shelf and shoreline: coastal change on the time scale of decades to millennia”, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, 9-12 November 1999, 99-100.

Hill, R.J. (1996) Niue and adjacent seamounts. In: Meylan, M.A. and Glasby, G.P. (editors). Manihiki Plateau, Machias and Capricorn Seamounts, Niue, and Tonga Trough: Results of Tui Cruises. SOPAC Technical Bulletin, 10, 31-44.

Jacobson, G. and Hill, P.J. (1980) Hydrogeology of a raised coral island - Niue Island, South Pacific Ocean. Bureau of Mineral Resources, Journal of Australian Geology and Geophysics, 5, 271-278.

Keating, B.H. (1987) Structural failure and drowning of Johnston Atoll, Central Pacific Basin. In: Keating, B.H., Fryer, P., Batiza, R. and Boehlert, G.W. (eds.). Seamounts, Islands, and Atolls. Washington: American Geophysical Union, Geophysical Monograph 45, 49-59.

Keating, B.H. and McGuire, W.J. (2000) Island edifice failures and associated tsunami hazards. Pure and Applied Geophysics 157: 899-955.

Kirch, P.V. (1997) The Lapita Peoples: Ancestors of the Oceanic World. Oxford: Blackwell, 353 p.

Marshall, J.F. and Launay, J. (1978) Uplift rates of the Loyalty Islands as determined by 230Th/238U dating of raised coral terraces. Quaternary Research, 9, 186-92.

Moore, J.G., Bryan, W.B. and Ludwig, K.R. (1994) Chaotic deposition by a giant wave, Molokai, Hawaii. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 106, 7962-67.

Moore, J.G., Clague, D.A., Holcomb, R.T., Lipman, P.W., Normark, W.R. and Torresan, M.E. (1989) Prodigious submarine landslides on the Hawaiian Ridge. Journal of Geophysical Research, 94, 17465-84.

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Nunn, P.D. (1994) Oceanic Islands. Oxford, Blackwell. 418 pp.

Nunn, P.D. (1995) Holocene sea-level changes in the south and west Pacific. Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue 17, 311-319.

Nunn, P.D. (1996) Emerged shorelines of the Lau Islands. Fiji Mineral Resources Department, Memoir 4, 99 p.

Nunn, P.D. (1998) Pacific Island Landscapes. Suva, Fiji: Institute of Pacific Studies, The University of the South Pacific, 318 pp.

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Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie, 39, 69-95.

Paulay, G. and Spencer, T. (1992) Niue Island: geologic and faunatic history of a Pliocene atoll. Pacific Science Association Bulletin, 44, 21-23.

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Spencer, T. and Paulay, G. (1992) Geomorphology, uplift and sea level history of Niue Island, southwest Polynesia. 7th International Coral Reef Symposium, Guam; Abstracts, p 98.

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Thomson, B.C. (1902) Savage Island: an account of a sojourn in Niue and Tonga. London: John Murray, 235 pp.

Trudgill, S. (1976) The subaerial and subsoil erosion of limestones on Aldabra Atoll, Indian Ocean. Zeitschrift f端r Geomorphologie, Suppl-Bd 26, 201-210.

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Journal of Biogeography, 19, 467-480.

Wheeler, C.W., Aharon, P. and Ferrell, R.E. (1999) Successions of late Cenozoic platform dolomites distinguished by texture, geochemistry, and crystal chemistry: Niue, South Pacific. Journal of Sedimentary Research, 69, 239-255.

Whitehead, N.E., Barrie, J. and Rankin, P. (1990) Anomalous Hg contents in soils of Niue Island, South Pacific.

Geochemical Journal, 24, 371-378.

Whitehead, N.E., Ditchburn, R.G., McCabe, W.J. and Rankin, P. (1992) A new model for the origin of the anomalous radioactivity in Niue Island (South Pacific) soils. Chemical Geology, 94, 247-260.

Woodroffe, C.D. (1988) Vertical movements of isolated oceanic islands at plate margins: evidence from emergent reefs in Tonga (Pacific Ocean), Cayman Islands (Caribbean Sea), and Christmas Island (Indian Ocean). Zeitschrift f端r Geomorphologie, Suppl-Bd 69, 17-37.

Wright, A.C.S. and van Westerndorp, F.J. (1965) Soils and agriculture of Niue Island. New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Soil Bureau Bulletin 17.

Acknowledgements

The hospitality and assistance of the people on Niue is acknowledged with particular gratitude. In particular we thank Terry Chapman, Matt McIntyre, Robin Hekau, George Sioneholo, Phyllis Rex, and the staff of the USP Centre. Sione Talagi, Sidney Aue and Cassygina Tukiuha helped collect samples and provided considerable aid in the field.

We are grateful to William R. Dickinson for stimulating discussions concerning the long-term history of Niue and the interpretation of its coastal landforms. We are also grateful to Akio Omura for 230Th/234U dates of Niue corals and to the University of the South Pacific for funding fieldwork on Niue and radiocarbon dates. Paul Aharon, Gustav Paulay, Tom Spencer and Paul Williams all provided us with helpful information about their research on Niue.

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74

GEOMORPHIC FEATURES OF NIUE ISLAND: CHASMS, CAVES AND OTHER KARST VARIETIES JAMES P. TERRY

Geography Department, the University of the South Pacic Suva, Fiji

Introduction

Niue has a unique and attractive landscape. Because the island is an uplifted coral atoll, it has a central depression surrounded by a rocky rim, dropping off in sheer cliffs to the sea. Superimposed on this morphology is an assemblage of interesting smaller landscape features, some of which have been sculpted from the limestone bedrock by solution and may be called karst landforms (Figure 1). This chapter describes these features and explains why Niue’s raised reef landscape should be regarded as a terrain of geomorphological significance.

Characteristics of Niue’s carbonate geology

Composition Limestone is a bio-sedimentary rock made from the calcareous skeletons of marine organisms. There are two principal modes of formation: the growth of coral reefs and the sedimentation of skeletons of marine creatures. Niue is an uplifted coral atoll and its limestone geology occurs in three facies (Cliff Ollier pers. comm.). There is a reef facies with corals in their original growth position in the Mutalau Reef. There is also a fore-reef facies which is a conglomerate of chunks broken from and accumulated in front of the living reef while it was still submerged. Fore-reef conglomerate is well exposed in the cliffs and caves north of Mutalau village and in the cliffs at Ana Ana lookout. These two limestone facies comprise skeletons of corals, crustose algae and foraminifera. A lagoon facies of poorly cemented coralline sands covers most of the island in the central depression.

This facies is a partly lithified lagoonal deposit, rich in shells of marine gastropods and bivalve molluscs, coralline algae and echinoids Figure 2. Partly lithified calcarenite deposits in the Mutalau Lagoon, rich in shells of marine gastropods and bivalve mol(Figure 2). luscs, coralline algae and echinoids. Photo by Cliff Ollier.

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Figure 1. Schematic cross-section through Niue, showing the geomorphic features described in the text.

NIUE ISLAND

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GEOMORPHIC FEATURES OF NIUE ISLAND: CHASMS, CAVES AND OTHER KARST VARIETIES

The texture of the limestones varies from hard and dense, to soft, chalky and sugary (Jackson and Hill 1980). The colour is white, sometimes creamy or tan, weathering to grey at exposures. The rock is faulted, jointed and porous, so rainwater percolates easily, giving vertical drainage and no runoff.

Mineralogy Niueâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s carbonate bedrock has interesting mineralogy. Calcite and aragonite (both CaCO3) are the primary minerals of the coastal rocks, but the bulk of the inland limestone has been altered by a geochemical process called dolomitisation. This is the replacement of calcium carbonate by the mineral dolomite, which has a higher magnesium content (CaMg(CO3)2), and occurs when magnesium-rich groundwaters seep through limestone bedrock. According to Friedman and Sanders (1967), a source of the magnesium needed for the dolomitisation process is hypersaline brine.

Such brines can be produced by the partial evaporation of sea water, for example in supratidal lakes or shallow coastal lagoons that are subjected to evaporitic conditions (Murray 1969). These environmental conditions can be envisaged as the preNiue atoll first emerged above sea-level some half a million years ago, and the central lagoon became progressively cut off from the surrounding ocean. Quaternary glacio-eustatic low sea levels may likewise have contributed to dolomitisation (Wheeler et al. 1999). Recent work by Ebrahim (1999) on Tarawa atoll, Kiribati, has also shown that dolomitisation can occur in atoll lagoons that are not cut off from the ocean, and other workers suggest that microbial processes may also be important. For recent ideas on dolomitisation, readers are directed to Purser et al.

(1994).

Weathering A primary mechanism of landscape denudation on limestone in humid environments is chemical weathering by solution. This is because calcite is attacked by the natural acidity of rainwater. Dolomite is less soluble than calcite, but the principle is the same. The solution process can be considered in stages as follows: Stage 1: Carbon dioxide gas, present in the atmosphere and in soil air spaces, dissolves in rainwater to form a weak solution of carbonic acid: CO2 (g) + H2O (l) â&#x2020;&#x201D; H2CO3 (aq) 1 1

(s) = solid, (l) = liquid, (g) = gas, (aq) = aqueous solution

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Stage 2: When the carbonic acid solution comes into contact with limestone, it reacts to form calcium bicarbonate, which immediately dissociates into ions of calcium and hydrogen carbonate in aqueous solution: H2CO3 (aq) + CaCO3 (s) ↔ Ca2+ (aq) + 2HCO3- (aq) (calcite)

For dolomite the equation is: 2H2CO3 (aq) + CaMg(CO3)2 (s) ↔ Ca2+ (aq) + Mg2+ (aq) + 4HCO3- (aq) (dolomite)

(The double headed arrows in the equations indicate that these chemical reactions are reversible, i.e. carbon dioxide can be degassed from carbonic acid and calcium carbonate precipitated out of solution, which we shall see later is important for the formation of speleothems) Stage 3: The ions of calcium, magnesium, and hydrogen carbonate in solution are transported away by water percolating downwards through joints and fissures in the bedrock.

Over a very long period, continued solution of limestone may eventually lead to the development of a suite of associated landforms, known collectively as a karst landscape. The name comes from the slavic word ‘kras’, meaning rock, and was originally applied to the extensive limestone landscape of the Dinarai Planina, bordering the Adriatic Sea in the former Yugoslavia. Nowadays, the term karst is used more widely by geomorphologists to describe any terrain that is: 1. underlain by soluble carbonate rocks such as limestones (CaCO3, calcium carbonate) and dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2, calcium magnesium carbonate) 2. dominated by solution processes in humid regions, or in arid regions where solution features have been inherited from a wetter period in the past, 3. an assemblage of landforms exhibiting an absence of surface drainage and a predominance of vertical and underground drainage instead.

Conditions for karstification

For any limestone area to be karstified, there are certain geologic, climatic and topographic conditions that must be met, and we should consider these before describing Niue’s landforms in detail. The geological conditions are that: 78

GEOMORPHIC FEATURES OF NIUE ISLAND: CHASMS, CAVES AND OTHER KARST VARIETIES

1. the limestone should be extensive 2. the rock must be of considerable thickness, typically tens to hundreds of metres, These two spatial criteria are important because large solution features such as cave systems (see later) cannot develop on thin or restricted rock outcrops.

3. the bedrock should be highly permeable, to allow the penetration and free circulation of rainwater 4. the rock should be hard, so that physical weathering will be subordinate to chemical weathering.

Niue’s island geology meets the above criteria. None of the 259 km2 area of raised atoll reef is overlain by other geology, and Quaternary uplift has exposed a thickness of up to 68 m of rock above sea-level. The coral limestone is also permeable as mentioned earlier.

Important climatic conditions for karstification are the availability of moderate to high annual precipitation, in combination with high temperatures, so that solution can readily take place. Niue’s humid tropical climate has 2050 mm of rainfall per year and average temperatures above 20°C. This favours the growth of rainforest vegetation which assists solution because plant-root respiration and the decomposition of organic humus raises the concentration of carbon dioxide in the soil above normal atmospheric concentrations. Diffusion of this additional CO2 into infiltrating rainwater makes the soil moisture a more aggressive carbonic acid, increasing solution of the bedrock.

The main topographic condition for karstification is sufficient elevation to permit free vertical drainage and circulation of the groundwater. Niue’s 68 m elevation above sea-level promotes good percolation and vertical drainage.

Niuean karst in context

Important studies of geomorphology on islands with carbonate bedrocks include Borneo in the East Indies (Wilford and Wall 1967), Jamaica and Puerto Rico in the West Indies (Pfeffer 1997), the Trobriand Islands of Papua New Guinea (Ollier 1975), Makatea in the Tuamoto archipelago (Montaggioni et al. 1985), Tongatapu and ‘Eua in Tonga (Lowe and Gunn 1986), and Santo island in Vanuatu (Strecker et al. 1987). The Pacific Island examples mainly describe geomorphic features that have formed on reef limestones, but these studies still remain a minority compared to karst studies on non-reef types of limestone. Since Niue is a large emerged atoll, it provides an excellent location to investigate karst development over a large expanse of coralline limestones.

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Other raised atoll islands in the Pacific with well developed solutional features include Banaba and Nauru in Micronesia. These islands can be distinguished, however, because their karst surfaces developed beneath a layer of rock phosphate, formed from the guano of enormous seabird rookeries that were present before human occupation. Niue does not have an extensive covering of phosphate rock because of the absence of an upwelling current of deep nutrient-rich ocean waters to support a large seabird rookery, as was the case on Banaba and Nauru (Stoddart and Scoffin 1983).

Features of Niuean karst

An absence of drainage Niue’s landscape has no rivers or streams, nor the associated features of fluvial geomorphology such as valleys, terraces and deltas. This is due to the high bedrock permeability, which promotes vertical drainage instead of a surface drainage pattern.

Continental or large island karst terrains elsewhere in the world may often exhibit surface drainage and fluvial landforms because rivers can rise on adjacent non-permeable rock types and then cross a limestone area, sometimes through gorges that have been deepened by solution. Niue’s landscape has developed in isolation from such influences as there are no impermeable rocks. There is one dry valley on Niue, extending from the depression in the island interior, through the raised atoll rim at Alofi (see Chapter by Nunn and Britton), but this is a relict reef passage connecting the former lagoon to the sea, and is therefore not a fluvial feature.

Basin-and-rim topography The central topographic depression or basin on Niue slopes gently to a base 34 m above sea-level (Paulay and Spencer 1992). It is called the Mutalau Lagoon and is interpreted as the former atoll lagoon. This is surrounded by a rim, called the Mutalau Reef, which rises to 68 m and is interpreted as the former atoll reef. Since the basin-and-rim morphology is inherited from atoll emergence, it is not wholly of karst origin. However, there is evidence that the central depression has been deepened further under subaerial conditions by solution weathering. The clue lies in the extent of the veneer of poorly cemented coral sands, which cover approximately 40% of the basin floor (Wright and van Westerndorp 1965). In modern shallow atoll lagoons, sand deposits blanket most of the lagoon floor between isolated coral heads. Schofield (1959) suggests that the ‘missing’ coral sand in Niue’s emerged lagoon has been preferentially removed by solution since island uplift.

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GEOMORPHIC FEATURES OF NIUE ISLAND: CHASMS, CAVES AND OTHER KARST VARIETIES

Pinnacles The Mutalau Reef has been exposed to subaerial weathering for the longest period on Niue, possibly 700,000 years since emergence (Fieldes et al. 1960), and has been deeply dissected by solution, producing abundant pinnacle formations. The pinnacles are isolated, irregularly shaped, steep-sided blocks of limestone, with grooved and pitted surfaces, sometimes resembling large jagged tombstones standing 2-3 m high. Many individual pinnacles may represent residual coral heads, and would have a spatial pattern corresponding to the original coral head distribution in the reef (John Barrie pers. comm.). As the difference in elevation between the highest remnants of reef limestone and the average height of Mutalau Reef is approximately 17 m (Schofield 1959), the surface lowering rate by solution is estimated at 24 mm per thousand years.

Niueâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s best known pinnacle surface is found on the 23 m marine terrace, called the Alofi Terrace, on the south east coast near Togo (Figure 3). The exposed rock surface has an erratic topography of solution pits and sharp edged points and is well-developed because of its exposed windward location, where sea spray assists normal bedrock solu- Figure 3. Highly dissected and razor sharp karrenfield surface on the south east coast near Togo. Photo by Patrick Nunn. tion by rainwater.

Dolines Dolines are closed surfical depressions, circular to oval in plan, ranging from several metres to tens of metres across. There are different types depending on the mode of formation. Solution dolines develop by pronounced surface solution at a joint intersection and are usually conical in shape, whereas collapse dolines form when the roof of underground caverns fall in, giving steep walls. Niueâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s dolines are shallow with steep walls and loose angular rock debris on the floor, indicating a collapsedcavern origin. Fine dolines occur at the entrances to Ulupaka and Anataloa caves.

There are not sufficient dolines on Niue to produce the pockmarked surface or 81

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‘moonscape’ effect seen in classic areas of karst, e.g. Croatia in Europe and the Marianna region of Florida, USA. This is because the poorly cemented coralline sands on the floor of Mutalau Lagoon are not suited to doline formation compared to hard and jointed bedrock, as there is more even solution throughout the deposit and because such materials cannot support steep-sided doline walls.

Chasms Around Niue’s coastline are a series of steep-walled chasms that cut deeply into the Alofi terrace. These impressive features form interconnected systems up to 500 m long and 25 m deep, and were interpreted by Schofield (1959) as solution channels along fault zones that run sub-parallel to the coast. He suggested the faults were formed as tension cracks during slumping of some outer sections of the Niue volcano on which the carbonate cap has grown. Another possibility is movement and settling of large structural blocks of reef limestone owing to the characteristically greasy nature of the geological boundary between coral reef and underlying volcanic rocks. This may have developed by subaerial weathering of the volcanic rocks to clays, perhaps when the Niue volcano first grew up to the ocean surface in the Late Miocene, or possibly in periodsof glacio-eustatic low sea levels. A greasy carbonate/ volcanic boundary has been documented beneath the reef limestone on Christmas Island Figure 4 A painting by Mark Cross, Niue artist, of Matapa Chasm on in the Indian Ocean (Barrie the north west coast. This spectacular chasm with a deep but sheltered pool of clear ocean water is a good spot for diving and is popular with 1967). A further possible tourists. cause of slumping is the lack of a solid foundation to parts of the reef which originally grew over unconsolidated deposits of coral sands rather than firm limestone bedrock.

Some chasms are open to the sea, such as Matapa on the north west coast (Figure 4). This example has breccia exposed in the chasm floor, thought to indicate its fault origin. Other chasms like Togo and Vaikona in south east Niue are not open to the sea, but contain pools supplied by the underground aquifer (Jacobson and Hill 82

GEOMORPHIC FEATURES OF NIUE ISLAND: CHASMS, CAVES AND OTHER KARST VARIETIES

1980). The pools are brackish because these chasms are located at the aquifer transition zone from fresh to salt water.

Caves and caverns Some of Niueâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s most striking geomorphology is seen by venturing underground into the honeycomb of caves and caverns that riddle the island. Caves are natural subterranean chambers in the limestone bedrock, sometimes joined to the surface by small openings or larger passages branching from the base of dolines. Different types of limestone caves are classified according to their position with respect to present or palaeo-levels of the water table.

Phreatic zone caves are those formed by solution below the water table as slowly migrating groundwater enlarges bedding planes and joints into a network of interconnecting galleries and shafts. Epiphreatic zone caves are formed by the combination of solution and hydraulic action (erosion by the force of flowing water) by lateral flow at the level of the water table. These caves are often recognisable by their smooth cylindrical walls. These caves are lowered as the percolating waterexploits deeper routes through the bedrock. Vadose zone caves are formed by solution along fractures and bedding planes above the water table, and may have irregular shapes and deposits of rock debris due to wall and roof collapse.

Around Niueâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s cliffline are numerous caves which have been exposed by marine erosion and show the intricate solution features typical of formation within the phreatic zone (Jacobson and Hill 1980), or are the outlets of epiphreatic caves formed at the top of an old water table Figure 5. Two distinct levels of uplifted epiphreatic caves at Palaha.

(Figure 5). Since tectonic Photo by Cliff Ollier. uplift has stranded many caves above the present water table, these are strictly relict phreatic or epiphreatic caves. These caves should not be confused with rock overhangs or notches found at different heights on cliff faces that were eroded by wave action and marine organisms during Quaternary stillstands of sea-level. The true caves can be distinguished by their smooth sided passages extending far back into the cliff rock.

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Away from the coast, caves accessible from the surface are generally of the vadose type. There may be relict epiphreatic caves deeper in the bedrock, but so far there are no written accounts of any deep underground expeditions. Many of the surface caves are small, simple chambers. Others have numerous branching passages, either wide and cavernous or narrow with low ceilings. Often there are pools of water on the floor. The most striking features in these caves are their attractive speleothem formations (see next section).

An alternative origin for many of the caves on Niue is that they are simply tectonic features, and may be called fracture caves (Ford and Williams 1989). This idea is based on the Quaternary uplift history of Niue, and suggests that during atoll emergence, sea-level fall reduced buoyant support of the fore-reef submarine slopes, leading to massive slope failures and fracturing of the coral cap on top. The surface exposure of these tectonic fractures has caused them to be (mis)interpreted as vadose zone caves. We may accept the tectonic theory of fracturing, but rainwater would still exploit the fractures as easy routes through the bedrock, encouraging solution and cave formation.

Speleothems Speleothem is a generic name given to the large variety of cave features produced by calcite precipitation, some of which are seen in Figure 6. Speleothems form when percolating water that is highly charged with dissolved calcium carbonate finds its way into an air-filled chamber. On entering an open space, some of the carbon dioxide in the water is released by degassing (see earlier formulae). The decrease in CO2 content reduces the waterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ability to hold all its solute material, and calcium carbonate is precipitated out of solution.

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Figure 6. Mr. Tali Magatogia, leader of Taliâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Cave Tours, stands next to some fine speleothems in Ulupaka cave.

GEOMORPHIC FEATURES OF NIUE ISLAND: CHASMS, CAVES AND OTHER KARST VARIETIES

Stalactites and stalagmites are features formed by precipitation on the roof and floor of caves by dripping water.

These may join up over time to form pillars. In some of Niue’s caves, stalactites and stalagmites are so abundant that groups resembling organ pipes are common. Many have pure internal crystal structures and emit resonant notes are if they are gently tapped. There are also fairly abundant helictites, literally ‘spiral’ stalactites which actually grow in all directions (Figure 7). Thousands of broken stalactites litter cave floors in many places as a result of vandalism, although some may also have been broken from their original position as the floor of a cave subsides through the Figure 7. An interesting helictite formation in Ulupaka cave. roof of a younger cave below.

If water flows down the side of a cave wall or along the floor then calcite precipitation gives smooth flowstones. Horizontal flowstone is seen in some of the coastal caves north of Mutalau. Elsewhere limestone steps or gours are common. These form where small pools of water are enclosed by a level surrounding rim of limestone. As water overflows the pool it precipitates calcite, so any breaks are soon healed and the rim gradually grows upwards and outward.

Caves and archaeology Caves are often important archaeological sites, and those on Niue are no exception. This is because caves provide environments with relatively stable microclimates that are generally little affected by the day-to-day extremes of the weather outside. Cave deposits, and any evidence of human occupation that they may contain, such as bones, fossils, middens and artefacts, can therefore be well preserved for a considerable time, especially if the cave is dry. Careful excavation of these remains gives valuable information about the diet, lifestyle, health and diseases, tools and traditions of the people from times before written records were kept.

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On Niue, shallow nearsurface caves were used as sites for burial or body disposal in pre-historic times. In 1974-75, the Niue Island Archaeological Survey, carried out by M. Trotter of the Canterbury Museum in Christchurch (Trotter 1979), uncovered many interesting deposits in 59 separate burial sites (both caves and rock shelters) (Figure 8). Many human bones were found, sometimes burnt, and often inside stone enclosures, underneath piles of stones, or on top of special stone burial mounds.

Radiocarbon dating of Figure 8. Known burial sites in caves and rock shelters. bones from Foukula and Paluki caves gave ages of 210±60 years and 370±40 years before present. Artefacts discovered alongside human remains include cowry and cone shells, basalt adze heads, coconut scrapers, fragments of wood, and ornaments such as shell necklace pieces and pendants.

Some caves also show good evidence that early Niuean people occupied them.

A good example is Anakula cave on the edge of the Mutalau Reef, where excavations revealed stratified deposits containing layers of charcoal and ash and pieces of shell from edible types of shellfish. These occupational deposits indicate that people frequently sheltered in caves to make fires and cook food, possibly over periods of several months (Walter and Anderson 1995). Elsewhere, in passages leading to underground pools, “smoothly worn rocks and blackened ceilings” (Trotter 1979:22) suggest that deeper caves had been explored and were used as a source of water in the past, perhaps in times of drought.

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GEOMORPHIC FEATURES OF NIUE ISLAND: CHASMS, CAVES AND OTHER KARST VARIETIES

Conclusions: the significance of Niuean karst

Niue has a variety of landscape features, formed in part by solution of the limestone bedrock, including pinnacle formations, depressions, steep-walled chasms and networks of caves that are ornately decorated with speleothems. This geomorphology is important for several reasons. First, there are still relatively few accounts of karst landscapes on oceanic islands. Second, the bedrock comprises interesting kinds of limestones, including fossil reefs and poorly cemented coralline sands, that emerged above sea-level during the Quaternary when the pre-Niue atoll was raised up by tectonic forces. The limestones were dolomitised by the addition of magnesium from hypersaline brine as the former lagoon was progressively cut off from the open ocean.

Third, Niue does not display a classical karst landscape, which adds to its attraction as a focus for study. The geomorphological features are best explained by the solutional imprint on a carbonate landscape controlled by tectonism, submarine mass movements and intermittent emergence. So, therefore, the island’s central depression is inherited from the atoll structure, but has been over-deepened by solution. The best pinnacles have developed on exposed seaward terraces originally cut by marine erosion during stillstands of sea-level during the uplift history. In Niue’s hasms and caves, solution and precipitation processes have left their impression, although these features are often associated with bedrock fractures, the origin of which remains unclear.

Forth, the geomorphic features of Niue are a valuable component of the island’s cultural heritage. Chasms leading down to the sea provided access for early Polynesian settlers, and are still used as sea tracks for traditional fishing activities in the absence of sheltered bays. Niue’s caves were important burial sites in prehistoric times and have yielded archaeological remains providing clues about the early people. In modern times, eco-tourism is growing as an important sector of the economy, benefiting in part from visitor interest in the limestone terrain. Current ecotourist activities include diving the chasms, guided tours among the pinnacles and explorations through accessible cave systems.

For all these reasons, Niue’s special type of karst has both scientific and heritage importance, and deserves recognition as an exceptional Pacific Island carbonate landscape.

References

Barrie, J. (1967) Geology of Christmas Island. Unpublished Bureau of Mineral Resources Record No. 1967/37, Canberra, Australia.

Ebrahim, M. (1999) Carbonate Sedimentation and Recent Influence of Human Activities on Tarawa Atoll, Republic of Kiribati. Volume I. Unpublished PhD thesis, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand.

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Fieldes, M., Bealing, G., Claridge, G.G., Wells, N. and Taylor, N.H. (1960) Mineralogy and radioactivity of Niue Island soils. New Zealand Journal of Science, 3, 658-675.

Ford, D. and Williams, P. (1989) Karst Geomorphology and Hydrology. Chapman & Hall.

Jacobson, G. and Hill, P.J. (1980) Hydrogeology of a raised coral atoll - Niue Island, South Pacific Ocean. BMR Journal of Australian Geology and Geophysics, 5, 271-278.

Montaggioni, L.F., Richard, G., Bourrouilh-Le Jan, F., Gabrié, C., Humbert, L., Monteforte, M., Naim, O., Payri, C. and Salvat, B. (1985) Geology and marine biology of Makatea, an uplifted atoll, Tuamotu archipelago, central Pacific Ocean. Journal of Coastal Research, 1, 165-171.

Ollier, C.D. (1975) Coral island geomorphology - the Trobriand Islands. Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie, N.F. 19, 164-190.

Paulay, G. and Spencer, T. (1992) Niue Island: geologic and faunatic history of a Pliocene atoll. Pacific Science Association Information Bulletin, 44, 3-4.

Pfeffer, K.-H. (1997) Palaeoclimate and tropical karst in the West Indies. Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie, S.B. 108, 5-13.

Purser, B., Tucker, M. and Zenger, D. (Eds) (1994) Dolomites. A Volume in Honour of Dolomieu International Association of Sedimentologists, Special Publication No.21, Blackwell Scientific Publications, UK. Schofield, J.C. (1959) The Geology and Hydrology of Niue Island, South Pacific. New Zealand Geological Survey Bulletin n.s. 63, 27pp.

Schofield, J.C. and Nelson, C.S. (1978) Dolomitisation and Quaternary climate of Niue Island, Pacific Ocean.

Pacific Geology, 13, 37-48.

Stoddart, D.R. and Scoffin, T.P. (1983) Phosphate rock on coral reef islands. In: Chemical Sediments and Geomorphology, A.S. Goudie and K. Pye (Eds), Academic Press, London, 369-400.

Strecker, M., Bloom, A.L. and Lecolle, J. (1987) Time span for karst development on Quaternary coral limestones: Santo island, Vanuatu. In: Processus et mesure de l’érosion A. Godard and A. Rapp (Eds), Editions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris, 369-386.

Trotter, M.M. (1979) Niue Island Archaeological Survey. Canterbury Museum Bulletin No.7, Christchurch, New Zealand, 63pp.

Walter, R. and Anderson, A. (1995) Archaeology of Niue Island: initial results. Journal of the Polynesian Society, 104, 471-481.

Wheeler, C.W., Aharon, P. and Ferrell, R.E. (1999) Successions of Late Cenozoic platform dolomites distinguished by texture, geochemistry, and crystal chemistry: Niue, South Pacific. Journal of Sedimentary Research 69, 239-255.

Wilford, G.E. and Wall, J.R.D. (1967) Karst topography in Sarawak. Journal of Tropical Geography, 21, 44-70.

Wright, A.C.S. and van Westerndorp, F.J. (1965) Soils and agriculture of Niue Island. New Zealand Soil Bureau Bulletin, 17.

Acknowledgements

Figure 1 was drawn by Susanna Xie of Xivine Studio, Suva, and Figure 8 by James Britton, former Director of the GIS Unit of the USP Geography Department. The base map of cave locations used for Figure 8 was kindly supplied

by Matt McIntyre, formerly of the Niue Lands Department. Mark Cross, a Niue artist, is thanked for permission to use his painting of Matapa Chasm for Figure 4. Karen Tamate, Cassygina Tukiuha, Sidney Aue, Misa Kulatea and Tali Magatongia gave much assistance in the field. Professors Paul Williams and Patrick Nunn are thanked for sharing their experiences of Niue and for many insights on interpreting the Niuean landscape. Fr. John Bonato is also thanked for information on limestone and dolomite weathering processes. I am especially grateful to Professor Cliff Ollier of the Australian National University and Mr John Barrie of Avien Mining, and formerly of the Australian Bureau of Mineral Resources, Canberra. Both have considerable experience of geological work on many carbonate islands in the Pacific and Indian Oceans, including Niue. They freely gave so much of their time in useful discussions and help with the script that they probably deserve to be co-authors of this chapter. Mr Barrie also provided access to early air photos and other useful unpublished archive materials. Financial support for this research from the University of the South Pacific is gratefully acknowledged.

88

THE SOILS OF NIUE JOHN A. SOULSBY

Formerly Geography Department The University of the South Pacic Suva, Fiji

Introduction

Next to air and water, soil is probably the most important resource that humans possess. It has been stated (Lane 1993) that about 40% of Niue is unsuited to agriculture and that today some 25% of Niue’s soils are moderately or severely damaged.

This chapter looks at these soils, their origins and their relationship to environmental conditions on the island. Past and present land use practices are examined and the sustainability of the soil resource base is considered. Many of the relationships between soils, environment, land use and sustainability are as complex and varied as the island’s soils themselves and it must be stated at the outset that definitive answers to many questions cannot be given. Nevertheless certain patterns and trends can be observed in both spatial and temporal terms.

Soil and Land Use Investigations on Niue - a Brief History

In the mid-nineteenth century it was noted that the small coastal settlements at Alofi, Tuapa, Mutalau, Liku and Hakupu and the inland villages at Fetuna, Tafolomahina, Paluki and Havaka supported a series of plots about 45 m2 in size growing subsistence crops of taro, yam and sweet potatoes. These gardens were used periodically as the soils would not support subsistence cultivation of this nature for much longer than two years without the loss of basic fertility. At this time a fallow period of seven to ten years was introduced and in any one year only about 1% of the island was under cultivation.

In 1866 the arrival of foreign trading agents provided an impetus to economic change, from subsistence agriculture and fishing to the growing of cash crops. The export of sweet potatoes and bananas began but copra soon became the main cash crop and coconut plantations were established on the northern and eastern perimeter of the island. A traditional system of ‘tapu’ and ‘fona’ conservation was devised and implemented by the ‘magafaoa’ or family group which has resulted in the conservation today of about 65% of the island’s primary forest. A further 10 to 15% is regenerating bush land or long term fallow extending beyond a 20-year period. The remaining area of open land is a mixture of scattered ‘palaos’, subsistence plots, land fallowed on a 5 to 20 year cycle and the degraded areas of the ‘Niue desert’ dominated by fern species.

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Much of the early scientific interest in the soils of Niue, as in many countries in the 1930s, stemmed from the desire of the colonial administrators of the island to provide an adequate level of subsistence for the local population. A secondary consideration was the potential that the soils might have to provide cash crops for export from the land under administration. The Resident Commissioner at that time, Capt. R.W.Bell, established experimental farms at Falehavaiki and Fonuakula and arranged for some basic soil analysis to be undertaken. A first appraisal of the Niuean soils was made by the director of the Soil Survey Division of the DSIR, New Zealand in 1938. The advent of the Second World War prevented any further systematic investigations for a decade, but A.C.S. Wright of the New Zealand Soil Bureau conducted a reconnaissance survey during a five-week period in 1949, and the soils were mapped at a scale of 1:63,360. A map and preliminary report were produced in that year but these were never published.

In 1951 the population of Niue was recorded as 4,553 persons. Pressure on land was seen as intense and land resources were considered to be barely adequate to support this number of people. The extent and serious nature of the land resource problem was being realised for the first time. Wright’s survey suggested that about a third of the island’s surface (9,000 ha) consisted of bare rock. Almost a quarter (23%) of the soils were seen as being badly depleted in terms of available nutrients and about 12% of the soils of the island were so badly degraded that they had been allowed to revert to ferns and bush, the Niuean ‘desert’. Based on a 10-year fallow rotational period under shifting cultivation, the subsistence needs for the island’s population were estimated at this time to be about 4,860 ha of cultivable land. It was also estimated that the land available to support shifting cultivation was about 6,480 ha. In short, about three quarters of all available cultivable land was already in use and at the same time the population was growing at a rate of about 1.2% per annum.

Under these circumstances the secondary aim of producing export crops was clearly untenable. The island’s Administrator then embarked upon a series of initiatives to highlight the difficulties and measures were taken in attempts to rectify the problem.

The New Zealand government arranged the secondment of an agricultural officer from the Department of Agriculture to the Island Territories Department for service in Niue. Schools were targeted with an educational brochure on land management, community village programmes were proposed, a resident agricultural officer was appointed in 1954 and experimental plots for fertiliser trials on depleted soils and for potential export crops were started in 1957.

A major publication entitled ‘The Soils and Agriculture of Niue Island’ by A.C.S. Wright, who conducted the original survey, and the resident agricultural officer, F.J. 90

THE SOILS OF NIUE

van Westerndorp, appeared in 1965 under the auspices of the New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (Wright and van Westerndorp 1965). This survey had been produced by tape and compass traverses using a base map of the island dating from 1903. The 1965 publication included the map produced from the 1949 reconnaissance survey and copies of this pioneer work are still on sale in Alofi. Wright and van Westerndorp’s map shows four major soil groupings which were then sub-divided into 15 variants depending upon factors such as soil depth and limestone outcrops. The accompanying memoir has extensive chapters on land use, soil patterns and soil fertility and this publication marks a major step forward in the understanding of Niue’s natural resources.

In 1971 a land use map of Niue (Walsh 1971) was published by the Department of Lands in Wellington, New Zealand from a survey conducted by A.C. Walsh and the Geography Department at Massey University in Palmerston North, New Zealand.

Ten separate classes of land use are shown and explanatory and descriptive notes to accompany the survey are found on the reverse side of the map sheet. The map was derived from high altitude aerial photography flown in 1965 but much cloud cover on these images produced difficulties in boundary recognition of different land covers.

The proceedings of a seminar held in Alofi in October 1979, and published as Miller 1980, was given an impetus by a new mapping programme for the soils of Niue using the recently finalised classification system for soils developed by the US Department of Agriculture (Soil Survey Staff 1975). This was followed in 1986 by D.M. Leslie’s map and memoir entitled ‘Soil Taxonomic Unit Descriptions for Niue Island’. These new detailed descriptions recognise 13 different soils and with their laboratory analyses supercede the 1965 Wright and van Westerndorp survey. Leslie’s 1986 account was planned as a supplement to a full soil survey report. Owing to financial constraints this final report has not been published.

In 1990 an air photo cover from 1981 was used to produce a first classification for land cover with the primary aim of locating marketable forest areas following the clearance of substantial tracts of primary forest in the 1960s and 1970s. During the 1990s the availability of Landsat TM, SPOT and Russian satellite imagery -the latter with a 5 m spatial resolution- made it possible to plan new land cover mapping programmes. A new system of resource management incorporating environmental protection was introduced by the Department of Justice, Lands and Survey in Alofi and strategic planning and decision making processes using GIS technologies was started in 1997-98 culminating in the development of a modern environmental audit in 1999.

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Soil Forming Factors on Niue

All soils may be seen as a combination and expression of a number of diverse but inter-related soil forming factors. Those commonly recognised are the weathered rocks, i.e. the mineral parent material (Figure 1) from which soils form, the climatic conditions that are influential in determining not only the rock weathering patterns but also the plants that grow in the soil and other organisms, including the animals and micro-organisms that add organic matter and life to the soil. The other soil forming factors to be considered include the relief or landform features that influence soil development through the transfer of materials via slope and water movement. All soils also require a time period in which to develop. To these five classical soil forming Figure 1 factors most workers today would add a sixth factor, that of human influences.

Soils, Landforms and Parent Materials

On Niue, landforms, slope units and their related parent materials dominate the local soil forming factors. All are intimately related so will be considered together.

The major landforms can be grouped into three broad categories, each of which has an influence upon the development of the soil patterns of the island. These major units are shown in Figure 2 (Soils and Physiography).

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THE SOILS OF NIUE

In the central part of the island is a depression that marks the site of an ancient lagoon. This saucer-like, slightly concave area has a rim about 30m higher than the lowest point of the feature. An ancient reef, the Mutalau Reef (Schofield 1959) that has been uplifted and thus emerged from the sea, surrounds the central lagoonal depression. The rim of the uppermost reef terrace today lies about 60m above present sea level and is about 1km in width. This emerged ancient reef slopes seawards forming an elevated plateau-like area.

Around the edge of this plateau is an incomplete platform, the Alofi terrace (Schofield 1959), that varies in width between 200m and 400m. This platform was cut during a period of sea level standstill between uplifts of the island.

The coral reef rock base for the island is a remarkably pure limestone with over 90% calcium carbonate content.

Figure 2 This limestone is overlain in many places with materials that are very different from the underlying weathered bedrock, and it is these superficial materials that give the soils of the island some of their differentiating characteristics. Nevertheless the hard coral of the underlying reef stands out as weathered limestone pinnacles on almost half of the islandâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s surface thus giving the soils their broken and stony surface character.

The ancient central lagoon floor contains shell beds of Pliocene-Pleistocene age.

These merge at the lagoon margins with a zone of beach sands and strand debris and form the inner margins of the surrounding reef. These are known collectively as the 93

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makatea beds and in places the ancient shell beds and the beach sand debris have been cemented with calcite. The Alofi terrace is underlain with a metre of limestone fragments - a beach conglomerate produced by wave action on the ancient cliff line as the terrace was being cut. Another transported deposit, volcanic ash, overlies the limestone of the interior and is mixed in with the shelly lagoonal material and makatea deposits. This ash was possibly blown in from erupting volcanoes in Tonga. An alternative hypothesis (Schofield 1959, Fieldes et al. 1960) suggests that Niue’s main coral reef formation developed on top of a volcano and submarine volcanic activity forced a mixture of deep ocean bed sediments and finely divided volcanic material to wash across the newly emerged reef leaving a veneer of mixed sediments over the reef limestones. Differences in both the colour of the sediments and the radioactivity of the sediments between the plateau rim soils and those of the central depression may lend support to this hypothesis. The parent materials of the island’s soils are therefore derived from reef sediments subsequently mixed with volcanic ash giving rise to red and brown latosolic soils. A final type of sediment is that derived from the excreta of seabirds that lived on the rim of the ancient lagoon. Soils on the lagoon rim contain a 40% crandillitic clay content. These clays are a combined calcium-aluminiumphosphate complex, with the phosphates being derived from the seabirds’ excreta.

Relationships between soils and parent materials are given below in Table 1 whilst Figure 3 (Soil-Topography) shows landform and soil relationships in diagrammatic form for part of the eastern side of the island.

Table 1 Weathered complex and parent materials of Niue’s soils Avatele Hikutavake Toi Vaiea Tumufa Fonakoula Mutalau Hakupu Foa Nuifela Tofolomahina Feteki Palai Note:

94

Thin crandillitic clays over cemented calcareous reef rock Deep crandillitic clays over ash and cemented calcareous reef rock Thin crandillitic clays over sandy lagoon sediments Thin oxidic clays over coarse sandy lagoon beds Thin gibbsitic clays over shelly and sandy lagoon sediments Deep gibbsitic clays over sandy lagoon sediments Thin oxidic clays over sandy lagoon sediments Deep crandillitic clays over cemented calcareous reef rock Deep gibbsitic clays over cemented calcareous reef rock Thin oxidic clays over sandy lagoon sediments Thin gibbsitic clays over sandy lagoon sediments Thin oxidic clays over cemented calcareous reef rock Deep oxidic clays over cemented calcareous reef rock

All parent materials lie on airfall deposits - a mixture of volcanic ash into which is incorporated a minor amount of marine sediments.

(Based on data in Leslie 1986)

THE SOILS OF NIUE

Figure 3

Soils and Climate

Soil moisture is a major determinant of many soil forming processes, from the weathering of rock minerals to the physical movement of materials through the profile.

Temperature determines the speed of many of these reactions and both moisture and temperature have a major influence on the organisms growing upon and present within the soil. In general terms the small size of the island, the lack of a high mountainous interior, the surrounding ocean and the constant trade wind direction mean that no marked differences exist in climate between one part of the island and another as far as soil formation is concerned. Basic climatic statistics that apply to all Niueâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s soils are as follows: 95

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Table 2 Basic Climatic Statistics Temperature Mean annual temperature Coolest month (July) Warmest month (February)

24.7 oC 22.9 oC 26.3 oC

Rainfall Mean annual rainfall Wettest month (March) Driest month (July)

2064 mm 315 mm 94 mm

The climate of the island is relatively uniform with no marked contrasts from one part of the island to another. Soils have limited moisture with a marked dry season that extends to about five months of the year. This gives a basic moisture deficit from July to December and is described as an ustic moisture regime by the US Department of Agriculture in Soil Taxonomy (1975). Temperatures determine rates of chemical and biological change in the soil. Mean annual soil temperatures on Niue range between 15ºC and 22ºC and the difference between summer and winter mean temperatures is less than 5ºC. This is described as an isothermic temperature regime in Soil Taxonomy.

Soils and Organisms

In 1774 Captain James Cook noted that the island was completely forested. Under an original forest cover, plant nutrients are re-cycled with leaf and plant litter fall maintaining the soil-vegetation nutrient cycle. Trees root in the cracks in the limestone base rock and develop pockets of soil. Today about 2,400 ha of virgin forest remain and maintain this closed nutrient cycle. Some 20,000 ha have been converted to secondary forest whilst over 3,000 ha have been degraded to the ‘Niue desert’ of bush and fern. These communities produce much less organic matter and therefore nutrient re-cycling is greatly reduced. One curious local feature deserves mention. Algal crusts of gelatinous nostoc colonies that fix atmospheric nitrogen may be found. They appear on the soils of the ancient lagoon in rainy weather but break up and disappear in the dry season. They are commonly found on the Tafolomahina soil series.

Soils and Time

All Niue’s soils are relatively old. The plateau surface described earlier emerged from the sea between 270,000 and 700,000 years ago and since that time weathering and soil forming processes have been developing the soil pattern that can be seen today. The surface is old and stable and so soils are mature and well developed in terms of their age.

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Humans and Soil Formation

As will be evident from later in this chapter, humans are today one of the most active soil forming (and soil destroying!) factors. The earliest settlements were on the deeper soils developed on the makatea, but soils were regarded as being either rich but rocky or less rocky but more easily exhausted. The main village sites today are found on the periphery of the island (see Figure 4, soil order map) but in general terms the better soils are found in the interior. The areas of the island that supported the densest population Figure 4 in the past now appear to have the poorest soils. Repeated cropping and burning have given rise to the fern and scrub lands of the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Niue desertâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. Soil organic matter has been depleted and today only vegetation that can tolerate extremes of drought and an imbalance in the nutrient state can survive. Regeneration of these lands is still limited even though they have been abandoned for over half a century. Today about 6000 ha of the islandâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s soils have been degraded to the point where they cannot be cropped without the addition of modern chemical fertilisers. Of these 6000 ha, about half is accounted for by the stunted bush and fern of the Niue desert lands. Soil problems have declined, however, with the decline in population and today there appears to be a balance between population and soil resources. Modern cultivation practices such as bulldozing add organic matter and nutrients to the soil mineral matter. These are discussed in more detail below.

Soil Forming Processes and General Soil Characteristics

The soils of Niue, like soils everywhere, are complex dynamic systems in which a myriad of processes -chemical, physical and biological- are taking place. Many of these processes are interactive. Chemical processes may be accomplished by micro-organ97

NIUE ISLAND

isms, for example, and the precise nature of many processes is imperfectly understood.

As noted earlier, the parent materials of Niue are dominated by limestone and about 9000 ha of bare rock are exposed on the island. The limestones are very pure and extremely soluble in rainwater leaving only a small residue of materials behind after solution. Consequently soils are often quite shallow. There is very little physical weathering apart from the breakdown of rocks by tree root activity working in cracks and fissures in the limestone. This promotes physical destruction along with the fragmenting action of fire that has been used to clear the vegetation cover.

Most of the limestone is reduced through solution processes. Magnesium carbonate and calcium carbonate in the limestones go into solution easily and deep solution pockets may also occur through the interaction of organic acids from vegetation and organic matter decay with the softer limestones. Solution weathering is only interrupted during periods of drought. In the prevailing climatic conditions of a mean annual rainfall in excess of 2000 mm and soil temperatures in the vicinity of 20ÂşC, weathering of the primary minerals is both rapid and complete. The high pH values of the solutions generated from dissolving limestone means that silica is removed and as a result soils are very low in silica. Laboratory analyses show this to be often less than 1%. As solution weathering has been active for so long, primary minerals have either been removed or converted to crystalline oxides of iron and aluminium, notably gibbsite, goethite and haematite. These secondary compounds make the soil friable and free draining and liable to dry out during climatic droughts. The low silica content means that secondary 2:1 expanding lattice clay minerals such as kaolinite and montmorillonite that might hold water molecules in their bonding systems are absent. This, in turn, also affects the water holding capacity of Niueâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s soils. As Table 1 shows, the clay components are oxidic derivatives of iron and aluminium, gibbsite - an alumina clay, and crandillite - a calcium aluminium phosphate.

Chemical analyses of the islandâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s soils show them to be fairly uniform. Most display high phosphate reserves, but whilst the phosphates in crandillite are of limited availability to plants they appear to be adequate for the needs of most plants. All soils are low in potassium; the only reserves are held in organic matter. After burning potassium becomes available to plants but it is easily lost into the groundwater in solution. Some replacement potassium occurs from sea spray on soils adjacent to the coast but this is insufficient to replace that lost through burning. Crops respond particularly well to additions of potassium fertilisers. Although soils contain normal amounts of zinc (about 100 parts per million) it is restricted in its availability to plants as a result of the high phosphate content and high pH of the soils.

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Classifying Niue’s Soils

As noted above, Wright and van Westerndorp produced the first detailed soil map of Niue in 1965 using a genetic soil classification system that related soil development to environmental factors as displayed by morphological features of the soil profile. In the mid-1970s soil classification methodology changed direction and in particular the international FAO/UNESCO (1974) system devised for the new world soil map and the US Department of Agriculture’s Soil Taxonomy (1975) have come to dominate international soil classification systems. Diagnostic surface and sub-surface horizons are used to key out soils and Leslie (1986) has used Soil Taxonomy as the base of a new classification of Niue’s soils. The soils were mapped at Series level, the most detailed level recognised, at a scale of 1:50,000 giving a total of 13 distinctive soils on the island. The soils recognised at the different levels above the Series and the basis for this is given in Table 3 below, and the distribution of Soil Orders is shown in Figure 3.

Table 3 Niue’s soils according to Soil Taxonomy (1975) Soil Order Oxisols Mollisols

Soil Sub-Order Ustox Ustolls

Great Soil Group Eutrustox (2 Series) Haplustolls (9 Series)

Inceptisols

Tropepts

Ustropepts (2 Series)

The taxonomic names (ustropept, eutrustox, haplustoll) summarise the main features of the soil in accordance with the naming rules explained in Soil Taxonomy (1975). In Oxisols nutrients are leached out of the top soil during cropping but probably not below the root zone in the fallow period. Nutrients are therefore recycled within the biological system during the fallow. A dark surface horizon, an appreciable supply of bases and a marked dry season mark the Eutrustox great soil group.

Mollisols are defined by a dark coloured surface horizon, high in organic matter and bases. Haplustolls are marked by seasonal water deficits and a dark surface horizon merging into a reddish loamy structured B horizon. Inceptisols are young soils showing only weak development from their parent materials - change is indicated mainly through chemical properties. Ustropepts are base rich and freely drained soils of the humid-sub-tropics. Biological activity is continuous and is reflected in the nature of the organic matter. Soils have not been mapped according to the FAO/UNESCO system that was designed to produce world soil maps at a 1:5,000,000 scale. As Clayden (1982) notes, the sub-classes of the FAO system are inadequate for use in soil survey at scales ranging from 1:10,000 to 1:50,000 so 99

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have not been attempted Table 4 USDA-FAO Soil Equivalents here. The relationship Soil Taxonomy Sub-Order FAO Equivalent Ferralsol between the groupings Ustox Kastanozem under Soil Taxonomy Ustoll Cambisol and the FAO scheme are Tropept shown in Table 4.

Ferralsols show a ferralic B horizon enriched with iron and aluminium minerals and display strong red colours (stronger than 5YR on the Munsell Soil Color Scale) placing the two soils represented in Niue in the Rhodic (i.e. red) Ferralsol group.

Kastanozems are typical of warmer seasonally dry climates such as that experienced on Niue and the nine soils representative of this FAO grouping are classified as Haplic Kastanozems at the Great Soil Group equivalent level. This indicates they have developed on a lime rich parent material and show an organic horizon overlying the C horizon of parent material. Cambisols show a moderate profile development and are identified by the presence of a cambic B horizon which displays particular structural and reddish colour characteristic through the alteration of iron minerals. The material in this horizon has been weathered to form new clay minerals. These soils are generally considered to be fertile and the two representatives found on Niue are grouped as Eutric Cambisols as they display a base saturation of over 50%.

Niueâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Soils

Full details of the distribution and characteristics of Niueâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s soils may be found in Leslie (1986 and 1986a). He recognises thirteen separate and distinctive soils.

Environmental factors of parent material, slope values, vegetation and land use are discussed briefly; fuller descriptions of soil profile morphology and chemical and physical laboratory data are also given. Some brief notes are given below but it is not possible to summarise in this discussion all the detail given by Leslie - the 100

Figure 5

THE SOILS OF NIUE

reader is referred to the Soil Bulletin in question. By way of an example Figure 5 (soil profile) gives a visual impression of one Niue profile, that of the Palai Series.

The Palai Series is found in the central depressed plateau area of the ‘ancient lagoon’ (Schofield 1959) and in common with most of Niue’s soils is developed on weathered clays derived from a mixture of volcanic ash and marine sediments overlying cemented calcareous reef rock. Much of the area is under the original forest cover of the ‘tapu’ protection of the Havalu forest reserve. In the past this was a main banana growing area and taro grows well, but much formerly cultivated land of the Palai Series has reverted to secondary scrub and regenerating forest. The series is classified as a Ruptic Lithic Haplustoll under Soil Taxonomy (1975) - a red, stony, simple mollisol, being typically a shallow soil exhibiting drought symptoms for up to 90 days of the year.

The profile shows a surface Au horizon with about 10% organic matter, a clay loam texture and well-developed nut structure characteristics. Both the upper horizons (Au1 and Au2) incorporate iron concretions. Below 40 cm these merge into the weathered Bw1 and Bw2 horizons. Organic matter falls to less than 2%, clay values rise from 50% in the upper horizons to over 80% in the Bw2 horizon and the structural condition appears to be more weakly developed. The oxidic clays are strongly weathered and, being secondary minerals, they are inherently more stable than the underlying calcareous limestone. This limestone bedrock crops out in pinnacles over 45% of the surface of the Series. All horizons are alkaline with pH values ranging from 7.5 in the surface horizon to 7.8 in the Bw2 horizon immediately above the bedrock. Of the remaining twelve soils recognised, the following summaries list their most important characteristics.

1. The Avatele Series are well drained soils over 90 cm in depth that have formed on ash overlying cemented coral limestone and are part of the karst landscape.

This soil is found in long narrow strips on the Alofi terrace and on the western and northern coasts of the island. The parent material consists of deep and strongly weathered clay materials formed on a mixture of airfall ash, basic marine sediments and coral limestone. It is used for subsistence agriculture and rejuvenating forest species and suffers some slight erosion risk under high intensity storms.

2. The Feteki Series consists of well drained soils up to 70 cm thick formed on a weatherd airfall ash overlying cemented limestone with karst limestone pinnacles occupying 30 to 40% of the landscape. The soils, found in the ancient lagoon, suffer seasonal moisture deficits owing to their low water holding capacity. They are used for growing yam, taro and bananas; in their unaltered state they are dominated by high forest.

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3. The Foa Series consists of 1m deep pockets of soil on ash over cemented coral limestone on the Mutalau reef surrounding the ancient lagoon. They form part of the elevated plateau rim and karst limestone pinnacles occupy 50% of the area. Crops of taro, yam and kumara are rotated with a 5 to 7 year bush fallow.

Coconuts are common but there are few remnants of the original forest. Again, this soil suffers from a low water holding capacity.

4. The Fonuakula Series are developed on airfall ash over soft white makatea sandy deposits. They show a patchy distribution on the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;desert plainâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; landscape of the Mutalau reef enclosing the ancient lagoon. With a bush fallow period of 8 to 15 years they are used for taro and kumara, breadfruit, bananas and coconuts.

Fern and secondary bush occupy the unused areas. Again the soils have seasonal water deficits and are subject to slight sheet erosion.

5. The Hakupu Series are stony soils with 80% rock outcrops and a 30% surface stone cover. Taro, coconuts and bananas are grown but yields decline quickly after four years. The original vegetation cover was forest and coastal scrub on a parent material of airfall ash and marine sediments over cemented reef rock.

6. The Hikutavake Series are again dominated by rocky outcrops covering 90% of the area with soil lying in pockets between them. This Series occupies the outer margins of the Alofi terrace with clay, stones and boulders overlying cemented reef rock covered with airfall ash and marine sediments. There are extensive remnants of forest and scrub and, although rocky, these soils are very productive. Mango, breadfruit, bananas and root crops grow in the deeper soil pockets.

Some soil is lost to marine erosion on the coastal fringes.

7. The Mutalau Series occurs on airfall ash and sandy lagoon sediments of the makatea. The main crops grown are coconut and taro but there is a considerable cover of the original forest. These soils again have water retention problems and are subject to erosion even on low angle slopes during high velocity storms.

8. The Niufela Series occurs in the central lagoon area on sandy lagoonal sediments. The land cover is largely fern and secondary scrub but good crops of yams and coconuts are possible. Profiles are shallow and have a very rapid throughput of water leading to severe seasonal droughts.

9. The Tafolomahina Series is part of the desert plain landscape of the central ancient lagoon developed on sandy marine sediments. These soils were heavily cropped in the past by the former early inland villages. Today they produce excellent crops of taro and yam with fern and scrub woodland on the unused areas. These soils are subject to wind erosion when dry and suffer severe seasonal moisture deficits.

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THE SOILS OF NIUE

10. The Toi Series are developed on basic airfall ash and marine sediments over white stony makatea and form the fernland desert plain landscape on the plateau rim and rim margins. This Series supports extensive coconut plantations and produces good crops of bananas and taro. The soils have been burned frequently in the past but original forest remnants occur at Huvalu. Profiles are shallow and have a low water holding capacity.

11. The Tumufa Series are found on stony and shelly makatea and form the fernland desert plain landscape on the elevated plateau rim of the Mutalau reef. The soil is notably free of limestone outcrops. Topsoil loss through wind erosion has occurred in the past, probably as a result of chemical degradation. Profiles are shallow and rapidly permeable giving severe seasonal moisture deficits.

12. The Vaiea Series forms a desert plain landscape of fernlands on the elevated plateau rim and its margins on the Mutalau reef. Profiles are less than 20 cm deep, have a 20% stone cover and support scrub, fern and light forest. Yields of coconut, taro and cassava tend to be poor as the soils have been badly degraded in the past through chemical losses. Limestone crops out over 25% of the area and the soils are formed on a very thin dark brown weathered ash on coarse sandy makatea deposits.

Soils and Land Use

A more detailed discussion of land use and land degradation is to be found elsewhere in this volume (McIntyre and Soulsby). This account looks at the land use problems that result from the particular and peculiar nature of Niueâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s soils. As noted earlier in the discussion of the chemical and physical properties of the soils of the island, the following summary characteristics are common to most soils: 1. The pH is either near neutral or alkaline in the range 6.8 to 7.9.

2. There is much free calcium carbonate in the profile in both solid and finely divided states.

3. Owing to the high pH and phosphate values, zinc deficiency is common in most soils.

4. The soils are low in both available potassium and potassium reserves.

5. Soils tend to be humus deficient once the biological cycle for humus production has been broken through clearance of vegetation.

6. All soils suffer to a greater or lesser extent from high permeability on the limestone parent material and liability to drought for part of the year.

7. Many soils show an abnormally high natural radioactivity.

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NIUE ISLAND

These characteristics impact on land use and land use possibilities and will be explored in greater detail below.

Soils, Cropping and Land Use Patterns

Today the main crop of the island is taro. Always part of the social and cultural life of Niue, taro has now assumed a new economic importance especially with the advent of taro blight in Western Samoa. Each family has a taro plot, planting and cultivation is a year round activity and the plot owner will expect between 10 and 20 bags of taro from the plot each month. Roots are graded by size and weight with groups 1 and 2 being destined for export, chiefly to New Zealand and some disquiet has been expressed regarding the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;exportâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; of nutrients locked up in the taro root from the islandâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s cultivation system. Smaller roots are used for domestic consumption.

As limestone frequently outcrops on most soils the crop is planted by hand between limestone pinnacles and outcrops using a digging stick in pockets of soil that may be up to a metre in depth. Bananas and paw paw are also grown in similar but shallower soil pockets on the margins of many taro cultivation plots. Plots are linked by bush tracks to the main road system of the island. These tracks are normally wide enough to allow motorised transport to collect the produce.

The farming year begins in June with the start of the dry season and fallow plots are cleared through cutting, bulldozing and some burning. As noted elsewhere, the fallow period is variable between 5 and 12 years depending on soil quality and previous cropping practices. At any one time between a half and three quarters of all cultivable land will be out of production in a regenerative state (see Table 5, Summary of Land Use Statistics). Today, instead of traditional slash and burn practices, most land is cleared using Government owned bulldozers hired by the cultivator on an hourly basis. The bulldozer blade is not used, instead the vegetation is cleared and crushed into the soil. The end result has been a reduction in the length of the fallow period as more substantial amounts of organic matter are added to the soil by this technique. The leguminous Grotolaria species have been used to enhance nitrogen production in soils and the yellow hibiscus, which releases much organic material when its leaves are crushed, is a common component of the secondary regenerated scrub being cleared. Large trees are normally left standing. Planting begins immediately after bulldozing and on soils that are particularly zinc deficient the new stems for planting may be dipped in a zinc sulphate solution before planting. All the taro planted are dry land varieties and the crop is harvested nine months after planting. Of other staple food crops yams, sweet potato and cassava are grown.

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THE SOILS OF NIUE

Cassava has never been part of the traditional agricultural system on Niue, and for this reason it has not achieved the status found elsewhere in humid-tropical agricultural systems. Unlike taro this plant is also subject to damage by feral pigs to the extent that the Niue government in recent years has offered a $15 bounty on wild pigs. One notable feature of Niueâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s agriculture is the minor role of livestock. The rocky terrain, absence of suitable areas for pasture and the problems of supplying livestock with drinking water appear to be the main problems.

The potential for other export crops is limited. In the 1950s bananas were exported in volume but today are only grown for local consumption despite a large potential market in New Zealand. The main problems are the infrequent shipping links that never really recovered after the Second World War and the labour intensive nature of banana cultivation on Niue which produced a very meagre economic return for the grower when compared with other income generating facilities on the island. The high pH values and the presence of free calcium carbonate in the soils make them unsuited to other export crops. Coffee does not grow well, pineapples are alkaline intolerant and most citrus fruits experience leaf chlorosis. The one exception to this is the lime. This is less likely to suffer from leaf chlorosis and a small export trade existed in the 1930s and the 1950s. Sugar was introduced into the islandâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s cropping pattern in 1935-36 and initially grew well but blight by the cane weevil killed much of the crop in the late 1930s and it was never re-introduced. The general soil characteristics would probably favour the growth of both groundnuts and oil palm but the limited amount of non-stony soil prevents the setting up of the size of holding required for economic success. The interest of the western world in the medicinal value of plants has stimulated the recent introduction of the kava plant on an experimental basis as a possible new export crop.

As about two thirds of the island is difficult for subsistence cropping the other main land cover of the island is the considerable area under forest. Four hundred years of shifting cultivation has greatly reduced he original forest cover and in 1965 Wright and van Westerndorp considered about 12% of the land surface was still under original forest cover. The recognition of primary and secondary forest is difficult as some areas that have been left fallow for 25 years or more show a remarkably dense vegetation cover. Pockets of soil up to a metre in depth exist between limestone outcrops and high levels of organic matter result from leaf fall giving the forested areas of the island a high potential for forest regeneration and survival, but again the depredations of wild pigs present a problem. Conservation measures are now in place in the form of forest reserves, the most notable of which is Huvalu forest in the south-east sector of the 105

NIUE ISLAND

island. Of introduced forest species, most pines are intolerant of the free lime present in most soils. One exception to this is the Norfolk pine (Araucaria excelsa), but other introduced species such as the West Indian species of mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla) and cedar (Cedrela odorata) are more tolerant of high pH values. Casuarina (Casuarina equisetifolia) has long been favoured as a nitrogen fixing species whilst mahogany provides an excellent supply of organic matter from leaf fall. Future emphasis is likely to be on carefully controlled forest trials.

No modern summary of land use statistics is available so the following has been derived from Wright and van Westerndorp’s survey of 1965: Table 5 Soil-Land Use Summary 1965 1. Land never used High forest on rocky soils Low coastal forest - rocky and windswept 2. Land not widely used Exceedingly rocky soils unsuited to cropping Soils suited to crop production 3. Land under crops Under a 10 year shifting cultivation cycle Under coconut plantations 4. Land once in production but abandoned 5. owing to soil deterioration 6. Other land uses Roads, buildings, etc.

9.8 % 2.7 % 42.4 % 11.7 % 11.8 % 8.3 % 12.7 %

Total

Some special soil-land use problems

0.6 % 100 %

1. The soil discing programme of the 1960s.

Any discussion of soils and land use in Niue must consider the well intentioned but ultimately disastrous and ill fated discing programme established to improve the island’s soils. The programme, which began in the early 1960s and continued until the mid-1970s aimed to increase soil depth to over half a metre on some of the island’s shallower soils. The initial programme began with the clearing, discing and harrowing of about 40 ha of Niue ‘desert’ at Vaiea before planting it with a leguminous cover crop of cow peas that was then disced back into the soil as a green manure. Wright and van Westerndorp (1965) note that 200 cultivators were participating in the scheme by 1962 and they saw this scheme as a means of rehabilitating about 3,240 ha of what they described as ‘worked out abandoned wasteland’. It was also seen as the begin106

THE SOILS OF NIUE

Figure 6

nings of a change over from subsistence shifting cultivation to a more permanent form of agriculture with, perhaps, hopes of implementing a large scale agricultural development scheme so beloved of agricultural and land use planners and development agencies in the 1950s and 1960s.

But discing brought limestone up the soil profile from lower levels and as pH values rose to over 8 the point was reached where trace element deficiencies occurred along with the nonavailability of many nutrients.

These soils were amongst the

least stony and flatter terrain on the island, yet many areas have remained in fallow and have still to recover and most attempts at rehabilitation have failed.

2. The shallow and stony nature of many soils.

Table 6 and Figures 6 and 7 show some of the physical use limitations of many of Niueâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s soils. Soil depth varies from 10 cm to over 200m and the detail of soil depth given in Table 6 should only be seen as a general guide. The depth of the Foa Series, for example varies from 30 cm to 250 cm.

Figure 7 107

NIUE ISLAND

Table 6 Physical Use Limitations of Niueâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s soils.

Soil Series Avatele Hikutavake Toi Viaiea Tumufa Fonakoula

Soil Depth(cm) 90 50 45 20 35 200

Surface Stones(%) 15 30 20 20 ICS SFS

Limestone Outcrops(%) 10 65 Free Free Free Free

Mutalau Hakupu Foa

125 70 100

30 25 20

50 65 50

Nuifela Tofolomahina

100 85

SFS ICS

20 Free

Feteki Palai

65 120

15 SFS

35 65

ICS = Iron concretions on the soil surface;

SFS = Stone Free Surface

(Based on data in Leslie 1986)

The limestone outcrops that occur in many places across the island have often determined the land use pattern.

Soil pockets occur between the outcrops and where these are common they are used for the hand planting of taro, bananas and other crops. Elsewhere outcrops remain under forest. Surface stone content is a further limitation that prevents the use of modern agricultural machinery. Rock outcrops and surface stones have been combined in Figure 6 to give a general indication of the percentage of stoniness. Mechanised farming will always be limited by the frequency of limestone outcrops and the very stony surface of many of Niueâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s soils.

Figure 8 108

THE SOILS OF NIUE

3. Soil erosion hazard Figure 7 shows the areas of Niue that might be expected to be subject to soil erosion. However the lack of surface runoff means that water erosion is confined to a slight risk of sheet erosion during high intensity storms on surfaces that exceed two degrees which have been cleared of vegetation cover. Bare surfaces are also subject to wind erosion when soils are dry. This can become significant where chemical degradations in the past have reduced the ability of the soils to support an adequate vegetation cover and as a result topsoil is removed. On the Hikutavake Series found along the shoreline of the island (see Figure 8) slow but continuous marine erosion of the soluble limestone occurs. Sub-surface caverns and fissures form into which surface soil may be lost as these solution cavities continue to develop.

4. Water balance As noted above, one of the major problems of Niueâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s soils is the extreme permeability of the limestone bedrock and parent materials. Surface drainage is completely absent and as a result no hydromorphic soils exist. Analyses indicate that the limestone weathers to give silty clay loam soil textures that impede rapid throughput of water and trap moisture that then becomes available to plant rooting systems. Statistics on evapotranspiration have only been gathered for Niue since 1995 at Vaipapahi Farm; this is insufficient for an accurate assessment of soil water balance to be made. Examination of a three year run of statistics from 1995 to 1998 suggests a water deficit of between 10 mm and 37 mm per month exists during the drier part of the year from April to October inclusive. Annual rainfall totals normally exceed 2000 mm per annum, but analyses of rainfall values from 1906 to 1950 show totals substantially below this value for half this period, i.e. 23 years out of the 46-year period. Data collected by the New Zealand Meteorological Office in Alofi shows that runs of three or more consecutive months with less than 60 mm of rainfall per month occurred in ten of these years.

When precipitation falls below 100 mm per month for two or more consecutive months plant growth is affected especially on the makatea based parent materials.

If precipitation falls to less than 65 mm per month then all plants are affected.

This obviously produces a potential limitation for the islandâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s soils as production is limited to rain fed agriculture. The possibilities for irrigation are virtually non existent. A potential water supply exists in the fresh water lens that lies, at its maximum depth, about 40 metres below the ground surface. The reserves of fresh water in the lens are unknown. As the lens provides the water for the main domes109

NIUE ISLAND

tic supply on the island its use for irrigation, with its resultant high evaporation rates, cannot be regarded as a viable alternative or opportunity. However, some small scale experimental work on hydroponic cultivation is taking place (Numea, pers. comm. 2000) 5. The effects of fire One of the most widely used practices throughout the tropical world to clear land or to attempt to increase soil nutrient levels is to burn the surface vegetation. It has been suggested that the use of fire to clear land in Niue is a relatively recent innovation (Wright and van Westerndorp, 1965). It is, however, recorded as a common practice in the 1960s when it was regarded as an easy method of clearing vegetation from stony or rocky soils.

Unfortunately the burning of surface vegetation has been shown to have deleterious effects. The low potassium reserves in the parent materials are insufficient to restore the organic potassium lost by burning. Trial plots were established in 1955 using taro roots as crop indicators for burned and unburned control plots to demonstrate the effects of burning. The results were as follows: Table 7 Effects of burning on taro production Vegetation Fern and low scrub (‘Niue desert’) Fern and bush Bush Heavy forest (makatea)

Burned 335 544 536 995

Average taro root weight in grams Unburned Difference % 318 +10% 635 -17% 777 -45% 706 +29%

(Based on data in Wright and van Westerndorp 1965)

It would appear that under a heavy forest cover, which contains substantial quantities of nutrients both in its biomass and under the heavy litter cover, nutrients are released into the soil following burning. Increases in crop yield are substantial in the year following burning. On heavily depleted soils that have been abandoned, the Niue ‘desert’ soils, some benefit may temporarily accrue from burning but under a bush cover the unburned plot offers significant and sustainable increases in crop yields. In a parallel experiment, all taro crops showed an increase in weight using a standard NPK fertiliser when compared with unburned and unfertilised control plots. The main problem associated with burning the surface cover is the destruction of nutrients, especially nitrogen and phosphates. The loss of organic matter 110

THE SOILS OF NIUE

destroyed by fire further reduces the nutrient holding capacity in the soils. In Niue many soils have organic matter values as low as 2% in the lower horizons. Here many soil structures are weakly developed; these structure units are also affected and are either further weakened or easily broken down with the further depletion of organic matter that occurs with burning.

6. High natural radioactivity Many of Niueâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s soils show an enhanced level of radioactivity and this has given rise to anxiety in the local population who fear this may lead to health problems. Much of this results from Radium-226, a daughter product of Uranium-238, being out of equilibrium with its parent element. Concentrations of radium are similar to those found in clays of the Pacific abyss near Niue. It is thought that that these radioactive elements may have been adsorbed onto volcanic dust and floating pumice as a result of the sweep of seawater through tidal activity in the old central lagoon.

Alternatively the radioactivity may derive from large scale epithermal mineralisation associated with the volcano over which the Niue limestone lies. There is no evidence of the transfer of radioactivity to the human population through crops grown in these soils.

Future Directions

One of the major hopes for land development in a Third World context is that of sustainability. In this respect the soils of Niue offer hope and possibilities of sustainability in a number of ways. The problems associated with the overuse of soils -soil erosion, degradation of soil structures and loss of fertility- are unlikely to increase in Niue. As the chapter in this volume by Gibson shows, Niueâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s population is in steady decline and this in turn serves to ease pressure on scarce soil and land resources. Nevertheless, as has been demonstrated, soils tend to be shallow and as Figures 6 to 8 indicate, several Series show signs of fragility and minor degradation. The current usage under a shifting cultivation regime with taro as the principal crop appears to be sustainable as long as a fallow period of not less than seven years can be maintained. The reversion to bush scrub, dominated by plants such as the yellow hibiscus shrub, produces a plentiful supply of organic matter and the current practice of crushing the ground cover by bulldozer during scrub clearance incorporates much of this organic material into the upper and surface soil horizons. The unfortunate experiment of disc cultivation tested during the 1970s must not be repeated. This is most unlikely as the damage done to soils under this cultivation regime is still visible and very much part of the agricultural 111

NIUE ISLAND

lore of the island. If possible the more fragile soils are probably best left uncultivated, and as long as demand for cultivable land does not increase then the areas currently under forest reserve and conservation schemes should be maintained under this usage.

For a variety of reasons experimental plots for exotic species of tree crops undertaken via aid programmes have not been particularly successful and any new silvicultural trials should be preceded by a thorough evaluation of the physical environment of the trial site before planting occurs.

References Clayden B. (1982) Soil Classification, in Bridges E.M. and Davidson D.A. (eds) Principles and Applications of Soil Geography Longman, London pp58-96.

FAO (1974) Legends to Soil Units for the FAO/UNESCO Soil Map of the World. UNESCO, Paris.

Fieldes M. et al. (1960) Mineralogy and Radioactivity of Niue Island Soils. New Zealand Journal of Science 3, pp 658-75.

Fieldes M. (1972) Significance of soils of Niue Island to other soils found on coral limestone in the Pacific. New Zealand Soil News 20, pp75-82 Lane J. (1993) Niue: State of the Environment Report. SPREP / UNDP. Leslie D.M. (1986) Soil Taxonomic Unit Descriptions for Niue Island, New Zealand Soil Bureau Soil Taxonomic Descriptions 19, DSIR Wellington. 81pp.

Leslie D.M. (1986a) Soil Map of Niue Island 1:50,000, New Zealand Soil Bureau Map 228, DSIR Wellington.

Miller R.B. (1980) Niue Soil & Land Use Seminar, Alofi, Niue October 9-11 1979, Soil Bureau DSIR New Zealand 133pp.

Schofield J.C. (1959) The Geology and Hydrology of Niue Island, South Pacific. New Zealand Geological Survey Bulletin 62. 28pp.

Soil Survey Staff (1975) Soil Taxonomy. USDA Handbook 436. Washington DC. Walsh A.C. (1971) Land Use Map of Niue. Department of Lands, Wellington.

Wright A.C.S. and van Westerndorp F.J. (1965) Soils and Agriculture of Niue Island. New Zealand Soil Bureau Bulletin 17. DSIR, Wellington.

Acknowledgements

Thanks are due to Matt Macintyre, formerly of the Department of Justice, Lands and Survey in Alofi for discussions of many of the topics considered here, and to Graeme Sandeman of the Department of Geography, University of St. Andrews, Scotland for turning my sketches into acceptable maps and diagrams. I should particularly like to thank Ernest Numea of the Department of Agriculture in Alofi for taking the time to show me the field contrasts in the Niuean soils and landscape and for his initiation into the practicalities of taro cultivation on Niue.

112

CLIMATIC HAZARDS FACING NIUE JAMES P. TERRY

Geography Department, The University of the South Pacic Suva, Fiji

Introduction

There are two types of climatic extremes that are important hazards for Niue - tropical cyclones and droughts. Both of these may (although not always) be associated with the El Niño/Southern Oscillation or ‘ENSO’ phenomenon, but operate on different time scales. Tropical cyclones form quicky and are intense, short-lived events of a few days, whereas droughts are insidious and may last many months. The range of undesirable impacts they cause includes damage to infrastructure (e.g. houses, resorts, wharf facilities, communications), disruption to power, loss of agricultural crops, stress on natural ecosystems, contamination of water supplies, and in the worst cases injury and death. These effects involve human suffering and place an economic burden on a small and resource-limited nation like Niue. This chapter explains why Niue is prone to cyclones and droughts, and describes some case studies to demonstrate their impacts. This information may assist in development planning for the future, especially in the light of projections of climate change for the region which are mentioned.

Regional influences on the climate of Niue

Before describing the causes of cyclones and droughts affecting Niue, it is important to understand the regional controls on the island’s climatology, so that we can contrast the normal weather patterns with extreme events. For this purpose, it is not necessary to give a detailed account of Niue’s meteorology, and the reader is directed to ‘The Climate and Weather of Niue’ (Kreft 1986), published by the New Zealand Meteorological Service for this information.

There are two main influences on Niue’s general climate, and both of these are related to the island’s geographical location (19°S, 169°W) in the south west Pacific. First, Niue lies in that part of the tropical Pacific which benefits from the south east trade winds, produced by the effect of Coriolis deflection on surface air drawn towards the low pressure region at the Equator called the Equatorial Trough. The Coriolis deflection of winds (to the left in Southern Hemisphere) is caused by the Earth’s rotation. The south east trades (Figure 1) are persistent for most 113

NIUE ISLAND

of the year, although they tend to be weaker in summer (November to April), and stronger in winter (May to October). Because these winds blow across vast stretches of open ocean, they hold large amounts of moisture derived from evaporation at the sea surface. Vertical mixing of this moist air may give some condensation and clouds, but in general trade wind weather over Niue is clear and fresh. This is because Niue’s lack of significant relief means that no cloud formation can occur by the process of orographic lifting. This situation is in marked contrast to high volcanic islands, in Fiji for example, where the orographic effect is the most important rainfall generating mechanism on the islands’ windward side.

Figure 1. Migration of the South Pacific Convergence Zone The second main regional influ- between summer (January) and winter (July). Adapted from ence on Niue’s climate is the South Nunn (1994).

Pacific Convergence Zone (SPCZ). This is a band of low pressure with an approximate north west to south east orientation over the south west Pacific, extending diagonally from near the Solomon Islands, across to Samoa, the Cook Islands and beyond (Salinger et al. 1995). The SPCZ marks the boundary between the south east trade winds and the divergent easterly winds farther to the north east produced by a high pressure system that sits over the eastern part of the south west Pacific on a semipermanent basis. Since the SPCZ is a low pressure trough, it is associated with cloud and rain. An important feature of the SPCZ is its seasonal migration. It lies to the north of Niue in mid-winter (July), and closer to the island, or even right over it, in mid-summer (January) (Figure 1). During the time of its summer proximity to Niue, the SPCZ also tends to be better defined with more active convergence (Figure 2), often producing thick stratiform and cumulus clouds, and associated showery weather. Sometimes very large cumulonimbus towers of cloud may form, bring114

CLIMATIC HAZARDS FACING NIUE

Figure 2. Visible image from a geostationary meteorological satellite at 11:30a.m. on 7th March 2000 (UTC), showing cloud formation organised along the SPCZ. The cloud mass just west of Niue is the initial phase of what became Tropical Cyclone Mona. Courtesy of the Japan Meteorological Agency.

ing thunderstorms and intense rain. The seasonal north and south shifting and alternate weak and strong activity of the SPCZ is reflected in the distinctly seasonal pattern of Niue’s annual rainfall. Approximately 67% of the total 1992 mm of rainfall in a year arrives in the summer wet season when the strong SPCZ lies nearby, and the remaining 33% arrives during the

winter dry season (Figure 3) when the SPCZ weakens and moves away. A wet-dry seasonality is, in fact, experienced by tropical islands across the south west Pacific for this reason.

Figure 3. Mean monthly rainfall at Alofi.

The El Niño Southern Oscillation

At the inter-annual timescale, the El Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon is our planet’s most powerful climatic influence (Hilton 1998). Since tropical storm and drought hazards on Niue can be influenced by ENSO conditions, this section begins with a simple description of this phenomenon. Under normal conditions, low pressure at the Equatorial Trough and in the western equatorial Pacific, and high pressure in the eastern South Pacific, establishes a pressure gradient that keeps the south east trade winds blowing strongly. The effect of the south east trades and the south equatorial ocean current is to allow the build up of a very large body of warm water in the western 115

NIUE ISLAND

equatorial Pacific, centred around New Guinea (Figure 4).

At intervals of about 5-7 years, for reasons we do not yet fully understand, there is a major disturbance to the Pacific oceanatmosphere system called an El Niño event, which can last for more than a year.

An El Niño begins with a Southern Oscillation.

This is a shift in the atmospheric pressure pattern across the Pacific. The low pressure system centred around north Australia Figure 4. Typical El Niño climate pattern across the Pacific Ocean is replaced by higher pressure, and the equatorial zone pressure falls below normal. This causes the south east trade winds to lose strength, and without these winds to hold them back, the large pool of warm ocean water surges eastwards across the equatorial Pacific (Congbin Fu et al. 1986) (Figure 4). As sea surface temperatures rise off the western coast of the Americas, a tongue of warm water stretches back along the Equator.

Rainfall becomes abundant in this new low pressure region. In contrast, the western South Pacific suffers rainfall failure and drought to varying degrees of intensity.

The strength of ENSO activity is expressed as the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI), which is a measure of monthly atmospheric pressure differences between Tahiti and Darwin (see Ropelewski and Jones 1987, Allan et al. 1991). The El Niño events that occurred in 1982-83 and 1997-98 are thought by many climatologists to have been the strongest last century.

In years without strong ENSO activity, Niue’s rainfall benefits from convection along the low pressure SPCZ as described earlier. At the start of El Niño events, con116

CLIMATIC HAZARDS FACING NIUE

vective storms and tropical cyclones affecting Niue may be generated as the eastwardmigrating pool of warm ocean water passes across the north. Then, as El Niño conditions fully develop, an equatorward shift in the SPCZ (Hay et al. 1993, Vincent 1994) away from Niue leads to prolonged dry conditions.

Table 1. Tropical Cyclones affecting Niue 1920-1990 Year 1920 1929 1941 1944 1946 1948 1955 1956 1956 1957 1959 1960 1968 1970 1972 1972 1973 1974 1979 1983 1987 1988 1989 1989 1989 1990

Date 18-19 Jan. 18-22 Jan. 01-04 Mar. 30-31 Jan. 16-18 Jan. 07-11 Dec. 02-03 Jan. 01 Jan. 17-18 Feb. 04-06 Feb. 25-26 Feb. 17-18 Jan. 09-10 Feb. 17-23 Feb. 18-21 Jan. 31 Jan - 05 Feb. 07 Nov. 25-28 Apr. 10-15 Dec. 29 Mar - 03 Apr. 22-26 Apr. 22-26 Apr. 02-07 Jan. 06-09 Jan. 07-14 Feb. 30 Jan - 07 Feb.

based on wind strength nd. no data source: Basher et al. (1992)

Severity* minor moderate moderate/severe moderate/severe minor moderate/severe minor minor minor minor/moderate severe severe severe nd nd nd nd nd minor minor minor minor minor moderate severe severe

Figure 5. Tracks of cyclones affecting Niue between 1950 and 1959.

Tropical cyclones

The most extreme meteorological conditions on Niue occur during tropical cyclones. These are infrequent events on an inter-annual basis, but violent winds, intense rainfall and high seas are encountered during these storms, sometimes lasting for several days.

A cyclone is an intense tropical depression that develops over warm ocean water (>261⁄2°C), and is organised in bands of cloud that spiral inwards towards the centre. The whole system rotates clockwise in the southern hemisphere, and has violent winds circulating around a central ‘eye’ of calm weather 117

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Table 2. Distribution of tropical cyclones by month Number of cyclones

Nov. 1

Dec. 3

Jan. 12

Feb. 8

Mar. 2

Apr. 4

where atmospheric pressure at sea-level may drop below 980 millibars. From 1920 to 1990, 26 cyclones affected Niue (Tables 1 and 2), giving an average frequency of 3.7 per decade. Storm tracks between 1950 and 1959 are illustrated in Figure 5. This shows that most cyclones affecting Niue do not develop nearby, but instead form at lower latitudes (farther north) and approach the island either directly, or sometimes following looping tracks, before passing away to the south.

Tropical cyclones almost always bring torrential rains, i.e. large amounts of rainfall (mm) at high intensities (mm/hr). Niue’s maximum 1-day rainfall of 388 mm was produced on 25th December 1930 by a cyclone passing near Samoa. Owing to the permeable bedrock of coral limestone, there is no surface drainage. Extreme rainfall therefore does not cause floods, but only temporary and localised ponding of water in some low lying areas. The most dangerous features of tropical cyclones for Niue are large sea waves that dash on the coastline because there is only a narrow fringing reef for protection and the violent winds. Probably the worst storm this century occurred in February 1959. Kreft (1986) wrote the following account of this event:

Figure 6. Track of tropical cyclone Ofa over Niue in February 1990.

118

“A sustained wind force of more than 185 km/hr was recorded in the afternoon of the 26th [February] before the anemometer blew down.

Another 12 hours of wind above gale force (63 km/hr), with heavy rain, followed this.

Of the island’s 770 houses only 290 were left intact. Severe damage was done to the island’s banana, pawpaw and

CLIMATIC HAZARDS FACING NIUE

coconut crops, and road transport was disrupted for a week. The Alofi church, which had withstood every storm for more than 100 years was all but destroyed, and the total cost of damage and loss of exports to Niue was put at $1,500,000.

Before the island had had time to recover, another tropical cyclone hit in January 1960…”

In more recent times Tropical Cyclone Ofa in February 1990 was another devastating event. This storm developed over Tuvalu on 27th January as a depression within the SPCZ, and rapidly intensified to hurricane force (sustained winds >118 km/hr) as it moved SSE near Samoa (Figure 6). The central eye passed within 30 miles of Niue during the late afternoon on 4th February. Here is a excerpt from the Fiji Meteorological Service cyclone report (Prasad 1990), which gives a graphic description of the storm’s ferocity: “As the eye of Ofa passed close to Niue destructive hurricane force winds lashed the island for several hours. Gigantic sea waves resulting from storm surge swept over the northern and western coastal areas of the island and were reported to have reached several metres high. Virtually all landings to the sea were washed away or damaged badly by huge sea waves. There was considerable damage to hospital buildings, the island’s hotel, roads, houses, churches, community halls and other facilities for the public. Due to the damage to power lines, electricity was out for about 24 hours. Most of the island’s private water supply tanks were contaminated by salt water and declared unsuitable for drinking.

Luckily, there was no loss of life or serious injury. The total loss from Cyclone Ofa was estimated at around US$2.5 million.”

Drought I remember when the sky was clear, when there were no clouds, when the sun beat down on us day, after day, after day.

We knew we were in a drought

We baked lots of food in the umu enough to last for two to three days We always drank fresh coconut juice to quench our thirst…… when we could find one

In a drought birds no longer sing and dance taro, cassava, and banana leaves no longer sway in the breeze Families work hard just to survive

I remember in the evenings everyone got together to pray for rain the next day But it was a long time before our prayers were finally answered.

I remember how in a drought water is always scarce.

Boys and girls walked a long way to collect water I remember in a drought walking to Anapala to bathe.

part of a poem about drought by Vitolia Kulatea, written while at school in the 1950’s

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Figure 7. Trends in Niue rainfall and the Southern Oscillation Index

Drought is the second major climatic hazard that can affect Niue. Because drought develops slowly as a lack of rainfall over a period of months, in many ways it is a more insidious type of hazard, and more difficult to prepare for, than tropical cyclones.

Correlation analysis is used here to show the relationship between the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) and rainfall on Niue island. SOI data were obtained from the Fiji Meteorological Service, and are plotted as 5-month running means in Figure 7. Difficulties arise when comparing this with 5-month running means of rainfall because of the influence of seasonality on rainfall patterns, but if seasonality is removed by plotting 13-month running means, then average long term rainfall shows better correspondence with the strength of the SOI (r=0.54, P>0.1) (Figure 8).

Niue is a raised carbonate island and therefore has a large natural underground storage of freshwater. This is in the form of a Ghyben-Herzberg groundwater lens, which floats on top of seawater beneath the land surface. Niue’s freshwater lens has a ‘doughnut’ shape (Figure 9), rather than a the normal central dome, because of permeability differences between unaltered and dolomitised (see karst chapter in this volume) regions of the limestone bedrock (Jacobson & Hill 1980). The max120

CLIMATIC HAZARDS FACING NIUE

Figure 8. Correlation between Niue rainfall (13-month running means) and the Southern Oscillation Index (5-month running means).

the soils means that agriculture and the natural rainforest vegetation are more vulnerable to stress from rain failure. In the severe drought of the 1983 El Niño (70% reduction in November-October 12-month rainfall), the passion fruit industry was paralysed and the Department of Agriculture had to slaughter over half its cattle because of a lack of feed. Taro roots had to be imported from Samoa and 60,000 dry coconuts from Tonga (Tatui 1999). Similarly, the 1997-98 drought (47% annual rainfall reduction) had a bad effect. Soil moisture was severely diminished, especially on the eastern side of the island. The leaves of coconut trees turned yellow and only small nuts were produced. Breadfruit trees flow-

imum lens thickness is in excess of 140 m near Alofi. Large groundwater lenses are resilient to prolonged dry spells (White et al. 1999), so Niue’s subterranean freshwater resource can therefore generally withstand droughts associated with El Niño conditions.

The porous nature of

Figure 9. Plan view and cross section of Niue’s freshwater lens. The ‘contours’ (m) show the thickness of the lens. Adapted from Jacobson and Hill (1980) and Nunn (1994).

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ered in January 1997 and bore fruits, but most fell off before maturation.

Native wildlife is also drought affected. The large uga or coconut crab, an important traditional food, lives in moist places in the forest, but many dead crabs are seen in bush areas after very dry periods. The hega or parakeet (P. triller) feeds on young coconut flowers, and suffers in droughts when there are no flowers and maybe declining in numbers as a consequence. Probably the greatest drought hazard to the fragile biodiversity is fire, which can easily spread from plantations if vegetation litter burning is not carefully controlled. Around 20% of the Huvalu forest reserve was burnt in the mid-1980s and has taken almost 20 years to recover.

Drought conditions are also ideal for the spread of pests and diseases. In May 1983, 20 people from the villages of Makefu and Hikutavake were infected with dengue fever, prompting the Health Department to carry out a mosquito eradication programme throughout the island. In the same drought, the importation of hay bales for cattle feed from New Zealand saw the introduction of several exotic weeds, including wire grass (Stachytarpheta urticifolia) and blue rats tail. Near the end of 1997-1998 drought, there was a bad infestation of the taro crop by two pests, the taro leaf hopper (Tarophagus proserpina) and aphids (Aphis gossypii), which required widespread treatment (in 80% of plantations) with pesticides by the Department of Agriculture (Misikea 1999).

Future Projections and Conclusions

Many climate scientists and modellers now predict that Pacific regional climates will experience more frequent or sustained El Niño-like conditions in future, owing to the effects of global atmospheric and ocean warming (e.g. Trenberth and Hoar 1997, Timmermann et al. 1999). With regard to tropical cyclones, the implications of this include the potential for increased cyclone intensities (Emanuel 1987, Holland 1997, Whetton et al., 2000), greater cyclone numbers (Basher and Zheng 1995), changes to the present spatial patterns of storm origin (Revell and Goulter 1986, Basher and Zheng 1995), and farther poleward travel after vortex formation (Walsh and Katzfey 2000). Despite the fact that it remains difficult to predict the occurrence of tropical cyclones near Niue (as it does elsewhere in the south west Pacific), the evidence suggests that Niue may expect more tropical cyclone activity in a warmer world. Similarly, more episodes of prolonged rainfall failure and droughts may be felt if strong El Niño events become more common. Agriculture will be continue to be vulnerable, although thanks to Niue’s permeable limestone geology water resources are more resilient than elsewhere on small volcanic islands and atolls. Projections of low rainfall made on the basis of the Southern 122

CLIMATIC HAZARDS FACING NIUE

Oscillation Index may help in planning against the worst effects.

References

Allan, R. J., Nicholls, N., Jones, P.D. and Butterworth, I.J. (1991) A further extension of the Tahiti-Darwin SOI, early ENSO events and Darwin pressure. Journal of Climate 4, 743-749.

Basher, R., Collen, B., Fitzharris, B., Hay, J., Mullan, B. and Salinger, J. (1992) Preliminary studies for South Pacific climate change. New Zealand Meteorological Service, Wellington, New Zealand. Appendix 4, p51-58.

Basher, R.E. and Zheng, X. (1995) Tropical cyclones in the southwest Pacific: spatial patterns and relationships to Southern Oscillation and sea surface temperature. Journal of Climate 8, 1249-1260.

Collen, B. (1992) South Pacific Historical Climate Network. Climate Station Histories. Part 1: Southwest Pacific Region. In: J.E. Hay (Ed.) South Pacific Environments. Interactions with weather and climate. National Climate Centre, NZ Meteorological Service, Wellington, New Zealand.

Congbin Fu, Diaz, H.F and Fletcher, J.O. (1986) Characteristics of the response of the sea surface temperature in the central Pacific associated with warm episodes of the Southern Oscillation. Monthly Weather Review 114, 1716-1738.

Emanuel, K.A. (1987) The dependence of hurricane intensity on climate. Nature 326, 483-485.

Hay, J., Salinger, J., Fitzharris, B. and Basher, R. (1993) Climatological seesaws in the southwest Pacific.

Weather and Climate 13, 9-21.

Hilton, A. C. (1998) The influence of El Ni単o-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) on frequency and distribution of weather-related disasters in the Pacific islands region. In J.P. Terry (ed.) Climate and Environmental Change in the Pacific. School of Social and Economic Development, the University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji. p57-71.

Jacobson, G. and Hill, P.J. (1980) Hydrogeology of a raised coral atoll - Niue Island, South Pacific Ocean. BMR Journal of Australian Geology and Geophysics, 5, 271-278.

Kreft, C.A. (1986) The climate and weather of Niue. New Zealand Meteorological Service, Miscellaneous Publication 188(1), 26pp.

Misikea, T.T. (1999) Vulnerability Impact Assessment and Adaptation. Pilot Programme for Agriculture/ Livestock, Niue Department of Agriculture, Forestry, Fisheries and Moui Fakaniue (unpublished).

Nunn, P.D. (1994) Oceanic Islands. Blackwell, Oxford, UK, 413pp.

Prasad, R. (1990) Tropical Cyclone Ofa 31 January to 7 February 1990. Fiji Meteorological Service, Tropical Cyclone Report 90/4, 13pp.

Revell, C.G. and Goulter, S.W. (1986) South Pacific tropical cyclones and the Southern Oscillation. Monthly Weather Review 114, 1138-1145.

Ropelewski, C.F. and Jones, P.D. (1987) An extension of the Tahiti-Darwin Southern Oscillation Index. Monthly Weather Review 115, 2161-2165.

Tatui, C. (1999) Report of the Vulnerability, Impact Assessment and Adaptation Group, Niue Climate Change Project (unpublished).

Timmermann, A., Oberhuber, J., Bacher, A. Esch, M., Latif, M. and Roeckner, E. (1999) Increased El Ni単o frequency in a climate model forced by future greenhouse warming. Nature 398, 694-697.

Trenberth, K. and Hoar, T.J. (1997) El Ni単o and climate change. Geophysical Research Letters 24, 3057-3060.

Vincent, D.G. (1994) The South Pacific Convergence Zone (SPCZ): a review. Monthly Weather Review 112, 1949-1970.

Walsh, K.J.E. and Katzfey, J.J. (2000) the impact of climate change on the poleward movement of tropical cyclo9ne-like vortices in a regional climate model. Journal of Climate 13, 1116-1132.

Whetton, P., Jones, R., Hennessy, K., Suppiah, R., Walsh, K. and Cai, W. (2000) Scenarios of climate change for the Pacific Islands. Paper presented to the Pacific Islands Climate Change Conference, 3-7 April 2000, Rarotonga, Cook Islands. South Pacific Regional Environment Programme, Apia, Samoa.

White, I., Falkland, A. and Scott, D. (1999) Droughts in small coral islands: case study, South Tarawa, Kiribati.

Water Research Foundation of Australia, Report 990602, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia, 51pp.

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Acknowledgements

I wish to thank Mr Sionetasi Pulehetoa and Miss Rossy Pulehetoa, Director and Officer of the Niue Meteorological Office, Hannan International Airport, Niue and Officers at the Fiji Meteorological Service, Nadi Airport for helpful discussion and for providing data on Niue rainfall, the SOI and information on drought impacts. Figures 1, 5 and 6 were drawn by Mr. Peter Johnson formerly of the Cartography Unit of the Geography Division, School of Geosciences, at the University of Sydney. Figure 4 was drawn by Ms Susanna Xie of Xivine Studio, Suva. Dr John Soulsby formerly of USP gave useful comments on an early draft of the manuscript. The University of the South Pacific is gratefully acknowledged for providing research funding.

Addendum

As this book went to press in January 2004, Niue was devastated by Tropical Cyclone Heta. TC Heta was a storm of hurricane intensity (category 5 - most severe, 945 hPa) when its centre tracked within 50 km west of the island on the evening of 6th January. Extremely violent winds, with estimated speeds of 260 km/h and gusts up to 300 km/h, battered the island and Alofi was virtually flattened. Monstrous waves and sea flooding were a main cause of destruction - the worst in living memory. Even houses built above 30 m high cliffs, and other buildings considered safe up to 100 m inland, were demolished. One person was killed and several others badly injured. The hospital was destroyed and many people were left homeless. Power and telecommunications were cut, roads closed, and crops suffered extensive ruin from the intense rainfall. A national disaster was declared and Premier Vivian called for urgent international assistance. Media reports estimated damage of NZ$50 million.

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NIUE’S BIODIVERSITY: A FOUNDATION FOR ECOLOGICAL, CULTURAL AND ECONOMIC SURVIVAL OF A SMALL ISLAND NATION R. R. THAMAN

Geography Deppartment, The University of the South Pacic Suva, Fiji

CASSYGINA TUKIUHA, VALU TUKIUHA, MISA KULATEA AND SYDNEY AUE Niue islanders

Introduction

This chapter is about Niue’s living environment – Niue’s biodiversity. The term “biodiversity” is a combination of two words, “biological”, which refers to living things, and “diversity”, which refers to the variety of different types of living things. In the case Niue landuse and ecosystems

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Pyramid of sustainable development for Niue (Based on the conservation and sustainable use of niue’s biodiversity)

Note: Although the lines between each segment or area within each segment may change for different families or communities on Niue, all activities will ultimately depend for their sustainability on the protection of those entities below them.

of Niue, the term biodiversity includes diversity of ecosystems and different habitats found on the island or in the sea surrounding it, the diversity of different types of plants and animals, and the rich knowledge that Niueans have for their biodiversity. In other words, this chapter is about Niue’s forests, gardens, villages, caves, beaches, reefs, lagoons and ocean; the plants and animals that live in these ecosystems; and the value of these plants and animals to Niueans. It is stressed that Niue’s biodiversity is a living inheritance that has been passed down over thousands of years to today’s Niueans by countless generations of Niueans in the past. It is a “living foundation” for the survival of the “Niuean way of life” (moui faka Niue). Unfortunately, this living inheritance (Niue’s biodiversity), including traditional knowledge about it, is endangered by modern development and education. If Niue’s biodiversity is not protected the rich Niuean culture and the local economy, which both depend on the conservation and sustainable use of Niue’s biodiversity, WILL NOT SURVIVE through the 21st Century!

The importance of biodiversity conservation as a basis for sustainable development can not be stressed strongly enough. At the United Nations Conference on Environ126

NIUE’S BIODIVERSITY

ment and Development (UNCED), better known as the “Earth Summit”, held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in June 1992, the loss and destruction of the Earth’s biodiversity was identified as one of the most serious threats to the sustainable habitation of the Earth by humans. The importance of the protection of small island ecosystems, such as Niue, and their unique biodiversity is also mentioned in Agenda 21, the UNCED Action Plan for promoting environmentally sustainable development during the 21st Century. The importance of protecting small island ecosystems was further stressed at the Conference on Small Island Developing States held in Barbados in 1994.

Because the loss of biodiversity is such a serious worldwide problem, most of the countries that attended the “Earth Summit”, including Niue and eight other Pacific Island countries, have signed the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). The CBD is a global plan for the protection of both terrestrial and marine biodiversity and is particularly important to countries, such as Niue, that continue to depend on their land and marine resources to satisfy many of their needs. In the Pacific Islands, the implementation of the CBD is being facilitated by the South Pacific Regional Environment Progamme (SPREP)’s $US10.5 million South Pacific Biodiversity Conservation Program (SPBCP). Under the SPBCP, all Pacific Island countries can receive funding to help them establish community-based conservation areas in which important biodiversity can be protected by local communities. The Huvalu Forest Conservation Area in Niue has been funded and supported by the SPBCP. There is also the Namoui community-based marine protected area (MPA) that has been established at Makefu, with assistance of the Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC).

Another initiative to help Pacific Island countries honor their obligations under the CBD and to protect their biodiversity is the SPREP- and UNDP-supported Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (BSAP) initiative. This initiative is designed to help Pacific Island countries develop action plans to protect their biodiversity and use it sustainably. Niue has just finished its national BSAP. Although the Huvalu Conservation area and the protection of the Huvalu forest and the establishment of the Namoui Marine Protected Area are very important initiatives, they are not enough.

All of Niue’s biodiversity must be protected and used in a sustainable manner by all of Niue’s people so that future generations will be able to enjoy the benefits of the crops, fruits, medicines, leis and garlands, fish, shellfish, coconut crabs, legends and the many other products and parts of the Niuean culture that depend on biodiversity.

To discuss the importance of Niue’s biodiversity and what can be done to protect it and use it in a sustainable manner, this chapter examines: 1) what the concepts of biodiversity and biodiversity conservation mean for Niue; 2) Niue’s biodiversity inherit127

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ance; 3) the ecological, cultural and economic importance of Niue’s biodiversity to the people of Niue; 4) some of the main threats to the protection and sustainable use of Niue’s biodiversity and traditional knowledge about it; and, finally 5) some recommendations that could help promote the conservation of biodiversity in Niue.

The chapter is based on information collected during a one-month study in Niue from January to February 1999. This included: 1) a community based questionnaire survey of biodiversity conducted in 12 villages; 2) field observations of most areas of the island, including snorkeling in a number of key marine sites; 3) in-depth interviews with selected informants; 4) two field excursions led by Misa Kulatea into inland and coastal forest areas; 5) a review of the available literature on Niue’s biodiversity; and, 6) the use of in live specimens (e.g., plants or plant leaves, shellfish, crabs, etc.), dead specimens (e.g., seashells), and photos in key references (e.g. in fish books, shell books, books on insects, reptiles and Pacific Island natural history, etc. listed in the bibliography) to determine the correct Niuean and scientific names for all relevant plants and animals. Special thanks are also due Tumaru Talagi, Director of the University of the South Pacific Centre in Niue, Crossley Tatui, Georgina Tukiuha and Sione Talagi of the Department of Community Affairs, Sauni Tongatule, Director of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Mine and Asu Pulu of the Waimanu Guest House, and Morris and Ofa Tafatu in Niue and to Francois Martel of SPREP in Samoa for their support of the project and the provision of background information. Special thanks are also due to Tagaloa Sisikefu, Punapa Veseaga, Iki Etuata, Lofa Kulatea, Sialehei Sipeni, Misitama Mesi, Taukave Uku, Panikitautama, Foletuki Talima, Herman Tagaloailuga, Lalomaogi and Niupoe Togiakona and Faleafa and Mele Misileki for sharing their time, hospitality, and knowledge of Niue’s biodiversity with us. We thank you all and hope that this report will be of value to the people of Niue. We apologise for those we have failed to mention and take responsibility for any inaccuracies in this report.

Niue’s biodiversity defined

As stressed in the introduction, the term “biodiversity” is a combination of the words biological”, which refers to living things, and “diversity”, which refers to the variety or different types of living things that exist in a given area. In the case of Niue, the term biodiversity includes ecosystem diversity, diversity of species and different types of plants and animals and microorganisms, genetic diversity and ethnobiological diversity.

Ecosystem Diversity in Niue An ecosystem is the highest level of classification in biology. It is defined as a func128

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tioning system that includes both the entire living biological community (all plants, animals and micro-organisms) and its non-living environment (e.g., climate, landforms, elevation, slope, sunlight, rock types, soil types, water, temperature, salinity, wind, etc.). The study of ecology is the study of ecosystems and the interrelationships between the biological community itself and its non-living environment (e.g., of the yellowstripe goatfish or kaloama with other fish and plants, with its ocean environment, the depth, salinity, clarity, temperature, currents and waves, tropical cyclones, etc. and with humans). A person who studies and knows the interrelationships between biological communities and the environment is an “ecologist”. In the past, most Niuean men and women were very good ecologists. They knew the names, uses, habits and behavior of land and marine plants and animals and how natural events and human activities affected them. They Table 1. Terrestrial and marine ecosystems of Niue that: 1) are important resource-use zones; and, 2) could serve as the focus for “comknew the legends and sto- munity-based biodiversity conservation” (CBBC) and national-level ries about their plants and biodiversity conservation in Niue. animals and the places 1 TERRESTRIAL/FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS where they lived. Unfor1.1 Native Inland Forest (vaouhi, vaomotua) tunately, many of the 1.2 Coastal Forest and Strand Vegetation (vao magatahi, vao kautahi) young people are losing 1.3 Coastal Swamps (e.g., Togo chasm) the knowledge of how 1.4 Fallow Forest/Agroforest (vao vakakaupala) Niue’s ecosystems work. 1.5 Scrubland/Fernlands (vao vihi, vao môtie) They no longer know 1.6 Shifting Agricultural Lands (maala) 1.7 Perennial Plantations (pa akau, ulu niu, ulufuti) the names, characteristics 1.8 Plantation Forest (vao tô) and cultural importance 1.9 Pasture (pa povi) of many of Niue’s plants 1.10 Intensive Livestock Husbandry (pa puaka, pa moa) and animals. They have 1.11 Houseyard/Urban Gardens (kateni, pa lakau) little appreciation of how 1.12 Ruderal Sites (roadsides, open lots, areas around the airport, etc.) human activities threaten 1.13 Beaches, Sand Spits and Dunes (mataafaga, kautahi) 1.14 Cliffs/Bare Rock (feutu, maka, makaea) our land and marine eco1.12 Caves/Groundwater/Wells (ana, vai ana, vai keli) systems and the plants and 1.13 Built/Urban (fale, maaga, taone) animals that live there.

2 MARINE ECOSYSTEMS Niue’s ecosystems 2.1 Intertidal Fringing Reef Flat (tofola) include all of the natural 2.2 Subtidal Fringing Reef and Shallow Seas (tahi, moana pôtake, uluulu) and cultural terrestrial 2.3 Deep Reef Slope, Sea Mounts and Ocean Floor (patu toka momo, (land) and marine ecosysuhotokamomo) tems that are found on or 2.4 Open Ocean (moana, moana hokulo, kili moana) 129

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around Niue. All of Niue’s ecosystems are “resource-use zones” containing resources that are important to Niue and that should be managed by local communities and the national government so they will also benefit future generations. Table 1 lists some of the main ecosystems found in Niue. Niue’s terrestrial and marine ecosystems and the plants and animals they contain will be discussed in greater detail below in sections 3 and 4 below.

Species Diversity in Niue At the level of biodiversity below the ecosystem, each of Niue’s ecosystems has its own “community” of different individual groups of species 1 of different plants, animals and microorganisms that depend on, and interact with, other members of the community, including human beings, and with the non-living parts (e.g., soil, rock, water, air, temperature, salt, waves, etc.) of the ecosystem. Table 2 is an attempt to list some of the groups of species of living things (organisms) that are found in the different biological communities in Niue’s ecosystems. As can be seen from Table 2, if we were to list all of the species of plants and animals (including both vertebrates and vertebrates) from each group (e.g., all of the mammals, birds, lizards, insects, spiders, finfish, shellfish, crabs, fungi, trees, vines, ferns, grasses, etc.) found in all of Niue’s terrestrial and marine ecosystems, the diversity of valuable living things, even for a small island like Niue, is very great indeed. It is a “living bank account” which will continue to grow, if we live off of the growth and natural reproduction, rather than destroying it.

Table 2. Groups, classes, sub-classes, specic types and the value of terrestrial and marine plants, animals and micro-organisms that constitute the biological communities found in Niue’ ecosystems Class Lower Life-forms Plants

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Sub-Classes

Indigenous Aboriginal Introductions Recent Introductions Wild Plants Domesticated Plants Food Plants Non-Food Plants Terrestrial Freshwater Marine

Specic Types Bacteria Viruses Phytoplankton Algae Fungi Mosses Other Lower Plants Ferns Herbs/Forbs Grasses/Sedges Vines Shrubs

Value E,s,c E,s,c E,s,c E,S,C E,s,c E,s E,s,c E,S,C E,S,C E,S,C E,S,C E,S,C

NIUE’S BIODIVERSITY

Animals

Indigenous Aboriginal Introductions Recent Introductions Wild Animals Domesticated Animals Food Species Non-Food Species Terrestrial Freshwater Marine

Trees Protozoa Zooplankton Sponges Corals Jellysh Worms Molluscs Insects Crustaceans Echinoderms Other Invertebrates Finsh *Amphibians Reptiles Birds Non-Human Mammals Humans

E,C,C E,s,c E,s,c E,s,c E,S,c e,s,c E,s,c E,S,C E,s,c E,S,C E,S,C E,s,c E,S,C E,s E,S,C E,S,C E,S,C E,S,C

Note: 1) * indicates that amphibians are not found on Niue; 2) under “Value”, E, S and C = direct major Ecological, Subsistence or Commercial/ Export value to the people of Niue, and e, s and c = minor or indirect ecological, subsistence or commercial/export importance, e.g. phytoplankton and zooplankton are of indirect importance to commercial tuna shing in terms of its importance in marine food chains; it must be stressed that species in some categories may also be harmful or have a negative impact on sustainable development, e.g. viruses or bacteria, mosquitoes, bad weeds, etc.

Genetic Diversity Genetic diversity is the next level of biodiversity below the species level. Genetic diversity includes all genetic types, breeds, cultivars or varieties of a given species of wild and domesticated or cultivated plants and animals found in Niue’s ecosystems. Most of Niue’s important staple food plant species, such as taro, yams, bananas and plantains, coconut palms, breadfruit, and a number of other important plants, such as pandanus (fª), have a number of recognised “named” cultivars.

Even indigenous species of wild plants and animals and marine organisms, just like A species is normally defined as any group or organisms (e.g. plants, animals or micro-organisms) of the same kind that share similar characteristics and that are normally only capable of interbreeding or reproducing with other members of the same species, and not with organisms outside of its own group. Each separate species that has been correctly identified and classified by scientists known as taxonomists is given a “scientific name”. This name, which is written in Latin and is italicised, consists of two names, the first name, the first letter of which is always capitalised, is the name of the genus that the species belongs to and the second name, which is not capitalised, is the specific or species name for the species. For example, the scientific names for the coconut (niu) and the coconut crab (uga) are Cocos nucifera and Birgus latro, respectively.

1

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human beings, have genetic diversity, even though we often can not see it. It is this diversity that gives different species the ability to adapt to environmental change over long periods of time, because members of succeeding generations may inherit characteristics that are better suited to a given environment than the characteristics of some of the members of the previous generations. The diversity of Niuean crops and other important plants will be discussed in detail below.

Ethnobiological Diversity Ethnobiological diversity is defined as the knowledge, uses, beliefs, conservation practices and language that Niueans have for their ecosystems, species and genetic diversity. It includes both traditional indigenous Niuean knowledge and modern scientific knowledge about Niue’s biodiversity. It is stressed that, this final category or “level” of biodiversity, ethnobiological diversity, must be seen as central to the definition of biodiversity itself. This is because, in Niue, people and their knowledge and traditions are all part of the terrestrial, freshwater and marine ecosystems (part of fonua and moana) and not separate external entities. This large pool of ethnobiological knowledge has been accumulated and improved by Niueans who have lived in close contact with the Niue island environment for thousands of years.

The knowledge of medicinal plants and the ways of preparing medicines, the knowledge about fishing and preparing the bait or lures in the right way for kaloama or ulihega fishing, and the knowledge about night fishing on the reef (ama uluulu) or collecting shellfish and crabs on the reef (fagota) are very important parts of Niuean cultural diversity. The knowledge of how to plant yams, taro and breadfruit to insure the highest yields and to control pests and diseases, and the knowledge of the names, appearance and different characteristics of the wide range of varieties of traditional food plants are other examples of important Niuean ethnobiological knowledge. There are also symbolic or sacred names for many of Niue’s more important plants and animals. For example, halevª is the symbolic name for the coconut crab, normally referred to as uga, atelapa is the symbolic name for the purple swamphen, normally called the kalÂ, and tÌ lalo fonua the symbolic name for the Polynesian rat, kumª (Rattus exulans). Plants and animals also feature in Niuean legends and beliefs. The whale (tafuª) features in many well-known legends, including the story of Mataginifale, who having mocked a whale was swallowed and taken to Tonga (Sperlich 1997).

Niueans also have special names for different growth stages of the same animals or fish. For example, whereas the adult coconut crab is uga, the younger crabs are known as fuluami or leei. Similarly adult lobsters are uo and young lobsters are 132

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fitivª; adult mullet are kanahe and the young are fua; and whereas the large bluefin trevally (Caranx melampygus) is ªheu, medium-sized fish are malau tea and small ones lupolupo.

The most knowledgeable of the older people still know many of the names and uses for, and stories and legends about, most of the plants, animals, fish, shellfish, crabs and other sea creatures. This is not true for most people living overseas, and for many of our younger people. It is important to stress, however, that there seems to be only a few true traditional “Niuean scientists” who really know the names, appearance, habitats, characteristics and management practices associated with most of Niue’s terrestrial and marine plant and animal species and genetic varieties. Only about one-quarter of the village respondents had in-depth knowledge of Niue’s plants, animals, fish, crabs, shellfish, seaweeds and traditional cultivars, apart from the more common species and cultivars. Many of the respondents were not able to fully answer some questions. Much of this knowledge is being lost, and the young and middle-aged people of Niue today know far less about their biodiversity than their parents and grandparents did. There is, thus, a very important need to protect this treasure chest of Niuean knowledge before it is lost. Without the knowledge of the names, uses and importance of different plants and animals and ecosystems, the protection and sustainable use of Niue’s biodiversity will be very difficult. Perhaps more distressing is that many of these species and genetic varieties are now rare, or even extinct, so even if young Niueans learn the names, they may never be able to see what the plant, animal, fish or shellfish looks like in real life! And, the few people who can identify them are older Niueans. Once they pass away much of this knowledge will die with them. This constitutes a serious loss of Niuean cultural heritage and “ethnobiological diversity”.

Niue’s terrestrial ecosystems

This section looks at Niue’s terrestrial ecosystems that are listed in Table 1 above.

Because vegetation is the most visible feature of most terrestrial ecosystems, most ecosystems are named after vegetation types (e.g., native inland forest, coastal forest, scrubland or plantation forests).

Native Inland Forest (Vao Uhi, Uho Vao) An estimated 12%, or 3200 hectares, of Niue’s total land area of 260 km2 is covered by relatively undisturbed native inland forest (vao uhi). This is commonly referred to as “primary forest.” Disturbed or modified forest is known as “secondary forest.”

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Although there are scattered patches of native forest in a number of areas on the island, most of the remaining forest on Niue is found in the areas between Alofi, Lakepa and Hakupu. The largest forest is Huvalu Forest between Hakupu and Liku in the southeast of the island (Lane 1994). This has been declared a Conservation Area under the South Pacific Biodiversity Conservation Programme.

Relatively undisturbed indigenous lowland forest contains a high diversity of large, broad-leaved evergreen trees species, high populations of vines and lianas, orchids and a small range of other herbs, epiphytic ferns and other epiphytes that grow on trees. The understorey below the large trees is occupied by terrestrial ferns, some small trees and shrubs and seedling and saplings of the larger tree species, and some soft herbaceous plants. Also found in undisturbed forests are many nonvascular plants, such as mosses, liverworts, lichens and mushrooms and other types of fungi. The native inland forest is also the main habitat for most of Niue’s indigenous birds, flying foxes (peka), a wide range of insects and other indigenous invertebrates, such as the coconut crab, uga (Birgus latro). It is also the main habitat of wild or feral pigs, cats and rats.

Although consisting of almost entirely indigenous trees and plants that were present on the island before the first Niueans arrived, the inland forest has long been used by humans and has relatively open understory vegetation. Much of it has been cleared for use as garden land, often using bulldozers. This has led to the loss or endangerment of many trees and other plants that are valuable to the people of Niue.

The dominant large trees species in the primary inland forest include kafika (Syzygium inophylloides), tuali (Syzygium dealatum), kanumea (Planchonella samoensis), kieto (Diospyros samoensis), tava (Pometia pinnata) and koli vao (Syzygium samarangense), apparently an early introduction that is now growing naturally in Niuean forests (Whistler 1998). The kanumea is one of the tallest trees in the forest and serves as a “landmark” for birds, such as lupe and fruit bats (peka), both of which are hunted. Occasional in inland forests are moota (Dysoxylum forsteri), oluolu (Planchonella garberi), pualiki (Ficus obliqua), hooto (Chionanthus vitiensis), tafaki (Heritiera ornithocephala), ‘ai (Canarium harveyi) and kanukatª or kanotuatª (Sterculia fanaiho), some of which are more commonly found in forests on the lower terrace or in secondary forests. Trees that are uncommon or rare in primary forests include malili (Terminalia richii), tamanu (Calophyllum neo-ebudicum), kalakalai (Melicope retusa) and lautaha (Elattostachys falcata). Common medium-sized or smaller understory species include mamalava or malava (Elaeocarpus tonganus), koka (Baccaurea seemanii), masi (Ficus scabra) and atatu 134

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(Streblus anthropophagorum). Common in forest openings or on the margins of primary forest is l (Macaranga seemannii), but which is eventually replaced by the more dominant Syzygium species.

Shrubs found in the understory species include moea (Ixora triflora), moea kulu (Psychotria insularum) and kava vao (Macropiper puberulum). High climbing common vines or lianas (woody vines) include vª (Flagellaria gigantea), fue kula or fue vao (Merremia peltata), kanai uli (Rourea minor), kanai kula (Morinda myrtifolia) and the shrub-like vine maile (Alyxia stellata). Uncommon to occasional vines include feteka uli (Mucuna gigantea) and vine vao (Passiflora aurantia).

Most of the some 17 indigenous orchids reported from Niue are only found in primary forest. Those orchids that are common to occasional in primary forest include kapª (Bulbophyllum distichobulbum), vª akau (Dendrobium biflorum), limulimumoupi (Oberonia equitans), pupu kal (Bulbophyllum longiscapum), talotalo vao or kome vao (Phraetia micrantha), Hetaeria oblongifolia, and Malaxis resupinata.

Those that are uncommon to rare in forests include pupukal (Phaius tankervilleae), Taeniophyllum fasciola, Didymoplexis micradenia, Eulophia pulchra, Nervilia aragoana and Phreatia myosurus.

Other herbaceous species found in primary forests include Procris pedunculata and Peperomia pallida, both known as kapª, which are normally found on limestone rock outcrops, and tono (Geophila repens).

Ferns that are common to abundant in primary forest in Niue include luku (Asplenium nidus), kapihi (Asplenium robustum) and palapalaveka (Tectaria chrysotricha). Ferns that are occasional include kapihi (Asplenium polyodon), mohuku (Nephrolepis biserrata), mamanu (Phymatosorus grossus), Humata heterophylla, Ophioglossum pendulum and the epiphytic ferns, kapihi (Davallia solida) and Humata heterophylla. Rare ferns, only found in primary forest, include Vaginularia angustissima and Schizaea dichotoma. Ferns reported to be rare and, in the mid1960s, only found in a small area of more or less primary forest near Lefuka in the center of the island are palatao (Angiopteris evecta), Diplazium proliferum and Cyclosorus transversarius (Sykes 1970). Ferns reported from sunny areas in openings, along trails and in disturbed areas of primary forest include Pteris tripartita, Ophioglossum petiolatum and Amphineuron opulentum.

Most of Niue’s smaller non-vascular plants are found growing on the soil, rocks, dead wood and as epiphytes on trees in Niue’s inland forests. Out of the 16 more common mosses reported present on Niue, most of which are known as limu or limu vao, 11 are found mainly in primary native forest and another two in second135

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ary forest. Species for which there are Niuean names include limu akau moupi (Trichsteleum humatum), limu molñlñ(Leucobryum candidum), limu maka akau (Rhizogonium setosum), and limu molemole (Papillaria sp.). Of the 19 liverworts, probably also referred to as limu, 14 are found in primary or dense forest, and the others in coastal or secondary forest (Campbell 1970; Sykes 1970).

As stressed before, the forest is also the most important habitat for most of Niue’s birds, fruit bats and a wide range of insects and other invertebrate animals.

Coastal Forest and Scrub (Vao magatahi, Vao Kautahi) Extensive areas of coastal forest and scrub (vao magatahi or vao kautahi) are found in coastal areas and on the limestone terrain of the Lower Terraces where there is limited soil cover. These coastal ecosystems are generally found within 200 to 800 m from the coast in areas under the influence of wind and salt spray. The coastal forest has smaller trees than those found in the primary inland forest and is dominated by stunted trees and salt-tolerant shrubs, vines, herbs and ferns on the limestone escarpments and cliffs along the island’s rugged coastline (Sykes 1970).

The plants found here are primarily all widespread salt-tolerant plants that have been dispersed to the island by ocean currents or, in some cases, by sea birds or wind. The area under this type of vegetation was estimated in the 1960s to be about 2,440 hectares (Wright and von Westerndorp 1965), an area that has probably changed little.

The main tree species found in the ocean side or “outpost zone” of the coastal forest include puka (Hernandia nymphaeifolia), puka tea (Pisonia grandis), futu (Barringtonia asiatica), pao (Neisosperma oppositifolium) and taihuni or taihuni tªne (Tournefortia argentea). Less common species include milo (Thespesia populnea), panopano (Guettarda speciosa), motou (Cordia subcordata), and fetªnu (Excoecaria agallocha), which is found in a few locations on limestone on the west coast in South Alofi and near Ana on the southeast coast. Trees occasionally found in coastal forest include coconut palms, niu (Cocos nucifera) and gat (Erythrina variegata var. orientalis). Shrubby species found either as understorey vegetation or in more open or disturbed sites, include malege (Pipturus argenteus), nonu (Morinda citrifolia), ata (Ficus tinctoria), mati (Ficus scabra), vihoa or fihoa (Colubrina asiatica), and pepe (Schleinitzia insularum), which is found mainly along the western coast of the island.

Although not normally growing on the outermost exposed coastal areas, fou (Hibiscus tiliaceus) is very common on some parts of the lower terrace, with particularly extensive areas on the hilly escarpment behind Avasele.

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Species that are particularly common on exposed cliffs near the sea, often on the shear rock faces, include salt-tolerant shrubs, such as gigie (Pemphis acidula), gahu pª (Scaevola taccada), taihuni fifine (Heliotropium anomalum), tiale feutu (Bikkia tetrandra), pamako (Capparis cordifolia), kaveutu (Timonius polygamus), and the sprawling, vine-like shrub, kakoli (Clerodenrum inerme). Shrubby species that are occasional in exposed coastal sites include aloalo (Premna serratifolia), fakamaka or pupu fetñ (Hedyotis foetida), gahu (Cyrtandra samoensis), tiale tafa (Gardenia taitensis), matakula (Wollastonia biflora) and liki (Eugenia reinwardtiana). Low-lying herbaceous species include kapª (Peperomia pallida), toto or toto tea (Chamaesyce atoto), titi tai (Triumfetta procumbens), Sesuvium portulacastrum, kamole (Portulaca lutea), tono (Centella asiatica), the herbaceous vines, fue tea (Ipomoea macrantha), feteka tea (Canavalia sericea) and ume (Zehneria samoensis), and talamoa fiti or tamatama (Achyranthes aspera), which is found in some disturbed coastal sites. Also common are the sedge, mÜtie tai (Fimbristylis cymosa) and the grass, mÜtie kalalahi (Paspalum vaginatum), which often forms trailing mats in sheltered places near and just below the lowest level of shrub growth (Sykes 1970). A rare native plant found on vertical limestone cliffs faces and crevices overlooking the sea on the northeast of the island is Nicotiana fragrans, an indigenous wild tobacco.

Locally common in open coastal sites is the leafless parasitic vine feteinoa (Cassytha filiformis). Less common are the widespread coastal grasses, Lepturus repens, which is more common along the more protected western coast, and Ischaemum murinum. Also occasional on and near limestone outcrops and the bases of cliffs are the ferns, mamanu (Phymatosorus grossus), mohuku (Nephrolepis hirsutula) and palatava (Acrosticum aureum). Ferns that are uncommon or rare in coastal forest include palatava (Pteris tripartita) and the epiphytic ferns, Antrophyum plantagineum and Vittaria elongata, which are sometimes called mohuku vao. Some mosses, such as limu maka (Brachymenium melanothecium) and some of the same mosses and liverworts found in primary inland forests are also found in coastal forests.

Coastal species usually found further inland and often on the higher parts of the lower terrace include telie (Terminalia catappa), fou (Hibiscus tiliaceus), kalaka (Planchonella grayana), koli vao (Syzygium richii), moota (Dysoxylum forsteri), tuali (Syzygium dealatum), ovava (Ficus prolixa), pualiki (Ficus obliqua), masi (Ficus scabra), ata (Ficus tinctoria), pua (Fagraea berteroana), tÂt (Geniostoma rupestre), kuisi (Pittosporum brackenridgei), tanetane (Polyscias multijuga) and nonu (Morinda citrifolia). Less common on the inner parts on the terraces are tafaki (Heritiera ornithocephala), kanukatª or kanotuatª (Sterculia fanaiho), 137

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kieto (Diospyros samoensis), kanume (Diospyros elliptica), hooto (Chionanthus vitiensis), mangiho (Dendrocnide harveyi), l (Macaranga seemannii), and the shrubby vines kanai tea (Jasminum betchei and Jasminum didymum). A tree formerly more common in coastal areas and on the Lower Terrace is fetau (Calophyllum inophyllum), which is now quite rare, with one very large tree still growing on the lower terrace southwest of Hakupu. Herbaceous species include kapª (Procris pedunculata), which is normally found on limestone rock outcrops or as an epiphyte. Occasional in inner areas of coastal forest are the lianas pomea mata’ila or matamoho (Abrus precatorius) and kanai uli (Rourea minor). Rare in coastal forests is the primitive fern-like, leafless plant, Psilotum nudum.

Also occasional in coastal forests, often in areas where soil has accumulated at the base of limestone crops or cliffs, are Polynesian arrowroot, pia (Tacca leontopetaloides), which was formerly used as a supplementary staple or emergency food, two ferns, luku (Asplenium nidus), an important cooked vegetable, the fern palapalaveka (Tectaria latifolia), and the creeping vine atale (Ipomoea littoralis), a favoured food of pigs, which is found in more open sites.

There are also a number of non-indigenous introduced species commonly found in coastal ecosystems. These include pepe Pªlagi (Leucaena leucocephala), sili (Melia azedarach) and the succulent plants, kamole (Portulaca oleracea) and talotalo (Rhoeo spathacea), which has established itself in rocky places and is spreading on the lower terrace and on coastal limestone cliffs, especially on the west coast to the north of Alofi. Also occasional on limestone outcrops or coastal littoral sites are the introduced grasses, mÜtie molulu (Cynodon dactylon) and Digitaria setigera.

Coastal Wetlands/Swamps (Founa Vai) Coastal wetlands or swamps, in the form of poorly-drained freshwater and brackish water swamps, bogs and marshland vegetation, are very rare on Niue because of the island’s very well-drained limestone geomorphology and lack of coastal lowlands.

This ecosystem is possibly restricted to the swampy area near Togo Chasm where there is a mangrove-like, swampy environment and the presence of the mangrove fern, palatava (Acrosticum aureum). Although a number of the respondents mentioned the mangrove tree, togo, as being rare or extinct on Niue, it has never been recorded present in modern times. There is, however, a famous Niuean legend about the togo tree (probably the mangrove species, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza) being present in the long distant past on the protected coast near Alofi, but after a battle with the native gardenia, tiale tafa (Gardenia taitensis), escaped to take refuge at 138

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Togo. According to the legend, the tiale tafa pursued the togo to Togo and after a further fight banished it from Niue forever. Today, it is seen as a legendary or mythical tree, but there is good reason to believe that the togo (Bruguiera gymnorrhiza) was present in the past in Niue, both on protected areas of the coastline near Alofi and at Togo. The Togo Chasm area should be protected as a national heritage site, both because of its unique environmental conditions and its legendary status, which in the end is probably based on facts of Niuean oral history.

Secondary Forest and Agroforest (Vao Vakakaupala) Outside areas of primary native forest and coastal forest are extensive areas of secondary forest or agroforest. These forests are found in areas that have been used for shifting cultivation, but which have been allowed to return to forest. Such forests, which also include agroforests of trees deliberately planted or protected in agricultural areas, reportedly cover about 12,000 hectares or 46% of the island (Lane 1993). All stages of development of secondary forest can be seen on Niue. These forests are often richer in number of species than primary forest and have a significant percentage of non-indigenous introduced species, often deliberately planted useful trees, and include village tree groves. In some areas there is no clear distinction between primary and secondary forest with one grading into the other.

Tree species that are common to occasional in secondary forests include moota (Dysoxylum forsteri), l (Macaranga seemannii), l hau (Macaranga harveyana), toi (Alphitonia zizyphoides), tavahi (Rhus taitensis), kahame (Glochidion ramiflorum), fou (Hibiscus tiliaceus), nonu (Morinda citrifolia), manonu (Tarenna sambucina), aloalo (Premna serratifolia), fou mamala or fumamala (Omalanthus nutans), masi (Ficus scabra), ata (Ficus tinctoria), atatu (Streblus anthropophagorum), lala uli or lala vao (Grewia crenata), and the ubiquitous coconut palm, niu (Cocos nucifera). Uncommon in disturbed forests is the stinging nettle tree, mangiho (Dendrocnide harveyi).

Occasional in secondary forests or on the margins of primary forest on the lower terrace are kalaka (Planchonella grayana), oluolu (Planchonella garberi), kieto (Diospyros samoensis), hooto (Chionanthus vitiensis), lautaha (Elattostachys falcata), kuisi (Pittosporum brackenridgei), piliva (Celtis harperi), tanetane (Polyscias multijuga), tafaki (Heritiera ornithocephala), kanotuatª (Sterculia fanaiho), pua (Fagraea berteroana) and tÂt (Geniostoma rupestre). Also occasional in secondary forests and tree groves are a number of aboriginal introductions that are also found in agricultural garden lands and in houseyard gardens in villages. These include breadfruit, mei (Artocarpus altilis), oceanic lichi, tava (Pometia pinnata) 139

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and candlenut, tuitui (Aleurites moluccana). Recent introductions include mango, mago (Mangifera indica), red-bead tree, pomea (Adenanthera pavonina), and the large herbaceous Mauritius hemp, toua (Furcraea foetida).

Important understory species in secondary forests include takapalu (Micromelum minutum), gahu (Cyrtandra samoensis), tĂ&#x152; (Cordyline fruticosa), with manono (Tarenna sambucina) in more open sites. Less common understorey species include vihoa (Colubrina asiatica) and the shrubby vines, kanai tea (Jasminum betchei and Jasminum didymum) Also commonly naturalised in shady sites are the aboriginally introduced species including the medicinal plant poloi (Zingiber zerumbet), Polynesian arrowroot, pia (Tacca leontopetaloides) and tĂ&#x152; (Cordyline fruticosa). Less common is kalakalai (Melicope retusa), and the recently introduced creeping liana, akau Niukini (Derris malaccensis), which was formerly used to poison fish.

Important secondary forest vines or lianas include the liana, kanai uli (Rourea minor), fue kula or fue vao (Merremia peltata), kanai kula (Morinda myrtifolia), the vine-like shrub maile (Alyxia stellata) and feteka uli (Mucuna gigantea), which is uncommon.

Other vines found in secondary or old fallow forest, especially in disturbed sites, are the air yam, hoi (Dioscorea bulbifera) and the wild yam pilita (Dioscorea pentaphylla), both probably aboriginal introductions that were formerly used as food plants.

Occasional in disturbed, somewhat shady sites in secondary forest are basket grass (Oplismenus compositus and O. hirtellus) and the ferns, luku (Asplenium nidus), mamanu (Phymatosorus grossus), mohuku (Nephrolepis hirsutula), and kapihi (Davallia solida).

3.5 Scrubland/Fernland (vao vihi, vihi, vao motie) Scrublands or fernlands are areas where long term disturbance, such as burning, grazing, ploughing or poor soils restricts the growth of trees, and where the dominant plants are shrubs, ferns and other weedy species. There are extensive areas of scrubland or scrub-fernland in areas where there has been a long history of overcropping and depletion and disturbance of the soil due to years of shifting cultivation and, most recently, due to the indiscriminate ploughing, the use of herbicides, such as paraquat, and the use of bulldozers to clear forests and woody vegetation on Niueâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s very shallow soils. These areas are found mainly in the western parts of the center of the island, especially in the southwestern portion of the island. The scrublands are commonly dominated by thickets of a few species of shrubs and scattered pioneer tree species with ferns, grasses and weedy herbaceous species growing in the open areas. In the most degraded sites the scrub and tree vegetation gives way to an even more degrade 140

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areas of fernland. These areas have been referred to as “Niuean desert” (Wright and von Westerndorp 1965; Sykes 1970). The fernlands occupy large portions of the central Basin, particularly in the south-central part of the island.

Common shrubs and small trees of the scrublands include fa vao (Pandanus tectorius), l or l hau (Macaranga harveyana), fou (Hibiscus tiliaceus), aloalo (Premna serratifolia), kahame (Glochidion ramiflorum), nonu (Morinda citrifolia), manono (Tarenna sambucina), ata (Ficus tinctoria), gahu pª (Scaevola taccada), kaveutu (Timonius polygamus), tÂt (Geniostoma rupestre), fou mamala, fumamala (Omalanthus nutans) and kautoga or lala pªlagi (Psidium guajava). Less common are kapª akau (Dodonaea viscosa) and pua (Fagraea berteroana). Larger trees found in more mature fernlands include toi (Alphitonia zizyphoides) and tavahi (Rhus taitensis). Also occasional is the ground orchid, pupukal (Spathoglottis plicata). The most degrade sites are dominated by the ferns mohuku (Nephrolepis hirsutula) and the less abundant pago (Sphaerostephanos invisus). Occasional in scrublands or fernlands are the grass, Paspalum suborbiculatum and the herbs, mÜtofu hiku kumª (Stachytarpheta urticaefolia) and Desmodium triflorum. Also occasional are the bamboo-like grass, kaho (Miscanthus floridulus), the ground orchid, pupukal (Spathoglottis plicata), the fern mamanu (Phymatosorus grossus) and the fern-like toa vao or fakalagalaga (Psilotum nudum).

Ruderal Sites (Vao) A common ecosystem on Niue is ruderal vegetation, which is found in sites that are constantly disturbed. These include roadsides, trailsides, areas around the airport runway, open lots, overgrazed coconut plantations, waste places and other disturbed sites. Also included in this category are recently fallowed food gardens that are dominated by many of the same short-lived pioneer weedy species that are found in other ruderal or disturbed habitats. These weedy species include a wide range of grasses, sedges, fast-growing herbs and some small shrubby plants.

Grasses that are locally common to abundant is ruderal sites include mÜtie feutu (Axonopus compressus), mÜtie vihilago (Cenchrus echinatus), mÜtie fiti (Chrysopogon aciculatus), mÜtie molulu (Cynodon dactylon), mÜtie fuhitalo or mÜtie fuhitalotalo (Eleusine indica), vailima or mÜtie vailima (Paspalum conjugatum), Sorghum sudanense and Sporobolus diander. Grasses that are currently uncommon to occasional, include Bothriochloa bladhii, Brachiaria paspaloides, Brachiaria subquadripara, Digitaria adscendens, Digitaria setigera and Paspalum scrobiculatum.

Centotheca lappacea is also occasional in shady places along trails in forests and in plantation lands. Rare grasses reported only once or twice from ruderal sites 141

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include Cyrtococcum oxyphyllum, Dichanthium annulatum, Digitaria setigera and Paspalum dilatatum. Another common weed of disturbed sites and gardens is nut sedge (Cyperus rotundus), which is difficult to eradicate from vegetable gardens.

Herbaceous species that are occasional to common in ruderal sites include kofe Toga (Bidens pilosa), pupulele (Sonchus oleraceus and Emelia sonchifolia), toto tane (Chamaesyce hirta), toto kula (Chamaesyce hypericifolia), toto fifine (Chamaesyce prostrata), toto uli (Euphorbia cyathophora), filo (Plantago lanceolata), mĂ&#x153;tipo (Urena lobata and Triumfetta rhomboidea), mĂ&#x153;tofu kula (Sida rhombifolia), momili (Salvia coccinea), tealu (Salvia occidentalis), tono (Centella asiatica), kihikihi (Oxalis corniculata), fue Taina (Mikania micrantha), and a number of species that do not seem to have Niuean common names, Vernonia cinerea, Lepidium viriginicum, Malvastrum coromandelianum, Amaranthus viridus, Phyllanthus amarus, Polygala paniculata and Desmodium triflorum. Species that are locally common or occasional include pine fiti ago or pine kotalelia (Crotalaria anagyroides and Crotalaria pallida), Desmodium incanum kohuhu (Tephrosia purpurea) and the shrub, pepe (Leucaena leucocephala). Less common weeds include matala (Tithonia diversifolia), Conyza bonariensis and sensitive plant (Mimosa pudica). Occasional in waste places are the shrubby species, talufe, Clerodendrum buchanani and Clerodenrum chignons, castor bean, tuitui fua iiki (Ricinus communis), guava, kautoga or lala pÂŞlagi (Psidium guajava) and fou igo (Hibiscus diversifolius), the tuberous kudzu vine, aka (Pueraria lobata), pine liku (Rhynchosia minima), and the ferns mohuku (Nephrolepis hirsutula) and pago (Sphaerostephanos invisus).

Uncommon species of disturbed sites, some of which are quite recent introductions, but which could, after adapting to Niue, become very serous weeds, include Chamaecrista nictitans and Wedelia biflora, the trailing daisy, which was planted as a groundcover at the Matavai Resort and in a few houseyard gardens. In early 1999 it was seen spreading from a nearby house to the sea along the Kalaone Sea Track in South Alofi.

This was reported to the Agricultural Department in early 1999 and a technical paper on the serious threat posed by this weed was prepared for the department (Thaman 1999b). After waiting for funding, a programme to eradicate this weed was finally implemented in early 2001 by the Agricultural Department. Recent information indicates that this programme has costed over NZ$ 30,000 and has not been successful.

Shifting Agricultural Lands (Maala) There are extensive areas characterised by extensive and intensive shifting agriculture with alternating cropping periods and variable fallow periods. This has created 142

NIUE’S BIODIVERSITY

a mosaic of active garden plots with a range of root crops and other short-term ground crops and long-term tree crops and perennials, which are interspersed with areas of forest fallow, bush fallow or grassland and herbaceous fallow vegetation.

The most important staple root crops found in these gardens include taro, talo (Colocasia esculenta), cassava, kªufi or kapia (Manihot esculenta), and occasionally yams, ufi (Dioscorea alata). Less common are sweet yams, ufilei (Dioscorea esculenta), sweet potato, timala (Ipomoea batatas) and giant taro, kape (Alocasia macrorrhiza). Also common is a wide range of bananas or plantains, futi (Musa cultivars).

Among the most common are the Pacific plantain, futi maholi (Musa AAB Group), the ladyfinger banana, futi luki, futi mitiluki, futi manini or futi matalima fifine (Musa AB Group), Cavendish banana, futi toga (Musa AAA Group) and the bluggoe or ash plantain, futi paka (Musa ABB Group)2. An occasional staple root crop is cocoyam, tannia or American taro, pulaka or talo pulaka (Xanthosoma spp.) and ufi palai (Dioscorea nummularia) is uncommon.

Non-staple food crops include sugarcane, tÜ (Saccharum officinarum), hibiscus spinach, pele (Abelmoschus manihot) and pumpkin, mÜtini (Cucurbita pepo). Short term vegetable and fruit crops commonly found in planted in these bush gardens include corn or maize, hana (Zea mays), tomato, tomato (Solanum lycopersicon), spring onions, aniani, (Allium fistulosum), mustard cabbage, sinapi, (Brassica juncea), watermelon, meleni (Citrullus lanatus) and cucumber, kukama (Cucumis sativus).

Uncommon in food gardens is the pineapple, hukifª (Ananas comosus). Common trees include coconut palms, niu (Cocos nucifera) and papaya or pawpaw, loku (Carica papaya). Occasionally seen in active garden lands are Malay apple, fekakai (Syzygium malaccense), pua (Fagraea berteroana) and some pioneer trees that are also common in fallow forests, including fou (Hibiscus tiliaceus), l (Macaranga harveyana), kahame (Glochidion ramiflorum) and tavahi (Rhus taitensis).

Plants present in gardens in the past, often as emergency foods, but now rare or extinct, include elephant-foot yam, teve (Amorphophallus paeoniifolius) and the Tahitian banana, futi hulahula (Musa troglodytarum), known in Tahiti as the fe’i banana.

The nomenclature for the genus Musa is confused, with most of the common seedless cultivars or clones being triploid crosses of the fertile species Musa acuminata Colla and M. balbisiana Colla. The Latin binomials M. nana Loureiro, M. sapientum L., and M. paradisiaca L. are commonly used as follows: M. nana for the dwarf Cavendish, and M. sapientum for the taller bananas, which are generally eaten ripe, but which are also cooked throughout the Pacific as starchy staples, and M. paradisiaca for the starchier bananas or plantains, which are usually eaten cooked as a staple starch, but occasionally eaten ripe as fruit. The nomenclature most widely used by agronomists is that developed by Simmonds, which classifies all cultivars or clones on the basis of their assumed genetic background, eg. Musa ABB Group would be a triploid cross of one M. acuminata group and two M. balbisiana groups.

2

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NIUE ISLAND

Common weeds of active gardens include bladder berry, manini (Physalis angulata), sow thistle, pupulele (Sonchus oleraceus, Emelia sonchifolia and Crassocephalum crepidioides), tono (Centella asiatica), kofe Toga (Bidens pilosa), toto tane (Chamaesyce hirta), motufu kula (Phyllanthus amarus and Spermacoce assurgens), Commelina diffusa, momili (Salvia coccinea), tealu (Salvia occidentalis), talamoa fiti or tamatama (Achyranthes aspera), Polygala paniculata and the ferns mohuku (Nephrolepis hirsutula) and pago (Sphaerostephanos invisus).

Perennial Plantations (pa akau, ulu niu) There are some areas dominated by monocultural plantings of perennial tree crops or other long-term commercial crops. These are mainly coconut plantations, which were planted when copra was the main source of foreign exchange. In the past there were also significant areas under limes and passionfruit vines, which were both important export crops in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The areas of coconut palms are sometimes undergrazed by cattle (povi) or other livestock.

Plantation Forest (vao to) Significant areas of introduced exotic timber tree species have been planted on Niue, mainly on less fertile degraded scrublands. The original aim was to develop a hardwood plantation of 4,000 ha, which was to be planted at an annual rate of 100 ha per year over a 40-year period beginning seriously in the early 1990s. This target has been reduced as a result of a 1997 review to 50 ha per year, much of which would now focus on the establishment of small wood lots on fertile lands. The main objectives of the project were to develop a resource of marketable logs or timber, to improve degraded soils, provide an alternative source of timber to take pressure off of Niueâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s indigenous forests, and to provide rural employment. Table 3 shows that, as of mid-1998, some 289 ha been planted (Oliver 1999).

Table 3. Areas in hectares (ha) of major species of plantation forest planted per ď&#x20AC; nancial year since 1958 on Niue.

Period 1958 - 89 1990 - 91 1991 - 92 1992 - 93 1993 - 94 1994 - 95 1995 - 96 144

Swietenia macrophylla 10 ha 2 ha 15 ha 20 ha 26 ha 29 ha 71 ha

Toona australis 4 ha 44 ha 17 ha 4 ha -

Others 3 ha 1 ha -

Total 13 ha 6 ha 59 ha 37 ha 31 ha 29 ha 71 ha

NIUE’S BIODIVERSITY

1996 - 97 1997 - 98 Total

30 ha 13 ha 216 ha

69 ha

4 ha

30 ha 13 ha 289 ha

Sources: Utalo 1999; Oliver 1999.

West Indian mahogany, mahokanÌ (Swietenia macrophylla) is the favoured species, although Australian red cedar, tita (Toona australis) was planted from 1990 – 94. Both were selected due to their resistance to tropical cyclone damage and growth form. The main other species planted were teak, tiki (Tectona grandis) and Caribbean pine, paina or paina Kalapini (Pinus caribaea) (3 ha planted in 1960).

Other species that have been trialed in significant numbers include a number of eucalyptus species, iukulipitasi (Eucalytpus teretecornis, E. camaldulensis and E. deglupta), cigarbox cedar (Cedrela odorata) and gmelina (Gmelina odorata), which were planted in trials along with mahogany, red cedar and teak in 1984 - 85. Other trees that have been trialed include albizzia (Albizzia spp.), leucaena, pepe (Leucaena leucocephala), Norfolk Island pine, paina Nofoko (Araucaria heterophylla) and hoop pine (Araucaria cunninghamii), some of which are still growing near the Vaiea Experimental Farm. Another species that was trialed in 1961 to provide soil nitrogen, for shelterbelts and to provide timber is tifa (Acacia spirobis). This native Pacific Island acacia species from New Caledonia and Vanuatu grows well in Niue, but is now only seen in a couple of inland locations around the island.

Pasture (Pa Povi/Pa Manumanu/Faga Manumanu) In some areas of the island, mainly near the Vaiea Experimental Farm, are fenced areas of pastureland. These areas are similar to areas of ruderal vegetation. In some cases they are in fact coconut plantations that are being undergrazed by cattle, which, in the past, were more numerous on the island. Today these include a large holding area for the quarantine and grazing of alpacas at the Vaiea Experimental Farm. The dominant plants in pasture areas are introduced grasses and a range of herbaceous and shrubby species. Common grass species included mÜtie fiti (Chrysopogon aciculatus), vailima or motie vailima (Paspalum conjugatum) and Guinea grass (Panicum maximum).

A wide range of pasture grasses, some of which are still present or successfully established in Niue, has been introduced and trialed over the years to improve the quality of pasture. These include Para grass (Brachiaria mutica), Buffel grass (Cenchrus ciliaris), Rhodes grass (Chloris gayana), Nadi blue grass (Dichanthium caricosum), barnyard grass (Echinochloa crus-galli), Eragrostis poaeoides, Batiki blue grass (Ischaemum indicum), molasses grass (Melinis minutiflora), elephant grass, motie alefane (Pennesetum purpureum), Pennesetum setosum, Kavirondo 145

NIUE ISLAND

sorghum (Sorghum verticilliflorum) and Guatemala grass (Tripsacum laxum) Many of these species were reported as growing successfully in the mid-1960s in and around Vaiea Farm or at Vaiea (Sykes 1970).

Intensive Livestock Husbandry (pa puaka, pa moa) Another distinctive land use is intensive livestock husbandry which includes traditional community level systems of keeping pigs, chickens and ducks in pens, or the tethering of pigs, cattle, horses and goats under highly controlled conditions. This includes attempts at establishing modern battery production of chickens, for both egg and meat production, and modern piggeries which have a very high dependence on imported inputs, such as feed, medicines and equipment, and on improved overseas animal breeds, rather than on long-established breeds of chickens, pigs and other animals that have been raised at the village level in Niue for generations.

There are a number of farmers who also have beehives and occasionally sell honey in the local market in Alofi.

Houseyard/Urban Gardens (kateni, pa lakau) A very distinctive ecosystem is the houseyard or urban garden. The focus of gardening activities is on permanent mixed-cropping of short-term ground crops and trees, shrubs and other perennials around dwellings, hotels, government buildings and other workplaces. It also includes lawns, hedges and living fencing and roadside plantings. These are found in downtown Alofi and in all villages throughout Niue.

Houseyard gardens are an important habitat for many food trees, short-term food plants, medicinal plants, and fragrant and ornamental plants, used in flower arrangements and leis and garlands.

Common useful trees found in houseyard gardens include coconut palms, niu (Cocos nucifera), bananas and plantains, futi (Musa cultivars), a range of citrus trees, including limes, tipolo (Citrus aurantifolia) and sweet oranges, moli kai (Citrus sinensis) and frangipani, tiale (Plumeria obtusa and P. rubra), bauhinia or butterfly tree, pine fua loloa (Bauhinia monandra) and flame tree or poinciana, pine (Delonix regia). Less common are soursop and sweetsop, talopo fotofoto and talopo pekepeke (Annona muricata and A. squamosa), avocado, ÂŞvoka (Persea americana), kapok, vavae (Ceiba pentandra), candlenut, tuitui (Aleurites moluccana) and perfume tree or ylangylang, motooi (Cananga odorata).

Occasionally found are Pacific fan palm, piu (Pritchardia pacifica) and Polynesian plum, vĂ&#x152; (Spondias dulcis). Plants that were formerly culturally important 146

NIUE’S BIODIVERSITY

in Niue that are were either seen or have been reported in houseyard or village gardens include common bamboo, kaho Papalagi (Bambusa vulgaris), lemon grass, kamapui (Cymbopogon citratus) and Job’s tears, tagataga (Coix lachryma-jobi).

Hedges or living fences, often planted along roadsides for privacy or to protect the residence from road dust, are among of the most conspicuous components of houseyard gardens. The most common species planted in hedges in villages in Niue are the common hibiscus, kaute (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis), croton, talaposi or tonatona (Codiaeum variegatum), cordyline or ti plant, tÌ (Cordyline fruticosa), hedge panax, tanetane (Polyscias scutellaria) and acalypha or copperleaf, koka kula (Acalypha wilkesiana). These are also commonly planted as ornamentals in the main gardens. Other common plants in houseyard gardens include a very wide range of introduced ornamental shrubs and herbs. Some of the more common species include rose, lose (Rosa spp.), bougainvillea, felila (Bougainvillea spp.), ixora and Rangoon creeper, both huni (Ixora spp. and Quisqualis indica), oleander, tªlona (Nerium oleander), gardenias, tiale (Gardenia spp.), queen of the night, iki hepÜ (Cestrum nocturnum), pride of Barbados, fitehetau (Caesalpinia pulcherrima), red and white ginger, kamapui fiti kula and kamapui fiti hima or keuila (Alpinia purpurata and Hedychium coronarium), Madagascar periwinkle, lose vao (Catharanthus roseus) and a range of lilies, including crinum lilies, talotalo (Crinum spp.) and spider lily, lili kufani (Hymenocallis littoralis), marigold, melikolu (Tagetes erecta), poinsettia (Euphorbia pulcherrima) and a range of orchids.

Grasses found in lawns, village greens and the golf course include Brachiaria subquadripara, golden beardgrass, mÜtie fiti on (Chrysopogon aciculatus), Bermuda grass, mÜtie molulu (Cynodon dactylon) and sour paspalum or T-grass, vailima or mÜtie vailima (Paspalum conjugatum).

Beaches (mataafaga, kautahi) Because of its steep coastal limestone cliffs and narrow fringing reef, beach ecosystems, with unstable sand or rubble deposits are restricted to a small area near Avasele in the southwestern corner of the island and to a number of very small pockets of beach in other more protected sites around the island. Found along Niue’s beaches are hermit crabs (ugauga), the ghost crab, titoko (Ocypode cerathophthalma), which is now very rare, and a number of other invertebrate animals.

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Cliffs/Bare Rock (feutu, maka, makatea) There are extensive areas dominated by bare or sparsely vegetated limestone rock outcrops and pinnacles, inland and coastal cliff faces and waves cut notches (pokoahu) and coastal beach rock. These constitute one of Niue’s most unique and widespread ecosystems. The lower coastal wave-cut notches, which are submerged at high tide and affected by wave wash and salt spray, are the habitat for a limited range of rock crabs, such as grapsid rock crabs, kamakama (Grapsus albolineatus), gastropods, such as nerite snails, hihi (Nerita spp.) and chitons, mama (Acanthopleura sp.) and a range of algae.

Caves (Ana) Niue has an extensive system of limestone caves and caverns that are very unique ecosystems. These serve as habitats for the white-rumped swiftlet, pekepeka (Collocalia spodiopygia), crabs, rats and people. Some shade tolerant plants, such as the fern, palapalaveka (Tectaria latifolia) also grow near the mouths of caves. Caves have also shown to be a very important attraction for tourists who could bring in significant income to Niue.

Groundwater/Wells (ana, vai ana, vai keli) There are no streams or permanent surface water resources on Niue. Freshwater is found in an extensive “freshwater lens” of freshwater that floats on top of the denser salt water that is found under the island’s permeable limestone. This water can be seen flowing out of the bases of limestone cliffs of the island and out of the lower parts of beaches at low tide. It can also be seen in wells and in the bottoms of some of the island’s many caves. This cave water (vai ana) was reportedly used for medicinal purposes and drinking in the past. The ground water, supplemented by rainwater from catchment systems, is the main source of water for domestic and agricultural purposes, such as watering plants and domestic animals. One species of freshwater eel, tuna (Anguilla sp.) and a bully live in the subterranean freshwater in Niue’s caves.

Groundwater resources are limited and over-pumping, especially during times of extended drought, could lead salt-water incursion and to the loss of many plants and animals.

Built/Urban (fale, maaga, taone) “Built” ecosystems include buildings, water tanks, roads, airports and other structures made of cement, pavement or other non-living material. Although such areas or structures normally have no natural or cultural vegetation, they are often the habitats of 148

NIUE’S BIODIVERSITY

insects, and disease vectors, such as mosquitoes and cockroaches, can serve as barriers to the movement of some plants, or animals or are, in the case of roads, crossed by animals (e.g. crabs), which are often run over by vehicles or easily caught by humans.

Marine ecosystems

This section discusses Niue’s marine ecosystems that were listed in Table 1 above.

Whereas terrestrial ecosystems are usually named after vegetation types, in the case of marine ecosystems, where animal life is more important and plants are often not as visible, they are often named after animal life or the physical nature or depth of the marine ecosystem (e.g., intertidal fringing reef flat, subtidal reef, deep reef, sea mounts or the open ocean).

Intertidal Fringing Reef Flat (Tofola) Encircling much of Niue is a limestone rock platform cut from the original rock of the island. Much of this platform forms a flat fringing reef (tofola), ranging from a few metres wide to just over 100 m in width on the southeast of the island between Tamakautoga and Avasele. Most of the south and southeast coast of the island has very little reef flat with the coastal limestone cliffs (feutu or kauahu) dropping off rapidly into deep water. Much of Niue’s fringing reef is intertidal, meaning that it is submerged or underwater at high tide, but emerged or above water at low tide.

Some parts have systems of tidal pools perched 1.5 to 2.5 m above sea-level that fill with wave wash (Dalzel et al. 1993). The surface of the intertidal reef flat is mainly limestone rock with scattered shallow tidal pools (loloto) and deeper pools or tidal channels (puopuo). The entire area is covered with a discontinuous cover of living corals, seaweeds and encrusting marine algae.

Subtidal Fringing Reef and Shallow Seas (tahi, moana pÜtake, namo, tofia, nuku tuluea) In tidal pools and tidal channels or openings in the reef (ava) and off the outer edge of the intertidal zone, down to about 50 m deep, are more extensive areas of subtidal reef, coral heads (uluulu), submarine tidal channels (pupuo) and shallow seas.

Coral reef growth is greater in these areas, and there is a greater diversity of larger coral reef fish and other bottom dwelling (demersal) species in this zone. It has been estimated that the total area of fringing reef flat and subtidal reef on Niue is about 620 ha (6.2 km2). On the west coast between Vaihoko in the north to Tepa Point in the south, it is estimated that there are 125 ha of intertidal reef flat and 200 ha of subtidal reef down to a depth of about 25 m. About 43 coral genera have been 149

NIUE ISLAND

reported growing in Niue’s intertidal and subtidal areas (Dalzel et al. 1993).

Also located within Niue’s 200 nautical mile Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is Beveridge Reef, a horseshoe-shaped reef, which encircles an oval lagoon approximately 7 km long. Although parts of the main reef are above water at low tide, there is no permanent land. The lagoon has an open sandy floor with areas of free coral heads. Niueans who have dived on Beverage Reefs say that the reef has a diverse reef fish and shellfish fauna (Dalzel et al. 1993). The term nuku tuluea, which means submerged land or submerged reef, is reportedly an old name given to Niue, possibly due to the belief that Niue broke away from another island group and moved away as a submerged island to surface again in its present location (Sperlich, 1997).

Deep Reef Slope, Sea Mounts and Ocean Floor (patu toka momo, uhotokamomo) Niue’s shallow fringing reef drops off rapidly into deeper water where there are extensive areas of deep reef slope, sea mounts and ocean floor greater than 50 m deep. Many of these areas constitute important fishing grounds for a range of deepwater snappers and other finfish, deepwater shrimps and other marine organisms.

Open Ocean (moana, moana hokulo, kili moana) Niue’s 200 nautical mile exclusive economic zone (EEZ), which encompasses an area of 390,000 km2 of ocean, is an extremely productive ecosystem and resourceuse zone. Found within this area are Niue’s commercially most important finfishes, which include the tunas and other pelagic species.

Niue’s species diversity

In terms of the total number of each type of plant, animal and micro-organism found in Niue’s ecosystems, published studies were only available on Niue’s vascular plants3 (Yuncker 1943; Sykes 1965; Whistler 1998), birds (Woodzicki 1971; Pratt et al. 1987; Gibb et al. 1989; Hay et al. 1989), mammals, reptiles and some finfish and shellfish that are commonly caught on Niue (Dalzell et al. 1993 and Labrosse et al. 1999). Some Vascular or “higher” plants are plants that have vascular tissue or vessels, in the roots, stems and leaves that conduct and circulate fluids and nutrients through the plant. They include ferns, gymnosperms and angiosperms. Ferns are plants that reproduce by spores formed in tiny structures (sori) on the leaves. Gymnosperms are narrow-leaved plants, with a naked seed that is not enclosed in an ovary and often borne in cones. Angiosperms are flowering plants, which include both monocotyledons (plants with a single cotyledon or seedleaf on the embryo, leaves with parallel leaves and flowers parts in usually in multiples of threes, such as grasses, lilies, palms, orchids and taros) and dicotyledons (plants with two cotyledons or seed leaves on the embryo, leaves with netlike veins and flowers parts usually in multiples of fours or fives, and include most common trees and shrubs and many herbs or non-woody plants). Non-vascular plants are plants, such as mosses, liverworts and seaweeds that have no vascular tissue and no true roots.

3

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studies have also been carried out on insects and agricultural pests. In-depth studies on Niue’s fungi, seaweeds, crabs, bêche-de-mer, corals, spiders and many other groups of non-vascular plants and invertebrate animals have either not been done or were not available. Some studies have been conducted of individual organisms of particular importance, such as coconut crabs (uga) (Schiller 1992), fruit bats or flying foxes (peka), rats (kumª) and other vertebrates (Woodzicki 1969; Hay and Powlesland 1995).

Niue’s Flora Based on studies of the flora of Niue by T. G. Yuncker in 1940, Bill Sykes in 1965, Art Whistler’s study of the flora of the Huvalu Conservation Area in 1998, and new plants recorded in 1999 by Randy Thaman, it is estimated that there are currently almost 700 vascular plants (akau or lakau) present on Niue. Of Niue’s vascular plants, only about 183 are indigenous plants that were probably present on the island before it was settled by the first Niueans. All other plants are introduced plants that have been brought to the island by humans, either deliberately or accidentally (Table 4).

The 183 native vascular plants include 31 native ferns (e.g., mamanu, kohuku, mouku, kapihi and palapalaveka) and 152 flowering plants, of which 27 are monocotyledons (e.g., plants with simpler structure, such as grasses, coconut palm, pandanus, orchids and flagellaria or vª) and 125 dicotyledons (plants with more complex structure including most trees, shrubs and vines) (See Appendices I and II for a breakdown of the numbers of species and families and for a list of Niuean, common and scientific names).

Table 4. Species of vascular plants in specied classes reported present on Niue by W. R. Sykes who conducted a botanical survey in 1965 and by W. A. Whistler who inventoried the vascular plants in the area of the Huvalu Forest Conservation Area in the southeast portion of the island in 1998 CLASS PTERIDOPHYTA (Ferns and Fern Allies) GYMNOSPERMS (Gymnospermae)

Native

Introduced

Total

31

1

32

0

4

4

ANGIOSPERMS (Flowering Plants) Monocotyledons (Monocotyledonae)

27

107

134

Dicotyledons (Dicotyledonae)

125

329

454

TOTAL

183

441

624

(Notes: 1) “Native” refers to indigenous plants that dispersed naturally to Niue and, in most cases, were probably present prior to the settlement of the island by the rst indigenous inhabitants; 5) “Introduced” refers to non-indigenous plants, including both aboriginal introductions believed to have been introduced into Niue by the indigenous people of Niue or other Pacic Islanders before the time of rst European contact with Niue, and more recent introductions made after the time of rst European contact with Niue).

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The rest of Niue’s plants include over 500 non-indigenous plants that have been brought to Niue by humans. These include a number of “aboriginal introductions” brought by the early Polynesian settlers, who have lived on Niue for about 2000 years, and nearly 500 plants that have been introduced either deliberately or accidentally since first European contact with the island by Captain James Cook in 1774.

Plants brought by the early Polynesian settlers include important staple food plants such as taro, talo (Colocasia esculenta), yam, ufi (Dioscorea alata), breadfruit, mei (Artocarpus altilis); other food plants, such as giant taro, kape (Alocasia macrorrhiza), sugarcane, tÜ (Saccharum officinarum), Polynesian arrowroot, pia (Tacca leontopetaloides), air yam, hoi (Dioscorea bulbifera), wild yam, pilita (Dioscorea pentaphylla) and kudzu vine, aka (Pueraria lobata); fruit trees, such as Malay or mountain apple, fekakai (Syzygium malaccense), Tahitian chestnut, ifi (Inocarpus fagifer) and Polynesian plum or vi-apple, vÌ (Spondias dulcis); the medicinal plants, tono (Centella asiatica), kihikihi (Oxalis corniculata), poloi (Zingiber zerumbet) and holofa (Rorippa sarmentosa); other useful plants, such as tÌ (Cordyline fruticosa), hibiscus, kaute (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis), turmeric, ago (Curcuma domestica), candlenut, tuitui (Aleurites moluccana) and kohuhu (Tephrosia purpurea), used as a fish poison; and the weedy herb, hogohogo (Laportea interrupta). Although the coconut palm, niu (Cocos nucifera) and pandanus, fª (Pandanus tectorius) are probably both native to the island, early settlers almost certainly brought useful new varieties with them.

Recent, post-European-contact introductions include the staple food crops, cassava, kªufi, maniota or kapia (Manihot esculenta), tannia, cocoyam or American taro, pulaka (Xanthosoma spp.), and probably sweet potato or kumara, timala (Ipomoea batatas); non-staple food plants, such as corn or maize, hana (Zea mays), pumpkin, môtini (Cucurbita pepo), pineapple, hukifª (Ananas comosus), watermelon, meleni (Citrullus lanatus), English cabbage, kªpiti puku (Brassica oleracea var. capitata), Chinese cabbage, kªpiti Saina (Brassica chinensis), mustard cabbage, tinapi (Brassica juncea) and tomato, tomato (Solanum lycopersicon); fruit trees such as sweet orange, moli kai (Citrus sinensis), rough lemon, tipolo (Citrus limon x medica), lime, tipolo fua iiki (Citrus aurantifolia), mango, mago (Mangifera indica), papaya or papaw, loku (Carica papaya), guava, kautoga (Psidium guajava), and soursop, talapo fotofoto (Annona muricata); other useful plants, such as the red-bead tree, pomea (Adenanthera pavonina), kapok, vavae (Ceiba pentandra), derris root fish poison, Niukini or tuha (Derris malaccensis), tobacco, tapaka (Nicotiana tabacum), and West Indian mahogany, mohakani (Swietenia 152

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macrophylla); many ornamental plants, such as bougainvillea, felila or pokenevila (Bougainvillea spp.), frangipani, tiale (Plumeria rubra and Plumeria obtusa), poinciana, pine (Delonix regia), croton, talpoti or tonatona (Codiaeum variegatum), oleander, talona (Nerium oleander), and queen of the night, ikihepÜ (Cestrum nocturnum); and a wide range of common weeds, such as pepe (Leucaena leucocephala), motofu (Sida rhombifolia), iku kumª or motofu Samoa (Stachytarpheta urticaefolia), manini (Physalis angulata), pine fiti ago or pine kotalalia (Crotalaria pallida) and the grasses, mÜtie molulu (Cynodon dactylon), mÜtie fuhitalo (Eleusine indica) and mÜtie vailima (Paspalum conjugatum).

Preliminary studies of non-vascular plants indicate that there are at least 17 indigenous mosses and 19 liverworts (both limu vao) on Niue (Sykes 1970; Campbell 1970), most of which are found in forested areas. There is also a range of mushrooms, bracket fungi, powdery mildews and other fungi (pakapaka or pakapaka atua) found on Niue. One of the most interesting non-vascular plants is the blue-green algae, nostoc or tÂkuli (Nostoc commune), which looks like a greenish slimy, rubbery substance lying on soil. The name tÂkuli means “dog’s dropping”. TÂkuli is common during wet periods on Niue and is one of the few plants with the ability to use atmospheric nitrogen directly (most other plants can only use nitrogen in a soluble form). It probably plays a very important role in releasing nitrogen in a form that can be used by other plants growing in Niue’s poor soils. Blue-green algae are now known as cyanobacteria.

In terms of marine flora, because of the absence of flat sandy or muddy lagoons and protected bays, there are no sea grasses, in Niue. Sea grasses, which are present in Tonga to the west, are the only true marine vascular plants. There is, however, a wide range of non-vascular marine plants. These include green, red and brown macroalgae (large algae) or seaweeds (limu or limu tahi) and other smaller algae and microscopic marine plants, known as phytoplankton, all of which contribute to the health of Niue’s environment. The seaweeds positively identified include two green algae, sea grapes, limu fua (Caulerpa racemosa), a highly desired food, and the coralline algae, limu maka (Halimeda spp.), the skeleton of which contributes to beach sand, and the brown algae, turbanweed, limu t kuli tahi (Turbinaria sp.). There are a number of other unidentified seaweeds, limu volu, limu kai, limu kavekave, limu fou hele and limu fulu, some of which are eaten. Limu fua is considered rare or in short supply due both to the limited area of habitat and overharvesting of this delicacy. Of critical importance to the formation and stability of Niue’s coral reefs is the red encrusting coralline algae (Limnothamnion sp.), which cements the coral reef together and is particularly common on the windward coast between Hakupu and Liku.

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Niue’s Fauna Although Niue’s fauna or animal life (faga manu) is much more limited than the fauna of countries with large areas of land, mountains, flat coastal plains and beaches, barrier reefs, lagoons, rivers and estuaries, Niue’s fauna still includes a wide range of marine vertebrates and invertebrates, and a more limited range of terrestrial vertebrates and invertebrates. Almost all of these animals are important, in some way, to the health of Niue’s ecosystems and people.

Niue’s indigenous marine vertebrate fauna includes a very wide range of finfish or true fish and a small number of marine reptiles (turtles and sea snakes) and mammals (whales and dolphins). Its indigenous terrestrial vertebrate fauna, which is more limited, includes mainly birds and reptiles, one indigenous mammal, the fruit bat or flying fox (peka), and a number of introduced species, mainly mammals.

Dalzell et al. (1993) listed some 200 species of marine finfish (ika), including sharks (mªgo), rays (peka tahi or kumª tahi) and eels (toke), although the current study indicates that there are certainly over 300 species of nearshore and pelagic finfish occurring within Niue’s 200 nautical mile exclusive economic zone (EEZ), which encompasses an area of 390,000 km2 of ocean. Most of these finfish are listed under their Niuean names in Appendix III and in Appendices IV to VIII, which are tabulations of the village questionnaire survey results. A preliminary study showed that there are also one species of freshwater eel, tuna (Anguilla sp.) and a bully (an unidentified species) found in the subterranean freshwater in Niue’s caves.

Based on responses of the village questionnaire surveys, the most commonly caught smaller reef and nearshore finfish include hawkfishes, ulutuki and fakap matapuga (Cirrhitus and Paracirrhites spp.), wrasses, meai and tufu (Coris, Halichoeres, Labroides, Stethojulis and Thalassoma spp.), rockcods, gatala (Epinephelus spp.), surgeonfishes, hapi, meito and tukutea (Acanthurus, Ctenochaetus and Zebrasoma spp.), six-fingered threadfin, ika tea (Polydactylus sexfilis), mullets, fuafua and kanahe (Crenimugil and Valamugil spp.), goatfish, kaloama, mÂmea, talakave and hafulu (Mulloides spp.), banded sergeant, mutumutu or kamuta (Abudefduf septemfasciatus), unicornfishes, humu (Naso spp.), fiveband flagtail, ilaila (Kuhlia mugil), bigeye, kaene or kanene (Heteropriacanthus creuntatus), squirrelfishes, telekihi, tª matapula and ika tª (Neoniphon and Sargocentron spp.), black-and-white seaperch, gregorys, damselfishes and chromises, all papaao (Macolor niger and Stegastes, Chromis and Chrysiptera spp.), butterflyfishes, angelfishes, bannerfishes and batfishes, all tifitifi (Chaetodon, Forcipiger, Heniochus, Platax, Pomacanthus and Zanclus spp.), small or juvenile parrotfishes, paholo and 154

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moheaho (Scarus spp.) and small trevallys, lupolupo (Caranx, Gnathanondon and Carangoides spp.) (Appendix IV).

Small reef or nearshore finfish that were reported to be rare or in short supply include the six-fingered threadfin or beardfish (ika tea) and bigeye (kaene), due to the use of nets and fishpoisons; rabbitfishes, tikava (Siganus spp.), which have always been rare on Niue; and the convict surgeonfish, (tukutea (Acanthurus triostegus), which is seasonal and uncommon for parts of the year (Appendices IV and XXXVIII).

Common larger coral reef or nearshore finfish include coral trouts, rockcods and groupers, malau, kiega, mataele, kauga, loi, talaao and fªloa (Cephalopholis and Epinephelus, Plectropomus and Variola spp.), drummers or rudderfishes, nue (Kyphosus spp.), trevallys, tafauli, ulua, ªheu and gutu uli (Caranx, Carangoides and Gnathanodon spp.), parrotfishes, monega (Scarus and Cetoscarus spp. and Bolbometopon muricatum), red seabass, fagamea (Lutjanus bohar), unicornfishes, leather jackets and triggerfishes, all humu (Naso, Aluterus, Balistoides, Cantherhinus, Rhinecanthus, Sufflamen, Melichthys and Odonus spp.), big-eye emperor or bream, fotuo (Monotaxis grandoculis), queenfishes and darts, lai (Scomberoides lysan and Trachinotus bailloni), hogfishes and Maori wrasses, tagau (Bodianus, Cheilinus and Pseudocheilinus spp.), sweetlips, patapata (Plectorhinchus spp.), crocodile longtom, aku pa (Tylosurus crocodilus) and snappers or seaperches, foigo (Lutjanus spp.) (Appendix V).

Larger reef or nearshore fish that were reported to be rare or in short supply included black trevally, tafauli (Caranx lugubris) and drummers or rudderfishes (nue), due to overfishing, the use of spearguns and sharks that eat tafauli; and Strawberry rockcod, kauga (Cephalopholis spiloparaea), sweetlips (patapata), large coral trout or groupers, malau and kiega (Cephalopholis and Plectropomus spp.), and some seaperches, foigo (Lutjanus fulvus and L. kasmira), a all said to be naturally rare in Niue; and large mullet, kanahe (Crenimugil and Valamugil spp.) are also rare due to overfishing, particularly due to the use of gillnets (Appendices V and XXXVIII).

Common in nearshore areas and on the reef flats are a range of eels, including Moray eels, toke (Gymnothorax, Echidna nebulosa and Siderea picta), although the conger eel, toke tuna (Conger cinereus) is now rarely found (Appendices VI and XXXVIII).

A number of reef sharks, magÜ (Carcharhinus and Triaenodon obesus) are also seen occasionally in nearshore areas, although they are increasingly rare (Appendix 155

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VI). Rays, although reported to be present, are very rare, given the absence of shallow water habitats they favour.

Important open or deep ocean species include a wide range of pelagic (open water) species and demersal (bottom-dwelling) species. The pelagic species of greatest commercial importance include members of the tuna family (Scombridae), yellowfin tuna, vahakula (Thunnus albacares), skipjack tuna, takua or atu (Katsuwonus pelamis), albacore tuna, vahaleleva (Thunnus alalunga), dogtooth tuna, valu (Gymnosarda unicolor), bigeye tuna, hakua (Thunnus obesus) and wahoo, paala (Acanthocybium solandri). The highly prized southern bluefin tuna (hakua) was also caught in the past within the waters of Niue’s EEZ by Japanese and Taiwanese longliners, although there have been no reported catches of this species since 1971 (Dalzel et al. 1993). Other important pelagic species include marlins, sailfishes and swordfishes, haku or hakulª (Makaira, Tetrapturus, Istophorus and Xiphius spp.), barracudas, utu, kuokuo and koho (Sphyraena spp.), giant trevally, ulua (Caranx ignobilis), greater amberjack, palu tikava (Seriola rivoliana), mahimahi or dolphin fish, pelelafa or ulupaka (Coryphaena hippuris) and rainbow runner, samani (Elagatis bipinnulatus). Important smaller pelagic fish include long-bodied scad, ulihega (Decapterus macrosoma) and flyingfish, hahave and mªhave (Cheilopogon and Cypselurus spp.). There is also a range of oceanic sharks, sharks, magÜ and matei (Carcharhinus, Galeocerdo, Isurus and Sphyrna spp.) (Appendix VIII). The pelagic species, especially the tunas, are the main fish stocks targeted by foreign fishing vessels that have been licensed to fish in Niue’s waters, with albacore historically making up over 80% of the catch in terms of numbers caught. Most of the other pelagic species, including billfish and sharks, are also caught as bycatch by foreign fishing vessels (Dalzel et al. 1993). Sadly, much of this bycatch is wasted, and many of the larger oceanic shark species, which are definned for the use of their fins in Chinese cooking and thrown back in the sea to die, are now increasingly rare and endangered.

Important deepwater demersal (bottom dwelling) species include a wide range of deepwater snappers and jobfishes, palu and paeko, (Etelis, Pristipomoides and Apharaeus spp.) and deepwater rockcods or groupers, palu pusi (Epinephelus and Cephalopholis spp.), which together comprise over 90% of the deepwater catch.

Other deepwater species that are caught occasionally include snake mackerel, matimati or kalapipi (Promethichthys prometheus), oilfish or castor oil cod, palu tÂhÌ (Ruvettus pretiosus) and Kusakar’s snapper, kulapu (Paracaesio kusakarii) (Appendix VIII).

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Of the deepsea pelagic or bottom species most tunas, vahakula (Thunnus albacares), takua or atu (Katsuwonus pelamis) and hakua (Thunnus obesus), wahoo, paala (Acanthocybium solandri) and deepwater snappers, paeko (Etelis coruscans) and palu (Pristipomoides spp.) are increasingly rare due to overfishing, mainly by foreign commercial fishermen. Billfish, haku or hakulª, were said to always have been rare, but have become even rarer due to activity by foreign longliners in Niue’s EEZ. The big-eye scad, atule (Selar crumenophthalmus) is also said to be uncommon, reportedly due to the use of nets and due to a decrease in the frequency of their annual migrations (Appendix VIII).

Marine reptiles include perhaps four species of sea turtle (fonu) and one or more sea snakes (katuali). Although all turtles are uncommon on Niue, because of the absence of suitable beaches for them to lay their eggs, the hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) and the green turtle (Chelonia mydas) are seen occasionally. Rare sightings were also reported in the past for the loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta) and the leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea). Whereas in Tonga there are recognised names for each of these widespread species, in Niue they are all known only as fonu, possibly an indication the rarity of turtles in general.

There is at least one sea snake in Niue, the widespread black-and-white banded sea krait, katuali (Laticauda spp.), although Niueans reported names distinguishing three types, katuali kao, katuali paku and katuali hiku lapalapa. Two of these could refer to two very similar widespread species of banded sea krait (Laticauda colubrina and L. laticauda). Sea kraits are semi-terrestrial or amphibious, spending part of their time on land, where they often stay and lay their eggs, and part of their time in the water where they feed on eels and small fish. Large congregations of several hundred katuali have been reported in a very small area under ledges that border a dive site in Niue known as “Snake Hole” (Ryan 2000). The other names could refer to one or the other of two widespread totally aquatic sea snakes. These are Hydrophis melanocephalus, which lives near land and is very flattened from side to side and could be katuali lapalapa (which means “flattened”), and the yellow-bellied sea snake (Pelamis platurus), the world’s most abundant totally pelagic (deepwater) sea snake. There are no land snakes on Niue, although the name gata for land snake elsewhere in Polynesia and parts of Melanesia is known in Niue through the biblical use of the word and the knowledge of the presence of snakes in other countries.

There are four or five indigenous terrestrial reptiles, which include lizards or skinks (moko lª) and geckos (moko). The skinks, which are diurnal (are active 157

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during the day), probably include the striped or blue-tailed skink, mokolª (Emoia cyanura), the snake-eyed skink, also mokolª (Cryptoblepharus eximius), and a greenish skink, moko leulu tos (Emoia concolor). The geckos, which are nocturnal, probably include the oceanic gecko, possibly moko leulu or lªulu (Gehyra oceanica) and the pelagic gecko, possibly moko taliga (Nactus pelagicus). There are no indigenous or introduced amphibians, such as frogs or toads, on Niue. The lack of surface water and the inability of amphibians to disperse across salt water are responsible for their absence.

Based on numerous studies of Niue’s birds (Woodzicki and Felten 1975; Kinsky and Yaldwyn 1981; Gibb et al. 1989; Hay et al. 1998; (Worthy et al. 1998)), it is estimated that there are about 12 indigenous land birds, six seabirds, and seven migratory waders, and a number of vagrants that have only been reported one or twice (Table 5). However, recent archaeological studies indicate that this is an underestimate of the original diversity of indigenous birds on Niue, and that the original Niueans either hunted some birds to extinction, destroyed their habitats or they were eliminated by animals or pests, such as dogs or rats, introduced by the early Niueans. Of the three birds that are now extinct, two of these, a large flightless Niue night heron (Nycticorax sp.) and the flightless Niue rail (Gallirallus sp.), are extinct globally and the third, a megapode (Megapodius prichardii), still survives on Niuafo’ou Island in northern Tonga (Worthy et al. 1998). There are no introduced birds, except the jungle fowl or chicken (moa) (originally an aboriginal introduction) and the domestic duck (pato), which is rare on Niue.

Table 5. Bird species reported present in Niue Niuean Name Common Name LAND BIRDS heahea Polynesian triller hega blue-crowned lory kal purple swamphen kalue long-tailed cuckoo kulukulu purple-crowned fruit-dove lulu barn owl lupe Pacic pigeon miti (misi) Polynesian starling moa vao jungle fowl, feral chicken moho spotless crake, sooty rail toloa, pato Pacic black duck or grey duck pato domesticated duck, feral fowl 158

Latin Name (status) Lalage maculosa whitmeei (R) Vini australis (R) Pophyrio porphyrio (R) Eudynamis taitensis (W) Ptilinopus porphyraceus (R) Tyto alba lulu (R) Ducula pacica pacica (R) Aplonis tabuensis brunnescens (R) Gallus gallus (R) Porzuna tabuensis tabuensis (R) Anas superciliosa pelewensis (V?) Anas sp..

Abundance common rare uncommon uncommon common uncommon common common uncommon rail or extinct rare, extinct uncommon?

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pekapeka veka

white-rumped swiftlet banded rail

SEA BIRDS AND MIGRATORY WADING BIRDS fulimaka ruddy turnstone gogo brown or common noddy kalagi wedge-tailed shearwater kiu elasiana Eurasian curlew, eastern curlew kiu vouvou bristle-thighed curlew kiu lesser or Pacic golden plover kiu, kiu tahi wandering tattler katouiti, kiu? eastern bar-tailed godwit kolata collared kingsher manufolau, kotaa? great frigatebird motuku, motuku tea Pacic reef heron petelela tupua? giant petrel sanipepa? pectoral sandpiper taketake tua uli southern black-backed gull taketake, akiaki? fairy tern, white tern tuaki, tavake white-tailed tropic bird tuaki, tavake red-tailed tropic bird ? white-faced heron ? giant petrel

Collocalia spodiopygia (R) Gallirallus philippensis goodsoni (R)

common common

Arenaria interpres interpres (W) Anous stolidus pileatus (R) Pufnus pacicus chlororhynchus (R?) Numenius arquata orientalis (V) Numenius tahitiensis (W) Pluvialis dominica fulva (W) Heteroscelus (Tringa) incanus (W) Limosa lapponica baueri (V) Halcyon chloris (V?) Fregata minor (V) Egretta sacra (R,V?) Macronectes sp. (V) Calidris melanotos (V) Larus dominicanus (V) Gygis alba candida (R) Phaethon lepturus dorotheae (R) Phaethon rubicauda (V,u) Ardea novaehollandiae Macronectes sp.

uncommon common rare rare uncommon common common rare rare uncommon rare, extinct rare, vagrant rare rare, vagrant common common unconrmed rare, vagrant rare, vagrant

(R = resident all year, but not necessarily breeding; M = migratory breeder, which breeds at the locality, but departs for the rest of the year; V = includes passage migrants as well as vagrants; W = winter resident; resident during the non-breeding season, from the bird’s perspective, e.g. some species visit during the austral winter and some during the northern hemisphere winter; E = endemic; ? = unconrmed record).

Sources: Adapted from Pratt et al., 1987; Pearson, A.J. 1962; Watling, 1982; Hay, Powlesland and Sim 1998; Worthy, Walter and Anderson 1998.

The most common land birds include Pacific pigeon (lupe), purple crowned fruit dove (kulukulu), Polynesian starling (miti), Polynesian triller (heahea), whiterumped swiftlet (pekapeka) and the banded rail (veka). Land birds reported to be rare or uncommon and in need of some form of protection include blue-crowned lory, (hega), purple swamphen (kalÂ), longtailed cuckoo (kalue), and the barn owl (lulu). The spotless crake or sooty rail (moho) is possibly extinct, with no reliable sightings having been made since about 1970, and the Pacific black or grey duck (toloa) is either extinct or a vagrant that rarely visits the island (Hay et al. 1998).

The jungle fowl (moa), the breed of chicken brought to the islands by early Niueans, is now rare or has interbred with recently imported chickens (Table 5). In most cases recent declines in bird numbers are due to accelerated forest removal over the past 30 years and the eggs and young birds being eaten by rats and feral cats, a very seri159

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ous problem on the island. The lupe is traditionally the main bird hunted for food, although other birds are occasionally shot. The kal is considered a pest, because it eats taro, and is commonly shot.

Common sea birds or migratory wading birds include the sea birds, the common noddy (gogo), the fairy tern (taketake) and the white-tailed tropicbird (tuaki or tavake), and the seasonal migratory birds, the Pacific golden plover (kiu), commonly seen foraging in open fields, and the wandering tattler (kiu tahi), which is more often seen in coastal areas on the fringing reef. All other sea birds or migratory species are reportedly uncommon to rare or rare chance visitors (Table 5).

The only native mammal on the island is the fruit bat or flying fox, peka (Pteropus tonganus), which is periodically hunted. The Polynesian rat, kumª (Rattus exulans) is also present, but is presumed to be an early aboriginal introduction. The dog (kulÌ) and pig (puaka) are also aboriginal introductions and now common on the island, although, in most cases, modern breeds have been introduced and crossed with the original Polynesian stock. Other introduced terrestrial animals include the ship rat (Rattus rattus), cats (pusi), cattle (povi), and goats (koti). Unsuccessful attempts have been made to introduce horses (nua). Rats and wild or feral pigs, cats and dogs are a serious problem that threaten populations of birds, fruit bats, lizards and coconut crabs on the island.

Most recently, Niue has became a quarantine station for alpaca (Lama pacos), a relative of the llama form South America. From Niue they are transported to Australia to be raised for the production of highly prized alpaca wool and cloth. This activity ceased in 2000.

Marine mammals found in Niue’s marine areas include whales, most commonly sperm whales, tafuª or poko ihu taha (Physeter macrocephalus). From August to October, whales are commonly seen passing quite close to the reef. The humpback whale, reportedly ulutapekelei or tafuª pekepeke (Megaptera novaeangliae) is also seen passing by Niue. Dolphins or porpoises (tñtñ) (most probably the bottlenose dolphin, Tursiops truncatus) are also occasionally seen off Niue.

Niue has a very rich marine invertebrate fauna, which includes a wide range of hard corals, soft corals, seafans, sea anemones, jellyfish, sponges, ascidians, marine worms, crabs, lobsters, prawns, barnacles, octopi, squid, gastropod and bivalve shellfish, nudibranchs, seaslugs, sea cucumbers or bêche-de-mer, sea urchins, starfish, and an uncountable number of very small or microscopic one-celled marine animals and zooplankton, most having no common Niuean names, but which are critical links in marine food chains.

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Niue’s corals includes a wide range of fragile hard corals, such as the staghorn corals (Acropora spp.) and branching Porites spp., as well as massive corals (Porites and Favites spp.) that form large coral heads and, in the case of some Porites spp., form what are known as “micro-atolls”. These are large, somewhat circular coral heads that grow outward on the edges leaving an eroded open area of dead coral, or “micro-lagoon” in the centre, which that can be colonized by giant clams and other invertebrates and algae. These micro-atolls are common on Niue’s reef flat along the western coast. The massive corals are known as feo puga. Other named corals include an orange coral, feo fotofoto kula (Tubastrea aurea) and the gorgonian sea fan, feo ovava or ovava tahi (Melithaea sp.).

Perhaps the most interesting and well known of Niue’s invertebrates are its crustaceans, which include are wide range of culturally important land and marine species (Appendix IX). Crustaceans are one of the most diverse groups of organisms living on coral reefs and include not only the more well-known representatives, such as crabs, lobsters and prawns, but also barnacles and a wealth of small, often microscopic organisms that form a large portion of the planktonic (floating) and benthic (bottomdwelling) fauna of the marine environment. Some of these, most of which have no Niuean names, include small cleaner shrimps that clean parasites from the mouths, gills and bodies of large fish, such as moray eels, rock cods and triggerfish, and countless very small, copepods, ostracods, mysids, isopods and amphipods that occur in huge numbers among drifting plankton, on seaweed, in coral crevices and between coral rubble and sand. All are of critical importance to the health of the marine ecosystem and the maintenance of marine food chains (Allen and Steene 1994).

The crustacean of particular interest is the coconut crab, uga (Birgus latro), a large, shell-less hermit crab, for which Niue is well known. Although uga seem relatively common in some parts of the island, the village surveys showed concern over their increasing scarcity. Studies as early as the late 1980s support this belief and showed that the uga was threatened because of overharvesting and the destruction of their coastal forest habitat for agricultural expansion. At the time it was suggested that the great majority of uga occurred in coastal forests covering less than 10% of the land. Much of the heavy demand for uga is generated by the over 10,000 Niueans now living in New Zealand and the establishment of direct flights to New Zealand. It was estimated that between 3,200 and 5,900 uga were exported to New Zealand between June 1987 and March 1988, a rate that would have amounted to an export of about 2 tonnes per year! (Schiller 1989 in Dalzell et al. 1993). Coconut crabs, like birds, are also threatened by wild or feral dogs and cats. Of particular 161

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concern are dogs that have been taught to help their owners hunt crabs, but have developed a taste for uga and now hunt for them on their own.

Other important land crabs include the smaller hermit crabs, uga mea, uga fala and pulou (Coenobita spp.), all of which are considered excellent bait for fishing; the gecarcinid land crab, kalavi (Cardisoma longipes); and the grapsid land crabs, kalahimu and tautea or tea (Geograpsus grayii and G. crinipes), which are eaten and used as bait.

There is an even wider range of edible shore, reef and swimming marine crabs.

These include the now rarely seen ghost crab, titoko (Ocypode cerathophthalma), which lives in holes in the few small beaches found in Niue; the grapsid rock crab, kamakama (Grapsus albolineatus), a fast running crab that lives on coastal limestone rocks just above the high tide line; the shore crabs, tohitohi and fingota (Plagusia depressa and P. dentipes); box crab, tiki (Calappa hepatica), a rarely seen crab that burrows in sand and rubble; a range of edible reef crabs, including threespot reef crab, tñtñ (Carpilius maculatus), red-eyed reef crab, mafana or matamea (Eriphia sebana), and tagau, mafana and lielie or tepukihi (Etisus, Atergatis, Lophozozymus and Carpilius spp.); the poisonous reef crab, tªpola tahi (Zosimus aeneus); two swimming crabs, both paka (Charybdis erythordactyla and Varuna litterata); and a number of marine hermit crabs, ugauga, uga aitu, aao (Dardanus spp. and Trizopagurus strigatus). A number of unidentified marine crabs, keka (possibly a sponge crab, Sphaerodromia sp.), lokuloku (Pilumnus sp.?) and tagogo, were also reported to be present.

The balance of the larger crustaceans in Niue include three species of rock lobster, uo (Panulirus penicillatus, P. longipes and P. versicolor) and the slipper lobster, tapatapa (Parribacus caledonicus). Panulirus penicillatus (uo taula) and P. longipes are relatively common and the painted rock lobster (P. versicolor), known as uo lanu, and tapatapa are uncommon or rare. All species are heavily exploited and sold to local hotels, guesthouses and restaurants or sent to New Zealand. Other crustaceans identified in the survey included spiked shrimp, uo hui fotofoto, ulaula or uo kufani (Saron marmoratus) and the banded cleaner shrimp, fulutÜ (Stenopus hispidus), which is poisonous.

Barnacles reportedly present in Niue, some of which are eaten, include the acorn barnacle, fufuli (Tetraclita sp.) and two gooseneck barnacles, tio and uho maka (possibly Lepas testudinata and L. anseriferea) (Appendix XI).

Among the most diverse marine invertebrates in the world are the members of the Phylum Mollusca, with more than 100,000 known species. They are also 162

NIUE’S BIODIVERSITY

common in Niue and include cephalopods (e.g. octopi and squids), sea slugs, colorful nudibranchs, and a wide range of bivalve and gastropod shellfish. Octopi, feke (Octopus cyanea) are relatively common on the fringing reef, and the bigfin reef squid, mñfeke (Sepioteuthis lessioniana), is not common and reportedly not eaten.

Although seaslugs and nudibranchs, both shell-less molluscs, are found in Niue and, in the case of nudibranchs, which have been referred to as the colourful “butterflies of the sea”, are very attractive, few, if any have widely known, Niuean names, except for the name mama, which refers to some unidentified unshelled molluscs.

Although Niue has a range of culturally valuable shellfish, because of the scarcity of sandy areas and protected lagoons and bays, there are far more rock-dwelling gastropods (one-shelled molluscs with a single “foot”) than bivalves (molluscs with two hinged shells and a laterally compressed body). The bivalves include two highly prized species of giant clams, gÂg (Tridacna maxima and T. squamosa), jewel box shell, papahua (Chama iostoma) and the rasp tellin, tofe (Tellina scobinata), which is uncommon. The more important gastropod shellfish include turban shells, fua alili, patulagi and fua tegam (Turbo setosus and T. chrysostomus), drupe shells, fua fouli (Drupa spp.), vase shells, fua patupatu (Vasum spp.), fua fufu (Conus spp.), star shells and top shells, fua nikoniko (Astraea haematraga and Trochus maculatus), cowries, fua pule (Cypraea spp.), egg-shell cowry, pule tea (Ovula ovum), Pacific sugar limpet, matapihu (Patelloida saccharina), nerite snails, hihi (Nerita spp.), the wormshells, ugakÜ (Siphonium maximus) and matatue or mamene (Dendropoma maximus), chiton, mama (Acanthopleura sp.), rock shells, tÂmotuku (Morula, Thais and Drupe), frog shells, fua matahÌ (Bursa buffing and B. rubout), and an unidentified shellfish, makomako, reportedly a turid (Turridae).

Shellfish considered rare include the giant clams, gÂg (Tridacna maxima and T. squamosa), with T. squamosa, the much rarer of the two species, and now only found in deeper water off of the tidal flat, and small trochus and starshells, nikoniko (Astraea haematraga and Trochus maculatus), and wormshells, ugakÜ (Siphonium maximus) are also rare, all because of overexploitation. Also naturally rare due to the absence of sand and rough waves, or the lack of suitable habitat, are an unidentified species, makomako, trochus and helmet shells, pñ fua fufu and fua pñ tahi (Charonia tritonis and Cassis cornuta), and spider conches, also fua pñ (Lambis spp.) (Appendices X and XXXVIII).

There are also a number of land snails, generally know as hihi vao. These include yellow and brown melampus snails, hihi mui tea and hihi mui uli (Melampus spp.) that are collected at night on limestone rocks and used to make shell necklaces and 163

NIUE ISLAND

other shellcraft. Other unidentified land snails include small and long spiral land snails (fua lokia and fua nakonako or fua loa) (Sperlich 1997).

Niue’s echinoderms include a range of sea cucumbers or bêche-de-mer, sea urchins and starfish (Appendix XI). Although the export of bêche-de-mer, as a delicacy and of believed medicinal and aphrodisiacal value, to China and Southeast Asia, is of great economic significance in other Pacific island countries, such as Tonga and Fiji, this not so in Niue due to the relative absence of flat sandy or silty bottoms, its preferred habitat. The two species of commercial value that exist in Niue, the prickly redfish or pineapple fish, geti (Thelenota ananas) and the black or noble teatfish, possibly gau, loli tafuª or loli veliveli (Holthuria nobilis) were not in sufficient quantities needed for export in the early 1990s (Dalzell et al. 1993). Other species of lesser value that are present, some of which are now being exported from other countries, include lolly fish, loli or loli uli (Holothuria atra), surf redfish, loli maholi (Actinopyga mauritiana), loli fiti (Holothuria leucospilota), loli tea (Stichopus horrens), leopard fish or brown sandfish, loli kau (Bohadschia argus), and possibly stonefish, reportedly also called geti (Actinopyga lecanora), which is nocturnal. Also reported present by informants are pink fish, loli kula (Holothuria edulis), moko fa (Holothuria hilla), and the snakelike synaptid, fue tahi (Synapta maculata). Unidentified bêche-de-mer species, some of which may refer to the above species, include a small black species, loli tÂpupulu (Holothuria sp.?), gau and loli tafuª (Appendix XI).

Terrestrial invertebrates are dominated by arthropods, which include spiders (kufani), centipedes (tualoa) ( Scolopendria morsitans), scorpions (akalava) and insects (mostly moko), which are by the most common terrestrial invertebrates, both in Niue and worldwide. Studies had recorded 376 species by 1968 (Yaldwyn 1970). There undoubtedly far more, especially since the increase in direct flights to Niue and the introduction of many new crops and breeds of animals over the past thirty years or more. It has been estimated, for example, that in Hawai’i, every year an average of 20 new alien insects make their way to Hawai’i, half of which are known pests (CGAPS c.1996). Other terrestrial invertebrates include the terrestrial snails (hihi vao) and slugs (mama) mentioned above, and earthworms (kelemutu).

Among the more common insects are a number of butterflies, known generally as pepe, and moths, known as lefio. Although Niueans probably did not differentiate between species, except on the basis of colour, whether they were spotted or not, or on what they ate, agricultural quarantine staff, probably aided by expatriate workers, have given butterflies and moths and their larvae and many other insects names, which in most cases are literal translations of the English common names.

164

NIUE’S BIODIVERSITY

Three butterflies that are mentioned in the Agriculture Quarantine Handbook are the widespread species that are found on many Pacific islands, the blue moon butterfly (Hypolimnus bolina), pepe mahina lanu (literally “coloured moon butterfly”), two blue butterflies (Zizina otis and Lampides boeticus), listed as pepe lanu moana and pepe lanu moana mªmª (literally “blue and light blue butterflies”) and an unidentified butterfly, pepe kai moota (“butterfly that feeds on the moota tree), which appears in countless thousands in the spring and is associated with the arrival of the seasonal run of kaloama, the small goatfish. Similarly, some of the more common moths include the dayflying magpie moth (Nyctemera baulus), lefio kai gatu kalaie (“moth that eats pieces of cloth”), which is probably a useful pollinator of flowers; the fruit-piercing moth (Elgyaea fullonia), lefio vilo fua lªkau (“moth that drills fruit); and the convoluted sphinx moth (Agrius convolvuli), lefio miti huhua fiti lªkau (“moth that sucks the nectar of flowers”), one of the most widely distributed moths, which ranges from Europe through Africa and Asia to Polynesia (Ryan 2000, Sperlich 1997).

Other common insects include the common cockroach mogamoga (Periplaneta americana), which is now more often called by the name kokalosi, a Niueanised version of the English name; ants (lÜ), including a number of black ants (lÜ Toga, which stings like a wasp, and lÜ ulufua) and a red ant (lÜ kula), which is usually found in rotten trees and coconut logs; a black and a red ant (lÜ ulu kekakea and lÜ kula kekaka) that are usually found in houses; white ants or termites (lÜ tea tose or atale); a number of species day-flying and night-flying mosquitoes, namu, some of which are vectors responsible for the spread of dengue fever and filariasis or elephantiasis (huifua); and a number of bees and wasps (pÌ), including the honey bee, hani pÌ or lago meli (Apis mellifera). There are also many species of flies (lago). These include the common blow fly (lago fufu), bee-like flies and four true fruit flies, which include Bactrocera kirki, B. kirki, B. passiflorae, and possibly B. xanthodes). These fruit flies are found in high numbers on the island, between August and March, during the fruiting seasons of host plants, which include the fruit trees, fekakai (Syzygium malaccense) and tava (Pometia pinnata) and some of the native species, kolivao (Syzygium richii) and kafika (Syzygium inophylloides) (Heimoana et al. 1997). Both B. passiflorae and B. xanthodes are economically important fruit fly species, with B. passiflorae, the passionfruit fly, having been recorded in 48 host fruits and vegetable in Fiji (Vueti et al., 1997).

There are also countless other insects, including grasshoppers (hÂ), oceanic field cricket, keleteki (Teleogryllus oceanicus), leafhoppers, leaf miners, stink insects, weevils, shield bugs, earwigs and many beetles and caterpillars, many of which are 165

NIUE ISLAND

agricultural pests and referred to generically as moko. Some of the better known are earwigs, moko maga (Chelisoches morio and Anisolabis howarthi), coconut stick insect, moko vª kai lau niu (Graeffea crouani), rhinoceros beetle, moko kai niu (Orycytes rhinocerus), seed ambrosia beetle, moko manini (Epicryphallus sylvicola), taro hawkworm, moko kai talo (Hippotion celerio) and cabbage leaf miner, moko kai uho kªpisi (Liriomyza brassicae) (Sperlich 1997).

Genetic diversity

As stressed in section 2.3 above genetic diversity is the next level of biodiversity below the species level. It includes all genetic types, breeds, cultivars or varieties of a given species of wild and domesticated or cultivated plants and animals found in Niue’s ecosystems. Most of Niue’ staple food species, including taro (talo), yams (ufi), sweet yams (ufilei), giant taro (kape), cassava or arrowroot (kªufi, maniota or kapia), sweet potato or kumara (timala), bananas and plantains (futi) coconut palms (niu), breadfruit (mei), and wild yams (hoi and pilita), and a number of other important plants, such as pandanus (fª) and ti plant, tÌ all have a number of recognised “named” cultivars. The Niuean names for these cultivars are listed in Appendix XII. For example, breadfruit, mei (Artocarpus altilis) is a single species, but there are many different named cultivars (cultivated varieties) of breadfruit in Niue. Some of the most common include mafala, fualalahi, tªfolo, mafua, puou, maopo, uluea, fotopoto and ulumiti. Similarly, there is an even greater range of cultivars of true taro, talo (Colocasia esculenta), traditionally Niue’s most important staple food plant. Some of the more common taro cultivars include talo fate, talo Fiti, talo maganonu, talo magauli, talo magatea, talo maga kula, talo ilaila, talo ago, talo ifo, talo manua and talo palaveka (Appendix XII). Yuncker (1943 in Sykes 1970) lists 81 cultivars of taro in five groupings based on colour and the markings on the petiole (leaf stalk). With the introduction of bread, white flour, rice and other crops, such as cassava (kªufi, maniota or kapia), and the focus on a few fast-growing varieties for sale or export, many of these taro varieties are not planted and now probably lost, as only about 30 cultivars were mentioned during the 1999 survey or listed in the Niue Language Dictionary.

Food plants, for which all varieties seemed to be rare or in short supply include giant taro (kape), sweet yam (ufilei), and the wild yams, pilita and hoi. There are also many varieties of taro, yams, bananas, and plantains, breadfruit, coconut palms and pandanus that are now rare or probably extinct in Niue (Appendix XII). The main reasons given for the scarcity of these plants and their cultivars include; 1) 166

NIUE’S BIODIVERSITY

failure to replant, in the cases of timala kula, most varieties of pulaka and some varieties of coconut, bananas and pandanus; 2) lack of planting materials, in the case of some yam, coconut, banana and sugarcane cultivars; 3) wild or free-ranging pigs that uproot and eat ufilei and pilita; 4) rats, which reportedly eat kape; 5) pest and disease outbreaks, which have affected banana cultivars, such as mamÂ, manini and futi mageo; 6) indiscriminate burning and bush fires that destroy the forest habitat for wild yams, such as pilita and hoi vªkili; 7) failure to plant because people no longer like the taste of a cultivar or it is no longer needed as a famine or emergency food, e.g., in the cases of the breadfruit cultivar, mei tªfolo, and the banana cultivars, futi toª, and futi hoe povi; 8) they are no longer planted because their products have been replaced by modern substitutes, e.g., the coconut cultivars niu gau (which has an edible husk) and niu pulu, which was formerly used to make coconut fibre sennit for use as cordage or rope for lashing canoes and houses before the introduction of nails and modern rope and wire; 9) susceptibility to cyclone damage, as in the case of the pandanus variety fª feutu; 10) they are hard to replant, in the case of the pandanus variety fª Niua; and, 11) in some cases, a given cultivar, such as ufi lokaloka and hoi vªkili,, has always been rare or uncommon in Niue.

Unfortunately, the results of the current study indicate a serious loss of genetic diversity of taro and breadfruit over the past half-century, AND a loss of the knowledge of the names and the appearance of these cultivars of taro and of the named cultivars for other important plants.

Cultural value of Niue’s biodiversity

As can be seen from sections 2 to 6 above, if we list all species, varieties, cultivars, races, breeds, etc. of all wild and domesticated terrestrial and marine plants and animals from each of Niue’s land and marine ecosystems, the biodiversity, even for a small island, such as Niue, is very great indeed. However, the true importance AND diversity of “biodiversity” becomes even clearer when we add an ethnobiological dimension and attempt to catalogue all the uses, knowledge, beliefs and language that the people of Niue have for their biodiversity.

An attempt to list the ecological and cultural functions of trees in Niue is shown in Table 6, which shows that trees serve at least twelve distinct ecological functions and have over 70 cultural uses. To replace these benefits and products with imported substitutes would either be impossible or too expensive. To eliminate Niue’s trees, for example, would, thus, constitute a major ecological, cultural and economic disaster that would seriously undermine self-reliance and sustainability in Niue.

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Table 6. Ecological and cultural functions and uses of trees in Niue.

ECOLOGICAL Shade Erosion Control Protection from Salt Spray

Soil Improvement Flood/Runoff Control Wild Animal Food

Animal/Plant Habitats Wind Protection Weed/Disease Control

CULTURAL/ECONOMIC Timber (commercial) Timber(subsistence) Fuelwood/Firewood Boatbuilding(canoes) Sails Tools Weapons/Hunting Containers Woodcarving Handicrafts Fishing Equipment Floats Toys Switch for Children/ Discipline Brush/Paint Brush Musical Instruments/Drums Cages/Roosts Tannin Rubber Oils Toothbrush Toilet Paper Fire Making

Brooms Parcelisation/Wrapping Abrasive/Sandpaper Illumination/Torches Insulation Decoration Body Ornamentation Cordage/Lashing/Rope Glues/Adhesives Caulking Fibre/Fabric Dyes Plaited Ware Hats Mats Baskets Commercial/Export Products Ritual Exchange Poisons Insect Repellents Deodorants Embalming Corpses Privacy

Prop or Nurse Plants Staple foods Supplementary Foods Wild/Snack/Emergency Foods Spices/Sauces Teas/Coffee Non-alcoholic Beverages Alcoholic Beverages Stimulants Narcotics Masticants/Chewing Gum Meat Tenderiser Preservatives Medicines Aphrodisiacs Fertility Control Abortifacients Scents/Perfumes Recreation Magico-religious Totems Subjects of Mythology Secret Meeting Sites

Source: Adapted from Thaman and Clarke 1987.

An analysis of the ecological and cultural importance of 140 common Pacific Island coastal plants (ferns, herbs, grasses and sedges, vines, shrubs and trees), most of which are found in Niue, is shown in Table 7. The study showed the usefulness of these coastal plants to be high wherever they are found (Thaman 1992).

In terms of the ecological utility of coastal plants, the most important functions include the provision of shade and animal and plant habitats, protection from wind, erosion, flood and saltwater incursion, land stabilisation, protection from the desiccating effects of salt spray, soil improvement and mulching, and as animal food or 168

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links in important terrestrial and marine food chains. In terms of cultural utility, the analysis showed that there are some 75 different purpose/use categories for coastal plants, with the total frequency of usage for 140 plants being 1024, an average of 7.3 purpose/use categories per plant (Table 7), ranging from no reported uses for only two species to as many as 125 for the coconut, if distinct uses within categories (e.g., tools with distinct functions) are counted. Thirty-five (35) other species that are found in Niue have 8 or more reported uses (Table 8). Moreover, the list does not include the more strictly ecological functions of coastal plants, such as shade, protection from wind, sand and salt spray, erosion and flood control, coastal reclamation, animal and plant habitats, and soil improvement, all of importance to Pacific societies.

Table 7. Frequency of the usage for specied purposes of 140 Pacic Island coastal plant species, most of which are found in Niue.

Purpose/Use

Medicinal/Health General Construction Body Ornamentation Firewood/Fuel Ceremony/Ritual Cultivated/Ornamental Tools/Toolmaking Emergency/Famine Foods Boat/Canoe Building Dyes/Pigments Magic/Sorcery Fishing Equipment Cordage/Fibre Games/Toys Supplementary Foods Scenting Oil/Perfumery Fertiliser/Mulching Weapons/Traps Woodcarving Food Parcelisation Animal Feed Legends/Mythology Handicrafts

Ferns

Herbs

Vines/ Lianas x/14

Shrubs

Trees

Total

x/17

Grasses /Sedges x/11

x/10

x/26

x/62

x/140

6 6 3 4 4 1 2 2 1 1 3 1 1

15 8 4 3 5 6 1 2 2 1 2 1 4 1

7 3 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 3

11 7 5 2 2 2 1 6 4 2 1 1 3 3 2

23 6 12 8 6 10 4 4 3 4 6 8 3 4 3 6 4 6 1 1 2 3 1

51 54 26 43 23 20 33 18 30 24 14 17 10 16 14 11 11 14 18 11 9 15 9

113 60 62 51 41 39 37 35 34 30 29 28 25 25 23 21 21 20 19 19 19 18 17 169

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Clothing Musical Instruments Cooking Equipment Fish Poisons Export/Local Sale Adhesive/Caulking Fire by Friction Soap/Shampoo Containers Repellents/Fumigants Wild Animal Foods Tannin/Preservatives Antitoxins Living Fences/Hedges Staple Foods Drinks/Beverage Strainers/Filters Toilet Paper Land Reclamation Calendars/Clocks Contraceptives/ Abortifacients Thatching/Rooď&#x20AC; ng Illumination Combs Animal Cages/Roosts Oils/Lubricants Brushes Fans Corks Fishing bait Other Uses* TOTAL NO USES

-

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 -

3 2 -

3 1 3 1 2 -

1 1 1 4 2 1 3 1 2 3 1 1 1 1 1 3

9 13 12 4 8 9 8 2 7 6 5 6 4 5 5 1 3 4 5 5 2

14 14 13 11 11 11 9 9 8 8 8 7 7 7 6 5 5 5 5 5 5

-

-

2

-

1 5

3 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 27

4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 34

35

63

32

62

161

671

1024

-

1

1

-

-

-

2

* Other uses include stimulants/teas, flavouring/spices, ear cleaners, splints, aphrodisiacs, hair remover, masticants/chewing gum, abrasives, tooth brushes, cigarette wrappers, coconut climbing bandages or harnesses, measuring tapes, fireworks, windbreaks, sand screens, ladders, walking sticks, tethering posts, punishment/ torture, communication/language, and computation or counting.

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Table 8. Number of uses reported from the Pacic Islands for important coastal plants found in Niue (Note: not including a wide range of ecological functions or uses).

Latin Name Cocos nucifera Hibiscus tiliaceus Pandanus tectorius Calophyllum inophyllum Cordia subcordata Guettarda speciosa Scaevola sericea Pemphis acidula Thespesia populnea Tournefortia argentea Casuarina equisetifolia Premna serratifolia Morinda citrifolia Pipturus argenteus Terminalia catappa Ficus tinctoria Ficus prolixa Erythrina variegata Inocarpus fagifer Hernandia nymphaeifolia Pisonia grandis Bruguiera gymnorrhiza Barringtonia asiatica Cycas rumphii Gardenia taitensis Triumfetta procumbens Vitex trifolia Dodonaea viscosa Santalum spp.

Clerodendrum inerme Cassytha liformis Tacca leontopetaloides Crinum asiaticum Ficus obliqua Phymatosorus grossus Neisosperma oppositifolium

Common Name

Niuean Name

Uses

coconut palm beach hibiscus tree pandanus, screw pine Alexandrian laurel guettarda saltbush, half-ower pemphis Thespian’s tree beach heliotrope casuarina, ironwood premna Indian mulberry tropical almond native g banyan trees dadap, coral tree Tahitian chestnut Chinese lantern tree pisonia, lettuce tree oriental mangrove sh-poison tree cycad Tahitian gardenia beach vitex native hopbush sandalwood beach privet beach dodder, devil’s twine Polynesian arrowroot crinum lily banyan tree scented fern -

niu fou fa fetau motou panopano gahu pa gigie milo taihuni toa aloalo nonu malege telie ata ovava gate i puka puka tea togo (extinct) futu logologo tiale tafa tititai lala tahi, lala tea kapa akau, akeake ahi kakoli feteinoa pia talotalo pualiki mamane pao

125 57 53 43 40 36 32 30 26 23 22 22 22 21 21 21 20 19 18 18 17 16 14 13 12 11 11 11 10 10 10 9 9 8 8 8 171

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In terms of specific uses, the most widely reported uses are for medicine, general construction, body ornamentation, fuelwood, ceremony and ritual, cultivated or ornamental plants, toolmaking, food, boat or canoe making, dyes or pigments, magic and sorcery, fishing equipment, cordage and fibre, games or toys, perfumes and scenting coconut oil, fertiliser and mulching, woodcarving, weapons or traps, food parcelisation or wrapping, subjects of legends, mythology, songs, riddles, and proverbs, domesticated and wild animal feed, handicrafts, cooking equipment, clothing, fish poisons, items for export of local sale, adhesives or caulking, and musical instruments, all of which were reported for at least eleven species (Table 8). The Table 9. Number of plants speciď&#x20AC; ed as being used for different purposes in questionnaire surveys of 20 groups of men and analysis, however, is based women in 12 villages in Niue in January 1999. on traditional uses, many of Purpose/Use Category No. of Plant Species which have lapsed or are Medicinal Purposes 68 only employed in emergency, Firewood or Fuel 30 because modern technology Ornamental Plants 28 has pre-empted them.

Fruit Trees 29 The village questionnaire Spiritual, Magical or Sorcery Purposes 27 Toys or Playthings 24 surveys in Niue showed that Leis and Garlands 27 there is a similar range of Wild animal Foods 25 uses for Niueâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s plants. The Woodcarving and Toolmaking 23 number of plants reportedly Perfume and Scenting Coconut Oil 22 used for 27 different use Fibre, Weaving and Handicraft Production 20 categories is shown in Table Construction 19 Fishing Equipment 17 9. The actual plants that are Beads and Necklace Making 17 used for most of the major Cultivated Vegetable and Non-Staple Food Plants 16 use categories are listed in Boatbuilding or Canoe Making 13 Appendices XIII - XXXVI. Cultivated Animal Foods and Fodder 13 The most common use Living Fencing and Hedges 13 was for medicine, with 68 String, Rope or Cordage 11 Parceling or Wrapping Food and Other Items 11 species being mentioned as Medicines for Domesticated Animals 11 being used for treating a wide Pesticides, Pest Repellents or Animal Poisons 11 range of diseases, injuries Cultivated Staple Food Plants 10 and other problems (AppenWild Non-Staple Non-Trees Food Plants 10 dix XIII). Eleven of these Dyes 7 plants were also reportedly Wild Staple Foods/Emergency Staples 6 Fish Poisons 6 used to treat sickness and 172

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injuries in domesticated animals, such as pigs, dogs, cats, cattle and chickens. Among these plants are species that are used medicinally throughout the Pacific Islands and Asia, which have been proven to be effective by Indian, Chinese and Sri Lankan doctors and scientists for hundreds of years. Many of these medicines are more proven than most of the modern medicines that we buy from the chemist or pharmacist. Some of the most common medicinal plants used in Niue, which were mentioned by at least three village groups each, include: 1) the indigenous plants, nonu (Morinda citrifolia), mamanu (Phymatosorus grossus), milo (Thespesia populnea), telie (Terminalia catappa), kahame (Glochidion ramiflorum), vihoa or fihoa (Colubrina asiatica), lautolu (Vigna marina), manono (Tarenna sambucina), fª (Pandanus tectorius), niu (Cocos nucifera), takapalu (Micromelum minutum), fetau (Calophyllum inophyllum), gat (Erythrina variegata), malege (Pipturus argenteus) and toa (Casuarina equisetifolia); 2) the aboriginal introductions, tava (Pometia pinnata), vÌ (Spondias dulcis), fekakai (Syzygium malaccense), kihikihi (Oxalis corniculata), tono (Centella asiatica), ifi (Inocarpus fagifer), futi (Musa cultivars), poloi (Zingiber zerumbet), tuitui (Aleurites moluccana), ago (Curcuma domestica), tÌ (Cordyline fruticosa) and holofa (Rorippa sarmentosa); and, 3) some recent introductions, mago (Mangifera indica), fue Taina (Mikania micrantha), kamapui or kamapuhi (Cymbopogon citratus), kautoga (Psidium guajava) and vavae (Ceiba pentandra or Gossypium barbadense) (Appendix XII).

Medicinal plants that were considered to be rare or in short supply included milo, manono, fetau, vavae, lautolu, fue Saina, holofa and filo (Plantago spp.). The reasons given were overuse in the case of milo, land clearance for manono, natural scarcity and overuse for fetau, destruction by cyclones and failure to replant for vavae, roadside clearance for lautolu, slash-and-burn agriculture for fue Saina, use of weed killers for filo, and failure to protect or replant in gardens for holofa.

Some thirty species were said to be important sources of firewood for cooking, making earthen ovens, boiling pandanus and drying copra (Appendix XIV). The most important of these were kafika (Syzygium inophylloides), tuali (Syzygium dealatum), pomea (Adenanthera pavonina), toi (Alphitonia zizyphoides), fou (Hibiscus tiliaceus), koli vao (Syzygium richii and Syzygium samarangense), tavahi (Rhus taitensis), manono (Tarenna sambucina), and l (Macaranga harveyana and Macaranga seemannii), all of which were listed by at least four groups. No one reported firewood as being in short supply on Niue, although some species, such as kafika, kolivao, moota and tava were reported to be scarce under other categories, mainly due to indiscriminate felling of trees and forest clearance for garden expansion.

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Ornamental plants are among the most common of the introduced plants found in Niue. Although only 28 ornamental plants were listed during the community surveys, there are at least 50 common ornamental plants that are commonly planted in ornamental gardens in Niue. Many of these are listed in Appendix II. At least thirteen plants were said to be planted as living fencing or hedges (Appendix XV). The most common were hibiscus, kaute (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis), hedge panax, tanetane (Polyscias scutellaria and P. guilfoylei), coconut palm, niu (Cocos nucifera), crinum lily, talotalo (Crinum spp.), copperleaf or acalypha, koka kula (Acalypha wilkesiana), ti plant or cordyline, tÌ (Cordyline fruticosa), bougainvillea, felila or pokenevila (Bougainvillea spp.) and croton, talapoti or tonatona (Codiaeum variegatum). Although these are the most common, surveys of houseyard garden in villages showed that there are over 70 different plants found growing in as living fences or in hedges on the island. Some of these ornamental plants are now rare or in short supply, mainly due to a failure to replant when they die off either due to cyclone damage, drought or human neglect or natural death (e.g. annual or perennial plants dying off at the end of their life cycle). Ornamental plants that were now considered to be rare were lady-of-the-night, or night-blooming cestrum, iki he pÜ (Cestrum nocturnum), bleeding heart, lose vao (Clerodendrum tompsonae) and artist’s pallet or angel’s wings, talotalo (Caladium bicolor) and some colour varieties of the common croton, talapoti or tonatona (Codiaeum variegatum).

The next largest category is food plants, including cultivated and wild staple food crops, cultivated non-staple or supplementary food plants, a wide range of cultivated and wild fruit trees, and a range of wild staple and supplementary food plants. Many of these same plants, plus a limited number of other plants, also serve as sources or animal food or fodder for domesticated animals.

The staple food crops include the common root crops, taro, talo (Colocasia esculenta), yams, ufi (Dioscorea alata), sweet potato or kumara, timala (Ipomoea batatas) and cassava or manioc, kªufi, maniota or kªpia (Manihot esculenta); the less commonly planted root crops, giant taro, kape (Alocasia macrorrhiza), tannia, yautia or cocoyam, pulaka (Xanthosoma spp.) and sweet yam, ufilei (Dioscorea esculenta); and common tree staples, bananas or plantains, futi (Musa cultivars), breadfruit, mei (Artocarpus altilis) and the coconut palm, niu (Cocos nucifera) (Appendix XVI). As stressed above many named cultivars of these staple food plants are rare, in short supply or no longer seen in Niue.

Wild staple food plants present in Niue include wild yams, hoi (Dioscorea bulbifera), pilita (Dioscorea pentaphylla) and, possibly, palai (Dioscorea nummu174

NIUE’S BIODIVERSITY

laria), Polynesian arrowroot, pia (Tacca leontopetaloides), kudzu vine, aka (Pueraria lobata) and ti plant or cordyline, tÌ (Cordyline fruticosa) (Appendix XVII).

Although of critical importance in the past as famine or emergency foods, before food aid and imported foods became widely available during times of cyclones, droughts and other times of food shortage, most of these plants are now rare. This is due to forest clearance, failure to protect or replant, the presence of wild pigs that eat the tubers, and the general abandonment or dislike of the taste of these wild foods, some of which, like hoi and tÌ, take considerable time to prepare. Evidence of their former dietary importance includes the belief that pilita is seen as evidence of former habitation of a given site and the fact that there are special names for the roots of aka and tÌ, which are known as hoko aka and patu tÌ, respectively.

Cultivated non-staple or supplementary food plants include hibiscus spinach, pele (Abelmoschus manihot), French or haricot beans, pine kai (Phaseolus vulgaris), mustard cabbage, tinapi (Brassica juncea), lettuce, lÂtisi (Lactuca sativa), English cabbage, kªpisi puku (Brassica oleracea var. capitata), Chinese cabbage, kªpisi Saina (Brassica chinensis), cucumber, kukama (Cucumis sativus), watermelon, meleni (Citrullus lanatus), sweet capsicum or bell pepper, pepa (Capsicum annuum var. grossum), longbean, pine fua loloa (Vigna sesquipedalis), perennial chili pepper or tabasco, polo magiho (Capsicum frutescens), sugarcane, tÜ (Saccharum officinarum), tomato, tomato (Solanum lycopersicon), pineapple, hukifª (Ananas comosus) and eggplant, or aubergine, loku moka fªpogi or isalaelu (Solanum melongena) (Appendix XVIII). Also reported to have been planted in the past, but now rare or no longer found in Niue, is a tuberous, ginger-like plant known as tefito, which could be either a species of Curcuma (one of a number of relatives of turmeric, which are cultivated in parts of south Asia, or true arrowroot, Maranta arundinacea, which has a ginger-like root and which was reportedly grown in Niue in the past (Sykes 1970). Supplementary crops that are reportedly uncommon include sugarcane (tÜ) and pineapple (hukifª), which have not been replanted and for which planting materials are in short supply.

Of the wild non-staple or supplementary food plants by far the most important is bird’s-nest fern, luku (Asplenium nidus), an important cooked green vegetable that is considered a delicacy in Niue. Other, less important non-staple wild food plants include black nightshade, polo fua (Solanum americanun), sow thistle, pupu lele or puha (probably derived from its New Zealand Maori name) (Sonchus oleraceus), loku moka (Solanum repandum or S. uporo), bladder berry, manini (Physalis angulata), wild cucumber, atiu (Cucumis anguria), native figs, mati (Ficus scabra and 175

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F. storkii), and wild passionfruit, vine (Passiflora spp.) (Appendix XIX). In some parts of Niue luku, particularly the preferred edible variety, luku fua, is considered to be in short supply due to overharvest for family consumption, local sale and for sending, as a cooked vegetable, to Niueans in New Zealand. Most of the other wild supplementary species are said to be in short supply due to forest clearance, indiscriminate burning of the bush, and the indiscriminate use of herbicides or weedkillers, mainly paraquat, which kills most herbaceous species.

Of the 29 cultivated and wild fruit trees mentioned in the survey, the most important are bananas or plantains, futi (Musa cultivars), breadfruit, mei (Artocarpus altilis), coconut palm, niu (Cocos nucifera), limes and lemons, tipolo (Citrus aurantifolia and Citrus limon x medica), mango, mago (Mangifera indica), a range of oranges and other citrus fruits, moli kai, moli manetalini or moli Saina (Citrus sinensis, C. reticulata and C. spp.), Polynesian vi-apple, vÌ (Spondias dulcis), Malay apple, fekakai (Syzygium malaccense), avocado, ªvoka (Persea americana), canarium almond, ai (Canarium harveyi), koli vao(Syzygium richii/Syzygium samarangense), Tahitian chestnut, ifi (Inocarpus fagifer), soursop, sweetsop and custard apple, tªlapo (Annona spp.), guava, kautoga (Psidium guajava), papaya or pawpaw, loku (Carica papaya), oceanic lichi, tava (Pometia pinnata), kafika (Syzygium inophylloides) and red-bead tree or “Samoan peanuts”, pomea (Adenanthera pavonina) (Appendix XX). Those that are considered to be rare or in short supply include a range of banana and plantain (futi), breadfruit (mei) and coconut (niu) cultivars, most citrus trees (tipolo and moli), soursop, sweetsop and custard apple, Malay apple (fekakai) and the canarium almond, ai (Canarium harveyi), which is considered very rare. The main reasons include the failure to replant after loss of trees due to cyclones and sea spray or other causes, pests and diseases in the case of bananas, citrus, Malay apple and kafika, and the clearance of forest and trees in the cases of many trees, such as canarium almond, citrus and guava, which are often found growing wild in fallow forests (Appendix XX). In the cases of Malay apple (fekakai) and the native fruit trees, kafika and koli vao, all favoured fruits which children used to fight over, the introduction of fruit flies has led to the decline in edible fruit and planting material.

Among the most common cultivated feeds for pigs and occasionally other domesticated animals, such as chickens, cattle and dogs, are papaya (loku) and the common staple food crops, such as cassava (kªufi, kapia or maniota), sweet potato (timala), taro (talo), breadfruit (mei), bananas and plantains (futi) and coconut (niu), which is an important for feed both pigs and chickens. Coconut was also considered a very important food or bait for catching coconut crabs (uga), hermit crabs 176

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(uga mea) and other land crabs, such as kalavi. Wild food plants used as fodder for pigs and sometimes other animals, such as cattle, included the leaves of malege (Pipturus argenteus), puka or puka tea (Pisonia grandis), luku (Asplenium nidus), fue (Ipomoea spp. and Merremia peltata), atale (Ipomoea littoralis), pepe (Leucaena leucocephala), nonu (Morinda citrifolia), and the native fig trees, ata (Ficus tinctoria) and mati (Ficus scabra and F. storkii); and the roots of aka (Pueraria lobata) and tÌ (Cordyline fruticosa). Atiu (Cucumis anguria) was said to be eaten by chickens and the fruits of fª (Pandanus tectorius), telie (Terminalia catappa), mago (Mangifera indica) and the fruit of a number of other native trees, such as kafika, koli vao and l (Macaranga spp.) were said to be important foods for fruit bats and a number of indigenous birds.

Another important grouping of uses is the wide range of plants used for construction, woodcarving and the production of tools, boat building or canoe construction and the production of a range of other useful items (Table 9).

Nineteen plants were reportedly used for the construction of houses and other structures (Appendix XXI). The most important were the common timber species kafika (Syzygium inophylloides), koli vao (Syzygium richii/Syzygium samarangense), kanumea (Planchonella samoensis), toi (Alphitonia zizyphoides), tuali (Syzygium dealatum), kieto (Diospyros samoensis), tafaki (Heritiera ornithocephala) and tavahi (Rhus taitensis), and the multipurpose species, manono (Tarenna sambucina), koka (Baccaurea seemannii) and l (Macaranga harveyana and Macaranga seemannii). Also important for use as thatching and house parts were fª (Pandanus tectorius), niu (Cocos nucifera) and vª (Flagellaria gigantea), which was used to support thatch and for wall reinforcement. Species said to be rare or in short supply due to overuse and indiscriminate forest clearance were kavika, kolivao and toi and kieto, which was always rare.

Twenty-three plants were used for woodcarving and toolmaking (Appendix XXII).

The most important are moota (Dysoxylum forsteri), kieto (Diospyros samoensis), toi (Alphitonia zizyphoides), oluolu (Planchonella garberi), motou (Cordia subcordata), fetau (Calophyllum inophyllum), telie (Terminalia catappa), kahame (Glochidion ramiflorum), kanumea (Planchonella samoensis) and gigie (Pemphis acidula). Species reported to be rare or in short supply, again, included keito, which is naturally rare, toi, motou, fetau and tiale tafa, due to overuse and excessive cutting, and gigie and pua (Fagraea berteroana), because of their slow growth.

Twelve trees were said to be used for boatbuilding or canoe making (Appendix XXIII). The most important by far is moota (Dysoxylum forsteri), which is well 177

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known for its strong and buoyant wood. Other important species include fou (Hibiscus tiliaceus), which is used for parts of the outrigger, and l (Macaranga harveyana and Macaranga seemannii), tamanu (Calophyllum neo-ebudicum), telie (Terminalia catappa), kahame (Glochidion ramiflorum), fetau (Calophyllum inophyllum), kanumea (Planchonella samoensis) and moea (Ixora triflora). Species reported to be rare or in short supply included moota, tamanu and fetau, due mainly to overharvesting, although the scarcity of moota was also attributed to the high frequency of tropical cyclones and forest clearance.

Some seventeen species were reportedly used in the production of fishing equipment, such as fishing poles, nets and traps (Appendix XXIV). The most important are kafika (Syzygium inophylloides), kaho (Miscanthus floridulus), moea, (Ixora triflora), and pua (Fagraea berteroana), which were used as fishing poles and wooden equipment, and the vine-like species kanai ((Jasminum betchei and J. didymum), kanai uli (Rourea minor) and maile (Alyxia stellata), which are used in making fish and lobster traps and fish baskets.

A range of plants are also used for making handicrafts, rope, string or cordage, dyes, necklaces, toys or play things, leis and garlands, scenting coconut oil and for wrapping food and other items (Table 9).

Twenty species where said to be used to provide fibre or other materials used in weaving and the production of important handicrafts (Appendix XXV). By far the most important were pandanus, fª (Pandanus tectorius and other Pandanus varieties or species) and the coconut palm, the Pacific Islands’ two “trees of life”. Other important sources of fibre or materials used in weaving or handicrafts included fou (Hibiscus tiliaceus), ovava (Ficus prolixa), pia (Tacca leontopetaloides) and vª (Flagellaria gigantea). Less important, and used more in the past, are ata (Ficus tinctoria), fou igo (Hibiscus diversifolius), kaho (Miscanthus floridulus), toua (Furcraea foetida), piu (Pritchardia pacific) and kapok and cotton, both vavae (Ceiba pentandra and Gossypium barbadense) and an unidentified plant, kaimukata. Most of these, with the exception of the bamboo-like kaho, were sources of fibre for weaving or stuffing of pillows or mattresses. Of the eleven species said to be used as rope, string or cordage, most were the same species used as sources of fibre for weaving or handicraft production (Appendix XXVI). The most notable inclusions in this category are the high-climbing vine, fue (Merremia peltata), which is commonly used as cordage to tie or lash things together, and kanotuatª (Sterculia fanaiho), which was formerly used for basket and hat making, a practice that seems to have died out.

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Species used for handicrafts, fibre or cordage said to be rare or in short supply include vª and ovava due to forest clearance and overuse, piu and vavae, due to the failure to replant, and the Panama hat palm, panama (Carludovica palmata), a plant introduced in the past, but not replanted.

Only seven plants were said to be used to make dye, the most common of which are koka (Baccaurea seemannii), telie (Terminalia catappa), niu (Cocos nucifera) and nonu (Morinda citrifolia) (Appendix XXVII).

Seventeen species were said to be used as beads or for the making of necklaces (kahoa tega lªkau) (Appendix XXVIII). Most commonly used are the seeds or fruits from puka (Hernandia nymphaeifolia), feteka or feteka uli (Mucuna gigantea), pomea mataila or matahoho (Abrus precatorius), kanumea (Planchonella samoensis), pomea (Adenanthera pavonina), kieto (Diospyros samoensis), oluolu (Planchonella garberi), pine (Delonix regia), tuitui (Aleurites moluccana) and pepe (Leucaena leucocephala), and the wood of gigie (Pemphis acidula). Pepe, which was once common, is now rare due to a Pacific-wide outbreak of psillid insects that killed many of the plants in the mid- 1980s.

Of the 24 plants said to be used to make toys or playthings (Appendix XXIX), the most often mentioned were niu (Cocos nucifera), toi (Alphitonia zizyphoides), gigie (Pemphis acidula), kanumea (Planchonella samoensis), kieto (Diospyros samoensis), nonu (Morinda citrifolia), feteka or feteka uli (Mucuna gigantea), fou (Hibiscus tiliaceus), kafika (Syzygium inophylloides), kaho (Miscanthus floridulus), malava or mamalava (Elaeocarpus tonganus), manonu (Tarenna sambucina), moota (Dysoxylum forsteri), toa (Casuarina equisetifolia) and tuitui (Aleurites moluccana). The only plant in this category said to be rare or in short supply was the Pacific fan palm, piu (Pritchardia pacifica), which is rarely planted now.

Fragrant garlands are central to the quality of life in Niue and elsewhere in the Pacific Islands. Twenty-four plants were listed as the sources of flowers, leaves and fruits used in garlands in Niue (Appendix XXX). The most commonly mentioned include tiale (Plumeria obtusa and Plumeria rubra), pua (Fagraea berteroana), maile (Alyxia stellata), lagakali (Aglaia saltatorum), tiale tafa (Gardenia taitensis), motooi (Cananga odorata), momili (Ocimum basilicum), kamapuhi or kamapui (Cymbopogon citratus and/or Hedychium coronarium), huni (Phaleria disperma), pipi (Hernandia moerenhoutiana), talotalo (Crinum asiaticum and C. xanthophyllum) and tÌ (Cordyline fruticosa). Species considered rare or in short supply include tiale tafa, a coastal plant, which people rarely plant anymore, kamapuhi, which grows poorly during dry periods, motooi Honolulu (Artabotrys 179

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hexapetalus), which was destroyed by cyclones and is rarely planted these days, partly because there is no planting material available, and pipi, which has always been rare, has not been replanted, and may be an early introduction from Tonga.

The flowers, leaves and sometimes fruit or roots of 22 plants are used as perfume or to scent coconut oil (lolo niu), the common perfume and body and hair conditioner used in the Pacific Islands (Appendix XXXI). The most widely used species in Niue include many of the same species used for making garlands. They include maile (Alyxia stellata), lagakali (Aglaia saltatorum), motooi (Cananga odorata), tiale (Plumeria obtusa and Plumeria rubra), ahi (Santalum yasi and Vetiveria zizanioides), momili (Ocimum basilicum), kamapuhi or kamapui (Cymbopogon citratus), vanila (Vanilla mexicana), fÂŞ vao (Pandanus tectorius), huni (Phaleria disperma), kafika palagi (Eugenia uniflora), tipolo (Citrus aurantifolia and Citrus limon x medica), pua (Fagraea berteroana), tiale tafa (Gardenia taitensis) and tipaisi (Pimenta dioica). Species that are considered rare are lagakali and tipaisi.

The leaves of 11 plants are reportedly used to parcel or wrap food or other items (Appendix XXXII). The most common species, most of which are used for the same purpose throughout the Pacific Islands, include bananas or plantain, futi (Musa cultivars), lĂ&#x201A; (Macaranga harveyana and Macaranga seemannii), luku (Asplenium nidus), piu (Pritchardia pacifica), niu (Cocos nucifera), mei (Artocarpus altilis), tĂ&#x152; (Cordyline fruticosa), loku (Carica papaya) and fou (Hibiscus tiliaceus). The continued use of these natural products has undoubtedly reduced the need for expensive and polluting plastic bags, cling wrap and aluminium foil. Those which are considered to be in short supply include some types of banana of plantain leaves, futi, luku and piu.

Nine plants were considered to either improve soil fertility or to be the sign of fertile soil (Appendix XXXIII). The most commonly mentioned species were fou (Hibiscus tiliaceus), salatolo (Macroptilium atropurpureum), pine or pine fiti ago (Crotalaria spp.), tavahi (Rhus taitensis), mohuku (Nephrolepis hirsutula), pepe (Leucaena leucocephala) and tealu (Salvia occidentalis). Siratro (salatolo), pine fiti ago and pepe, all nitrogen-fixing plants, are reported to be scarce due to indiscriminate burning and the use of herbicides, in the case of the first two species, and due to psillid insect attacks to pepe in the mid-1980s.

Six plants are known to be used as fish poisons (Appendix XXXIV), most of which are used for this purpose throughout the Pacific Islands. They include the introduced derris root, Niukini or tuha (Derris malaccensis), kieto (Diospyros samoensis), kohuhu (Tephrosia purpurea) and futu (Barringtonia asiatica). A coralline seaweed, limu maka (Halimeda sp.) and sandalwood, ahi (Santalum yasi) 180

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are also used to poison fish. The only species said to be rare is kohuhu, which is generally only found on open land near the coast.

Eleven plants were reportedly used as natural insecticides or animal poisons or to repel insects and pests (Appendix XXXV). Some of the plants used for this purpose included niu (Cocos nucifera) (possibly as a bait), chili pepper, polo magiho (Capsicum frutescens) and derris root, Niukini or tuha (Derris malaccensis), soursop, talapo (Annona muricata), coleus, televete (Coleus blumei) and melikolu (Tagetes erecta).

Finally, some 27 plants were mentioned as being used for spiritual, magical or sorcery purposes (Appendix XXXVI), although most of these are rarely used today. The most commonly mentioned plants, most of which are used for spiritual or magical purposes, including sorcery or “black magic” elsewhere in the Pacific, include televeti (Coleus blumei), which is used to protect gardens from evil spirits, lautolu (Vigna marina) (commonly used to exorcise “devils”), uhi (Euodia hortensis), aloalo (Premna serratifolia), kihikihi (Oxalis corniculata), manini (Physalis angulata), niu (Cocos nucifera), nonu (Morinda citrifolia) and titi tai (Triumfetta procumbens). Kava (Piper methysticum) was also mentioned as being important in the past, but is now rarely planted.

Although plants have the widest number of uses, the wide range of terrestrial domesticated and wild animals (discussed above) are also very important sources of protein and serve a wide range of other cultural functions and ecological services.

Similarly, the wide range of marine finfish, crustaceans, shellfish, bêche-de-mer, sea urchins, other invertebrates and seaweeds constitute a incredible economic, cultural, nutritional and eocological resource, which must be used sustainably.

Threats to Niue’s biodiversity

As stressed above, many of Niue’s important terrestrial plants and animals are now rare, in short supply or now extinct or no longer found in Niue. Some of Niue’s important ecosystems, such as inland and coastal forests, traditional multi-species agricultural systems and coral reef ecosystems are also threatened.

Appendices XXXVII and XXXVIII list those terrestrial plants and marine vertebrate and invertebrate animals that are reported to be rare or in short supply and the reasons that they are threatened. As can be seen from Appendix XXXVII, there are over 80 important Niuean plants that were considered by at least one group of informants to be rare or in short supply today in some part of Niue. Similarly Appendix XXXVIII shows that there are some 30 finfish and a range of turtles, sea snakes, crabs, shellfish and other marine invertebrates that are rare or threatened in some way. Most of these species are discussed above.

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The reasons for the scarcity or loss of Niue’s terrestrial and marine plants and animals and the degradation of ecosystems that were given by Niue’s local communities during the community-based questionnaire surveys are summarised in Table 10.

The main causes of loss of biodiversity include overexploitation of scarce resources, unsustainable or destructive practices, pests and diseases, natural disasters, and loss of knowledge of the importance of biodiversity as a foundation for sustainable life on Niue. Many of these causes overlap and are interrelated, but together provide a good indication of the factors responsible for the loss of biodiversity in Niue. Most of these have been discussed to some extent above.

The overharvest of coconut crabs, land crabs, birds, trees for construction, woodcarving and boat building, medicinal plants and some foods plants, and overfishing of finfish, marine crabs, lobsters, shellfish and range of other marine plants and animals has been a major cause of increasing scarcity. Included in this category are illegal hunting of birds, the use of torches or flashlights for night hunting or night fishing, and the high catches of some pelagic deepsea species by foreign fishing fleets. The commercialisation of some species and their increasing export to Niueans overseas have been major contributing factors to overexploitation.

Table 10. Causes of the endangerment, declining abundance, loss or degradation of terrestrial, freshwater and marine biodiversity in Niue, based on responses by 17 groups of men and women in questionnaire surveys of villages in Niue in 1999.

CAUSE TERRESTRIAL Overharvest/overhunting (coconut crabs, land crabs, birds, trees, etc.)

Indiscriminate burning/bush res/slash-and-burn agriculture (tau a mamafa) Use of herbicides/weedkillers (pamu pupu) Failure to replant trees and other plants Use of bulldozers/heavy machinery to clear land Deforestation/forest clearance Indiscriminate ploughing of agricultural areas Loss of traditional environmental knowledge Tropical cyclones/natural disasters Plant pests and diseases Destruction/disturbance of animal habitats (maumau he tau faga) Destruction by feral cats, dogs and rats (e.g., of ground nesting birds, crabs, skinks and geckos) Destruction by wild or free ranging pigs Destruction/felling/killing trees Drought Overcropping/failure to fallow land Disturbance of bird/animal habitats 182

X/17 12 11 10 9 9 8 8 7 7 7 6 6 5 5 4 3 3

NIUE’S BIODIVERSITY

Noxious weeds Poor husbandry/failure to protect valuable trees and plants Loss of agricultural knowledge Lack of planting materials Loss of taste or a decline in the use or knowledge of a given plant or crop/food plant variety Loss of knowledge of medicinal plants Hard to grow/slow growing/does not grow well on Niue Use of pesticides (pamu moko) Illegal hunting of birds Use of fertiliser (fatalase) Using dogs for hunting/training them to hunt (e.g., coconut crabs) Destruction by birds (kalae, veka, lulu) Use of torches/ashlights for hunting at night Increase in solid waste (e.g., car bodies)

3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 1 1

FRESHWATER Drought/famine (hoge) Use of herbicides (pamu pupu) Use of pesticides (pamu moko) Use of fertiliser (fatalase) Disturbance for tourism development

4 3 2 2 1

MARINE Overshing (e.g., ugako, gÂgÂ) Use of shing nets (gillnets, dragnets, scoop nets) Use of sh poisons/New Guinea creeper and kohuhu (fakakona) Use of dynamite for shing Catching undersize species Tropical cyclones/natural disasters Loss of traditional sheries knowledge Limited reef shery area/limited resource Species naturally rare Climate change Pollution (kiva)/runoff from tarseal roads Increase in spearshing/Use of spearguns (fana ika) Destruction of coral on the reef (maumau he tau feo he uluulu) Destruction/breaking of coral with steel bars/metal Habitat destruction Lack of suitable marine habitat Change in frequency of seasonal migrations Marine/oil pollution Insufcient food/food chain breakdown Drought Sharks

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Environmentally unsustainable and destructive practices that affect terrestrial biodiversity include indiscriminate burning, slash-and-burn agriculture and associated wildfires, use of bulldozers and heavy machinery to clear land, increasing use of the plough in agriculture, the replacement of the traditional polycultural mixed cropping agricultural and agroforestry systems with monocultural systems that plant only one variety of one crop and no food trees, overcropping and the failure to fallow the land, and the increasingly widespread use of herbicides to clear weeds from agricultural areas and houseyard gardens. Most of these practices have led to the loss of forest cover, the main habitat for most of Niueâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s indigenous plants, birds, fruit bats, land crabs and Niueâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s native insects, most of which play a beneficial role in the island ecosystem. These practices have also led to the loss of important trees and a wide range of useful wild food plants, medicinal plants and other useful plants that have been killed by burning, the use of herbicides and habitat destruction. The use of pesticides, herbicides and fertilisers has reportedly also been responsible for the pollution of Niueâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s groundwater resources, including well water. Drought and tourism development is also said to be responsible for the degradation or overuse of freshwater resources on the island.

In the marine environment, unsustainable practices include the use of fishing nets (e.g., the illegal use of nets to catch small goatfish or kaloama), the use of fish poisons to kill eels and small fish that live in the coral, increasing use of spearguns, catching or taking undersize finfish, crabs, lobsters, shellfish and other marine organisms, and, in the past, the use of dynamite for fishing, a practice that is fortunately rarely, if ever, used today. Destruction of the coral reef and other marine habitats and the breakdown in marine food chains due to the overexploitation or loss of some important key species were also said to contribute to the decline in marine biodiversity in Niue. Marine pollution in the forms of runoff from tarseal roads onto the reef and surrounding sea and oil pollution in areas around Alofi was also of concern.

Other factors responsible for the shortage of many marine species were the limited area of coral reef in Niue and the lack of suitable sandy bottom habitats for some species. For some finfish, such as atule, the decline in the frequency of regular seasonal migrations and the decreasing size of schools, perhaps due to overfishing, were also mentioned. In the case of the shortage of large trevally (ulua and tafauli) a couple of informants suggested that predation by sharks had been responsible.

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Plant pests and diseases have also led to the loss or declining abundance of many plants. As stressed above, many banana and plantain cultivars have disappeared due to infestations of pests and diseases, such as the bunchy-top virus and black-leaf-streak fungal diseases, and fruit flies have had a devastating effect on some of Niue’s cultivated and native fruit trees. Destruction by wild or free ranging pigs, dogs, wild cats and rats have also contributed to the loss of some wild food crops, birds, skinks and geckos and a number of land crab species.

Noxious weeds that out-compete valuable plants and change natural habitats are also a serious problem. One weed that is a serious threat to Niue’s biodiversity is the trailing daisy or wedelia (Wedelia trilobata), an attractive brightgreen, yellow-flowered groundcover from tropical America that was introduced into most Pacific Islands over the past 20 years or so. Wedelia was only recently introduced into Niue, where it is now found planted as a groundcover in gardens at the Matavai Resort, in a number of private village gardens, and is now spreading down the Kalaone Sea Track in South Alofi and into the bush surrounding the Matavai Resort. Wedelia is a very serious noxious weed in Pohnpei, Marshall Islands, Tuvalu, Samoa and Fiji, where it has taken over pasture and agricultural lands, and has spread along beaches and rivers and into mangroves and interior mountain areas. Wedelia is extremely difficult to remove once it is established and paraquat does not kill it. It is considered poisonous to domestic animals and not even goats will eat it. In Florida, it is considered so serious that there is a law prohibiting the planting of wedelia, and to get a building permit requires that there is no wedelia on the land or that it has been successfully eradicated. If wedelia is not controlled in Niue, it could take over the entire island and ruin the habitats of many of the island’s birds, the coconut crab and many culturally important plants and animals. Fortunately, the Agricultural Department has commenced a programme to eradicate wedelia before it becomes impossible to control. At present, however the programme has costed over $30,000 and wedelia is still out of control.

Both pests and diseases and the introduction and spread of noxious weeds require the increasing use of toxic pesticides and weedicides that can pollute the environment and lead to the decline in many beneficial insects and invertebrates, birds and culturally valuable plants.

Natural disasters, such as tropical cyclones and drought, are also major causes of the loss of trees, animals and some marine organisms in Niue. Tropical cyclone Ofa 185

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in January 1990 was reportedly responsible for widespread loss of many coastal and inland trees, destruction of crops, declines in stocks of giant clams and other marine organisms, and the widespread destruction of coral reefs. In some areas along the western coast, almost all living coral was destroyed by cyclone Ofa (Dalzell et al.

1993). Climate change and sea-level rise were also reported to be a cause of the decline in some marine resources.

Coupled with overharvest, destructive practices, pest and disease problems, and the effect of natural disasters has been the general failure of the current generation of Niueans to plant trees and other plants that have died or have been harvested.

A similar problem is the general neglect of good husbandry and the failure to protect and nurture trees and other valuable plants, particularly seedlings. Other widespread problems include the lack of planting materials and the difficulty in propagating and planting some endangered species, some of which do not seem to grow very well in the Niuean environment.

Finally, the loss of traditional environmental knowledge and general ignorance and neglect of the environment, particularly among the younger generation is seen as an important factor in the loss of biodiversity. This includes the loss of knowledge of traditional agricultural, hunting and fishing practices and the knowledge about the cultural importance and use of wild foods, medicinal plants and many other important plants and animals. For example, the loss of some species and cultivars of cultivated and wild food plants, such as banana and plantain cultivars, wild yams and some wild greens, is also due to the fact that they are no longer needed in times of emergency and because the younger generation has either forgotten how to plant and protect these plants or no longer likes the taste or knows how to prepare them. In many cases the younger generation does not even know the names of most plants, animals and marine organisms, let alone their uses and how to grow, obtain or prepare them.

Actions to address threats to Niueâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s biodiversity

There are many actions that could be taken to address the threats to Niueâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s biodiversity. These are currently being compiled as part of the, soon to be released, Niue National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (BSAP). The actions that the local communities in Niue suggested should be taken, both in general and by the government and other outside agencies, to protect Niueâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s terrestrial, freshwater and marine biodiversity are listed in Tables 11 and 12.

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Table 11. Suggested actions that can be taken to protect or re-establish endangered plants and animals and to address the unsustainable use of terrestrial, freshwater and marine biodiversity in Niue based on responses by 17 groups of men and women in questionnaire surveys of villages in Niue in 1999.

ACTION TERRESTRIAL/LAND Replanting programmes for rare trees Ban/reduce herbicide/weedkiller (paraquat) use Plant propagation and distribution programs for rare species Establish more forest reserves and conservation areas/protect forests Public environmental education Ban bulldozers for agricultural and forest clearance Prohibit burning in agricultural clearance Identify and prohibit the exploitation of rare or threatened animals and plants Designate protected species Prohibit ploughing of forest/agricultural areas Distribution of seedlings/planting materials for replanting Ban the use of agricultural chemicals Promote organic farming Establish clearly deď&#x20AC; ned laws controlling unsustainable practices Establish national and local germ plasm collections of endangered species and cultivars Eradication/control of rats and wild cats Fines for taking undersize animals Advertise the need for planting materials through the media Public awareness programmes on the importance of trees and forests Look after young trees Encourage diversiď&#x20AC; ed cropping and agroforestry rather than monoculture Promotion of the planting of fruit trees Fallow the land longer Establish bird sanctuaries Fines for illegal hunting of birds and fruit bats Set size limits on coconut crabs Control or eradicate wild pigs Use of/development of an environmental radio program De-emphasise the importance of money Promote biological control/integrated management of pests Hand pulling/clearance of weeds Remove solid waste (old automobiles) Use of solar/renewable energy sources Re-export /dispose of all pesticide stock overseas Control/prohibit the use of dogs for hunting coconut crabs

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Women’s programs for replanting and beautication Encourage women to replant ornamental and fragrant plants Fruit tree improvement and propagation programmes Intensify planting of indigenous species Establishment of a nursery Control or eradication of fruit ies Moratorium on the clearance of forest Promote selective logging and indigenous forest management Impose logging plan and impose logging code

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

FRESHWATER Ban the use of agricultural chemicals

2

MARINE Ban the use of shnets Ban/discourage use of sh poisons Establish more marine protected areas (MPAs)/reserves Seasonal or temporary bans on shing for some species Enforce existing sheries regulations Education on importance of preserving the marine environment and marine habitats Ban the use of spearguns Appoint community sheries wardens Establish and enforce size/length limitations Establish limits on size/number of catch Establish clear and enforceable sheries regulations Protect marine habitats Coral reef conservation campaign Kill all sharks Take only what your need Proper coastal zone management Limit development in coastal areas Use of signs informing people of regulations Control oil spills

188

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Table 12. Suggested actions government or outside agencies should support or new community initiatives that could be promoted to protect or re-establish endangered plants and animals and to address the unsustainable use of terrestrial and marine biodiversity in Niue based on responses by 17 groups of men and women in questionnaire surveys of villages in Niue in 1999.

ACTION GOVERNMENT/OUTSIDE AGENCIES Promote environmental education and awareness Draft/establish clear environmental laws and penalties Fund the establishment of marine protected areas (MPAs) Awareness campaigns of the importance of freshwater resources Laws prohibiting forest clearance Support/training/funding for ecotourism Monitoring of sheries reserves/resources Establish conservation areas Enforce existing legislation Awareness campaigns for visitors/tourists and landowners Laws prohibiting use of shing nets and spearguns Establish rules, laws and closed seasons for hunting Teach people the importance of conserving their resources Have competitions to protect or replant endangered plants and animals Help young people understand the importance of marine life Hold environmental workshops Conduct education programmes/workshops for each village Education of tourism operators Provide employment Promote forest protection through payments for carbon offsets Fund the re-export /disposal of all pesticide stock overseas Periodic test of water quality Monitor pesticide use Development Plan for environmentally sustainable development NEW COMMUNITY INITIATIVES Tree planting campaigns/programmes Ecotourism Promote vanilla production Sale of rare and useful trees Have regular tree planting days Establish as nursery for Niuean plants Community-based conservation Community-based monitoring of biodiversity Establish bird’s-nest fern (luku) plantations for export and local sale Hire shelter for feasts (aa) instead of cutting down trees Promote sustainable-life tourism experience Production of coconut oil/perfume for sale

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These lists clearly focus on a number of priority areas for action. These include: 1. Expansion of the system of forest conservation areas and the protection other threatened terrestrial and freshwater habitats; 2. Expansion of the system of marine protected areas and the protection of threatened marine ecosystems; 3. Formal designation of appropriate species as endangered or threatened species and steps taken to give them appropriate forms of protection; 4. Control or prohibition of environmentally destructive practices, such as the use of bulldozers, burning, ploughing and forest clearance; 5. Banning or control of the use of unsustainable and destructive fishing techniques, such as the use of nets, poisons, dynamite, spearguns and steel bars to break coral; 6. Promotion of multi-species agricultural development (rather than monoculture), including the strengthening of tree-planting in agricultural areas (agroforestry) and the planting of the widest possible range of cultivars of important food species; 7. Promotion of the beautification and planting of endangered and highly desired plants in houseyard gardens in villages and in Alofi; 8. Plant protection and replanting schemes supported by programmes for the establishment of village and national germ plasm collections, nurseries, and the propagation and distribution of endangered or desired species and cultivars; 9. Control or eradication of wild and feral animals, including pigs, dogs, cats and rats; 10. Programmes to control pests and diseases, without the use of environmentally damaging pesticides and herbicides, including the control and reduction of the use of agricultural chemicals in Niue’s fragile environment; 11. Reduction of solid waste and pollution of freshwater and marine ecosystems; 12. Strengthening and enforcement of environmental laws/fisheries regulations, including the placement of restrictions or limits on the size, number and types of terrestrial and marine animals that can be legally taken, and the use, when necessary, of seasonal restrictions or temporary bans on the taking of designated species; 13. Public awareness and environmental education that focuses on the importance of biodiversity and the need for its protection and sustainable use; 14. The involvement of knowledgeable older men and women in formal and non-formal environmental education programmes and giving them appropriate national recognition and compensation for their expertise (possibly designating them as “National Living Treasures”, as has been done in Hawai’i); 190

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15. Institute programmes to identify and record the names, uses and other pertinent information about Niue’s biodiversity before it is lost, and incorporate relevant information in the school curricula; 16. Encourage and actively promote ecotourism as a means of protecting and benefiting from Niue’s unique biodiversity and environment; 17. National and community-based workshops to enhance local capacity to implement biodiversity conservation initiatives; 18. Inter-village, community and school competitions to identify and honour those villages, schools, businesses or government department that have been most successful in promoting the protection and re-establishment of designated rare or endangered species.

19. Systematic monitoring of environmental quality and the success of biodiversity conservation efforts at the national and local level.

Conclusion

For Niueans, “biodiversity” is not just a matter of scientific, economic (in monetary terms), recreational or ecological value. It is a capital inheritance that has been passed on by past generations to current and future generations of Niueans. Biodiversity is not income that should be spent or destroyed. It is the “capital” in the form of a “living bank account” needed for development and maintenance of Niue’s people and upon which “subsistence affluence” 5 and almost all “income” (both cash and non-cash) is derived. It is the foundation of the Niuean culture. If the foundation is destroyed Niuean culture will suffer greatly.

When asked which aspects of their cultural heritage they value most, among the most commonly mentioned by Niueans, both on Niue and in New Zealand, are their myths, legends, ceremonies, songs, dances, traditional feasts, seafood, leis and garlands, fine mats, their seafaring and navigational skills, yam or taro gardens or their own home village setting to which they often intend to ultimately return. The importance of unselfishly sharing these traditions with family, community and visitors is, of course, also stressed as being central to the “Niuean Way” (moui faka Niue).

Most of these “valued things” have one thing in common: they depend on, are Subsistence affluence is a term used by famous economist E. K. Fisk (1972) to describe the non-cash or nonmonetary richness or wealth that people have in terms of what they can produce for themselves. For example, although some people in Niue may not have a lot of money, they are rich or affluent in terms of the fish, crabs, coconuts, taro, fruits, firewood, medicines and handicrafts that they can produce for themselves and for which they do not need to pay money. If they destroy these resources or lose the knowledge about them then they are poorer.

5

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derived from, or focus on the land (fonua) and the sea or ocean (tahi and moana) and the plants and animals found there are increasingly referred to as “biodiversity”, the conservation of which has become a cause celebre of the international environmental and development community and the focus of Niue’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (BSAP).

The predominant focus for most rich-country biodiversity conservation includes uniqueness or endemism 6, scientific importance, importance as potential gene pools for plant breeding, medicinal discoveries or other technical breakthroughs for the benefit of humankind, export or tourism potential, or the ecological benefits of biodiversity and ecosystem preservation. However, for Niue, which probably has no known endemic species of plants or animals, the focus of biodiversity conservation should be the central role that biodiversity plays as the basis for ecological, cultural and economic survival of the Niuean way of life. Particular stress is placed on the fact that for semi-subsistence societies, like most of the people of Niue, 25 to 75% of the real income of poorer people is in the form of non-cash income derived from local terrestrial and marine plant and animal resources that they can produce for themselves.

Moreover, this non-cash income is relatively unaffected by inflation and deterioration in terms of trade which has historically ALWAYS made imported goods increase in cost more rapidly than our wages in the cash economy, what we receive in return for our exports overseas (e.g., copra, limes, passionfruit, cash crops, fish, handicrafts, tourism receipts, timber, etc.) or what we receive in remittances from New Zealand.

Although there are undoubtedly new technologies, types of “development” and some new plant and animal species that could improve the biodiversity and the quality of life in Niue, the basis for survival will remain the “land” (fonua) and the sea (tahi and moana) and the wild and domesticated plants and animals that have served Niue’s people for hundreds, perhaps thousands of years!

Moreover, if we are really worried about cultural survival and sustainability on Niue, the focus of biodiversity conservation programmes and the BSAP must include not only native and endemic (unique) terrestrial and marine species, or larger “charisAn endemic plant or animal is a plant or animal that is only found in one geographic location and no where else.

Such plants have usually evolved in the place where they are now found, but have not been able to disperse to and colonise other areas. Endemism is a measure of the percentage of plants or animals in a given place that are endemic to that place. For example, over 99% of all of Hawaii’s native insects are endemic insects that over millions of years evolved into different species that are now only found in Hawai’i. Niue, however, has no known endemic species of plants or animals and almost all of Niue’s plants and animals are the same species that are also found in Tonga and Samoa, other Pacific Islands and in southeastern Asia and other parts of the world. Niue does have one endemic genetic variety of kapa, Peperomia pallida var. pallida, which is found on the Lower Terrace rim on the west coast from Alofi to Makefu (Sykes 1970). Niue, thus, has very low endemism.

6

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matic megafauna”, such as the whales, sea turtles, rare birds, coconut crabs, and large trees, but must also include the preservation of endangered or ecologically and culturally important ubiquitous (widespread) indigenous and exotic (non-indigenous), and wild AND domesticated, species or varieties (e.g., fetau (Calophyllum inophyllum, a very common species in most Pacific Island countries, but which is now rare on Niue).

This is particularly critical in the context of smaller islands, such as the Niue, which have limited ecosystem diversity and FEW IF ANY ENDEMIC PLANTS OR ANIMALS OF GLOBAL SCIENTIFIC INTEREST, but where the protection of often ubiquitous plants and animals, both indigenous and exotic, must be given at least equal priority as the protection of rare, highly endemic biota of larger islands, because it is their ONLY biodiversity!!. For example, a large proportion of the few indigenous plant species of Niue is severely restricted in distribution, endangered or possibly extinct due to overexploitation and habitat modification. In other words, the biodiversity of many small islands, such as Niue, is much more endangered and much more in need of management than that of the larger islands in the western Pacific.

In terms of the implementation of strategies for biodiversity conservation, it is argued that, in terms of cost- and biodiversity-conservation effectiveness (measured in terms of the number of endangered and ecologically and culturally important ecosystems and taxa that are protected or increase in numbers), AND in terms of maintaining Niue’s cultural and spiritual links with biodiversity, the major effort should be placed on conservation of biodiversity at the local community or landowner level, through the implementation of multi-ecosystem “community-based biodiversity conservation” (CBBC). This is seen as critical because the success or failure of most conservation initiatives in the Pacific Islands rests with the landowners and resource users (e.g. fishers, hunters, farmers and traditional medical practitioners) and whether or not they clearly see the benefits of biodiversity preservation. This is not to suggest that national initiatives for the establishment of conservation areas are not also a priority. In fact, because the population of Niue is so small, the entire population represents a relatively close-knit community, one for which there is great potential for “national community-based biodiversity conservation”. The SPBCP-funded Huvalu Forest Conservation Area and the Namoui Marine Protected Area are good examples of community-based biodiversity conservation, although it would be hoped that in the future that all villages in Niue would also have their own conservation areas and marine reserves or community-based conservation plans. Finally, it is argued that for community or national biodiversity conservation programmes to be successful, a major component, in terms of both funding and personnel, must be devoted to public 193

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education with respect to the importance of biodiversity to cultural survival and sustainable development, the types of activities or things that threaten it, and the role that local communities and the government can play to conserve or enhance biodiversity at the community, national, regional and global levels.

As stressed above, the loss or impoverishment of biodiversity and the loss of ethnobiological knowledge represents an ecological, cultural and economic disaster that will lock Niue and other Pacific Island societies more tightly into the vicious circle of economic and cultural dependency. There is, thus, a critical need for biodiversity conservation and education before it is too late.

To promote multi-ecosystem “community-based biodiversity conservation” (CBBC), individuals, local bodies, government, non-governmental and international organisations and academic institutions must resolve themselves to creating an environment that will foster the protection and enhancement of important ecosystems and biodiversity at the community level. Extensive, primarily self-help programmes must be mounted to encourage biodiversity preservation, not only in rural areas, in wildlands and in the marine environment, but also in and around Niue’s capital Alofi and its villages. Although there are countless recommendations that could be made with respect to the systematic promotion of multi-ecosystem “community-based biodiversity conservation” (CBBC) in Niue, the following are some general recommendations that could serve, along with those suggested in the survey of local communities, as an initial blueprint for a maximisation of biodiversity preservation in Niue: 1. That multimedia programs be developed, in the vernacular, to stress the nature and long term economic, social, and ecological importance of Niue’s biodiversity and the problems associated the loss of biodiversity.

2. That units be written for use in school science or social science/geography curricula, at appropriate levels, on the nature and importance of biodiversity to Niue and other Pacific societies (such units should be examinable and include field activities that can be carried out in Niue, New Zealand or other appropriate locations).

3. That intersectoral working groups or committees be established in Niue to compile and publish lists (with both vernacular and Latin names) of the biological diversity in representative ecosystems at the community and national levels.

4. That in-depth research be funded and conducted to study important ecosystems, their component plants and animals, cultural ecology, husbandry, and their economic, particularly their subsistence economic, importance (i.e., their ethnobiology), in the context of national and community development.

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5. That all landholders/owners be encouraged to preserve and manage representative areas of all productive ecosystems listed in Table 1 as ecologically-important and culturally-utilitarian components of their land and marine use and tenure systems.

6. That terrestrial and marine conservation area development include the promotion and establishment of village-level or landowner reserves or micro-parks in an effort to spread the benefits of park and biodiversity conservation initiatives to all village and communities in Niue.

7. That the nutritional and economic importance of wild terrestrial and marine foods and traditional local food crops be widely stressed, and included as a capital item, in development plans and be made a component of environmental impact assessment procedures.

8. That important wild or cultivated medicinal plants, perfume and ornamental plants and other culturally important plants and animals be identified and consciously protected or planted in in situ and ex situ programmes .

9. That the magico-religious, spiritual and cultural importance of biological resources (e.g., sacred species) and peoplesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; traditional connections with the land and ocean be popularised in an attempt to get local communities to protect representative species and ecosystems.

10. That, where possible, the protection or enhancement of useful plants, animals and components of terrestrial and marine ecosystems be required or encouraged in all agricultural, forestry, fisheries, livestock, tourism, and urban-industrial development projects in Niue.

11. That deliberate planting, transplanting, translocation or protection of endangered indigenous plant and animals species from endangered ecosystems to other appropriate areas (i.e., ex situ programmes) be actively encouraged, with appropriate quarantine procedures.

12. That severe pruning, pollarding, and coppicing be encouraged as an alternative to complete plant removal, when clearing new garden areas for both commercial and subsistence crops or livestock production.

13. That national quarantine procedures be strengthened and a national alien species action plan (ASAP) be developed and put in place to insure that no new introduced invasive plants or animals (e.g. wedelia and fruit flies) are introduced into Niue and that those that already exist be either eradicated or controlled; 14. That national and regional legislation be passed and enforced that ensures that local communities/practitioners receive appropriate monetary benefits from 195

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their “intellectual property rights” (IPR) related to the use or exploitation of both their biodiversity resources and their traditional knowledge by scientists, private companies and other agencies involved in biodiversity research, bioprospecting and other activities that depend on the biodiversity heritages of Niue.

15. That Niue become party to and actively support all international conventions or initiatives that support or facilitate the protection of the environment and biodiversity, e.g., the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES, 1973), the Convention on the Conservation of Nature in the South Pacific (Apia Convention, 1976), the Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of the South Pacific Region (SPREP Convention, 1986), the Convention for the Prohibition of Fishing with Long Driftnets in the South Pacific (Wellington Convention, 1989), the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD, 1992), and the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS, 1992).

16. That the implementation and improvement of the Niue National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (BSAP) be seen as a priority for modern development in Niue.

There are obviously other means of promoting the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity by individuals, communities, local bodies, governments and non-governmental and international organisations. The main point that must be continually stressed, however, is that the main objective of biodiversity conservation in the Niue and the Pacific Islands should be to benefit local communities, rather than to preserve endemic plants and animals for science or in the hope of finding a cure for AIDS in our forests or lagoons. It must be stressed over and over again that biodiversity will probably remain the foundation for cultural, economic and ecological survival for most Pacific Island communities and nations.

The diagram at the beginning of the chapter, “The Pyramid for Sustainable Development in Niue” represents a model showing how the protection of biodiversity can serve as the foundation for sustainable development in Niue. As suggested in the diagram, if we protect all of our natural and cultural terrestrial, freshwater and marine ecosystems, then we will protect all of the plants and animals, both wild and domesticated or cultivated, which live in and depend on the health of these ecosystems. If we protect the plants and animals in these ecosystems, then we will ensure that we will continue to be able to provide the wide range of goods 196

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and services that are needed for our subsistence wellbeing, for local sale and for export (including tourism and the export of gifts to overseas Niueans who send remittance money back to Niue). If we protect all of these levels of the pyramid, then all “urban” activities and urban people (e.g., politicians, teachers, construction workers, doctors, lawyers, accountants, businessmen, civil servants, etc) will also survive. If, however, we fail to protect the foundation of the pyramid of sustainable development (i.e., our ecosystems and biodiversity), then the entire pyramid will collapse and the modern urban economy will fall apart, as it has done in parts of Africa and other areas where biodiversity and the social systems that have depended on it have been destroyed! Although there are undoubtedly new technologies and some new plant and animal species that could enhance cash incomes and the quality of life in all areas of the Pacific, the basis for survival will remain the wild and domesticated plants and animals that have served Niue’s people and other Pacific peoples for millennia.

For the benefit of future generations of Niueans, we must commit ourselves to the implementation of many of the ACTIONS SUGGESTED ABOVE and to strongly support the acceptance and implementation of the Niue BSAP. We must do so to protect our lands, waters and the plants and animals that Almighty God has given to the people of Niue to keep them healthy, happy and productive. We must protect AND STRENGTHEN our “Pyramid for Sustainable Development in Niue”. Our ancestors unselfishly and wisely used Niue’s ecosystems and plants and animals for over a thousand years! They passed these resources and their knowledge about these resources and the best ways of using them on to us for our use and for us to protect and pass on to our children and their children forever. As guardians of these resources and guardians of the knowledge of these resources, we must commit ourselves to the principles and actions contained in following “Ten Commandments for the Protection of Life in Niue” to protect Niue’s forests, gardens, villages, caves, fresh water, reefs and oceans as our God-given foundation and bank account for the development of future generations who will live in Niue now and for evermore!

Ten commandments for the protection of life in Niue Use our forests and land resources wisely and unselfishly Support the sustainable use of Niue’s inland and coastal forests and other land resources so that our children and grandchildren will have the same plants, birds, fruit bats, crabs and other animals that we have for our use today.

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Use our marine resources wisely and unselfishly Support the sustainable harvest of our marine plants and animals. Discourage destructive practices such as gillnet fishing, net fishing for kaloama, fish poisoning, use of spearguns, use of dynamite, the harvest of undersize animals, and overfishing.

Protect the places where animals and plants live Support the establishment of conservation areas and protected areas on our island and in our marine environment at the national, local and landowner level. All landowners can protect and continue to use their biodiversity if we protect some inland forest, coastal forest, caves, reefs, seas and other areas where land and marine plants and animals live.

Protect our food and agricultural systems Protect Niue’s traditional agricultural systems in which many different types of trees, staple crops, other food and useful non-food plants and animals are found. Our traditional foods, drinks and agricultural systems are the foundation for good nutrition and good health. Protect and plant food trees, food plants and other useful plants, and raise farm animals around our homes and on our bush allotments. Make sure that we pen or tether our animals so that they do not destroy our crops and other valuable plants.

Protect rural village life Protect the quality of life in our villages. Plant local foods, medicinal plants, fragrant and sacred plants and other useful plants in our villages and houseyard gardens. Teach our children the advantages of learning the wisdom of village men and women. Teach your children to eat and drink fresh local foods and drinks. Do not destroy, over-use or pollute the rivers, reefs and ocean near our towns and villages.

Prevent pollution, waste and the introduction of invasive species Control all forms of pollution, waste and pests that affect plants and animals and the places they live. Reduce the use of dangerous pesticides and fish poisons. Support and enforce an “Anti-Litter Decree” in Niue. Prevent the pollution and invasion of our island by foreign weeds, pests and diseases. Support quarantine laws and prevent the illegal introduction of plants and animals that will replace our native plants and animals.

Support and obey environmental laws Be honest and ethical. Support local, national and international laws that protect our land and marine environments and plants and animals. These laws are for the benefit of everyone and for the benefit of the health of Niue and our planet Earth. Do not hunt or fish out of season. Do not catch and sell undersize fish, crabs and animals.

Do not cut trees illegally. Give your support to the Niue government’s attempts to 198

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support international actions to protect rare or endangered plants and animals, such as giant clams, coral, sea turtles, sharks, whales, parrots, pigeons, coconut crabs and seabirds. Obey village rules that protect plants and animals and the environment.

Increase modern and traditional environmental education Teach our children and our adults, in our schools, in our homes, in our government buildings and in our business houses, the importance of our land and marine plants and animals as a foundation and bank account for economic and cultural development in Niue. Protect and teach traditional knowledge of the use and protection of our plants and animals that the older people in all of our communities have and which has protected our plants and animals in Niue for thousands of years.

Plan our families Plan the size of our families so that all of Niue’s people can satisfy their future needs for food, water, medicine, clothing, firewood, sacred and fragrant plants education and housing.

Plan for the future Don’t be greedy. Use only what you need. Don’t harvest too much. Don’t overfish.

Think about future generations. Use wisely and protect Niue’s land and marine plants and animals and the environment so that Niue’s children and grandchildren will have a healthy and productive life. Help to ensure that the people of Niue today do not destroy the plants and animals that our parents and grandparents have left for us.

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Kinsky, F.C. and Yaldwyn, J.C. (1981) The bird fauna of Niue Island, South West Pacific, with special notes on the white-tailed tropic bird and golden plover. Miscellaneous series No. 2. National Museum of New Zealand, Wellington.

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Oliver, W. (1999) An update of plantation forestry in the South Pacific. (RAS/97/330). Working paper No. 7. Pacific Islands Forests and Trees Support Programme, Suva.

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Sperlich, W.B. (1997) Tohi vagahau Niue: Niue language dictionary. Government of Niue, Alofi and Department of Linguistics, University of Hawaii, Honolulu.

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Thaman, R.R. (1994b) Ethnobotany of Pacific Island coastal plants. In Morrison, J., Geraghty, P. and Crowl, L. (Eds.), Science of Pacific Island peoples. Vol. 3: Land use and agriculture. Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific, Suva, pp. 147-184.

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Pacific Islands Forests & Trees 3/95 (September): 8-10 and 2.

Thaman, R.R. and Whistler, W.A. (1996) A review of uses and status of trees and forests in land-use systems in Samoa, Tonga, Kiribati and Tuvalu with recommendations for future action. Working Paper 5, June 1996 (RAS/92/361). South Pacific Forestry Development Programme, Suva. 171pp.

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Veron, J.E.N. (1986) Corals of Australia and the Indo-Pacific. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu.

Vueti, E.T., Allwood, A.J., Leweniqila, L., Ralulu, A., Balawakula, a., Malua, A., Sales, F. and Peleti, K. (1997) Fruit fly fauna in Fiji, Tuvalu, Wallis and Futuna, Tokelau and Nauru. In Allwood, A.J. and Drew, R.A.I. (Eds.), Management of fruit flies in the Pacific: A regional symposium, Nadi, Fiji 28-31 October 1996. ACIAR Proceedings No. 76, Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra, pp. 60-63.

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Watling, D. (1982) Birds of Fiji, Tonga and Samoa. Millwood Press, Wellington.

Wetterer, J.K., Banko, P.C., Laniawe, L., Slotterback, J.W. and Brenner, G. (1997) Exotic ants at high elevations on Mauna Kea, Hawaii. Pacific Science. In press.

Whistler, W.A. (1991) The ethnobotany of Tonga: The plants, their names, and their uses. Bishop Museum Bulletin in Botany 2. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

Whistler, W.A. (1992) Flowers of the Pacific Island seashore: A guide to the littoral plants of Hawaiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;i, Tahiti, Samoa, Tonga, Cook Islands, Fiji and Micronesia. Isla Botanica, Honolulu.

Woodzicki, K. and Felton, H. (1975) The peka, or fruit bat (Pteropus tonganus) on Niue Island., South Pacific.

Pacific Science 29(2):131-138.

Worthy, T.H., Walter, R. and Anderson, A.J. (1998) Fossil and archaeological avifauna of Niue Island, Pacific Ocean. Notornis 45: 177-190.

Wright A.C.S. and Westerndorp, F.J. van (1965) Soils and agriculture of Niue Island. Bulletin 17. New Zealand Soil Bureau, Wellington.

Yaldwyn, J.C. (1970) The environment, natural history and special conservation problems of Niue Island. Regional Symposium on Conservation of Nature: Reefs and Lagoons. Working Paper 8. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, pp. 40-55.

Yaldwyn, J.C. and Wodzicki (1979) Systematics and ecology of the land crabs (Decapoda: Coenobitidae, Grapsidae and Gecarcinidae) of the Tokelau Islands, Central Pacific. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 235. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.

202

EMPTY SHELLS?: DEMOGRAPHIC DECLINE AND OPPORTUNITY IN NIUE LIONEL GIBSON

Foundation for the Peoples of the South Pacic International Suva, Fiji Formerly Geography Deppartment, The University of the South Pacic Suva, Fiji

You haunt my thoughts daily Breeding questions and confusion On your derelict’d shame Oh, you abandoned homes Lying still in the noonday heat Whist nature creeps stealthily in your sleep The abandoned sleep of Hopes and dreams of a household long gone Gone ever to return?

To these rocky shores of windswept cliffs Of idyllic days and uga* feasts…

Who weeps for these echo-filled spaces?

Who cares for flaking ceilings or broken windows?

But spiders that spin And the seawind who dreamily makes her nest within.

* Coconut tree crab ‘Empty Shells’ (Susan Elliot, 1997)

Introduction

With even the most cursory investigation of Niue’s population data, it is difficult to come to anything other than a pessimistic conclusion. The country’s demographic profile is one which, at one level, suggests that de-population for this small society approaches a threshold below which the country may well become non-viable. Falling aid levels from New Zealand and dwindling remittance flows further undermine the sustainability of the MIRAB process (Bertram and Watters, 1985; 1986). The difficulties of planning for “empty shells” and “echo-filled spaces” (Elliot, 1997, p. 59) are, to say the least, challenging.

At another level, however, Niue’s population offers hope of a vibrant and viable transnational population living in two places (New Zealand and Niue), yet - through kinship and communal linkages and with the use of modern forms of communication (modern transport and the internet) - maintaining contact and linkages.

(Bedford, 2000; Howard, 1999; Spoonley, 2000). This chapter first outlines Niue’s 203

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population profile in the context of the MIRAB process. Subsequently, and in view of more recent work on Pacific Diaspora, it considers Niue’s demographic challenges in a more hopeful light.

Beyond MIRAB?

Much of the discussion about the population of Microstates in the Pacific has been from within the framework of the MIRAB construct (Bertram and Watters, 1985).

This theoretical framework argues that small island states are dominated by international Migration, Remittances and the predominance of Aid; the latter largely propping-up Bureaucracy in the absence of a well developed private sector. There has, since the appearance of the model (Bertram and Watters, 1985), been a plethora of writings which have sought to confirm, (Bertram, 1999; Poirine, 1994; 1998; Brown, 1998) revise (Ahlburg, 1991) or debunk (Pollard, 1995; Finau, 1994) the concept. Even those like Treadgold (1999) who promote breaking out of the MIRAB mould, acknowledge the concept’s relevance. A recent commentator captures the intensity of interest in the MIRAB process by describing the discourse as a division between those who “love” and those who “hate” MIRAB (Poirine, 1998).

Few studies of Niue since 1985 have considered the structure of dependence.

Two notable exceptions include Matheson (1986) and Barker (2000). The latter author dealt with the relationship between hurricanes and economic development arguing that these extreme weather conditions have hastened the country’s movement towards a MIRAB economy. Research that pre-dates the 1985 publication (e.g. Bedford, 1979; Connell, 1983) did however, focus on the predominance of migration and remittances. Niue’s first (and only) self-history written by its leading citizens in both Niuean and English (Chapman et.al, 1982) clearly described the development of the MIRAB process without using the term explicitly. Chapman concludes, for example, that: “Niue as a modern society has arrived at a point between and betwixt….most of the Niuean people have become alienated from their indigenous environment for most of them now live in New Zealand and will eventually become assimilated….But could Niue ever become self-supporting and, even more importantly, self-supporting enough to support a similar standard of living as in New Zealand? Economically, Niue still relies heavily on New Zealand aid….of the $6,155,000 projected for Government expenditure for 1974-1977, 5,430,000 was to have been met by New Zealand” (pp. 138-9) 204

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Perhaps the MIRAB concept’s primary contribution to an understanding of development in small micro-states has been that it is a hopeful construct developed for the Pacific generally and for Island Microstates with close links to New Zealand in particular. The concept came out of a review of New Zealand’s relations with its small island neighbours undertaken by Bertram and Watters for the New Zealand Government. When first published MIRAB turned the established notion of external dependence on its head. Up until then much of the argument about small societies viewed dependence on a volatile international political economy in a negative light.

Internally self-generating economic development that promotes self-reliance and production-based efficiency and growth was, and still is, the conventional development recipe (See MacMaster, 1993; Browne, 1995; Cole and Tambunlertchai, 1993) (see Murray in this volume also).

Bertram and Watters (1986), drawing on earlier work that considered the active role of Pacific Islanders in adapting to externalities, (Finney, 1965; Brookfield, 1977; Marcus, 1981; and Loomis, 1984), produced a very hopeful development prognosis for small island states for the first time. For them the facets of dependence - reliance on external labour markets for migration and remittances, and aid donor munificence to fund bureaucracy - constituted a rational and enduring development option for small Microstates. Remittances were seen as sustainable, and the notion of remittance decline (e.g. Stark, 1991) was rejected. It was argued that as long as the migrant pool in New Zealand was being topped-up by new migrants from microstates, then remittance levels would prove stable. Extended families in the islands were described as economic as well as social units who behaved in a similar way to transnational corporations (Transnational Corporations of Kin) in subsidiary investment (migration) and profit-repatriation (remittances). Aid, it was further argued, would remain an important external subsidy because of the “rent income” that Microstates could earn from the ethical obligations of donors and the geopolitical significance of small Pacific Island states.

On the above basis, Bertram and Watters (1985) claimed enthusiastically that: “…we think that the MIRAB system is likely to prove durable and persistent over a considerable period of time. In advancing this hypothesis we are suggesting that the regional MIRAB system is capable of self-reproduction through time - that is that the international kin-corporation, the flow of remittances and the availability of grant aid are all ‘sustainable’ so that present levels of consumption, together with present structures of the balance of payments and of government finance, are all likely to persist.” (pp. 512-513).

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Evidence from Niue over the last decade or so, however, has seriously called into question the applicability and optimism of the MIRAB concept. Migration and Remittances have dwindled and show no signs of being resurrected. The emptying of Niue’s village greens, described by Douglas (1985) has continued to a point now where 90% of Niueans live in New Zealand and less than 10% reside on the Island.

There simply are not enough people in the source area to top-up the migrant pool in New Zealand and because of the dwindling population and the high incidence of Niueans born in New Zealand, diminishing incentive to remit income to Niue. To stretch the concept of Transnational Corporations of Kin, the subsidiary has become the Head Office and the former headquarters is being downsized. There is no reliable data on remittances for Niue but deductively we can assume that it has declined and will continue to dwindle.

Whether we see remittances as an act of altruism or of self-interest or a combination of both (see Stark, 1991; Cox, 1990; Poirine, 1998), Niue has reached a point where there are so few people left to be the source of migration or recipients of transfers, and such limited economic opportunities for investment, that the first two elements of MIRAB are under threat. Figure 1 shows the changes that have taken place in Niue’s population over the course of the 20th Century. From a peak in 1966, when total population exceeded 5,000, a picture of demographic decline has seen the population fall below what it was in 1900.

Figure 1: Niue’s population 1900-2000

Source: SPC, 1999

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Aid and Bureaucracy, too, have declined markedly in recent years and seem destined to dwindle further. Of the former the Niue Economic Review (January 2000) reports that the New Zealand Government plans to reduce the NZ$3.5 million in recurrent bilateral assistance and the NZ$2.5 million in special funding after 2004 in favour of a Niue Trust Fund. The Public Service has, since the Niue Government Reform plan in 1992, been subject to cuts. It still, though, employed 51% of the workforce at the last census (See Figure 2 below). Remittance and aid flows have not managed to ensure balanced current accounts and limited debt accumulation in Niue as MIRAB’s architects argued it might (Bertram, 1999). The Niue Government is currently in the throws of a financial crisis with debt in excess of NZ$1 million with some estimates placing the figure at NZ$2 million (Niue Economic Review, January 2000). There is a need, therefore, to move beyond the MIRAB concept in discussing Niue’s population structure, processes and prospects.

Figure 2: Employment structure in Niue, 1997

Source: PIDP, 1998

Data and Decline The literature on smallness, and more particularly the special problems of small countries, is vast and well established (e.g. Selwyn, 1980; Shand, 1980; Dommen, 1985; Bray, 1987). When one considers the particular problems related to the nature of Niue’s smallness, however, it becomes clear that Niue is a special case in many ways. Aside from a population of below 2000, more than 18,000 Niueans (some 207

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90% of ethnic Niueans) resided in New Zealand in 1996. This figure had increased, particularly in the period from 1991-1996 due to migration from Niue (of around 300 people) but more from natural increase (See Table 1).

Table 1: Niueans in New Zealand 1986, 1991, and 1996 Males Females Total

1986 6,267 6,234 12,501

1991 7,173 7,254 14,427

1996 9,183 9,291 18,474

Source: (SPC, 1999: 5)

Figures 3 and 4 further demonstrate the degree of smallness. A total population of around 2,000 may sound small but when one considers that six of the villages in Niue have populations of less than 100 (with Namukulu, Toi and Vaiea below 50 in population) and only Alofi (South and North) has population in excess of 500, does the Lilliputian magnitude become apparent. The establishment of services for individual villages, or indeed at a national scale, will never be cost effective. The continued provision of basic services such as health and education for a decreasing population in the face of falling aid and remittances and a dwindling public service will also face serious difficulties in Niue. The failure to provide such services will also fuel yet more emigration. Emigration has produced a situation (figure 3 and 4) where all settlements except Hakupu and Vaiea have in the period since 1997 experienced population decline.

Figure 3: Village Populations 1986, 1991, 1997

Source: SPC, 1999

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Figure 4: Village Population Change 1986-91 and 1991-97 (absolute gures)

Source: SPC, 1999

Although international migration is considered to be a critical element in Niue’s demographic and development prospects, the data available on migration is incomplete because of problems with accurate record keeping of migrants arriving and departing from Hanan International Airport. The analysis of migration from the 1997 Census could only estimate net migration from the difference between natural increase (births and deaths) and counted population at the time of the 1997 Census (SPC, 1999, 25). This figure places international emigration on average at 51 persons per year during the period 1991-1997. Natural increase in the same years was 156 (243 births - 87 deaths). The emigration rate is therefore just under twice that of the rate of natural increase. The dominance of outmigration can be seen in the unusual shape of Niue’s population structure (See Table 2 and Figure5).

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Figure 5: Population pyramid for Niue, 1997

Source: SPC, 1999

Table 2: Niue: Population Structure, 1997 Census Age Group 0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60-64 65-69 70-74 75+ Total Source: SPC, 1999, 47

210

Males 107 124 115 105 62 66 76 68 64 40 53 52 48 23 24 26 1053

Females 103 125 128 90 54 60 69 54 61 54 47 57 53 28 20 52 1035

Persons 210 229 243 195 116 126 145 122 125 94 100 109 101 51 44 78 2088

Sex Ratio 104 118 90 117 115 110 110 126 105 74 113 91 91 82 120 50 102

EMPTY SHELLS?: DEMOGRAPHIC DECLINE AND OPPORTUNITY IN NIUE

The structure of Niue’s population has two noticeable features. There are ‘holes’ in the 15-19, 20-24 and 24-29 cohorts and a pinching-in at the 0-5, and 5-9 age groups. This partially reflects the predominance of family migration where parents primarily in the 20-29 age cohorts have migrated taking with them children in the 5-9 age groups. If one considers at the distribution of emigrants by age we can see that the 20-29 cohorts accounted for 19.9% of all migrants between 1991 and 1997 and that children between 5 and 9 years of age represented 16.1% of migrants. The narrowing of the base of the pyramid is a reflection of the fall in fertility that has resulted from a reduction in the number of women in the childbearing ages (together with possible life-choice factors). Total fertility fell from 4.85 in 1986 to 2.65 in 1997 and is currently estimated to be at 3.0 (SPC, 1999, 30). It is possible that with further declines in fertility, natural increase may reach replacement levels with births and deaths cancelling each other out (UNFPA 1999; 1997).

The largest group of out-migrants from Niue by far, has been the 15-19 age category. This accounted for 42.6% of all migrants between 1991 and 1997. This group consists, it would seem, of people who have completed their secondary education on Niue and have migrated in search of employment or for further education (SPC, 1999; UNFPA, 1994; 1997; 1999).

The shrinking of the 15-19, 20-24 and 25-29 cohorts means that there are fewer residents in the productive age groups. This is not reflected, however, in the agedependency ratio that compares those in working age categories (15-59) with the young (0-14) and the old (60+). This declined from 95.6 in 1986 to 84.5 in 1997 because of the fall in fertility that has reduced the relative size of the 0-14 age groups. The ratio disguises the aging of Niue’s population which can be seen in the increasing proportion of total population that is made up by over sixties and growth in the median age of the population from 20.9 in 1986 to 27 at the last census (see Table 3).

Table 3: Major Age Groups, Median Age and Dependency Ratio Niue Age Group 0-14 15-59 60+ Median Age Dependency Ratio

1986 38.4% 51.1% 10.4% 20.9 95.6

1991 36.7% 53.6% 9.7% 22.8 86.6

1997 32.7% 54.2% 13.1% 27 84.5

Source: SPC, 1999, 8

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Beyond Data?

Statistics on their own say very little about people. Presented as they have been in the preceding section they seem to offer a very bleak, if not hopeless, future for the country. Despite this, a number of aspects of Niue’s population place it in a good position to face the challenges of the twenty-first century. Particularly worthy of note is the strength of community, Niue’s high Human Development Index rating and the relatively poor economic performance of Niueans in New Zealand.

Niue’s Human Development Index that broadly measures income, education and health, is the third highest (0.774) in the Region behind Palau (0.861) and the Cook Islands (0.822) (UNDP, 1999). This indicates clearly that those Niueans who remain enjoy a high standard of living. Despite this, recent analyses (SPC, 1999; UNFPA, 1997) have argued that the country faces the double problem of not only trying to retain its productive members, but also needing to attract Niueans back home (or to the home-away-from-home for those born in New Zealand). Attracting Niueans ‘back home’ is perhaps not as far-fetched as it might sound.

Research on Pacific migrants to New Zealand suggests that they display high unemployment rates and low incomes. The 1996 New Zealand Census, for example, found that the employment rate of Niueans in New Zealand was 54.8% compared to 58.8% for the rest of the population (Humphris and Chapple, 1999, 2). It was also recorded that 16% of Niueans in New Zealand were unemployed compared to a national average unemployment rate of 7.7% (PIDP, 1998). Data from 1996 further records that Pacific Islanders as a group have been experiencing a relative fall in income over the last two decades. In 1981, Pacific migrants earned approximately 55% of the national average income in New Zealand. By 1996, this had fallen to 41% (Winkelmann and Winkelmann, 1998). This decline has been ascribed to a shift in New Zealand’s economy towards the service sector and a decline in the importance of manufacturing - the traditional employer of Pacific migrants (Humphris and Chapple, 1999). Whilst there was no disaggregated data for Niueans, there is no reason to suppose that they have fared any differently.

There is, at least in theory, a large group of Niueans in New Zealand who may be enticed to move to Niue if employment and income opportunities were made available. A key element in any attempts to encourage any prodigal migration will lie in the strength of kinship and family links after a generation of out-migration. It is hoped that the optimism expressed at independence was well founded: “Niue’s character has been formed by surviving. She will survive in this very different world of self-government, independence and economically-improved 212

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living with those very same virtues of independence, devotion to family and flexibility that have enabled her to survive for at least a thousand years (Chapman, 1982, 139)”.

Towards a Transnational Niuean Community?

If the notion of transnational corporations of kin is somewhat hard to wear when such a large proportion of a community live elsewhere, then perhaps the idea of transnational communities supported by Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC) is more plausible. There is evidence to suggest that with improvements in transport and communication, particularly the latter, it may be possible for Niueans in Niue and New Zealand to function as a closer-knit community.

Work on other diasporic communities suggests that the Internet is well suited to maintaining community links in the long term (Howard, 1999). In Niue’s case there is every possibility that such a community is plausible. The country’s telephone density is amongst the highest in the Pacific at 44.2/100. This compares with a density in Fiji, for instance of a mere 9.3/100 (Spoonley, 2000). Furthermore, Niue is the only country in the world to give its residents free access to the Internet.

Evidence on the actual use of the Internet by Niueans offers more signs that CMC may prove to be an important adhesive for the transnational Niuean community in the future. Richard Saint Clair, Co-founder and Technical Manager of the Internet Users Society in Niue, reports that internet users from within Niue spend more than 4,000 hours per month online and there are about 5,000 emails per week travelling to and from Niue (pers.comm). Statistics for the month of April, 2001 for visits to the Niuenews site (http://www.niuenews.nu) also suggest a role for the internet in Niue’s future. Figure 6 shows that of the 3,074 hits almost 25% of them were from New Zealand. It is reasonable to assume most of these visits are from expatriate Niueans.

Notwithstanding the problems associated with the use of CMC (Howard, 1999), it may be possible for this investment in human networks to allow Niue’s population to remain viable into the future despite falling population. It may even be possible for this development of virtual community (a new age form of social capital) to be converted into financial capital in the form of investment from expatriate Niueans in Niue or the formation of Niuean local/global export networks. This human investment (Poirine, 1998) may prove more financially rewarding than the failed attempts at self-sustaining economic development based on agricultural exports and tourism (see Murray, this volume).

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Figure 6: Niue Website Visitors by Origin

Source: Niue News.

Conclusion

There are obviously no easy answers to Niue’s population problems. At a policy level Government must realise that there are no simple or quick-fix solutions to the country’s demographic and developmental challenges. The hasty attempt to fast-track legislation to create Cyber City in 2000 (NER, 2000, various) is an example of what Niue needs to be careful to avoid. The road to demographic recovery is necessarily a slow and painful one. Depopulation is a very difficult process to reverse, but it is not impossible. With careful planning and marketing, with the inclusion through CMC of Niueans who reside in New Zealand and with clement weather, anything is possible.

As David Brower, arguably the twentieth century’s greatest environmentalist, once said: “We are confronted with insurmountable opportunity” (McKibben, 2000, 36).

“Oceania is vast. Oceania is expanding. Oceania is hospitable and generous.

Oceania is humanity rising from the depths of brine and regions of fire deeper still, Oceania is us. We are the sea, we are the ocean, we must wake up to this ancient truth and together use it to overturn all hegemonic views that aim to confine us again physically and psychologically, in the tiny spaces we have resisted accepting as our appointed place…(Haua’ofa, 1993, 16)”.

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Bedford, R. (2000) Meta-Societies, Remittance Economies and Internet Addresses, in Graham, .T. and Poku, N.K. (Eds.) Migration, Globalisation and Human Security (Routledge, London).

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216

LAND USE AND LAND DEGRADATION ON NIUE MATT M. MCINTYRE1 AND JOHN A. SOULSBY2 1

2

Formerly of AUSAid. Niue

Formerly Geography Department, The University of the South Pacic.

Suva, Fiji

Introduction

Some 35 years ago, in the first substantial overview of the land resources of Niue, Wright and van Westerndorp made the following observation: “The problem with Niue Island is a problem common to many of the islands of the humid tropics: the need to involve something approaching a permanent system of agriculture that will meet the subsistence needs of an ever-growing population and at the same time provide a surplus of exportable agricultural products whose sale will permit a steady increase in the standard of living of the people. This problem has to be solved without damaging in any way the very restricted natural resources of the island, and it has to be solved without undue delay because the situation grows more acute with every passing year. The problem is all the more formidable because the solutions must be permanent ones yet must be in balance with a soil whose outstanding property is a capacity to undergo rapid and often irreversible change (Wright and van Westerndorp, 1965, 1)” The population is now in decline, as discussed by Gibson in this volume, and thus some of the urgency for a solution advocated by the authors has disappeared to some degree, but the anomalous situation of a declining population coupled with an increased demand for land is considered in more detail below. Nevertheless the latter part of the quotation above still holds good today - that land use decisions involving the soil resources of the island must be in balance with the changing natural and social environment. The soil resources were described in earlier chapters in this collection by Terry, and Nunn and Britton. This chapter concentrates on what has been done and what can be done with this particular land resource bearing in mind the overarching considerations of rapid change, sustainability and the permanence of a solution. We explore the wider historic, cultural and socio-economic factors contributing to current ‘unsustainable’ land use and in doing so consider the history of land use on the island and examine the past, present and possible future relationships between human communities and land.

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Land Use Patterns and Processes.

The principal form of cultivation on the island is rotational or shifting cultivation with the growing of taro (Colocasia esculenta) as the primary crop. Much of the rural interior of Niue is inaccessible for large scale subsistence or commercial agriculture, and, as noted by Terry in this volume, the makatea outcrops may cover up to 90% of the ground surface. A traditional system of ‘tapu’ and ‘fono’ protection areas placed on land and marine resources by the family groups (the magafaoa) has helped to retain as much as 65% of the country’s primary forest. In addition to the primary forest, a further 10 - 15% may be healthy regenerating secondary growth or long term fallow with a recovery period in excess of 20 years. The remaining open areas are a mixture of subsistence patches or bush gardens, fallow areas which range from 5 to 20 years, and the degraded areas known locally as fern-lands or the ‘Niue desert.’

Subsistence agriculture takes two basic forms. Close to the coast and villages the plots are very small coverings between 100 and 300 m2. The village women and the elderly use these as ‘convenience’ cropping plots. The plots are often on rocky and steep slopes and thus preclude mechanised forms of cultivation, so they are worked using traditional slash and burn or slash and mulch techniques.

Inland from the Alofi terrace, on the flatter topography of the old lagoon area and its rim, families have their larger communal or individual plots to grow taro, other root vegetables, fruit trees and traditional herbal plants. These inland plots range in size from 0.5 ha to 2 ha, with the average size being about 1 ha.

Holdings occur in scattered fashion over approximately 35% of the inland areas with the most intensive patterns of cultivation being found in the central to north part of the island, which corresponds to the more fertile soils where the makatea limestone outcrops cover less than 50% of the land surface. Bulldozers clear these areas, the major trash produced is then burned and the smaller shrubs and plants are crushed as mulch in preparation for cultivation About 20 years ago the scattered cultivation plots (known locally as ‘palaos’ pronounced ploughs) were planted once with taro and the family groups moved on to a nearby plot the following year. At this time fallow periods of more than 10 years were common. During the early 1960’s, prior to the introduction of bulldozers for general farming purposes, the availability of human labour, distance from the family village, the extent of rock outcrops and the distribution of primary forest and heavy secondary growth limited the extent of clearance. A burn, slash and burn technique was used for clearance whereby fires were set to burn the larger trees, light growth was cleared using machetes, and grass, stumps and larger trash were then burned.

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This resulted in a drastic reduction in the amount of available plant litter which, in turn, exacerbated soil potassium reserve depletion. The introduction of the bulldozer in the later 1960’s was seen as a means of clearing land that maintained a litter and herbaceous ground cover which, in turn, assisted nutrient cycling.

Land Degradation Issues

(a) Declining soil fertility and degrading soil stability.

Loss of soil fertility and soil structural decline problems are inter-related. Changes in land use practice that contribute to this include the reduction in the length of the fallow period and clearance and use of the primary forest and the less fertile areas of the island.

There is an increasing reliance on artificial fertiliser inputs to maintain or improve crop production and the increased burning of plant litter and the use of herbicides in lieu of manual clearing and mulching techniques only serve to exacerbate the difficulties.

Wright and van Westerndorp indicated in 1965 that soil structure decline was approaching a critical condition. They reported large areas where soils were already depleted and increasing numbers of areas where the only vegetation growth was low fern indicating severe depletion and decline. The biggest single contributor to structural breakdown and fertility depletion was the disc-ploughing programme of the early 1960’s. This donor agency - funded initiative aimed to open up large areas to extensive agriculture through removal of rock outcrops and the deep ripping of soils. Widowson and Leslie (1965) reported that the discing programme did, in fact, increase the area under cultivation and made the land easier to plant. The eventual outcome, however, placed further pressure on the soils. Repeated discing resulted in poor and declining yields in spite of the use of NPK fertilisers. This occurs through simple over-enrichment of the upper parts of the soil profile with calcium. This over supply is harmful to crop growth for a number of reasons. The makatea limestone, which is broken off, overturned and generally disturbed in the discing process, is low in plant foods apart from calcium and magnesium. This ‘dilutes’ the nutrient content in the upper horizons and the increased calcium content reduces plant uptake of potassium and magnesium through saturation of the exchange sites on the plant rootlets and the clay particles. The associated increase in the topsoil pH also decreases the availability of minor nutrients and trace elements, notably iron, manganese and zinc. Repeated cultivation also decreases the supply of organic matter. This in turn reduces the overall nutrient supply as organic matter is one of the two major storage media for plant nutrients. The soil’s water holding capacity is also reduced and structural decline and breakdown follows.

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(b) Clearance in agricultural production areas.

As noted earlier, traditional slash and burn techniques were used interactively to bring areas into production prior to the arrival of bulldozers on the island in the 1960â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s. Care in the timing of the respective techniques meant that there was a balance between the volume of produce removed from the land and what was left behind as vegetative litter to replenish essential elements and micronutrients upon decay. Over the past 30 years there has been a gradual reduction in the use of these traditional techniques to the point where 80% of all agricultural households now use a bulldozer to clear land. Nevertheless, bulldozers do create damage in terms of their extensive and rapid clearance of mature trees and shrubs and have also been known to inadvertently destroy heritage sites. The favouring of bulldozers over slash and burn techniques has meant that areas previously untouched as a result of physical difficulties can now be worked.

The previous practice of a 7 - 12 year fallow period, which allowed limited soil recovery and replenishment of nutrients is now threatened by the ability to clear new and larger areas cheaply by bulldozer. Mulching has been replaced with greater reliance on synthetic fertilisers imported at considerable cost. In recent years government downsizing has reduced real incomes and has led to a desire to increase taro production and the desire to expand the areas under cultivation. Fallow periods have generally been reduced to about five years in some areas, three years in others and in some areas cropping is continuous. (c) Clearance of forests for agricultural use.

The extension of agricultural sites now involves a greater level of indigenous forest clearing through a combination of bulldozing, litter burning and the planting of taro. This crop grows well on the soils cleared in the primary and regenerating forest areas and is a result of long-term nutrient build up rather than any long-term sustainable fertility or physical capacity of the forest soils (Ansghar et al., 1995).

Mapping for the Forest Policy programme, completed in 1997, revealed that the primary and regenerating forest had been reduced by 30% in the period from 1966 to 1994, with the higher percentage of clearance having taken place since 1981.

During this same period the population of Niue had declined from 5000 to 2750 indicating additional new socio-economic factors are placing pressure on forest resources, and it is to these pressures that we now turn.

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Socio-Economic Factors Affecting Land Use and Land Degradation.

It is now widely acknowledged that environmental damage or degradation is exacerbated by, or may result from, underlying socio-economic and political situations. These include land tenure problems, downsizing of the government employment sector, increased immigration, desire for an improved quality of life, increased costs of production, availability of modern machinery, donor agency subsidisation and communal societal ties with land. All these factors apply to Niue and all have in some way produced increased pressure on land resources. (a) Land tenure influences.

Land tenure in Niue is based on a family descent group land holding unit known as ‘magafaoa’. It is a multiple tenure system with mostly customary patterns of usage and is organised around western land registration principles. Land law changes prior to Niue’s self determination in 1974 attempted to integrate customary law with western land management principles. Niuean customary land and inheritance laws were, and still are, among the most complex in Oceania and are recognised as such internationally. Land cannot be alienated and there is no social stratification such as matais (as in the Cook Islands and Samoa) or chieftains (as in Fiji) to assist community decisions on land use and land tenure.

Membership of the magafaoa is fluid with extension possible by birth, marriage and adoption and limited only by migration to another village or by death. Allocation of lands and assets was done by the elected family representative, the ‘pule leveki’ after agreement with all members of the magafaoa and was based on a combination of factors such as sex, age, capacity, use occupancy and physical or social needs. Before the land laws of 1968 - 69 the definition of boundaries, accepted between and within magafaoa, stemmed from a close and continuous association with the land either through use and/or occupation.

The flexibility on rights, membership and boundaries inherent in the traditional magafaoa group tenure system using bilineal descent was ideal for a shifting cultivation society as it provided a flexible ownership system and the limitation of kinship linkage through lack of genealogical knowledge which benefited the system. Its success relied on the communal sharing ethos inherent in many Polynesian cultures. The traditional tenure system enabled a high degree of community equity and enabled grass roots land management principles for the tapu and fono areas based on a traditional high respect for the 221

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environment. The fragmentation of lands was controlled through selective inheritance mechanisms, which were limited by memory, and dictated by the pule magafaoa and later the leviki magafaoa.

The 1968 - 69 land laws effectively exacerbated land conflict by introducing the primacy of genealogy in lieu of use and association. With the introduction of genealogical records a traditional re-distribution mechanism was negated and a system put in place which allowed expansive land distribution without the corresponding land re-distribution mechanisms such as land consolidation. Over time, the small base population possessed dual or multiple magafaoa membership thus ensuring more land areas came under conflict. Court decisions preferred blood lineage and resolved many disputes by dividing disputed areas equally to all those who could show lineage. As this could sometimes involve well over 100 people, massive fragmentation and sterilisation of land resulted. It is little wonder that many families now bury their deceased relatives on their plots of land to ward off interlopers!

It can thus be seen that there are now ever increasing problems defining tenure and rights which lead to a lack of certainty regarding the future and to time consuming negotiations that generate confusion, especially among the elderly. It also means that there is no security of investment or existing and continued use and occupancy.

The end result is that families and individuals seek out land that is less likely to be subject to conflict. Unfortunately these areas are invariably either those being cultivated by them at the present time leading to continued cropping, with short or no fallow periods, or forested areas. Both scenarios threaten the bio-diversity and soil resources of the island.

Land tenure matters are the country’s primary problem, not only in terms of facilitating sustainable economic development but also in terms of initiatives for bio-diversity, sustainable forest management and environmental planning. Courier (1992) notes that land reform would do more to relieve pressure on forest lands than any other single policy intervention. A key section in the National Environmental Management Strategy (SPREP 1994, 8) states ‘any environmental or sustainable economic initiatives should be considered and implemented within the context of the land tenure and management system of Niue.’ Others see it as fundamental to indigenous people’s rights and a specific need to facilitate sustainable economic, bio-diversity, forestry and land use development. (Gray, 1991; Courrier, 1992; Chasek, 1997) Compulsory titling of land in the Land Titling programme of 1991 was seen as a measure to reduce problems. However, as Niueans have absolute resource rights under 222

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the Constitution the programme was obliged to shift to voluntary registration; Niueans were suspicious of the intentions of the Land Titling programme and so far see this as only heightening conflict (Peteru, 1993). Until the late 1970’s the ethos of communal sharing prevailed in the Niuean community and provided a means for inequalities of tenure, production, sustenance and quality of life to be alleviated (Enetama, 1977; Crocombe, 1976). Globalisation factors saw a shift from communal sharing to individualism, which has its roots in ‘western’ influences on cash and market economy development. Banking, insurance, business and development assistance all emphasise individual security and compensation for use, development or production. (b) Socio-economic processes As noted in Gibson’s chapter, unlike many developing countries in the Pacific region, Niue’s population is in decline by about 5% per annum. Young persons are better educated and have consistently more exposure to the outside world, and especially what New Zealand has to offer. Greater pressure is placed on the existing population and the disposable income in the country becomes smaller. Since the downsizing of the public service sector in 1993 and increased migration, more Niueans have become reliant upon part time income - generating occupations for cash. An increase in taro prices, partly caused by the blight on taro crops in Samoa, and subsidisation of costs by development assistance agencies when combined with the influence of land tenure conflicts noted above have caused an increased per capita need for land resources, despite the population decline.

A current bilateral scheme between the New Zealand and Niue Governments promotes increased agricultural production. The subsistence and commercial cropping sectors are encouraged primarily through the subsidisation of bulldozer costs for land clearing. This increased availability of a ‘cheap’ land clearing mechanism has extended the capability of both the magafaoa and individuals to plant larger areas.

In summary, Niueans have a long tradition of sustainable interaction with their natural forest environment (Loeb, 1926; Yuncker, 1943; Sykes, 1970) and the forests have provided food, shelter and cultural activities for over 1000 years. The forest resources still provide the islanders with a means of subsistence living, traditional medicines and traditional craft resources (Whistler and Atherton, 1997). Use and production from both the palao and the forest is important in terms of social cohesion and respect. What a family produces and what is given to others in cultural exchanges gauges that family’s status in the community. If the land and forest are threatened then pressures on social structures will inevitably arise.

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Whilst it can be recognised that some changes may be necessary, modern land management and environmental initiatives need to respect the human and cultural rights of indigenous people, and, indeed, gain their respect if conservation endeavours are to succeed (Gray, 1991; Bello, 1995; Kothari and Parajuli, 1993). This is a notion expounded at many environmental conventions from the Rio Declaration of 1992 (Agenda 21: Biological Diversity, Climate Change and Forest Principles), to the Barbados Declaration (1994) and the International Tropical Timber Agreement of 1994.

In many previous programmes in Niue indigenous knowledge has been regarded as inferior to the opinion of outsiders (Chambers, 1983). The benefits of indigenous peoples’ involvement for good governance of sustainable development and the co-management of bio-diversity conservation initiatives have also been commonly expounded (Chambers, 1983; Courrier, 1992; Burkey, 1993; Kothari and Parajili, 1993). There is a need to show respect for sovereign rights, provide a climate for the use of indigenous knowledge and to aspire to co-management practices. The community needs to be involved at the outset of programme design and implementation in order to develop a sense of ownership. Participation rather than consultation should be seen as the guiding principle to ensure a sense of ownership.

Responses to Land Degradation

There have been a number of initiatives from development assistance agencies and the Niue Government to assist with better use of rural areas. Apart from the destructive disc ploughing programme of the 1960’s noted earlier, in the 1970’s industries based on passion fruit, coconut by-products and lime were started. A cattle farm was established on Crown lands and suffered from an inability to grow enough stock feed for the chosen breed. The main reasons for the decline and eventual failure of these initiatives stem from the economies of scale after heavy initial subsidisation by overseas donors, but also from poor growth results and eventual cyclone devastation (Parr, 1998).

In the 1980’s and the 1990’s the Forestry Plantation Project commenced and aimed to replenish depleted soil areas through agro-forestry developments. Poor initial planning, unsuitable choice of exotic species, monopoly leases and land tenure conflicts saw this initiative reduced to an advisory programme by 1998. A recent review indicates faulty initial programme economics with the project relying on heavy overseas subsidisation through most of its life span. The Niuean community never accepted the scheme, possibly due to a lack of awareness and understanding but also because of poor consultation and participation in design, scope and initiation.

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LAND USE AND LAND DEGRADATION ON NIUE

Soil programmes have been limited to small-scale extension projects and fertiliser and fodder experiments. A programme for Land Titling commenced in 1991 and whilst it provided a successful means for land survey and registration, it failed to tackle one of its intended objectives - the improvement of land tenure determination. The programme was tied to the Forestry Plantation project of 1995 in a bid to increase the success of that project but the converse occurred and previously held misgivings were merely compounded. Both programmes relied heavily on overseas development assistance funding.

The Biodiversity Programme (SPREP, 1995), in itself a capacity building exercise, attempted to offer conservation of forest resources that involved income generating options. A recent recommendation for formal reserves to be established over core areas of the forest was received by the local community as an absolute travesty of village, family, individual and traditional rights. Not only does the Bio-diversity Convention recognise alternative protection mechanisms it also advocates use of these where successful. The areas of the Huvala forest nominated as reserves are covered by ‘tapus’ that have deterred entry by humans for hundreds of years. A concerted effort is needed to re-invest power back at the village level to apply traditional tapus on valued sensitive forest areas. This would assist general communal confidence in conservation initiatives, improve social cohesion and increase the respect for elders (matua) and the village councils - cornerstones of successful tapu management. Traditional management of Niue’s forests through re-assertion of the role of matua will engender local ownership and be consistent with global advocacy to restore communal land rights and resource access as the key to revitalising indigenous peoples’ human rights. This is seen as the first vital step in ensuring conservation of bio-diversity. Should research and monitoring reveal that traditional systems for conservation are not working and state intervention is seen as necessary this could best be achieved through more ‘passive’ means such as awareness campaigns, education, technical and advisory assistance and zoning. Regulation of state assisted activities such as bulldozer use would also be required.

Conclusion

Legal policy changes and attitudinal changes are seen as necessary to ensure the future sustainable use of Niue’s soil and forest resources. The inextricable linkage between land tenure system alternatives and many socio-economic, socio-cultural and biophysical factors mean that any recommendations based on purely physical criteria would be misguided. It should be a legal requirement that information on the 225

NIUE ISLAND

way land is used and managed in Niue be provided to the community. This could include such topics as the physical and chemical characteristics of Niueâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s soils and the importance of forest diversity if Niueâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s land resources are to be rationally and sustainably used in the future.

References

Ansghar, M, Davidson, T. and Morrison, R. (1995) Soil taxonomy and fertility in the South Pacific. University of the South Pacific, Alafua Campus, Apia, Samoa.

Bello, W. (1995) Strip Mining the Future, New Internationalist 263, pp. 20 -21.

Burkey, S. (1993) Self reliant participatory development, in: People First, Zed Books, London. pp40 - 70.

Chambers, R. (1983) Whose Knowledge? in: Rural Development: putting the last first. Longman, London. pp75 - 102.

Chasek, P.S. (1997) The convention to combat desertification: lessons learned for sustainable development, Journal of Environment and Development 6:2 pp147-169.

Courier, K. (1992) Creating conditions and incentives for local biodiversity conservation, in: Global Biodiversity Strategy pp 79 - 95.

Crocombe, R. (1976) Colonial land policies, South Pacific Bulletin 26:1 Enetema, L. (1977) A personal viewpoint, in: S.Kalauni and R.Crocombe (Eds.) Land Tenure in Niue. Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific.

Gray, A. (1991) The impact of biodiversity conservation on indigenous peoples, in: V. Shiva, P. Anderson and H. Schuking (Eds.) World Rainforest Movement Penang, Malaysia. pp. 61 - 76.

Kothari, S. and Parajuli, P. (1993) No nature without social justice, a plea for cultural and ecological pluralism in India, in W. Sachs (Ed.) Global Ecology, Zed Books, London pp 224 - 241.

Loeb, E. (1926) History and traditions of Niue. B. P. Bishop Museum Bulletin 32.

Parr, W. (1998) Pre-feasibility study into natural resource based income generation options - Huvalu Forest Conservation Area, Niue. Consultancy for South Pacific Regional Environmental Programme 1998.

Peteru, C. (1993) Environmental law review - Niue. South Pacific Regional Environmental Programme and Government of Niue.

SPREP (1993) National Environmental Management Strategy. South Pacific Regional Environmental Programme.

SPREP (1995) Huvalu Forest Conservation Area, Niue. Project Implementation Document. Biodiversity Project South Pacific Biodiversity Capacity Building Programme. South Pacific Regional Environmental Programme.

Sykes, W. (1970) Contributions to the flora of Niue. New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Bulletin 200.

Whistler, A. and Atherton, J. (1997) Botanical survey of the Huvalu Forest Conservation Area, Niue. South Pacific Biodiversity Conservation Programme. UNDP and South Pacific Regional Environmental Programme.

Widdowson, J. (1965) Crop growth in relation to shallow calcareous soils - Niue. New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial research. Soil Bureau Report 3 / 1995.

Wright, A. and van Westerndorp, F. (1965) Soils and agriculture of Niue Island. New Zealand Bureau of Scientific and Industrial Research, Soils Bureau Bulletin 17.

Yuncker, G. (1943) The flora of Niue Island. B. P. Bishop Museum Bulletin178.

226

FOOD IMPORT DEPENDENCY IN NIUE IMAM ALI

Formerly Geography Department The University of the South Paciď&#x20AC; c Suva, Fiji

In the last five decades, food consumption patterns in the Pacific have moved towards greater dependency on imported food (Ali, 1988; McGee, 1976; McGee et al. 1980). Certain researchers and writers on this topic have suggested that the most important reason for increasing food import dependency is a decline in participation

by Pacific Islanders in subsistence production. This decline is mainly due to one or a combination of the following factors in various locations: 1) increasing urbanisation; 2) cash employment; and 3) emphasis on export agricultural and fisheries production. Increasing urbanisation and commercialisation of agriculture in many Pacific islands has resulted in shortage of land needed to practice subsistence agriculture (McGee, 1975; Thaman, 1977; Purdie, 1999). Cash employment has hindered subsistence food production in two important ways. First, participation in cash employment leaves very little time for subsistence food production. Second, cash employment takes place in urban areas, at tourist resorts, mines, or commercial agricultural properties. There is generally a shortage of land for subsistence agriculture in such areas. Other reasons for reduction in food production by people in cash employment include increased demand for leisure time, decreased time for subsistence activity and changing tastes (Thaman, 1979; 1982; Leung, 1978; McGee, 1975; Tisdell and Fairbairn, 1984). Emphasis on commercial agriculture and other export activities by colonial and post-colonial governments and a desire among the farmers to maximize their cash incomes have resulted in most productive land and labour resources being utilized for the production of cash crops for export. This generally leads to either a decline or cessation of subsistence (Ali, 1986; Thaman, 1982, Mayer, 1973, Beckford, 1972; Fisk et al., 1976; Overton, Murray and Ali, 1999).

Food import dependency has had severe consequences on many Pacific Island countries. A dietary shift from nutritious local food such as fish, seaweed, taro, breadfruit, bele and taro leaves to inferior imported food including white rice, sugar, biscuits, chocolates and mutton flaps often results in nutrition related problems such as iron deficiency anemia, dental carries, hypertension, coronary diseases, obesity and diabetes (Lambert, 1979; Parkinson, 1957). In economic terms, 227

NIUE ISLAND

a heavy dependency on imported food is a major drain on many countriesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; export revenues, leaving less for investment in other areas. Moreover, reliance on imported food increases vulnerability to price rises and food shortages (Hamnett et al., 1987; Thaman, 1979; 1982; 1984).

Like most other Pacific Island nations, Niue is heavily dependent on imported food. Between 1983 and 1995, Niueâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s food imports accounted for between 19 and 35% of the total import bill (Government of Niue et al., 1991; Currie, 1999). However, in Niue land shortage due to urbanisation and shortage of time because of commitment to wage employment are not the main reasons for food dependency. All indigenous Niuean households have access to agricultural land and 97% of them practice agriculture, planting mostly food crops (NZODA, 1998; Gemmell, 1987).

On Saturdays, all government offices and commercial activities are closed to give everyone time to work in their gardens. Despite this, Niue has a very high rate of food import dependency measured in terms of proportion of total revenue spent on imports (Government of Niue, 1996).

This chapter explores the reasons for heavy food import dependency in Niue and assesses its implications. The chapter starts by identifying the most important factors contributing to a heavy reliance on imported food. The impact of food dependency on Niueâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s balance of trade and on the health and nutrition of the people are then discussed. Finally some steps for moving towards increasing food self-sufficiency are considered.

Data required for this chapter were gathered between June and December 1999 from archival research, in-depth interviews, in-the-field questionnaire survey and personal observation. Archival research was conducted at the University of the South Pacific library in Suva and the Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, and Planning and Development Unit libraries in Niue. In-depth interviews were conducted with the officials of Department of Agriculture and other government departments, older farmers, retired senior civil servants and current and retired politicians. These people were interviewed to collect information on changes in agricultural policies over the years, changes in crops produced and farming practices. Information on changes in food habits was also obtained from these people.

An in-the-field questionnaire survey was conducted with 30 sample farmers. This was done to gather detailed information on the timing of the introduction of new crops, changes in farming practices, problems encountered in the production of new crops and the impact the introduction of new crops has had on food crop production and eating habits of farmers.

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FOOD IMPORT DEPENDENCY IN NIUE

Factors responsible for food import dependency

Several factors have contributed to the heavy dependency on imported food in Niue.

This set of factors overlap but dividing them helps make analysis clearer. The factors can be divided into two broad groups: 1) fundamental factors; and 2) facilitating factors. The former group includes the introduction of foreign food by immigrant populations and Niueans, overseas experience of Niueans and emphasis on commercial agriculture. An improved transportation network, remittances and gifts, and cash incomes from employment and pensions fall in the latter group.

Fundamental Factors Immigrant population and introduction of foreign food items.

The introduction of foreign food and alcohol by the expatriate population and multinational corporations appears to have been the initial factor in promoting imported foods and beverages and causing food import dependency in Niue. Niue has been involved with Europeans since Captain Cook attempted to land on the island in 1774. Further contacts with Europeans were made through various missionary groups in the mid-1800s (Gemmell, 1987). Like everywhere else in the Pacific, as pointed out by Thaman (1982), these expatriates introduced exotic food items such as corned meat, hard biscuits, flour, rice, canned fruit, tea, coffee, and alcoholic beverages to Niue. In the earlier days these items were bartered for fresh local food, and/or given to Niueans in the form of wages.

Among the multi-national corporations Burns Philips was the first to establish business in Niue. In the early 1900s it opened a branch at Alofi and became the main trading agency. It bought commodities such as kumara and copra from local farmers for export and imported a wide range of foodstuffs and other consumer goods. Later, a few more expatriate owned shops opened in Alofi. In villages located away from Alofi, locals opened small retail shops. According to a retired senior civil servant and politician, both the importation of food stuffs in the absence of any restrictions and the opening of retail shops in the villages promoted increased consumption of new foods and beverages by making them easily available to indigenous Niueans. He claimed that when imported food became more widely available in Alofi and the village shops, Niueans consumed them occasionally as luxury foods and developed a taste for them.

As their cash incomes have increased in recent years, the consumption of imported food has become more widespread replacing some of the local foods such as wild ferns or liku (Asplenium nidus), local pigs and chicken, taro and cassava, and a wide range of fish, shellfish, crabs and other sea foods (Morris, pers. comm.).

229

NIUE ISLAND

Overseas experience Overseas experience in terms of short and long-term stays abroad by Niuean people has played a role in the development of a taste for, and increasing dependency on, foreign imported food in Niue. All Niueans have relatives living abroad, particularly in New Zealand, Australia and the USA. Nearly 90% of Niueans have visited their relatives and stayed with them for periods ranging from a few weeks to one year.

Others have lived abroad for further education and training. While abroad Niueans adjust to consuming foreign food on a regular basis and thus develop a taste for it.

On their return to Niue they continue to desire and increasingly include foreign food items in their meals.

Introduction of foreign foods by Niueans As stated above, a large number of Niueans have stayed abroad for sometime and acquired a taste for foreign foods. On returning home many of them continue to eat such foods and also introduce them to other locals. They invite their local friends home for meals and serve them new foreign foods and even teach them preparation methods. Chicken curry and rice have been introduced and spread in Niue in this way by Niueans who studied in Fiji. Some Niueans, on returning from overseas, have started food stalls to sell the new foods such as fish and chips, meat pies and pizza to the locals. These foods have currently become the most popular lunchtime meals for middle class Niueans in Alofi including government employees and other office workers.

Emphasis on the modernisation of agriculture and development of export crops.

From the mid-1960s the Niuean administration made several attempts at developing export oriented commercial agriculture. Specific attempts included coconut palm rehabilitation, and passionfruit and lime production. In 1966 a policy for coconut palm rehabilitation was proposed and followed more rigidly during the 1980-85 Development Plan period. By 1986 some 72.6 hectares had been rehabilitated.

However, interest in further rehabilitation declined due to a budgetary shortfall and declining copra prices on the world market (Gemmell, 1987).

During 1960s and 1970s, efforts were made to promote more efficient and profitable agriculture. In the mid-1960s, government emphasised the production of passionfruit (Passiflora edulis forma flavicarpa) and limes (Citrus aurantiifolia) as export crops but met with only limited success (Department of Agriculture, 1980; Gemmell, 1987). In terms of modernisation of agriculture changes and 230

FOOD IMPORT DEPENDENCY IN NIUE

innovations began to be introduced into the cultivation of bush gardens. By the early 1980s most farmers had started using chemical fertilizer and pesticides.

During the 1980-85 Development Plan period the emphasis was shifted from sweet potato (kumara) to taro as an export crop (Morris, pers comm. 1999; Gemmell, 1987). This effort achieved considerable success and taro remains the principal agricultural export commodity today (Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, 1997; 1998).

These efforts towards increasing export commodity production, although not fully successful, contributed significantly to increasing food import dependency among Niuean farming households in two important ways. First, export crop production diverted a considerable amount of labour and other inputs away from food production. In the course of interviews the farmers who were involved in passion fruit, lime and taro production claimed that they directed most of their labour and other resources to the production of cash crops in order to maximize their cash incomes. During the passion fruit and lime era they spent almost three-quarters of their working time weeding and fertilizing the passion fruit and lime crops, pollinating passion fruit and picking fruits of these crops. At the time of study all taro farmers utilized most of their resources to the production of taro for sale. As a result, the size and quality of their subsistence gardens and the amount and variety of food crops produced have been considerably reduced starting from the mid-1960s. In particular, the areas planted with traditional staples such as kumara and arrowroot were reduced. At the time of study a majority of subsistence gardens showed neglect in terms of weeding and cultivation. Sample farmers reported a reduction in subsistence acreage in taro, kumara and arrowroot due to increasing emphasis on export taro production. The second way in which emphasis on production of export crops contributed to imported food dependency is by providing cash incomes. Production of commercial crops provided cash incomes that enabled the farmers to purchase increased amounts of imported food.

Facilitating Factors Improved transportation With the establishment of international shipping and airline services increasing quantities of foreign food items have begun to find their way into the country on a regular basis. An improved road network has also facilitated their distribution on different parts of the island. Since the early 1970s, both the sea and air links between Niue and other parts of the world have improved. In terms of ship231

NIUE ISLAND

ping services, the Cook Island National Line (CINL), MV Ngamaru III provides monthly cargo services to and from New Zealand via the Auckland-Niue-Rarotonga-Auckland itinerary. The Hanan international airport, located two kilometers south of Alofi, was commissioned in 1971 and extended and upgraded in 1995.

The runway can accommodate jets up to the size of Boeing 737 and 767 aircraft.

Currently, Royal Tongan Airlines provides flights to Niue twice a week from Tonga via Auckland with connections from Sydney. On the island, road transport is also well developed with some 123 kilometers of paved roads and 40 kilometers of coral-rolled and compacted roads. A coastal road, which is about 60 km in length, connects most villages on Niue. There are also three paved cross-island roads that connect Alofi to the settlements of Lekepa, Liku and Hakupu (Government of Niue 1998; NZODA 1998).

At the present time, the cargo vessel on its monthly calls collects export commodities such as dry and green coconuts, cassava, taro, yams and handicrafts. In terms of imports, the vessel brings in, in addition to other things, a wide range of food items. Although a major portion of the food items are imported by trading stores, a considerable amount are sent as gifts to individuals by relatives living in New Zealand.

On the airlines, Niueans travelling abroad take a wide variety of food items including coconut crabs, fish, coconuts, yams and taro for relatives and friends.

When returning home they bring into the country a wide range of exotic foods such as cakes, biscuits, fried chicken, ice cream, corned meat, tinned fruit and alcoholic beverages.

Remittances and gifts.

Over 90% of Niueans have close relatives living in New Zealand. Most of them send taro, yams and coconuts to their relatives nearly every month. The relatives use some of this produce themselves and sell the rest. In return the relatives send back money and some of the food items mentioned above. In addition to this, some relatives residing abroad, especially the children of elderly Niueans, send money to their parents on a regular basis. A bulk of this money is spent on imported food and alcoholic drinks (Interviews). On special occasions such as birthdays and Christmas they also send gifts of food.

Cash Employment and Pensions In Niue 49.3 % (693 out of 1040) of the population over 15 years of age are in cash 232

FOOD IMPORT DEPENDENCY IN NIUE

employment (Table 1; Demmke, et al. 1998). About 60% of these people reside in the Alofi urban centre and the rest commute to work from the villages.

Cash employment contributes to dependency on imported food by providing the cash incomes needed to purchase it. Moreover, most employees work and reside in Alofi, which is the main trading center on Niue. As a result they have very easy access to imported foodstuff and prepared fast food as well as easy access to local bars and the hotels, where alcoholic beverages, other imported drinks and food are also served.

Table 1. Occupational status of population over 15 years of age in 1997 Occupational Cash work Subsistence work Unemployed Domestic duties Student Other Total

Male 406 164 19 5 46 67 707

% 57.0 23.0 3.0 1.0 7.0 9.0 100.0

Female 287 140 36 98 52 86 699

% 41.0 20.0 5.0 14.0 8.0 12.0 100.0

Total 693 304 55 103 98 153 1406

% 49.3 21.6 3.9 7.4 7.0 10.8 100.0

Source: Demmke, et al. 1998: 50-51.

The current food situation

A survey of food systems in June-July 1999 and interviews with older people have shown that dietary habits of Niueans have undergone drastic changes the last fifty years as a result of adoption of new and foreign food items (Table 2). Three distinct changes in eating habits can be identified.

First, traditional staple food items such as arrowroot (Tacca leontopetaloides) porridge, and pitako (bread made from grated cassava) have disappeared from daily meals. These have been replaced with rice and bread made from flour and cereals.

Second, some local vegetables that were eaten nearly everyday such as taro leaves, ferns (liku), and bele are consumed less frequently. They are increasingly being replaced by foreign vegetables such as Chinese cabbages, lettuce, frozen mixed vegetables and carrots. Finally, and most importantly, a large number of imported foodstuffs have become important components of daily meals among the Niueans. In particular, food items eaten at breakfast and lunch have undergone drastic changes with the inclusion of imported foodstuffs such as biscuits, bread, cereals, bacon, eggs, butter, jam, fish and chips, chicken curry and rice and meat pie and beverages including coke, tea, coffee, milo, and beer.

233

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Table 2. Food and drinks consumed at different meal times by Niuean people in 1950s and 1999.

Meal time Breakfast

Lunch

Dinner

1950s Food and drinks Lemon leaf tea Tea (tea leaves) Fresh sh Taro, kumara, yams Bread (our) Butter / jam Arrowroot porridge Pitako Left overs from breakfast Pawpaw/bananas Green or dry coconut

1999 Freq.

1 3 2 1 3 3 2 2 2 2 2

Food and drinks Tea, coffee, milo Milk (liquid) Bacon and eggs Bread /biscuits Cornakes/weetbix Butter / jam Pawpaw Bananas In villages: Left overs from breakfast Taro and corned beef Fresh sh, taro/cassava In Alo: Fish and chips Meat pie, chicken curry and rice Sandwiches Cordial, soft drinks and ice cream

Freq.

1 2 2 1 2 2 1 3 1 3 3 2 2 2 2

Taro, cassava, yam, kumara, breadfruit Rice Pork and wild birds Land crabs, fresh sh Tinned sh/meat

1 3 2 2 3

Taro, cassava, yam, kumara, breadfruit Rice Boiled /roast potato Fresh sh and coconut crabs Pork (local) Frozen lamb, chicken and sausages Tinned sh and corned meat

2 2 2 2 3 2 2

Taro leaves, wild fern leaves (liku)

1

Taro leaves, liku, bele C. cabbage, lettuce, carrots, frozen mixed vegetables, beans Cordial, soft drinks Alcoholic beverages

1 2 2 2

Source: Interviews with sample farmers and older people.

Frequency of consumption: 1 = Nearly everyday; 2 = 2 to 4 times a week; 3 = rarely.

Impact of food import dependency

Imported food provides Niueans some variety in diets and ensures food availability in times of natural disasters. It also frees up scarce resources of land and labour for more profitable use. But heavy dependence on imported food has had several negative impacts. In addition to adversely affecting the economy, it has rendered the state vulnerable to reductions in food supply and imported inflation. Moreover, it has had deleterious effects on the nutrition and health of its people.

234

FOOD IMPORT DEPENDENCY IN NIUE

Economy The most significant economic impact of the increase in imported food in Niue has been the contribution to the negative balance of trade. Niueâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s balance of trade has been negative every year in the past three decades (Government of Niue, 1991; Currie 1999).

Table 3. Value of imports and exports of Niue in NZ$000s dollars from 1989 to 1995.

Year

Gross imports

Food imports

1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995

$5235.6 $7006.0 $5863.0 $7226.0 $6962.0 NA $7695.0

$1351.2 $1297.5 $1668.3 $1497.6 $1307.0 NA $2725.2

Food imports as % of gross imports

25.8 18.5 28.5 20.7 18.8 NA 35.4

Export

$89.4 $80.0 $80.0 $185.8 $543.2 NA $1245.0

Export as % of food imports

6.6 6.2 4.8 12.4 41.6 NA 45.7

Balance of trade(deď&#x20AC; cit)

$4146.2 $6926.0 $5783.0 $7035.2 $6418.8 NA $6450.0

Sources: Government of Niue 1996, 1994.

Niue Statistical Unit 1994 Currie 1999.

Between 1989 and 1995 the trade deficit ranged from between $NZ5,146,200 and NZ$7,035,000 (Table 3). In the same period, food imports comprised between 18.5% and 35% of the total imports. Besides being heavily dependent on imported food, Niue has a limited range and quantity of exportable goods. As a result, the export revenue, over 1989-95 period, accounted for between 4.8% and 45.7% of the amount spent on food imports. This means that the bulk of food import costs are paid by personal remittances and income earned from external aid-funded government employment which employs over 50% of working age people. This form of reliance on imported food diverts funds from developmental investment.

Vulnerability Heavy reliance on imported food has caused two kinds of vulnerability. The first is related to a potential reduction in local food supply, particularly for the rural people who derive all their cash income from farming. Niue has a limited variety of export commodities. At present taro is the only export commodity of any significance. If, for some reason, the price or production of taro falls, the incomes of farmers will decrease, reducing the money available to buy imported food. This in turn will reduce the amount of food consumed because it will be difficult for these people to return to their traditional foods immediately. In addition to this, 235

NIUE ISLAND

about 51% of the working population of Niue work in the civil service, which is almost entirely supported by aid money (Demmke, et al., 1998). In the event of a reduction or cessation of foreign aid, employment and incomes of the civil servants will be drastically reduced, adversely affecting the amount of money available to their families to purchase imported food. The second category of vulnerability caused is related to inflation. Heavy dependence on imported foods has exposed the economy of Niue to the vagaries of world market forces and made it vulnerable to imported inflation. This in turn can seriously negate the nationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s effort to achieve price stability, and have a major effect on purchasing power and real incomes (i.e. the purchasing power of wages relative to the cost of strategic food items).

Nutrition and health As stated earlier imported foods have been in Niue for many years. Niueans ate both types of food. The local foods, particularly fresh fish, land crabs, pork, wild birds, taro, yams, breadfruit, green coconuts, taro leaves, and wild ferns, which are considered to be of superior nutritional value (Thaman, 1982; 1983;1984; Parkinson, 1973) were consumed on a regular basis. The imported foods such as polished rice, biscuits, butter, jam, margarine, corned meat, frozen lamb and which are less nutritious were eaten only rarely. Over time the eating habits of Niueans have changed with most people eating imported foods on a regular basis (Table 2). This type of dietary shift seems to have given rise to a number of nutrition related diseases and disorders in several Pacific Island countries, particularly Fiji and Nauru (Thaman, 1983; Parkinson, 1957; Parkinson, 1982).

In Niue, common nutrition-related problems of pregnant and breast feeding mothers and young children such as iron deficiency anemia, dental carries, marasmus (lack of protein and calories) and Kwashiorkor (lack of protein) are not reported in Health Department statistics. However, other nutrition related non-communicable diseases and disorders of adults appear to be becoming common (Table 4). The most prominent among these are hypertension, diabetes mellitus, gout, heart failure and other forms of heart disease. It is possible that these diseases and disorders are linked to shifts in diets from local to imported foods.

It could be predicted on the basis of the Niue survey that if the present trend of increasing reliance on imported food continues, the Niuean population can be expected to suffer increasingly from these and other nutrition related diseases and disorders in future. Such deterioration in nutritional status could cause con236

FOOD IMPORT DEPENDENCY IN NIUE

siderable economic loss to the country in terms of rising medical costs, low returns on educational expenditures due to frequent absenteeism and high school drop out rates, low labour productivity and premature deaths of productive and skilled persons. Furthermore, it could be argued that such deterioration in family health could deprive the Niuean people of the capacity to enjoy active and fulfilling lives.

Table 4. Nutrition related diseases and disorders recorded at Niue hospital in 1994, 1995 and 1996.

Disease/Disorder Hypertension Diabetes Mellitus Gout Heart failure Rheumatoid arthritis Gastric ulcer Liver disease (Cirrhosis) Ischarmic heart disease Goiter Diabetic retinopathy

1994 786 481 88 39 8 2 2 11 NA NA

% of Pop. 32.8 20.0 3.7 1.6 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.5

1995 625 453 NA 49 13 36 NA 10 NA NA

% of Pop. 27.2 19.7 2.1 0.6 1.6 0.4

1996 631 546 89 47 11 30 NA 6 8 6

% of Pop. 28.7 24.8 4.2 2.1 0.5 1.4 0.3 0.4 0.3

Source: Director of Health, et al. 1999.

Tackling the problems

To tackle the problems stated above, there is an important need to maintain an optimum level of domestic food system self-sufficiency. Every effort must be made to maintain the high nutritional and health status of the people for social and economic progress. In order to achieve this the following three strategies based on a model provided by the Food and Agriculture Organization (1994), are considered: 1) import substitution; 2) transformation of crops; and, 3) research and extension.

Import Substitution Since foreign foods have been in Niue for a long time, people have become accustomed to their tastes. It is highly unlikely that they will switch to traditional substitutes easily. This is particularly so with imported temperate vegetables such as Chinese cabbage, English cabbage, lettuce, carrots and tomatoes. In this case, instead of asking people to return to traditional vegetables, it is more logical to give more advice on the nutritional benefits of local vegetables such as bele and liku and encourage them to consume both local and some imported vegetables. Instead 237

NIUE ISLAND

of depending on imports, farmers can be encouraged to grow foreign vegetables in their own fields using modern technologies such as hydroponics, polythene sheds and drip irrigation. A start has been made in this direction by at least one person in Alofi who feels that the venture is highly profitable and at present, is unable to meet local demands. The Agriculture Department could train selected farmers in growing the exotic vegetables using these modern technologies. As a form of incentive, the Niuean government may subsidize the cost of equipment and other inputs at the initial stages. If successful, a project such as this would improve the cash incomes of farmers and cut down on Niueâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s food import bills.

Transformation of crops The transformation of traditional crops into convenient products can help to substitute for imported food. Traditionally, root crops were the main staple food for home consumption before rice, flour and noodles became available. These were either boiled or baked before eating. People could be informed of suitable technologies to process local root crops into preserved, value-added or more convenient products or ready prepared fast food meals and snacks such as dried or fried chips, flour, starch, biscuits, bread and frozen products as recommended by the F.A.O. (1994). These products are a good substitute for foreign products such as fish and chips.

Research and extension The current system of production of taro for export on monocultural farms and removal of forest cover from highly porous soil leads to removal of other subsistence crops from farming system and results in a loss of soil nutrients through leaching. Agricultural research, development and extension would benefit from focusing on establishing multi-crop farms to produce both export and subsistence crops and to maintain soil fertility. Efforts may be directed towards using new crop mixes in order to maintain cash crop production while at the same time maintaining environmentally sound traditional agriculture that has great value in terms of food security and maintenance of traditional cultivators. Efforts can perhaps focus on agro-forestry to plant coconuts, breadfruit, mango, avocado, citrus and a wide range of tree-food crops that have gradually disappeared during the period of overemphasis on mono-cultural export agriculture. Research directed towards establishing an effective marketing network and distribution system may help ensure that locally grown and processed food is made easily available in both rural and urban areas.

238

FOOD IMPORT DEPENDENCY IN NIUE

Conclusion

Despite the fact that nearly all Niueans are involved in agricultural activities, Niue is heavily dependent on imported food. Major factors that have contributed to this dependency are long-term exposure to imported foods, governments’ and aid donors’ emphasis on export oriented agriculture, easy access to imported food, improvement in the transportation network, receipt of gifts of exotic food, and remittances from relatives living abroad.

Heavy dependence on imported food has had several adverse effects on the country. In the absence of any reasonable quantity of exportable goods, food imports have contributed significantly to the country’s negative balance of trade for a long period of time. In addition, the country has become vulnerable to food shortages. It may also become vulnerable to imported inflation. More importantly, it is likely that changes in food habits may have contributed to nutrition-related non-communicable diseases and disorders such as hypertension and cardiovascular diseases that are becoming common among the adult population of Nuie.

To help move out of the current unhealthy economic situation, improve the nutrition and health of its people and bring about broad-based development in the country, Niue could work towards achieving a greater self-sufficiency in food. Some steps that the country could take to achieve this aim are import substitution agricultural production and increased focus on polycultural agricultural systems, which integrate the production of both subsistence and export crops and animals. Steps taken to re-establish a multi-species agroforestry system on Niue, and to transform traditional crops into convenient products to substitute imported food may also be useful. To improve the nutritional status of the people a nation wide nutritional education programme and a focused agricultural research and extension effort may prove extremely beneficial.

References

Ali, I. (1988) Specialization leading to increasing vulnerability on sugar cane farms in Fiji. In: Hirst, J., Overton, J. Bryant, A. and Byron, Y. (Eds.) Small-Scale Agriculture. Commonwealth Geographical Bureau and Department of Human Geography, Australian National University, Canberra. pp111-126.

Ali, I. (1986) Polyculture to Monoculture: A Case Study of Changing Agriculture in the Yaladro Cane Sector, Ba Province, Viti Levu, Fiji. Unpublished M. A. Thesis. University of the South Pacific, Suva.

Beckford, G. L. (1972) Persistent Poverty: Underdevelopment in Plantation Economies of the Third World. Oxford University Press, London.

Currie, C. G. (1999) Niue Current Economic Statistics, USPEC Pacific Economic Community Series No 99/4. University of the South Pacific, Suva.

Demmke, A., Haberkorn, G., Rakaseta, V. l., Leppers, C. and Beccalossi, A. (1998) Niue Population Profile Based on 1997 Census: A Guide for Planners and Policy-Makers, Secretariat of the Pacific Community, Noumea.

Department of Agriculture, Forest and Fisheries (Niue) (c1980) Cash Crops of Niue. Tau Akau To mo Moua Tupe ha Niue, Government of Niue, Alufi.

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Department of Agriculture, Forest and Fisheries (Niue) (1997) Clearpac Summary. Internal Memorandum 01129c.

Department of Agriculture, Forest and Fisheries (Niue) (1990) Annual Report 1988-89. Government of Niue, Alofi.

Director of Health (Niue) (1999) Annual Report for the Health Department, Government of Niue, Alofi.

F.A.O. (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) (1994) The Role of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries in Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States, F.A.O. Rome.

Fisk, E. K., Hardaker, J. B. and Thaman, R. R. (1976) Food Production in the South Pacific, R.W. Parkinson Memorial Lectures. University of the South Pacific, Suva.

Gemmel, S. (1987) Niue Island Development or Regression. Unpublished Master of Arts Thesis. Jesus Collge, (City unknown).

Government. of Niue (1994) External Trade Statistics 1992-93, Planning and Development Unit, Premier’s Department, Alofi.

Government. of Niue (1996) Niue Economic and Social Review. Planning and Development Unit, Premier’s Department, Alofi.

Government of Niue (1998) Government of Niue: Estimates of Expenditure and Revenue For The Year Ending 30 June 1998, Government of Niue, Alofi.

Government of Niue, Lowry, C. and Smith, J. (1991) Niue Country Report for the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) 1-12 June 1992. Government of Niue, Alofi.

Hemnett, M., Suber, R. J., D. E. and Denocour, M. T. (1981) Unbalanced books: Economic vulnerability in Pacific, Eastwest Perspectives 2 (3): 6-12.

Lambert, J. (1979) Population growth, nutrition and food supplies. Population of Papua New Guinea. ESCAP Country Monograph. United Nations Economic and Social Council, New York.

Leung, W. S. (1978) Food shortages in Western Samoa: towards a solution, in: Fisk, E.K. (Ed.) The Adaptation of Traditional Agriculture: Socio-Economic Problems of Urbanization. Monograph No.11. Development Studies Centre. Australian National University Press, Canberra, pp 72- 92.

Mayer, C. A. (1973) Peasants in the Pacific: A Study of Fiji Indian Rural Society. Routledge and Kegan Paul, London.

McGee, T.G. (1976) Food Dependency in the Pacific: A Preliminary Statement, Australian National University, Canberra.

McGee, T. G. (1975) Food Dependency in the Pacific: A Preliminary Statement. Development Studies Centre Working Paper No.1. Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University Press, Canberra.

McGee, T. G., Ward, R.G. and Drakakis-Smith, D.W. (1980) Food Distribution in New Hebrides, Australian National University, Canberra Morris, J. (1999) Retired Director of Agriculture, Niue. Personal Communication.

Niue Statistical Unit (1994) Niue’s Annual Abstract of Statistics 1993. Premier’s Office, Alofi.

NZODA (1998) Review of the framework of NZODA to Niue. Developing a Sustainable Private Sector: Prepared for NZ Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade. Government of Niue, Alofi.

Overton, J., Murray, W. E., and Ali, I. (1999) Commodity production and unsustainable agriculture, in: J. Overton and R. Scheyvens (Eds.) Strategies for Sustainable Development: Experiences From the Pacific, University of New South Wales, Sydney, pp. 168-184.

Parkinson, S. V. (1982) Nutrition in the South Pacific: Past and present. Journal of Food and Nutrition 39(3): 121-125.

Parkinson, S. V. (1973) Some observations on the causes of malnutrition in Pacific Island urban communities living in towns: Problems and priorities in urban planning in the South Pacific, in: J. Harre (ed.), Living in Town, School of Social and Economic Development, University of the South Pacific, Suva. Pp. 85-91.

Parkinson S. V. (1957) Infant nutrition and supplementation of the diet in the Pacific tropic regions, Proceedings of the Ninth Pacific Science Congress, Thailand, pp. 79-102.

Purdie, N. (1999) Pacific islands livelihoods, in: J. Overton and R. Schyvens (Eds.) Strategies for Sustainable Development: Experiences From the Pacific, University of New South Wales, Sydney, pp. 64-79.

Thaman R. R.(1984) Food dependency and malnutrition: Deterioration of traditional Pacific food systems, in: E. Utrecht (Ed.) Fiji: A Client State of Australia, Transnational Corporation Research Project, University of Sydney, Sydney, pp. 62-118.

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Thaman, R.R. (1983) Food for urbanising Polynesian people, Proceedings of the Nutiotion Society of New Zealand 8:26-37.

Thaman, R. R. (1982) Deterioration of traditional food systems, increasing malnutrition and food dependency in the Pacific Islands. Journal of Food and Nutrition 39: 109- 21.

Thaman, R.R. (1979) Food scarcity, food dependency and nutritional deterioration in small Pacific Island communities, in: Proceedings of the Tenth New Zealand Geographical Conference and 49 ANZAAS Congress. New Zealand Geographical Society Series No. 10. New Zealand Geographical Society, Wellington, pp. 191-197.

Thaman, R.R. (1977) Urban gardening in Papua New Guinea and Fiji, in Winslow, J. H. (Ed.) The Melanesian Environment. Australian National University Press, Canberra, pp. 146- 68.

Tisdell, C. and Fairbairn, T. I. (1984) Subsistence economies and unsustainable development and trade: some simple theory. The Journal of Development Studies 20 (2): 227- 241.

241

242

GLOBALISE OR PERISH? THREATS TO THE SUSTAINABILITY OF NIUE’S AGRO-EXPORT SECTOR WARWICK E MURRAY

Institute of Geography, Victoria University New Zealand Formerly Geography Department, The University of the South Pacic Suva, Fiji

Introduction

It has proven difficult for the independent countries of the Pacific Islands to build economically and environmentally sustainable agro-export sectors. The obvious constraints posed by economic and territorial smallness, geographic isolation and susceptibility to environmental disasters are often touted to explain this (see Figure 1). On the right wing, some commentators might add the ‘crowding out’ effects of aid receipts, the problem of technology transfer and the non-commercial attitude of farmers to the list (Fleming and Hardaker, 1995). On the left, others have explained non-sustainability as a consequence of becoming exploited within the global capitalist system which increases economic fragility, places excessive demands on marginal environments and erodes traditional agricultural knowledge (Thaman, 1984). Although many would lie somewhere in between these two opposing views, overall there has been a tendency to seek universal explanations for the region as a whole. This has not been helpful in the design of appropriate policy. General theories, from the right wing in particular, underpinned the often homogenous and generally inappropriate policy direction of aid donors, other ‘development’ trustees, and pressurised governments in the last decade of the previous Figure 1: Niue’s wharf: The vulnerability of Niue’s export economy was century. Such approaches symbolised by the partial collapse of its only wharf in 1998 due to bad fail to recognise the par- weather. In the picture the wharf is being re-constructed Note: Updated and adapted from an article first published in the Journal of Pacific Studies, vol. 20, 2000. Reproduced with the permission of the editorial board, SSED, USP. 243

NIUE ISLAND

ticular set of local contingencies which interact with regional and global processes to produce unique outcomes in each place.

As the case study of Niue illustrates, sometimes actor-specific contingencies must be understood before we can hope to design policy intended to achieve sustainability. The fortunes of Niue’s agro-export sector have oscillated perhaps more than any other PIC over recent decades. Given that total export earnings are comprised almost entirely of agricultural items, this has had negative ramifications for Niue’s balance of trade. Since 1990 however, a boom in taro exports to New Zealand and, more recently, American Samoa, has been experienced. In terms of export values and the number of people involved in the cultivation and marketing of the item, it is perhaps the largest and most successful export sector the country has ever seen.

Notwithstanding, there are a number of problems currently facing the sector which threaten both its economic and environmental sustainability. As this chapter will show, given recent restructuring in the political and economic relations of Niue with New Zealand and the rest of the world, the potential ramifications of export sector volatility and/or collapse are more significant than before.

This chapter investigates past fluctuations and recent patterns in the agro-export sector in the context of the changing political economy of Niue and the Pacific Island region around it. It offers competing explanations for the economic failures of the past and explores the sustainability of the present agro-export sector. In the context of the latter, it explores the implications of the application of export orienation and free-market restructuring, for the Niuean socio-economy in general and taro exports in particular. Ultimately the paper considers whether, given contemporary conditions in a globalising world, the pursuit of agro-exports is a viable ‘development’ alternative for Niue.1

Globalising agriculture and the Pacific Islands

Across the Pacific Island region there is a notable trend towards neoliberal economic restructuring (Firth, 2000; Murray, 2000; Murray, 2001). This change mirrors patterns elsewhere in the ‘Third World’ - although it has come relatively late to the Pacific Island region. Following the end of the Cold War, and the resultant erosion of the ‘geopolitical comparative advantage’ of many Pacific Island Countries (PICs), economic policies of donor and creditor countries have shifted from the traditional aid approach towards that which is intended to stimulate autonomous economic development. ‘Development’ assistance (both aid and loans) is usually 1

The author is grateful to the University of the South Pacic Research Committee who funded a research period in Niue in December 1998.

244

GLOBALISE OR PERISH? THREATS TO THE SUSTAINABILITY OF NIUE’S AGRO-EXPORT SECTOR

now accompanied by a range of restructuring conditions such as downsizing the public sector, privatisation, tariff-reduction, subsidy elimination, and other ‘competitiveness-inducing’ policies. Among the main objectives of neoliberal outwardorientation is the stimulation of productive efficiency and export competitiveness.

Given that the majority of PICs have predominantly agrarian economies, the focus of neoliberal restructuring has been the agricultural sector (see Fleming and Hardaker, 1995; Murray, 1998 for examples). Donors and the local business elite often argue that such restructuring, though painful in the short term, is necessary in order to survive in the increasingly liberalised global economy. As this chapter elaborates, Niue has shifted, with a good deal of ‘encouragement’ from the main aid donor New Zealand, to such a policy regime. The Niuean Strategic Development Plan of 1994 (Govt. of Niue, 1994), is a document laden with ‘neoliberal-speak’, as are a number of aid-restructuring documents which are influencing policy in the country (for example NZODA, 1998; UNDP and WTO, 1997) The move towards neoliberalism represents nothing short of a paradigmatic shift in the region. Aid donors increasingly argue that the economic structure which has dominated in many PICs (especially in Polynesia), MIRAB (migration, aid, remittances, and bureaucracy) (Bertram and Watters, 1985), is unsustainable in the long run. Donors have clearly indicated that they wish to reduce aid in the long term.

Some commentators argue that the potential for remittances from second and third generation Pacific islanders in Pacific Rim countries may be subject to decline (Firth, 2000) – although this hypothesis has not been proven. Although Bertram argues that the MIRAB economies can be sustained in the long run, donors are acting as if its demise is certain and that there is no alternative to the neoliberal approach as a replacement to frame economic policy agendas. It is important that questions are raised as to the validity of pursuing such a model in the context of the economically and environmentally fragile micro-states of the Pacific Islands.

The Niuean economy and the ‘boom-bust’ cycle of agro-exports

By international standards, Niue is an exceptionally small socio-economy with a Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of approximately NZ$11 million in 1997, and a population of little more than 2,000 and falling (Currie, 1999). It is often characterised as a typically MIRAB economy. Since independence in 19742, aid levels per Niue is a self-governing territory in free association with New Zealand, a status which leaves the former colonial power responsible for defence and monetary policy (Niue uses the NZ Dollar), and grants Niueans dual citizenship and the right to abode in either New Zealand or Niue. In most other respects Niue operates independently.

2

245

NIUE ISLAND

capita have been among the highest in the world (UNDP, 1999). In 1997/98 the total level of incoming aid equalled NZ$7.6 million, with NZ$6.8 coming from New Zealand alone (which as former colonial power is constitutionally obliged to give aid to Niue). This represents a per capita figure of NZ$3640, equalling around 70% of GDP (NZODA, 1998). Although the absolute per capita aid level has fallen from levels approaching NZ$4500 at the beginning of the 1990s, it remains the highest in the Pacific Islands.

Remittances from expatriate Niueans living overseas are also significant in some years. New Zealand has a population of over 11,000 Niueans living in urban areas generally on the North Island. Although significant amounts of money are remitted, levels are not as relatively large or consistent as elsewhere in Polynesia. Indeed, in some years, net remittance outflows have been greater than in-flows. In 1988 for example, a net outflow of NZ$5.35 million was recorded (Fleming and Hardaker, 1995). In this way, the relative importance of Niue’s MIRAB components are different to other PICs such as Samoa and Tonga where remittances dominate the economy.

However, like most other PICs, partly as a consequence of very high aid levels, the public sector has traditionally formed the overriding component in employment and GDP. In 1997, public sector employment accounted for just over 50% of total employment. This has fallen from very high levels of over 80% in the early 1980s (Fleming and Hardaker, 1995). Although the public sector has declined proportionately it still accounts for over 55% of GDP. Niue has always been a predominantly agricultural society (Walsh, 1972, 1975; Mitchell, 1977), and this remains the case. In terms of ‘formal’ income, agriculture is estimated to have contributed around 15% per annum to GDP throughout the 1990s (Currie, 1999), and probably more before that. This vastly underestimates the importance of the sector as subsistence production continues to form a central, albeit declining, activity in practically every household (Govt. of Niue, 1990). It is upon this back-drop that various attempts have been made to stimulate agroexports throughout the years. From cession to Britain in 1900 (and then New Zealand in 1901) until the 1960s, only a limited amount of such exports were recorded, although a notable specialism in banana exports evolved after the war. Since the 1960s, within the context of attempts to modernise the Niuean economy, the country has developed five major, albeit short-lived, export crops; passionfruit, lime, pawpaw, coconut cream and taro (Govt. of Niue, 1996). A range of other minor sectors including green nuts, yam and honey have also been developed. The evolution of agro-export values from 1980 is shown in Table 1.

246

GLOBALISE OR PERISH? THREATS TO THE SUSTAINABILITY OF NIUE’S AGRO-EXPORT SECTOR

Table 1: Value Of Selected Exports, Niue 1980-1997, (NZ$000s) 80 Coconut cream

83

84

85

86

87

88

89

90

91

92

93

94

95

96

97

25 233.9 269.1 433.5

81

82

20.7

0

43.8

73.1

5.2

0

na

na

0

0

0

0

0

0 0

Copra

64.3

19.9

10.6

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Footballs

23.1

93.4 124.9

114.9

61.4

22.6

13.6

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0.6

0

3.3

0.4

0.2

0.3

2.6

na

na

0

0

0

5.4

31.2

21

Green nuts

0

0

Handicrafts

36.1

63.7

44

21.4

23.5

22.5

9.1

6.6

14.1

8.1

na

na

0

0

0

na

na

na

Honey

26.5

28.7

19.8

6.6

10.6

19.6

18.9

4.5

26.2

0

na

na

0

0 20.7

22.3

0

0

Lime prods.

10.5

15.3

10.4

12.4

33.6

18.9

31

22.7

6.6

3

na

na

0

0

0

0

0

0

Passionfruit prods

79.9

73.9

70.6

24.7

45.4

14.1

0

0

0

0

na

na

0

0

0

0

0

0

Paw paw

23.4

15.6

6

3.1

0

0

0

0

0

0

na

na

0

0

0

0

0

0

Taro1

19.5

38

51.6

3.2

0.4

55.7

12.7

5.7

23.3

43.2

na

na

87 473.1 60.5 558.8 387.7 148.9

na

na

na

na

na

na

na

na

na

na

na

na

na

na

176 165.8 120.4

91.2

89.2

na

na 185.8 543.2

272

Yam

na

Total

308.3

50.4 642.2

633 247.2

0

9.3

0

600 431.7 171.9

Until 1995 taros and yams were counted together. The export of yams has been negligable however.

Source: Currie (1999), Government of Niue (various years) 1

Explaining the boom-bust pattern Each of the major Niuean agro-export crops noted above, aside from taro to date, has ultimately failed. The passionfruit sector, which involved the export of fresh and partly processed items to New Zealand and Japan, lasted for 20 years between 1965 and 1985. It peaked in 1979, recording a value of NZ$179,000. Ultimately, the escalation of costs – not least because hand pollination is required – made Niuean passionfruit uncompetitive. The lime sector which also involved fresh and processed exports to New Zealand and Japan lasted between 1973 and 1988, peaking in 1984 with a value of NZ$34,000. Like passionfruit, limes were out-competed due to high production costs. The pawpaw export sector was shorter lived, lasting between 1977 and 1983, reaching a peak of NZ$23,400 in 1980. Locals suggest that the major problem in this case was the relatively poor quality of fruit being shipped-out.

Until the advent of taro exports, the coconut cream sector was perhaps the most successful outward-oriented industry of all. This lasted between 1980 and 1988, and involved the factory-based production of cream for export to New Zealand and a number of Pacific Islands. Although the peak year recorded in table 1 is 1983 at NZ$433,000, Hardaker and Fleming (1995) report a figure of approximately NZ$1 million in earnings for 1982.3 This sector failed when the factory producing the item closed suddenly. Fleming and Hardaker (1995) argue that this was caused in part by coconut growers’ demands for higher prices. The operator moved to the Cook Islands where growers were willing to accept lower prices.

3

This illustrates the difculty of obtaining reliable statistics for the Niuean economy.

247

NIUE ISLAND

What explains the clearly volatile nature of the agro-export sector? Although each sector has suffered a unique set of consequences leading to its downfall, can common threads be drawn from the experience? There can be little doubt that the classic economic constraints of small island development with respect to agricultural export development as discussed by Fisk (1978) are relevant. These include: distance to market, isolation from latest technologies, lack of economies of scale and the dependence on imports for agricultural inputs – all of which have the capacity to drive prices up to uncompetitive levels. High prices, which have been a common feature, can be further explained by the relatively high wage levels in the aid-sustained public sector, and the general scarcity of labour on the island. A further common thread, which is relevant across the Pacific, is the persistent threat of disease outbreaks and natural disasters both of which have had a negative influence on the consistent performance of Niue’s agro-export sector (DAFF Niue, pers comm.).

Although all of the above have certainly influenced sectoral failures to a greater or lesser degree it is political rather than economic or environmental factors which are fundamental. Given its diminutive size Niue has no way of controlling the markets to which it inserts itself and is left extremely vulnerable to small shifts in the economic landscape. Except perhaps in highly specialised niche markets Niue has no power to influence the conditions of its participation in regional markets and is inevitably out-competed. The neoliberal answer to this is to drive down costs in order to remain competitive. This is an unrealistic option in this case. Niueans are unlikely to endure consistent falls in their real wages given rising economic expectations and the option of living and working in New Zealand. Ironically, it is exactly this objective which is now informing economic policy in the country and, in doing so, increasing both Niue’s economic and demographic fragility.

Neoliberal restructuring and the taro boom

Beginning in the early 1990s, New Zealand radically altered the nature of its assistance policy in Niue. In particular, within an intended declining overall contribution, emphasis shifted from budget contributions towards specific project aid. For example, in 1989/90 of a total aid donation of NZ$9.7 million, 7 million went directly to the government budget. In 1997/98, of a total contribution of NZ$6.8 million, 4.3 million went to the budget, with nearly 30% going to ‘special projects’ (NZODA, 1998).

These projects were generally private sector development initiatives. In a recent report the NZODA consider the possibility of phasing-out budget support totally by 2002 and placing approximately NZ$3 million per annum in a trust fund (NZODA, 1998).

248

GLOBALISE OR PERISH? THREATS TO THE SUSTAINABILITY OF NIUE’S AGRO-EXPORT SECTOR

This reduction in budget contributions, along with the general downward trend in total aid contributions, has necessitated a decline in public sector employment.

As previously discussed, the public sector dominates the economy overwhelmingly.

Between the years of 1990 and 1996, the level of employment in government shrank from close to 500 to just under 300. This left a void in Niueans’ incomes. In order to stimulate economic activity (and prevent out-migration from accelerating further) funds were channelled into a number of initiatives to promote the private sector (see Figure 2). One of the main examples was the establishment of the Moie Faka Niue (The ‘Niuean Way’) (MFN) in 1993, a collective organisation designed to ease the production and marketing of agro-exports. A major target area of the association was the taro export sector. The MFN became involved in the collective supply of inputs, information and the bulk marketing of taro. For a number of years in the early 1990s it was by far the major ‘intermediary’ in the taro export trade. Though sometimes clashing with the Growers Association over the universal price levels offered for taro and other technical issues, the MFN provided a focus for the development of the export industry. Initially, many of those who had been laid off from the public sector attempted a move to the more commercial exploitation of taro.

Figure 2: Niue Women’s Handicraft Centre – The construction of this centre is one example of efforts to provide alternative sources of income for Niueans after the restructuring of the early 1990s

The boom in taro exports, localised globalisation and welfare impacts Taro is the leading staple agriculture product in Niue and Polynesia in general. The root crop, which takes eight months to mature from planting, is widely incorporated in diets and grown for subsistence purposes by nearly all families in the country.

Although a small amount of taro had been exported from Niue before the 1990s (see Table 1 and Figure 3) it was never a major export and produced overwhelmingly for local consumption. Until this point, exports were generally arranged through relatives in New Zealand on a one to one basis. This changed with restructuring, the establishment of the MFN, and the opening up a relatively large New Zealand 249

NIUE ISLAND

market given the taro leaf blight which virtually wiped out production in a major supplier, Samoa, in the early 1990s. This combination of factors led to an unprecedented increase in the volume and value of exports as established farmers, former public service workers, and others turned over a good proportion of their formerly subsistence taro plots and began planting new ones (DAFF, pers comm.).

During the 1980s the value of exports rose above NZ$50,000 only once. In 1995 however, it reached an all-time record for any Niuean export (in nominal terms at least) of over NZ$550,000. In subsequent years it has declined and it looks unlikely that it will return to such heights. As is clear from Figure 3, in the 1980s, taro generally represented only a small proportion of total export values. However, by the 1990s it regularly accounted for between 80-90% of total earnings. Niue’s export sector has become over-reliant on the crop. Although in 1997 the export sector represented only a small proportion of GDP (not more than 1.5%), being overshadowed by aid contributions, the boom has had fundamental socio-economic and environmental impacts which are more important than its relative economic contribution would imply.

Figure 3: Value of Taro and Total Exports, Niue 1980-1997, Nz$000s

Source: Niue Ofce of Statistics (various years)

The growth of the sector represents a unique form of globalisation which provides some scope for economic sustainability. Unlike agro-exports of the past, the over-riding market for the product has been ex-patriot Niueans in New Zealand, and to a lesser extent other Pacific Islanders. Interviews with returning Niueans suggested that part of the rationale for the purchase of Niuean taro, despite it being more expensive than competitors, is a sense of supporting relatives and compatriots at ‘home’. According to a prominent Niuean supplier, in 1998 Niuean taro was selling for an average of 250

GLOBALISE OR PERISH? THREATS TO THE SUSTAINABILITY OF NIUE’S AGRO-EXPORT SECTOR

NZ$2.75/kg in the New Zealand market. At the same time Fijian taro, albeit generally considered of inferior quality, could be purchased for just NZ$1.70/kg.

When the taro boom began it was marketed to New Zealand largely through the MFN. More recently, a number of private intermediaries have become involved and some growers continue to export directly to relatives. In some cases the taro marketed through the MFN and private intermediaries, goes to Niueans who have established personalised networks in major New Zealand cities such as Auckland, Wellington, and Hamilton. Home delivery services have been established in some places. A proportion of the taro is delivered to the ‘Polynesian’ markets found in a number of cities mainly in the North Island.4 In 1995, the entrance of a buyer from American Samoa altered this export market structure significantly. His entrance, and the high prices he offered, resulted in a scramble to supply. He purchased from the MFN, from private intermediaries and also directly from growers. Much production intended for subsistence and local use was sold (some of it at a quality not sufficient for export). The demand from this individual was large and Niue could not fulfil it. In subsequent years, despite assurances that he would return, he did not and the sector contracted significantly. This illustrates the vastly important role of individual actors in the Niuean economy, which also revealed itself in the case of the failed coconut sector.

The growth of the taro sector has partially absorbed some of the unemployed labour created through restructuring. Returns can be quite reasonable on one acre of land. Panama et al. (1991) estimate grower returns based on prices in 1991.

Assuming production of 2400 kg (80 bags) per acre selling for NZ$1.50 a bag, gross returns for one acre are equal to NZ$3600. Costs, including clearing by bulldozer, inputs, the estimated labour cost of planting, labour and maintenance are equal to approximately NZ$2400 per acre, leaving a profit of NZ$1200 per acre. It is likely that this is a conservative estimate of the potential profits. Although exact figures are not available, according to primary interviews most growers had planted between 2 and 4 acres of taro per annum over the recent past implying an average income (at 1991 prices) of between NZ$2400 and NZ$4800. In some cases cultivated areas are far larger. Some growers argue that returns have been greater when produce is sent directly to relatives overseas for sale. Interviews showed that there have been clear economic benefits for most of those involved. These have been relatively evenly distributed socially and geographically. Although the north side of the island including the villages of Tuapa, Makefu and Hikutavake is usually assumed to be the most fertile part of the country and the source of the majority of supply, figures from the 4

To my knowledge no research has been undertaken on the spatial marketing of Niuean taro in New Zealand.

251

NIUE ISLAND

MFN indicate that there are as many export growers on the south side particularly in the villages of Hakupu and Tamkautonga. Unfortunately there are no figures detailing the exact location of export supply source but a fairly ubiquitous distribution (distributed close to roads and villages) seems a fair assumption.

The sector does not have the capacity to become a full-time occupation for the vast majority of those involved. According to the Growers Association (pers comm.), in 1998 there were only 5 full-time agro-export growers on the island. Of the other 150 or so growers who exported all were part-time taro producers – many of whom were former civil servants attempting to supplement eroded incomes.

According to one local hotel owner the restructuring has brought about a situation where people “have to do a little bit of everything just to survive.” Export agriculture has long been a supplementary activity in Niue. As the next section argues, a realistic assessment would suggest that it is always likely to be so.

Threats to the socio-economic and environmental sustainability of taro exports

Although the recent boom has brought certain benefits to participating individuals, and has provided a much-needed option for an increasingly squeezed economy, there are a number of problems which have accompanied growth. These factors seriously threaten the sustainability of the sector. They can be divided into socio-economic and environmental problems - although there is considerable overlap.

Socio-economic threats Economic vulnerability - The sector grew largely because of the constriction in supply in response to the taro leaf blight in Samoa. The market, which opened so rapidly, could close with equal speed. The fact that, on some occasions, a good proportion of the export system has been dependent on the existence of one intermediary suggests a high level of fragility. Competition from other Pacific island suppliers for the New Zealand market is becoming increasingly fierce. Fiji and Tonga can produce taro at lower cost than Niue, and Samoa will soon be back to full productive capacity. Although Niuean growers and suppliers are proud of the quality of their taro, and customers continue to buy it despite relatively high prices, it is uncertain how long this will last given the pressure on disposable incomes in New Zealand.

The increasing cultural distance of successive generations from their families in Niue, and the concomitant shift to a ‘Western’ diet, may progressively weaken the attachment to taro.

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GLOBALISE OR PERISH? THREATS TO THE SUSTAINABILITY OF NIUEâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S AGRO-EXPORT SECTOR

Supply and quality problems - The generally uncoordinated nature of supply and the lack of consistent quality control has caused the loss of potentially rewarding markets. Demand for the American Samoan market in the past has been large. However, Niue has been unable to fully supply needs and obtain the necessary economies of scale in shipment. With productive planning, it may be possible to supply these needs in a way that does not increase economic and environmental vulnerability. This combined with worries concerning quality, which is not regulated in any consistent way, has caused major purchasers to go elsewhere for their supply.

Pressure on remittances - Although no work has been undertaken on the impact of increase taro export earnings on the level of remittances it is an area which warrants investigation. Observations from other PICs suggest that as export earnings rise, remittances may fall (Storey and Murray, 2001). It may be worth investigating this as a hypothesis in Niue where remittances are traditionally subject to greater volatility. Thus the gap in the balance of payments has the potential to be unaffected by the rise in exports. There is a need for research in this important area.

Loss of agricultural diversity and subsistence - The replacement of formerly mixed systems with monocultures of taro is a worrying development. Not only does this have negative environmental impacts, it also raises the economic vulnerability of individual farmers. Although detailed figures do not exist, interviews with growers suggest a trend towards the replacement of a wide variety of crops for subsistence, domestic and export markets by taro. A troubling consequence of export crop development is the displacement in subsistence production. This may come about through the sale of taro which was to be consumed domestically for export, or by the replacement of staple crops by taro. This appears to be resulting in a rise in food imports in the country (See Imam Aliâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s chapter in this collection).

Pressure on land - The taro boom has led to increasing pressure on land. This is in spite of the fact that the land/population ratio has declined drastically over recent years. This has led to a rise in the level and number of land disputes. The NZODA land-titling project has sought to alleviate some of these problems by fully demarcating boundaries and establishing use rights according to magafaoa (extended family land holding unit). However, this policy has been far from uncontroversial. An issue of considerable complication is what should happen to land under the custody of Niueans living abroad. Currently, land rights do not have to be surrendered (Cro253

NIUE ISLAND

combe, 1977). However, there is mounting pressure in some quarters on this rule given the increasing need for somewhat scarce fertile land for commercial exploitation.

Environmental threats Clear-felling and intensification - The dominant method of land clearance for taro has caused considerable controversy. In the past, slash and burn was the preferred technique. This would involve the rotation of cultivation, with fallow periods of ten years being the average. The advent of bulldozer technology and the increased demand for land for taro exports has led to an increase in land clearance. In 1989, bulldozing accounted for 81% of all clearance, with slash and burn accounting for 18% (Govt. of Niue, 1990). Given the large increase in taro export possibilities recently, this figure is likely to have risen. This activity has been promoted by the Moie Faka Niue who have subsidised the use of bulldozers. This is having damaging impacts on ecosystems, raising soil exposure and erosion, lowering biodiversity, and removing nutrient replacing plants. Some of the clearance is taking place on the edges of virgin native forest, which is of unquantifiable environmental value. After clearing, land is often prepared using disc-ploughing, which is having detrimental effects on fertility. Interviews revealed that growers are concerned about environmental impacts and have observed various problems including declining soil fertility and yields. Fallow periods have decreased in some cases to as low as three years and some plots, according to one DAFF official, have suffered unrecoverable damage. There is a serious need to address this issue as such change has not been measured systematically to date.

Pollution of water - Although there is, as yet, no direct evidence suggesting water pollution due to the use of various chemical inputs, many growers and officials in Niue believe that it is a likely consequence. The use of chemicals has increased enormously throughout the 1990s. This is of serious concern in a limestone island relying on a fresh water lens. Niuean soils are generally porous (Wright and van Westernthorp, 1965), therefore it is likely that increase rates of usage have caused a rise in their transmission to groundwater. Again, there is a dire need to undertake research aimed at efficiently estimating the costs of this impact.

Conclusions â&#x20AC;&#x201C; a future for the Niuean agro-export sector?

Interviews in Niue suggested that the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;boom-bustâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; nature of agro-exports in Niue has had a disturbing impact on incentives for practising farming. Given high 254

GLOBALISE OR PERISH? THREATS TO THE SUSTAINABILITY OF NIUE’S AGRO-EXPORT SECTOR

fluctuations in export earnings, many had felt it unwise to make investment in their productive facilities. In conversation with young people it became clear that farming was seen as the last option for gainful employment - due to uncertainty and also its perceived ‘old-fashionedness’. Until recently however, export volatility did not have an enormous impact on individual and family welfare. Many had well paid jobs in the public sector, some with relatives overseas who might send money in bad years. All had recourse to subsistence food supplies. Given restructuring however, Niueans’ welfare is more directly correlated to the performance of the agricultural sector and agro-exports in particular. The importance of the sector in this respect should not be overstated however. The option of migration always exists – and given recent problems this is what many Niueans are doing.

The fact that there are few viable alternatives within the unavoidable neoliberal context does not augur well for Niue’s future. Notwithstanding this, the potential for extra income afforded through niche agro-exports should not be overlooked. Taro should not be abandoned as an export, but it should not be relied upon or allowed to develop into an economically and environmentally damaging monoculture as is presently the case. The destruction of native Niuean forest for short-term economic gain is an ecological disaster at any scale of analysis. In this sense it is crucial to attempt to establish a diversified range of niche products. There are possibilities in crops such nonu (a plant which has considerable remedial possibilities), vanilla, and even a re-activation of honey seems possible. However, entering and maintaining a position in such markets will require competing with much larger economies exhibiting far more favourable characteristics.

This analysis has shown that there are significant constraints to the sustainable development of agro-exports in Niue. Unfortunately however, donors and development ‘experts’ still have faith in agro-export development, despite the clearly illustrated impediments in this particular case. Such thinkers believe that free-market restructuring can help overcome such barriers. This is based partly on a false universalism which has over-generalised Pacific Island economic problems and is leading to the application of a blanket policy across the region. The fundamental point made here is that Niue’s lack of political and economic power in regional markets and its consequent vulnerability to economic change, mean that it can never rely on the export sector to provide a sustainable livelihood for its population. As such the current neoliberal policy agenda only worsens Niue’s already considerable socioeconomic and demographic predicament.

255

NIUE ISLAND

References

Crocombe, R. (ed.) (1977) Land Tenure in Niue, Institute of Pacific Studies, USP, Suva.

Currie, C. (1999) Current Economic Statistics: Niue, USPEC, University of the South Pacific, Suva.

Firth, S. (2000) The Globalization Agenda and the Pacific Islands, forthcoming Contemporary Pacific, Spring 2000.

Fisk, E. K. (1978) The Island of Niue: Dependence of Development for a very small island nation?, Occasional paper no. 9, Development Studies Centre, Australian national University, Canberra.

Fleming, E. and Hardaker, J. B. (1995) Pacific 2010: Strategies for Polynesian Agricultural Development, National Centre for Development Studies/Research School of Asian and Pacific Studies, Australian National University, Canberra.

Government of Niue (1990) The 1989 Agricultural Census, Govt. of Niue/DAFF, Alofi .

Government of Niue (1994) Strategic Development Plan, Govt. of Niue, Alofi.

Government of Niue (various years) Annual Abstract of Statistics, Govt. of Niue Statistics Unit, Alofi.

Government of Niue (various years) External trade statistics, Govt. of Niue Statistics Unit, Alofi.

Institute of Pacific Studies (1982) The History of Niue, Institute of Pacific Studies, USP, Suva.

Mitchell, G. D. (1977) Village Agriculture in Niue, University of Canterbury Press, Christchurch.

Murray, W. E. (1998) The Globalisation of Fruit, Neoliberalism and the Question of Sustainability - Lessons from Chile, European Journal of Development Research, 10(1):201-227 Murray, W. E. (2000) Neoliberal globalisation Neoliberal Globalisation, ‘Exotic’ Agro-Exports and Local Change in the Pacific Islands: A Study of the Fijian Kava Sector, Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography, vol. 21(3), pp. 355-375.

Murray W. E. (2001) The Second Wave of Globalisation and Agrarian Change in the Pacific Islands, Journal of Rural Studies, volume 17/2, pp. 135-148 National Centre for Development Studies of the Australian National University (1995) NCDS electronic database for the Pacific Islands, NCDS, ANU, Canberra.

New Zealand Overseas Development Assistance (1998) Review of (the framework for) NZODA to Niue: Developing a sustainable private sector, NZODA, August 1998.

Panama, I., Lavini, L., Talagi, B. T., Talagi, M. (1991) Production management and marketing of primary produce for the island of Niue, Presentation delivered at the Economic and Social Development Workshop, 8-19 July, Alofi.

Storey, D. and Murray, W. E. (2001) Dilemmas of Development in Oceania – the Political Economy of Tongan Agro-exports, Geographical Journal, vol. 167, no. 4. pp. 291-304 United Nations Development Programme and World Tourism Organisation (1997) Tourism and private sector development program Niue: Final Report, UNDP and WTO. United Nations Development Programme (1999) Pacific Human Development Report, UNDP, Suva.

Walsh, C. (1972) Aspects of subsistence agriculture in Niue, Compass, 6(1): 91-95.

Walsh, C. (1975) Subsistence agriculture and the communications of innovations: some Niuean examples, in Hardaker, J. B. (ed.) The Subsistence Sector in the South Pacific, USP/University of New England, Suva/ Armidale.

Wright A. C. S. and Van Westerndorp F. J. (1965) Soils and Agriculture in Niue, New Zealand Government, Wellington.

256

NIUEâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S BIODIVERSITY - APPENDIX

Appendix I. Species of plants reported present on Niue by W. R. Sykes who conducted a botanical survey in 1965 and by W. A. Whistler who inventoried the vascular plants in the area of the Huvalu Forest Conservation Area in the southeast portion of the island in 1998 Sykes (1965) Native Intro BRYOPHYTA (Bryophytes) Mosses (Bryophyta) Liverworts (Hepatophyta) Subtotal PTERIDOPHYTA (Ferns and Fern Allies) Fern Allies (Psilotopsida and Lycopsida) Psilotaceae Lycopodiaceae Ferns (Filicopsida) Aspidiaceae Aspleniaceae Athyriaceae Davalliaceae Hymenopyllaceae Marattiaceae Nephrolepidiaceae Ophioglossaceae Polypodiaceae Pteridaceae Schiziaceae Thelypteridaceae Vittariaceae Subtotal

17 19 36

-

Whistler (1998) Native Intro -

-

TOTAL Native Intro 17 19 36

1 1

1 -

1 1

2 3 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 27

1

2 3 2 1(1) 2 2 1 2 1 3(2) 2(1) 23 (4)

2 3 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 4 3 31

1

-

1

1

SPERMATOPHYTA (Seed Plants) GYMNOSPERMS (Gymnospermae) Cycads (Cyadopsida) Cycadaceae Conifers (Conieropsida) Araucariaceae Pinaceae Subtotal

-

2

-

-

-

2

0

1 1 4

-

-

-

1 1 4

ANGIOSPERMS (Flowering Plants) Monocotyledons (Monocotyledonae) Agavaceae Amaryllidaceae Araceae Arecaceae Cannaceae Commelinaceae Cyclanthaceae Cyperaceae Dioscoreaceae Flagellariaceae

1 2 1

3 11 8 6 1 3 1 8 4 -

1 1 1

2 1 1 1 2 -

1 2 1

3 11 8 6 1 3 1 8 4 -

257

NIUE ISLAND

Heliconiaceae Liliaceae Marantaceae Musaceae Orchidaceae Pandanaceae Poaceae Taccaceae Zingiberaceae Subtotal Dicotyledons (Dicotyledonae) Acanthaceae Actinidaceae Aizoaceae Amaranthaceae Annacardiaceae Annonaceae Apiaceae Apocynaceae Araliaceae Asclediadaceae Asteraceae Balsaminaceae Barringtoniaceae Basellaceae Begoniaceae Bignoniaceae Bixaceae Bombaceae Boraginaceae Brassicaceae Burseraceae Cactaceae Caesalpiniaceae Capparidaceae Caprifoliaceae Caricaceae Cassythaceae Carophyllaceae Casuarinaceae Celastraceae Chenopodiaceae Clusiaceae Combretaceae Connaraceae Convolvulaceae Crassulaceae Cucurbitaceae

258

Sykes (1965) Native Intro 1 5 1 2 17 1 1 2 5 43 1 5 27 106 1 1 2 1 1 2 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 4 1

10 1 6 3 5 6 7 2 2 30 1 1 2 1 3 1 1 2 9 3 8 1 1 1 1 2 1 4 2 7

Whistler (1998) Native Intro 15 1 5 15(1) 1 1 24 24(1) 1 1 2 1 1 3 1 1 1 2 2 1 4 1

2(1) 1 1 1 9 1 3(1) 1 1 -

TOTAL Native Intro 1 5 1 2 17 1 1 2 5 44(1) 1 5 27 107 1 1 2 1 1 2 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 4 1

11(1) 1 6 3 5 6 7 2 2 30 1 1 2 1 3 1 1 2 9 3 9(1) 1 1 1 1 2 1 4 2 7

NIUE’S BIODIVERSITY - APPENDIX

Cuscutaceae Ebenaceae Elaeocarpaceae Euphorbiaceae Flacoutiaceae Gesneriaceae Goodeniaceae Hernandiaceae Hydrangeaceae Lamiaceae Lauraceae Loganiaceae Lythraceae Malpighiaceae Malvaceae Meliaceae Menispermaceae Mimosaceae Moraceae Moringaceae Myrtaceae Nyctaginaceae Olacaceae Oleaceae Oxalidaceae Papaveraceae Papilionaceae Passioraceae Piperaceae Pittosporaceae Plantaginaceae Plumbaginaceae Polemoniaceae Polygalaceae Polygonaceae Portulacaceae Porteaceae Punicaceae Rhamnaceae Rosaceae Rubiaceae Rutaceae Salicaceae Santalaceae Sapindaceae Sapotaceae Scrophulariaceae Solanaceae

Sykes (1965) Native Intro 1 2 1 8 20 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 10 2 1 3 1 1 3 16 1 3 1 1 5 6 5 1 4 10 1 3 3 5 1 1 8 36 1 4 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 4 12 10 2 8 1 1 4 1 3 1 2 1 18

Whistler (1998) Native Intro 2 1 7 7(1) 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 3 5 3(1) 2(1) 1 1(1) 3 1 6(1) 8 1 1(1) 2 1 2 1 1 1 2 10 1 2 3 3 4

TOTAL Native Intro 1 2 1 8 21(1) 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 10 2 1 3 1 1 3 16 1 3 1 1 5 6 5 1 5 11 1 3 1(1) 3 5 1 1 9(1) 36 1 5(1) 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 4 12 10 2 8 1 1 4 1 3 1 2 1 18

259

NIUE ISLAND

Sterculiaceae Thymelaeaceae Tiliaceae Tropaeolaceae Ulmaceae Urticaceae Verbenaceae Viscaceae Subtotal TOTAL (Vascular Plants Only)

Sykes (1965) Native Intro 2 2 1 2 1 1 2 4 2 3 8 1 122 324 176

435

Whistler (1998) Native Intro 2 2 1 1 3 1 2 4 95(3) 61(5) 143(7)

85(6)

TOTAL Native Intro 2 2 1 2 1 1 2 4 2 3 8 1 125 329 183

441

Notes:1) the numbers under Sykes (1965) also includes those species reported present on Niue in a survey by T. G. Yuncker in 1940; 2) whereas both Sykes and Yuncker listed all species recorded for the entire island, including cultivated plants and some non-vascular plants (mosses and liverworts), Whistler’s list is restricted to the vascular plants (ferns, gymnosperms and angiosperms) found mainly in the forested areas of the Huvalu Forest Conservation Area and does not include many indigenous and adventive (weedy) species found elsewhere in Niue and does not include cultivated plants; 3) Sykes also lists the non-vascular plants, mosses and liverworts found on the island, the latter wrtten up by E. O. Campbell; 4) Native refers to indigenous plants that dispersed naturally to Niue and, in most cases, were probably present prior to the settlement of the island by the rst indigenous inhabitants; 5) “Intro” refers to non-indigenous plants, including both aboriginal introductions believed to have been introduced into Niue by the indigenous people of Niue or other Pacic Islanders before the time of rst European contact with Niue, and more recent introductions made after the time of rst European contact with Niue; 6) the numbers in parentheses under Whistler, e.g., 3(2), indicate the number of new species identied by Whistler that were not listed by Sykes.

Appendix II. Niuean, common and scientic (Latin) names for plants reported present on Niue NIUEAN NAMES ago ahi ahi ai aka alo aloalo aniani ata atale, te atatū, laumafoa atiu (asiu) atuatu āvoka fā fā ai fai tala fā feutu, fā  fā iva tea fā niua fā, fā vao, fā  fakamaka, pupu fetū fe’ofa’aki

260

COMMON NAMES turmeric sandalwood vetiver grass canarium almond kudzu vine aloe vera premna spring onion native g

wild cucumber avocado pandanus (gen.) spineless pandanus coastal pandanus pandanus variety Niuan pandanus pandanus, screwpine poinsettia

SCIENTIFIC NAME Curcuma domestica Santalum yasi Vetiveria zizanioides Canarium harveyi Pueraria lobata Aloe barbadensis Premna serratifolia Allium stulosum Ficus tinctoria Ipomoea littoralis Streblus anthropophagorum Cucumis anguria Streblus anthropophagorum Persea americana Pandanus spp.

Pandanus spurius cv. ‘Putat’ Pandanus tectorius?

Pandanus cultivar Pandanus tahitensis var. niueana Pandanus tectorius Hedyotis foetida Euphorbia pulcherrima

NIUE’S BIODIVERSITY - APPENDIX

NIUEAN NAMES fekakai felila, pokenevila, potanevili fetaanu fetau feteinoa feteka feteka feutu, lau tolu feteka tea (feseka sea) feteka, feteka uli lo si aniani, lili niue tihetau tihetau fou fou igo fou mamala, fu mamala fue taina (saina) fue tea (sea) fue uli fue, fue kula, fue vao futi (fusi) futi maholi futi pālagi futu gahu gahu pā, pā gatē gigie hana heketa hikukumā hiku pusi hogohogo hoi holofa holofa akau hooto, ooto hukifā, fua hukifā hulufe huni huni huni ti kula huni ti kula i ikihepō iukulipitasi kaka kaka palagi kahame kaho papālagi, kaho pālagi

COMMON NAMES malay apple bougainvillea blinding tree Alexandrian laurel, tomano beach dodder sea bean beach pea silky sea bean plantain zepher lily pride of Barbados tamarind beach hibiscus tree mile-a minute moonower ? merremia bananas or plantains (gen.)

Pacic plantain lobster claw heliconia sh-poison tree saltbush coral tree pemphis corn, maize sea bean blue rat’s-tail red hot poker, chenille plant air yam Polynesian cress mistletoe pineapple fern Rangoon creeper red ixora Tahitian chestnut queen of the night eucalyptus, gum trees Surinam cherry -common bamboo

SCIENTIFIC NAME Syzygium malaccense Bougainvillea spp.

Excoecaria agallocha Calophyllum inophyllum Cassytha liformis Canavalia rosea Vigna marina Canavalia sericea Mucuna gigantea Plantago lanceolata/Plantago major Zephyranthes rosea Caesalpinia pulcherrima Tamarindus indicus Hibiscus tiliaceus Hibiscus diversifolius Omalanthus nutans Mikania micrantha Ipomoea macrantha Merremia peltata Musa cultivars Musa AAB Group Heliconai bihai Barringtonia asiatica Cyrtandra samoensis Scaevola taccada Erythrina variegata Pemphis acidula Zea mays Canavalia rosea Stachytarpheta urticaefolia Acalypha hispida Laportea interrupta Dioscorea bulbifera Rorippa sarmentosa Korthasella horneana Chionanthus (Linociera) vitiense Ananas comosus Sphaerostephanos invisus Phaleria disperma Quisqualis indica Ixora coccinea Inocarpus fagifer Cestrum nocturnim Eucalyptus spp.

Syzygium inophylloides Eugenia uniora Glochidion ramiorum Bambusa vulgaris

261

NIUE ISLAND

NIUEAN NAMES kaho, kaho niue kakoli kalaka kalakalai kalote kamapui kamapui ti hina, keuila kamapui ti kula kamole kamole kamole kanai kula kanai tea kanai tea kanai uli kanotuatā, kanukatā kanukatā, kanotuatā kanume kanumea, kanomea kapā kapā, kapā fua kula, kapā lau loloa, kau meleni kapāakau, akeake kape kapihi kāpisi puku kāpisi saina katule katule, katule tea, katule kula kāu, kapia kaute (kause) kaute (kause) kaute (kause) kautoga (m), lala pālagi (t), liku kava kava vao kaveutu keakea, ume keuila, kamapui ti hina kieto kihikihi kofe kofe toga kofe, kofe Ālapi kofe, kofe Libia kohuhu koka koka koka, koka kula koli vao koli vao

262

COMMON NAMES sword grass beach privet

carrot lemon grass white ginger shell ginger beach purslane purslane, pigweed purselane

coastal ebony

native hop bush giant taro English cabbage Chinese cabbage slender amaranth cassava, manioc common hibiscus coral hibiscus Turk’s cap, sleeping hibiscus guava kava wild kava

white ginger Samoan ebony wood sorrel Polynesian bamboo beggar’s tick coffee, Arabian coffee coffee, Liberian coffee tephrosia Java cedar copperleaf Java plum

SCIENTIFIC NAME Miscanthus oridulus Clerodendrum inerme Planchonella grayana Melicope retusa Daucus carota Cymbopogon citratus Hedychium coronarium Alpinia speciosa Portulaca lutea Portulaca oleracea Portulaca lutea Morinda myrtifolia Jasminum betchei Jasminum didymum Rourea minor Sterculia fanaiho Sterculia fanaiho Diospyros elliptica Planchonella samoensis Peperomia pallida Procris peduculata Dodonaea viscosa Alocasia macrorrhiza Davallia solida Brassica oleracea var. capitata Brassica chinensis Amaranthus viridis Boerhavia repens Manihot esculenta Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Hibiscus schizopetalus Malviscus arboreus Psidium guajava Piper methysticum Macropiper puberulum Timonius polygamus Zehneria samoensis Hedychium coronarium Diospyros samoensis Oxalis corniculata Schizostachyum glaucifolium Bidens pilosa Coffea arabica Coffea arabica Tephrosia purpurea Baccaurea seemannii Bischoa javanica Acalypha wilkesiana Syzygium richii Syzygium samarangense

NIUE’S BIODIVERSITY - APPENDIX

NIUEAN NAMES kuiti (kuisi) kukama lagakali lala pālagi (t), liku, kautoga (m), lala uli, lala vao lalatahi, lala tea laumafoa, atatū, lautaha lautolu, feteka feutu lē lē, lē hau lētisi liki liku, kautoga (m), lala pālagi (t) lili, lili kufani limoni limu akau moupi limu maka limu maka limu maka akau limu molemole limu molūlū limulimumoupi loku loku moka loku moku fāpogi longolongo lose lose honolulu lose vao lose vao luku, luku laua, luku fua, luku akau magiho mago mahokanī maile malava, mamalava malege malili mamē mamanu magele manini maniota, kāu, kapia manono mati (masi) mei mei Initia melikolu meleni

COMMON NAMES cucumber guava beach vitex beach bean macaranga macaranga lettuce guava spider lily pomegranate dead wood moss rock moss unknown seaweed rock wood moss slippery moss soft moss orchid papaya, pawpaw eggplant, aubergine cycad rose Chinese clerodendrum Madagascar periwinkle bleeding heart bird’s-nest fern stinging nettle tree mango West Indian mahogany island myrtle banana cultivar scented fern bladder berry manioc, cassava native g breadfruit jakfruit merigold watermelon

SCIENTIFIC NAME Pittosporum brackeridgei Cucumis sativus Aglaia saltatorum Psidium guajava Grewia crenata Vitex trifolia Streblus anthropophagorum Elattostachys falcata Vigna marina Macaranga seemannii Macaranga harveyana Lactuca sativa Eugenia reinwardtiana Psidium guajava Hymenocallis littoralis Punica granatum Trichsteleum humatum Brachymenium melanothecium ?

Rhizogonium setosum Papillaria sp.

Leucobryum candidum Oberonia equitans Carica papaya Solanum repandum/uporo Solanum melongena Cycas rumphii Rosa spp.

Clerodendrum chinense Catharanthus roseus Clerodenrum thomsonae Asplenium nidus Dendrocnide harveyi Mangifera indica Swietenia macrophylla Alyxia stellata Elaeocarpus tonganus Pipturus argenteus Terminalia richii Musa cultivar Phymatosorus grossus Trema cannabina Physalis angulata Manihot esculenta Tarenna sambucina Ficus scabra Artocarpus altilis Artocarpus heterophyllus Tagetes erecta Citrullus lanatus

263

NIUE ISLAND

NIUEAN NAMES milo moea moea kulu mohuku moli moli kona moli kona moli kulepi moli lau ua moli, moli kai moli, moli manetalini momili momili, momili ego momili, momili elo moota mōtie (mosie) kalalahi mōtie alefane mōtie feutu mōtie ti (si) mōtie fuhitalo, motie fuhitalotalo mōtie molūlū mōtie tai mōtie vailima, vailima mōtie vihilago mōtini mōtipo mōtipo mōtofu mōtofu ti (si) mōtofu hiku kumā mōtofu kula mōtofu, mōtofu kula motooi motooi Honolulu motou mulamula niu Niukini, tuha nonu okiti oluolu ovava pā, gahu pā paina, paina Kalapini paina, paina Nofoko pako pako palai, u palai palapalaveka palapalaveka

264

COMMON NAMES Thespian’s tree native ixora sword fern citrus trees sour orange, Seville orange pomelo, shaddock grapefruit citrus sweet orange Mandarin orange red salvia sweet basil sacred basil stinkwood elephant grass carpet grass golden beardgrass goosegrass Bermuda grass sour paspalum, t-grass bur grass, sand bur pumpkin hibiscus burr broom weed hibiscus burr blue rat-tail broom weed broom weed perfume tree, ylangylang climbing ylangylang sea trumpet candelabra bush coconut palm derris root Indian mulberry orchid (general) native banyan saltbush Caribbean pine Norfolk Island pine nut sedge beach nut sedge spiny yam

SCIENTIFIC NAME Thespesia populnea Ixora triora Psychotria insularum Nephrolepis hirsutula Citrus spp.

Citrus aurantium Citrus maxima/grandis Citrus paradisi Citrus sp.

Citrus sinensis Citrus reticulata Salvia cocinea Ocimum basilicum Ocimum sanctum Dysoxylum forsteri Paspalum vaginatum Pennesetum purpureum Axonopus compressus Chrysopogon aciculatus Eleusine indica Cynodon dactylon Fimbristylis cymosa Paspalum conjugatum Cenchrus echinatus Cucurbita pepo Triumfetta rhomboidea Urena lobata Sida acuta Urena lobata Stachytarpheta urticaefolia Sida rhombifolia Sida rhombifolia Cananga odorata Artobotrys hexapetalus/uncinatus Cordia subcordata Senna alata Cocos nucifera Derris malaccensis Morinda citrifolia Orchidaceae Planchonella garberi Ficus prolixa Scaevola taccada Pinus caribaea Pinus heterophylla Cyperus rotundus Cyperus stoloniferus Dioscorea nummularia Tectaria chrysotricha Tectaria latifolia

NIUE’S BIODIVERSITY - APPENDIX

NIUEAN NAMES palatini, tinitini pamako panama panopano pao paongo pele pepa pepe pepe pia pikimaka pilita piliva pinati (pinasi) pine pine ti ago, pine kotalalia pine ti ago, pine kotalalia pine fua loloa pine fua loaloa, pine totolo fua loa pine liku pine, pine kai pipi pitiluti piu polo iti (isi) polo kai, polo fua polo magiho polofua polofua poloi pomea pomea mata’ila, matamoho (t) pua pualiki puka, puka kula puka, puka tea pulaka, talo pulaka pulaka, talo pulaka tea (sea) pulaka, talo pulaka uli pupu fetū, fakamaka pupu kalē pupu kalē pupu kalē, pupupupu kalē pupu lele pupu lele pupu lele salatolo sili sinamoni

COMMON NAMES granadilla sea caper Panama hat palm guettarda pandanus hibiscus spinach sweet capsicum, bell pepper leucaena Polynesian arrowroot artillary plant wild yam peanut, groundnut ame tree, poinciana, amboyant

bauhinia, butterfy tree longbean, snake bean french bean, haricot bean beetroot Pacic fan palm black nightshade perennial chili pepper black nightshade Ceylon spinach, Malabar nightshade wild ginger red-bead tree rosary pea pua native banyan lantern tree pisonia cocoyam, tannia, american taro cocoyam, tannia cocoyam, tannia ground orchid orchid orchid sow thistle sow thistle siratro Persian lilic, China berry bay rum

SCIENTIFIC NAME Passiora quadrangularis Capparis cordifolia Carludovica palmata Guettarda speciosa Neisosperma oppositifolium Pandanus whitmeanus Abelmoschus manihot Capsicum annuum var. grossum Schleinitzia insularum Leucaena leucocephala Tacca leontopetaloides Pilea microphylla Dioscorea pentaphylla Celtis harperi Arachis hypgaea Delonix regia Crotaliaria anagyroides Crotalaria pallida Bauhinia monandra Vigna sesquipedalis Rhynchosia minima Phaseolus vulgaris Hernandia moerenhoutiana Beta vulgaris Pritchardia pacica Solanum viride Solanum americanum Capsicum frutescens Solanum americanum Basella rubra Zingiber zerumbet Adenanthera pavonina Abrus precatorius Fragraea berteroana Ficus obliqua Hernandia nymphaeifolia Pisonia grandis Xanthosoma spp.

Xanthosoma sagittioium Xanthosoma violaceum Hedyotis foetida Spathoglottis plicata Geodorum densiorum Bulbophyllum longiscapum Crassocephalum ceridioides Emilia sonchifolia Sonchus oleraceus Macroptilium atropurpureum Melia azedarach Pimenta racemosa

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NIUEAN NAMES tafaki tagataga, hana? taihuni ne taihuni, taihuni tāne takapalu, takatakapalu takapalu, takatakpalu, takapalu tea talamoa si, tamatama talamoa, talamoa foto tālapo fotofoto tālapo, tālapo pekepeke tālapo, tālopo fua molemole talapoti, tonatona taletale tālona talotalo talotalo talotalo talotalo lau iiki talotalo, laupapaki talotalo vao talufe, lauma pelu tamanu tanetane tanetane tanetane tanetane tapaka taputoki, tokitoki tava tavahi tavahi kaku te (se) kuli tealu (sealu) te televeti (selevesi) telie (selie) tētē (sese) teve tī (si), tī gau, tī matalea tiale (siale) tiale (siale) tiale (siale), tiale kula, tiale manua tiale (siale) feutu tiale (siale) tafa tifa (sifa) tiki timala (simala) tinapi tipaisi (sipaisi) tipolo (sipolo), tiplolo fua ikiiki

266

COMMON NAMES

SCIENTIFIC NAME Heritiera ornithocephala Job’s tears Coix lachryma-jobi anomalous heliotrope Heliotropium anomalum beach heliotrope Tournefortia argentea Allophylus cobbe Micromelum minutum prickly chaff-ower Achyranthes aspera beach nicker Caesalpinia major soursop Annona muricata sweetsop, sugar apple Anonna squamosa custard apple Annona reticulata croton Codiaeum variegatum Apium leptophyllum oleander Nerium oleander artist’s pallet, angel wings Caladium bicolor crinum lily Crinum asiaticum yellow crinum lily Crinum xanthophyllum wandring jew Tradescantia zebrina oyster plant Tradescantia/Rhoeo spathacea epiphytic orchid Phraetia micrantha/graeffei sclaret clerodendrum, java glorybower Clerodendrum buchanani Calophyllum neo-ebudicum coastal panax Polyscias multijuga hedge panax, golden prince Polyscias licifolia hedge panax Polyscias fruticosa hedge panax Polyscias guilfoylei tobacco Nicotiana tabacum Cryptocarya turbinata oceanic lychee Pometia pinnata Rhus taitensis stunted tavahi Rhus taitensis/Schleinitzia insularum blue-green algae Nostoc commune salvia Salvia occidentalis littoral morning-glory Ipomoea littoralis coleus Coleus blumei tropical almond Terminalia catappa Geniostoma rupestre elephant-foot yam Amorphophallus paeoniifolius ti plant Cordyline fruticosa gardenia Gardenia augusta white plumeria, frangipani Plumeria obtusa plumeria, frangipani Plumeria rubra Bikkia tetrandra Tahitian gardenia Gardenia taitensis acacia, gaiac Acacia spirobis teak Tectona grandis sweet potato Ipomoea batatas mustard cabbage Brassica juncea allspice Pimenta dioica lime Citrius aurantiifolia

NIUE’S BIODIVERSITY - APPENDIX

NIUEAN NAMES tipolo (sipolo), tipolo fua lalahi, tipolo fua pekepeke tita (sita) tita (sita), titi (sisi) tai tō toa toa toa vao tofua togo toi tokitoki, taputoki tomato tono tono toto ne toto kula toto tāne toto uli toto, tōto, toto sea toua tuali tuha, Niukini tuitui tuitui fua iiki tupunoa u ulei uhi uluhega ume, keakea vā vā akau vā pālagi vailima, mōtie vailima vanila vavae vavae vi Vihoa, hoa vine fāpogi vine Niue vine palatini (palasini), vine fua lalahi vine vao, vine kilimaō vine vao vine, vine fua ago

COMMON NAMES rough lemon Australian cedar Persian lilac sugarcane casuarina, ironwood psilotum pandanus cultivar Oriental mangrove (extinct) tomato asiatic pennywort prostrate spurge graceful spurge old blood hypocrite plant mauritius hemp derris root candlenut tree castor bean, castor oil plant life plant yam, greater yam sweet yam, lesser yam island musk

giant agellaria angel vine orchid gloriosa lily sour paspalum, t-grass vanilla kapok sea island cotton Polynesian vi-apple soapbush passionfurit granadilla wild passionfruit stinking passionower passionfruit

SCIENTIFIC NAME Citrus lemon x medica Toona australis Melia azedarach Triumfetta procumbens Saccharum ofcinarum Casuarina equisetifolia Ximenia americana Psilotum nudum Pandanus sp.

Bruguiera gymnorrhiza Alphitonia zizyphoides Cryptocarya turbinata Solanum lycopersicon Centella asiatica Geophila repens Chamaesyce prostrata) Chamaesyce hypericifolia) Chamaesyce hirta Euphorbia cyathophora) Chamaesyce atoto Furcraea foetida Syzygium dealatum Derris malaccensis Aleurites moluccana Ricinus communis Kalanchoe pinnata Dioscorea alata Disocorea esculenta Euodia hortensis Uraria lagopodioides Zehneria samoensis Flagellaria gigantea Dendrobium biorum Gloriosa superba Paspalum conjugatum Vanilla mexicana Ceiba pentandra Gossypium barbadense Spondias dulcis Colubrina asiatica Crassocephalum crepidioides Passiora maliformis?

Passiora quadrangularis Passiora aurantia/samoensis Passiora foetida Passiora edulis

Sources: Sykes 1965; Sperlich 1997; Whistler 1998; and eld studies and questionnaire surveys conducted by Thaman and associates in 1999.

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Appendix III. Niuean, English (common) and scientic (Latin) names for nsh identied as being present in Niue (listed in alphabetical order by their Niuean names), based on questionnaire surveys carried out in January and February 1999 and in-depth interviews with selected shers (men and women) NIUEAN NAME āheu āheu (large), malau tea (medium), lupolupo (juv.) āheu, lupolupo (juv.) aifai (prim. phase), faka’au’au, monega (term. phase) akau totonu (M), mokolā tahi (T) akau totonu (M), mokolā tahi (T) akau totonu (M), mokolā tahi (T) akau totonu (M), mokolā tahi (T) akau totonu (M), mokolā tahi (T) akau totonu (M), mokolā tahi (T) aku aku pa, kolole, aku tagata (large) ali owery ounder ali panther ounder ao iva (prim. phase), monega, monega pa tagaloa (term. phase) aoiva (prim. Phase), monega (term. phase) atu, takua atule faaloa (M), gatala (juv.) fagamea faka’au’au, monega (term. phase), aifai (prim. phase) faka’au’au, monega (term. phase), pāholo (prim. phase) fakapē matapuga, ulutuki ago fakapē matapuga, ulutuki manini? fakapē matapuga? fakapē matapuga? fāloa fāloa, gatala (juv.) fāloa, gatala (juv.) fāloa? foigo foigo fotuo fuafua (juv.), kanahe fuafua (juv.), kanahe fuafua (juv.), kanahe fulutō, nofu fulutō, nofu fulutō, nofu gatala gatala gatala

268

COMMON NAME thicklip trevally bluen trevally bigeye trevally

SCIENTIFIC NAME Carangoides orthogrammus Caranx melampygus Caranx sexfasciatus

SOURCE 1,3,4 1,2,4,5 1,3,4

yellowbarred parrotsh red-nned triplen bigmouth triplen spotted sandperch slender lizardsh clearn lizardsh variegated lizardsh agtailed longtom, needlesh crocodile longtom

Scarus dimidiatus Helcogramma gymnauchen Helcogramma sp.

Parapercis millepunctata Saurida gracilis Synodus dermatogenys Synodus variegatus Platybelone argalus platyura Tylosurus crocodilus Bothus mancus Bothus pantherinus

1 1 1 1,4 1 1 1,4 1,3,4 1,2,4 1,2,4 1,3

minin parrotsh Pacic longnose parrotsh skipjack tuna big-eye scad trout cod red seabass

Scarus altipinnis Hipposcarus longiceps Katsuwonus pelamis Selar crumenophthalmus Epinephelus maculatus Lutjanus bohar

yellowbarred parrotsh

Scarus dimidiatus

Bleeker’s parrotsh blackside hawksh arc-eye hawksh red-and-black anemonesh orange-n anemonesh/clownsh white-spotted rockcod camouage rockcod/grouper four-saddle rockcod/grouper convict grouper yellow-margined seaperch bluestripe seaperch big-eye emperor/bream warty-lipped mullet Engel’s mullet bluespot mullet ragged-nned resh, spotn lionsh clearn lionsh red resh, turkeysh hexagon rockcod/grouper dwarf spotted rockcod greasy rockcod/grouper

Scarus bleekeri Paracirrhites forsteri Paracirrhites arcatus Amphiprion melanopus Amphiron chrysopterus Epinephelus caeruleopunctatus Epinephelus polyphekadion Epinephelus spilotoceps Epinephelus septemfaciatus Lutjanus fulvus Lutjanus kasmira Monotaxis grandoculis Crenimugil crenibilis Valamugil engeli Valamugil saheli Pterois antennata Pterois radiata Pterois volitans Epinephelus hexagonatus Epinephelus merra Epinephelus tauvina

1,4 1,4 1,2,4 1,2,4 1,5 1,2,4,5 1 1,3 1,2,4,5 1,4 1 1,4 1,5 1,4 1 4 1,4 1,4 1,4,5 1,2,4 1,2,4 1,3,4 1,3,4 1,3 1,3 1,2,4 1,2,4 1,2,4

NIUE’S BIODIVERSITY - APPENDIX

NIUEAN NAME gatala (juv.), fāloa (M) gatala gutuvai gutu uli, lupolupo gutu uli, malau tea? gutukafu gutuvai, gatala gutuvai hafulu ago, hafulu lau pao (M)(yellow phase) hafulu gutu maka, hafulu uli (dark phase) hafulu lau pao (M), hafulu ago (yellow phase) hafulu mahu (T), hafulu moke (M) hafulu moke (M), hafulu mahu (T) hafulu pokoahu hafulu uli, hafulu gutu maka (dark phase) hafulu ulu hoe, talakave, telekave (juv.) hafulu, hafulu pokoahu hafulu, talakave, telekave (juv.) hafulu, talakave, telekave (juv.) hahave haku paala haku paala haku piu haku tagata haku tagata haku, hakulā (gen.)

COMMON NAME trout cod giant coral trout/grouper golden trevally gold-spotted trevally rockcod/grouper giant grouper goldsaddle goatsh goldsaddle goatsh goldsaddle goatsh cardinal goatsh cardinal goatsh manybarred goatsh goldsaddle goatsh doublebar goatsh sidespot goatsh bicolor goatsh dash-dot goatsh largescale yingsh Indo-Pacic blue marlin striped marlin Indo-Pacic sailsh black marlin swordsh billsh (gen.)

hakua hakua? hakulā haohao haohao hapi hiku ila hiku ila hiku ila kula? hiku ila, foigo hiku mau, malua tea? hipa (juv.) humu humu humu humu humu humu humu humu kai la feo humu kai niu humu kalue humu kokutu humu kolala humu moana

bigeye tuna southern bluen tuna shortbill spearsh trumpetsh smooth utemouth white-spotted surgeonsh blackspot snapper blackspot snapper humpback snapper, paddletail onespot seaperch whiten trevally young or small yingshes clown triggersh titan triggersh spotted unicornsh humpnose surgeonsh yellowmargin triggersh blackpatch triggersh scimitar triggersh yelloweye leatherjacket Thorpe’s unicornsh scrawled leatherjacket whitebanded triggersh orange-spine unicornsh Vlaming’s unicornsh

SCIENTIFIC NAME SOURCE Epinephelus maculatus 1,3,5 Plectropomus laevis 1,3,4 Gnathanodon speciosus 1,2,4 Carangoides fulvoguttas 1,3 Epinephelus retouti 4 Epinephelus lanceolatus 1,3 Parupeneus cyclostomus 1,4,5 Parupeneus cyclostomus 1,4,5 Parupeneus cyclostomus 1,4,5 Parupeneus ciliatus 1,3,4 Parupeneus ciliatus 1,3,4 Parupeneus multifasciatus 1,4 Parupeneus cyclostomus 1,4,5 Parupeneus bifasciatus 1,4,5 Parupeneus pleurostigma 1,4,5 Parupeneus barberinoides 1,3 Parupeneus barberinus 1,2,4 Cypselurus oligolepis 1,2,4 Makaira mazura 1 Tetrapturus audax 1 Istiophorus platypterus 1,3,4 Makaira indica 1 Xiphias gladius 1,3,4 Makaira, Tetrapturus, Istophorus, Xiphius spp.

1,3 Thunnus obesus 1,2,4 Thunnus maccoyi?

1 Tetrapturus angustirostris 1 Aulostomus chinensis 1,2 Fistularia commersonii 1,4 Acanthurus guttatus 1,2,4,5 Lutjanus ehrenbergi 1,34 Lutjanus fulviamma 1,3,4 Lutjanus gibbus 1,4 Lutjanus monostigma 1,2,4 Carangoides equula?

1 Cheilopogon and Cypselurus spp.

3 Balistoides conspicillum 1,3,4 Balistoides viridescens 1,3,4 Naso brevirostris 1,3,5 Naso tuberosus 1,3,4 Pseudobalistes avimarginatus 1,3,4 Rhinecanthus verrucosa 1,4 Sufamen bursa 1,2,4,5 Cantherhinus dumerilii 1,3,4 Naso thorpei?

1,3 Aluterus scriptus 1,3,4 Rhinecanthus aculeatus 1 Naso lituratus 1,3,4,5 Naso vlamingii 1

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NIUEAN NAME humu moana humu paave humu seka humu teka (seka) humu ulu hoe humu, humu avaava humu, humu monega, aifai humu, humu peka, humu uli humu, humu peka, humu uli humu, humu tea humu, humu uli Ika hiki ika tā, tā ika tā, tā ika tea ilaila kaene (T), kanene (M), matakikila kaloama kāmuta, mutumutu kanahe, fuafua (juv.) kanahe, fuafua (juv.) kanahe, fuafua (juv.) kanene (M), kaene (T), matakikila kauga, pelepele, petepete, mataele kaupatuo, mataele, pelepele, petepete (M) kiega, malau kiega, malau, malau pokoahu kili patapata, patapata kōkio kōkio kolala, humu kolala kolala, humu kolala kulapu kulapu kulapu kulapu kulapu? kumā tahi? kuokuo, koho (juv.) kuokuo, koho utu (juv.) kuokuo?, koho (juv.)

Kuokuo?, koho (juv.) lai snub-nosed dart, silver pompano lai loa, lai lakua lakua lakua lakua lakua lakua

270

COMMON NAME yellow-spotted triggersh wedge-tail triggersh brown unicornsh sleek unicornsh whitemargin unicornsh orange-lined triggersh redtooth triggersh black triggersh pinktail triggersh gilded triggersh agtail triggersh ? tailspot squirrelsh sabre squirrelsh six-ngered threadn, beardsh veband agtail glasseye yellowstripe goatsh banded sergeant Fringelip mullet Engel’s mullet bluespot mullet glasseye strawberry rockcod/grouper tomato rockcod/grouper leopard coral trout coral cod dotted sweetlips copper or bronze sweeper beardsh Achilles tang or surgeonsh orange-spine unicornsh yellowspot emperor Japanese sea bream long-nosed emperor Kusakar’s snapper yellowtail blue snapper Kuhl’s stingray yellowtail barracuda barracuda blackspot barracuda arrow barracuda double-spotted queensh brown coral blenny Cocos goby white-dotted blenny barred blenny target shrimp goby orange-spotted goby

SCIENTIFIC NAME SOURCE Pseudobalistes fuscus 1 Rhinecanthus rectangulus 1,4 Naso unicornis 1,4,5 Naso hexacanthus 1,4 Naso annulatus 1, 5 Balistapus undulatus 1,2 Odonus niger 1,4 Melichthys niger 1,4 Melichthys vidua 1,4,5 Xanthichthys auromarginatus 1 Sufamen chrysopterus 1,2,5 ?

Sargocentron caudimaculatum 1 Sargocentron spiniferum 1,4 Polydactylus sexlis 1,2,4 Kuhlia mugil 1,3,4 Heteropriacanthus creuntatus 1,2,4 Mulloides avolineatus 1,2,4,5 Abudefduf septemfasciatus 1,3,4 Crenimugil crenilabis 1,2,4 Valamugil engeli 1,2,4 Valamugil saheli 1,3,4 Heteropriacanthus creuntatus 1,2,4 Cephalopholis spiloparaea/aurantia 1,2,4 Cephalopholis sonnerati 1,4 Plectropomus leopardus 1,2,4 Cephalopholis miniata 1,3,4 Plectorhinchus picus 1,4 Pempheris oualensis 1,3,4 Polymixia japonica 1,2,4 Acanthurus achilles 1,2,4,5 Naso lituratus 1,2, Gnathodentex aurolineatus 1,3,4 Gymnocranius griseus 1,3,4, Lethrinus olivaceus 1,3,4 Paracaesio kusakarii 1,2,4 Paracaesio xanthurus 4 Dasytis kuhlii 1 Sphyraena avicauda 1,3 Sphyraena picuda 1,3,4 Sphyraena forsteri 4 Sphyraena novahollandiae 1,3,4 Trachinotus bailloni 1,2,4 Scomberoides lysan 1,2,4 Atrosalarias fuscus 1 Bathygobius cocosensis 1 Cirripectes alboapicalis 1 Cirripectes polyzona 1 Cryptocentrus strigilliceps 1 Isigobius rigilus 1,3

NIUE’S BIODIVERSITY - APPENDIX

NIUEAN NAME lakua lakua lakua lakua lakua hopo kiu lakua hopo kiu lakua ifo lakua moho afū (M), lakua talatala lakua moko ata lakua tavatava lakua tavatava lakua tavatava lakua toke lakua uluulu lakua voke (T) lakua? laupau (juv.)?, tafauli loi peacock rockcod/grouper lupolupo lupolupo (juv.), aheu (med.), malau tea (adult) lupolupo (juv.), ulua (adult), aheu (med.) lupolupo (small), gutu uli Lupovai mafua mafua mafua magō magō (gen.) magō kula? magō malu, malu magō paala magō paala magō, magō paala magō, tenifa (?) māhave, māhava? māhave, māhava? māhave, māhava? malau aitu, malau pokoahu malau pokoahu, malau aitu malau pokoahu, malau, kiega malau tea (medium), aheu (large), lupolupo (small) malau, kiega malau, malau moana malau, malau pokoahu, kiega mataele mataele, kauga, pelepele, petepete mataele, loi (T)? mataele, pelepele, petepete (M), kaupatuo? mātei

COMMON NAME bullethead rockskipper Spinecheek goby highn fangblenny smooth fangblenny rippled rockskipper lined rockskipper wavyline rockskipper blackspotted rockskipper goldspotted rockskipper chestnut blenny triplesopt blenny comical blenny Dussumier’s rockskipper black blenny Hepburn’s blenny bluestriped fangblenny junenile black trevelly blue trevally bluen trevally bigeye trevally golden trevally bludger trevally robust hardyhead blue-backed sprat silver sprat blacktip reef shark sharks grey reef shark unidentied reef shark silvertip shark mako shark white-tip reef shark tiger shark yingsh yingsh yingsh lyretail coral trout lyretail coral trout coral trout

SCIENTIFIC NAME Istiblennius periophthalmus Oplopomus oplopomus?

Petroscirtes mitratus Petroscirtes xestus Istiblennius edentulus Istiblennius lineatus Entomacrodus decussatus Entomacrodus striatus Istiblennius chrysospilos Cirripectes castaneus Crossosalarias macrospilus Ecsenius opsifrontalis Istiblennius dussumieri Enchelyurus ater Parenchelyurus hepburni?

Plagiotremus rhinorhynchos Caranx lugubris Cephalopholis argus Carangoides ferdau Caranx melampygus Caranx sexfasciatus Gnathanondon speciosus Carangoides gymnostethus Atherinomorus lacunosus?

Spratelloides delicatulus Spratelloides gracilis Carcharhinus melanopterus Carcharhinus and other spp.

Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos Carcharhinidae?

Carcharhinus albimarginatus Isurus oxyrhincus Triaenodon obesus Galeocerdo cuvier Cheilopogon atrisignis Cheilopogon spilonopterus Cheilopogon unicolor Variola louti Variola louti Cephalopholis miniata

SOURCE 1,3 1,3 1,3 1,3 1,3 1,3 1,3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 1,4 1,2,4,5 1,3 1,2,4,5 1,3,4 1,2,4 1 1 1 1 1,3,4 1,3 1,3,4 1,3 1 1,4 1,2,4,5 1 1,3,4 1,3,4 1,3,4 1,4,5 1,3,4,5 1,2,4

bluen trevally leopard coral trout whitemargin lyretail coral trout coral trout agtail rockcod/grouper strawberry rockcod/grouper leopard rockcod tomato rockcod/grouper hammerhead shark

Caranx melampygus 1,2,4,5 Plectropomus leopardus 1,2,4 Variola albimarginata 1,2 Cephalopholis miniata 1,3,4 Cephalopholis urodeta 1,2,4,5 Cephalopholis spil oparaea/aurantia 1,34 Cephalopholis leopardus 1 Cephalopholis sonnerati 1,3,4 Sphyrna lewini 1

271

NIUE ISLAND

NIUEAN NAME mātei matimati (masimasi), kalapipi matiti (masisi), kulī? meai meai meai meai meai meai ago meai ago (init.phase), meai lala futu (term.phase) meai gutuloa meai lala futu (term.phase), meai ago (init.phase) meai lalafutu meai moana meai moana meai paku kape (int. phase), meai uluvela (n. phase) meai pakukape meai tanu?, mohe aho? meai tanu?, mohe aho? meai tea (prim. phase), tufuuluvela (term. phase) meai, meai hehē, nikiniki? meai, meai pakukape? meai, meai tanu meai, meai tea meai, tagau ago meai, tagau hi uta meai? meito meito meito meito meito meito meito meito meito meito meito avaava meito tū meito, meito ago meito, meito ago meito, meito ago meito, mieto hiku tea mēmea mohe aho?, meai tanu? mohe aho?, meai tanu? moheaho (prim. and term. phases) moheaho? moheaho?

272

COMMON NAME hammerhead sharks snake mackerel ? threespot wrasse threespot wrasse Blackeye thicklip wrasse bicolour cleaner wrasse fourline wrasse golden wrasse sunset wrasse bird wrasse sunset wrasse sixbar wrasse blunthead wrasse moon wrasse

SCIENTIFIC NAME Sphyrna spp.

Promethichthys prometheus ?

Halichoeres trimaculatus Halichoeres trimaculatus Hemigymnus melapterus Labroides bicolor Pseudocheilinus tetrataenia Halichoeres chrysus Thalassoma lutescens Gomphosis varius Thalassoma lutescens Thalassoma hadrwicke Thalassoma amblycephalum Thalassoma lunare

tailspot wrasse vestripe wrasse whitepatch razorsh Pavo razorsh ladder wrasse yellowtail coris smalltail wrasse bluelined wrasse pink-belly wrasse checkerboard wrasse barred thicklip wrasse fourline wrasse ringtail surgeonsh pale-lipped surgeonsh blackstreak surgeonsh brown surgeonsh blueline surgeonsh orange-band surgeonsh mimic surgeonsh Thompson’s surgeonsh yellown surgeonsh lined bristletooth striped surgeonsh elongate surgeonsh eye-stripe surgeonsh brushtail tang brushtail tang whitecheek surgeonsh yellown goatsh whitepatch razorsh Pavo razorsh stareye parrotsh red-breasted Maori wrasse tripletail Maori wrasse

Halichoeres melanurus Thalassoma quinquevittatum Xyrichtys aneitensis Xyrichtys pavo Thalassoma trilobatum Coris gaimard Pseudojuloides cerasinus Stethojulis bandanensis Halichoeres margaritaceus Halichoeres hortulanus Hemigymnus fasciatus Pseudocheilinus tetrataenia Acanthurus blochii Acanthurus leucocheilus Acanthurus nigricauda/gahmm Acanthurus nigrofuscus Acanthurus nigroris Acanthurus olivaceus Acanthurus pyroferus Acanthurus thompsoni Acanthurus xanthopterus Ctenochaetus striatus Acanthurus lineatus Acanthurus mata Acanthurus dussumieri Zebrasoma scopas Zebrasoma veliferum Acanthurus nigricans Mulloides vanicolensis Xyrichtys aneitensis Xyrichtys pavo Calotomus carolinus Cheilinus fasciatus Cheilinus trilobatus

SOURCE 1,4 1,2,4 1 1 1 5 4 1,3,4 1 1 1,2,4,5 1 1,4 1 1,4 1,3 1,3,4 1,3 1,3 1,4 1,3,4,5 1 1 1,3 1,3,4 1,4,5 4 1,3,4,5 1,3,4 1,3,5 1,3,4,5 1,3,4 1,3,4,5 1,3,5 1,3,5 1,3,4,5 1,2,4,5 1,4,5 1,5 1,3,4 1,3,4,5 1,3,5 1,4,5 1,4 1,3 1,3 1,3,4 1,3,4,5 1,3,5

NIUE’S BIODIVERSITY - APPENDIX

NIUEAN NAME mokolā tahi mokolā tahi mokolā tahi (T), akau totonu (M) mokolā tahi (T), akau totonu (M) mokolā tahi (T), akau totonu (M) mokolā tahi (T), akau totonu (M) mokolā tahi (T), akau totonu (M) mokolā tahi (T), akau totonu (M) mokolā tahi? mokolā tahi? monega (term. phase), pāholo (prim. phase) monega (term. phase), pāholo (prim. phase) monega (term. phase), pāholo (prim. phase) monega (term. phase), pāholo (prim. phase) monega (term. phase), pāholo (prim. phase) monega kalē (M), monega monega, faka’au’au (term. phase), aifai (prim. phase) monega, fakaauau (term. phase), pāholo (prim. phase) monega, monega pa tagaloa (term. Phase), aoiva (prim. phase) monega, pāholo (term. phase), pāholo kula (prim. phase) monega?, ulu hoi mutumutu, kamuta mutumutu, kamuta nikiniki, meai nikiniki, tagau (M) nofu nofu nofu nofu nofu nofu nofu nofu kula, nofu kula nofu, fulutō nofu, fulutō nofu, fulutō nua tahi? nue pako ahu, pake nue (juv.) nue, lipa nue (juv.) nue, nue moana, gutu ku? paala paeko pāholo (both phases) pāholo (both phases) pāholo (both phases) pāholo (both phases)

COMMON NAME mimic blenny cigar wrasse red-nned triplen bigmouth triplen spotted sandperch slender lizardsh clearn lizardsh variegated lizardsh cleaner wrasse cleaner wrasse bicolor parrotsh festive parrotsh blue-barred parrotsh globehead parrotsh ember parrotsh bumphead parrotsh

SCIENTIFIC NAME Aspidontus taeniatus Cheilio inermis Helcogramma gymnauchen Helcogramma sp.

Parapercis millepunctata Saurida gracilis Synodus dermatogenys Synodus variegatus Labroides dimidiatus Labroides dimidiatus Cetoscarus bicolor Scarus festivus Scarus ghobban Scarus globiceps Scarus rubroviolasceus Bolbometopon muricatum

SOURCE 1 1 1 1 1,4 1 1 1,4 1,4 1,4 1,3,4,5 1,3,4 1,3,4 1,3,5 1,3,4,5 1,4

yellowbarred parrotsh

Scarus dimidiatus

Bleeker’s parrotsh

Scarus bleekeri

1,3

minin parrotsh

Scarus altipinnis

1,3,4

chameleon parrotsh steephead parrotsh banded sergeant blackspot sergeant blue-spotted wrasse eightstripe wrasse Mozambique scorpionsh large-headed scorpionsh Guam scorpionsh false stonesh smallscale scorpionsh barchin scorpionsh reef stonesh freckled anglersh ragged-nned resh clearn lionsh turkeysh, red resh spotted seahorse topsail drummer, highn ruddersh insular ruddersh long-nned drummer wahoo longtail snapper whitespot parrotsh bridled parrotsh swarthy parrotsh egghead parrotsh

Scarus chameleon Scarus microrhinos Abudefduf septemfasciatus Abudefduf sordidus Anampses caerulepunctatus Pseudocheilinus octotaenia Parascorpaena mossambica Pontinus macrocephalus Scorpaenodes guamensis Scorpaenopsis diabolis Scorpaenopsis oxycephala Sepastipistes strongia Synanceia verrucosa Antennarius coccineus Pterois antennata Pterois radiata Pterois volitans Hippocampus kuda?

Kyphosus cinerascens Kyphosus bigibbus Kyphosus vaigiensis Acanthocybium solandri Etelis coruscans Scarus forsteni Scarus frenatus Scarus niger Scarus oviceps

1

1,3,4,5 1,4,5 1,3,4 1,3 1,3,4 1,2 1,3 1,3,4 1,3 1,3 1,3 1,3 1,2,4 1,3 1,3,4 1,3 1,3 1 1,2,4,5 1,2,4 1 1,2,4 1,2,4 1,3,4,5 1,3,4,5 1,3,5 1,34,5

273

NIUE ISLAND

NIUEAN NAME pāholo (both phases) pāholo (both phases) monega? (term. phase) pāholo (prim. phase), faka’au’au, monega (term. phase) pāholo (prim. phase), monega (term. phase) pāholo (prim. phase), monega (term. phase) pāholo (prim. phase), monega (term. phase) pāholo (prim. phase), monega (term. phase) pāholo (prim. phase), monega (term. phase) pāholo (prim. phase), monega (term. phase) pāholo kula (prim. phase), pāholo, monega? (term. Phase) paihele (T), lupolupo (M) paihele (T), lupolupo (M) palelafa, ulupaka, toloni palu palu fagamea palu gā, ulumula, patu gū palu gū palu hahave palu hai palu heahea palu heahea Palu kōkio palu kulukulu palu mamē palu monega palu monega palu pō, palu gutu maka? palu pusi palu pusi palu takua palu tēhī (sēhī) palu tikava (sikava) papaao papaao papaao papaao papaao papaao papaao papaao papaao papaao papaao papaao papaao papaao ago papaao moana

274

COMMON NAME Schlegel’s parrotsh bullethead parrotsh yellown parrotsh

SCIENTIFIC NAME SOURCE Scarus schlegeli 1,3,4 Scarus sordidus1,3,4pPāholo (both phases), Scarus avipectorialis 1,3,4

Bleeker’s parrotsh bicolor parrotsh bluechin parrotsh festive parrotsh globehead parrotsh greenthroat parrotsh ember parrotsh

Scarus bleekeri Cetoscarus bicolor Scarus atropectoralis Scarus festivus Scarus globiceps Scarus prasiognathos Scarus rubroviolasceus

1,3 1,3,4,5 1,3,4 1,3,4 1,3,5 1,3,4 1,3,4,5

chameleon parrotsh Malabar trevally small trevally dolphin sh crimson jobsh red snapper reef-at cardinalsh red jobsh goldag jobsh goldbanded jobsh ower snapper oblique banded snapper pomfret rockcod/grouper goldensh green jobsh green jobsh smooth-toothed jobsh broom rockcod/grouper snakeskin rockcod ? oilsh, castor cod greater amberjack agile chromis deep reef chromis half-and-half chromis pale-tail chromis blueline demoiselle grey demoiselle reticulated dascyllus three-spot dascyllus Dick’s damsel neon damsel whitebar gregory bluntsnout gregory dusky gregory lemonpeel angelsh two-spined angelsh

Scarus chameleon Carangoides malabaricus Carangoides spp.?

Coryphaena hippuris Pristipomoides limentosus Etelis carbunculus Apogon taeniophorus/menesemus Aphareus rutilans Pristipomoides auricilla Pristipomoides multidens Pristipomoides amoenus Pristipomoides zonatus Taractichthys steindachneri Cephalopholis igarashiensis Saloptia powelli Apareus virescens Aprion virescens Aphareus furca Epinephelus cometae Epinephelus morrhua ?

Ruvettus pretiosus Seriola rivoliana Chromis agilis Chromis delta Chromis iomelas Chromis xanthura Chrysiptera caeruleolineatus Chrysiptera glauca Dascyllus reticulatus Dascyllus trimaculatus Plectroglyphidodon dickii Pomacentrus coelestis Stegastes albifasciatus Stegastes lividus?

Stegastes nigricans?

Centropyge avissimus Centropyge bispinosus

1,3,4,5 1 1 1,2,4 1,3,4 1,2,4 1,3 1,2,4 1,4 1,3,4 1,3,4 1,2,4 2,4 1,2,4 2,4 1,2,4 1,2,4 2,4,5 1,3,4 1,2,4 1 1,2,4 1,2,4 1,3 1,3,4 1,3 1,3,4 1,3,4 1,3,4 1,3,5 1,3,4,5 1,3,5 1 1 1 1,4 1,3

NIUE’S BIODIVERSITY - APPENDIX

NIUEAN NAME papaao moana papaao pokoahu papaao uli papaao, papaao moana papaao? papaao? patapata patapata patapata patapata, kili pataptat patu gū, ulumula patu gū, ulumula patu gū, ulumula patu gū, ulumula patu gū, ulumula patu gū, ulumula patu gū, ulumula patu gū, ulumula patu gū, ulumula peka tahi peka tahi pelepele, petepete, kauga, mataele pelepele, petepete, mataele, (M), kaupatuo? poe, poetifa (juv.), tukutea poepata, tukutea pue pue (M), loifou (T) samani tā gutuloa (juv.) tā kumā tā matapula tā matapula tā matapula tā matapula tā matapula tā matapula tā matapula tā matapula tā matapula, tā kumā (T) tā matapula, tā kumā (T) tā matapula? tafā (adult)?, tute (tuse) tafā (adult)?, tute (tuse) tafauli, tavali, laupau (juv.)? tagau tagau tagau tagau tagau tagau

COMMON NAME Maori seaperch white-tailed angelsh Pacic gregory black-and-white seaperch Randall’s fairy basslet scalen basslet many-spotted sweetlips stripped sweetlips many-spotted sweetlips dotted sweetlips eyeshadow cardinalsh spur-cheek cardinalsh gray cardinalsh iridescent cardinalsh blackstripe cardinalsh reef-at cardinalsh lined cardinalsh large-toothed cardinalsh ve-lined cardinalsh spotted eagle ray manta ray strawberry rockcod/grouper tomato rockcod/grouper convict surgeonsh convict surgeonsh striped catsh sixline soapsh rainbow runner Tahitian squirrelsh rough-scale soldiersh shadown soldiersh brick soldiersh bigscale soldiersh yellown soldiersh doubletooth soldiersh epaulette soldiersh scarlet soldiersh white-spot soldiersh blotcheye soldiersh violet soldiersh ashlightsh barred garsh Dussumier’s garsh black trevelly yellowbreasted wrasse axilspot hogsh blackn hogsh cheeklined Maori wrasse humphead wrasse, napolean ringtail Maori wrasse

SCIENTIFIC NAME SOURCE Lutjanus rivulatus 1 Centropyge avicauda 1 Stegastes fasciolatus 1 Macolor niger 1,4,5 Pseudanthias randalli 3,4 Pseudanthias squamipinnis 3,4 Plectorhinchus chaetodonoides 1,4 Plectorhinchus glodmanni 1,3,4 Plectorhinchus sweetlips 1,3,4 Plectorhinchus picus 1,3,4,5 Apogon exostigma?

1 Apogon fraenatus 1,3,4 Apogon fuscus 1 Apogon kallopterus 1,3,4 Apogon nigrofaciatus 1 Apogon taeniophorus/menesemus 1,3 Cheilodipterus artus/lineatus 1,3,4 Cheilodipterus macrodon 1,3,4 Cheilodipterus quinquelineatus 1 Aetobatus narinari 1,3 Manta birostrisi 1,3 Cephalopholis spiloparaea/aurantia 1,2,4 Cephalopholis sonnerati 1,3,4 Acanthurus triostegus 1,2,4,5 Acanthurus triostegus 2,4,5 Plotosus lineatus 1,4 Grammistes sexlineatus 1,4 Elagatis bipinnulatus 1,2,4 Sargocentron tiere 1,3,4 Plectrypops lima 1,3,4 Myripristis adusta 1,3 Myripristis amaena 1,3,4 Myripristis berndti 1,3,4 Myripristis chryseres 1,3 Myripristis hexagona 1,3,4 Myripristis kuntee 1,3,4 Myripristis pralinia 1,3,4 Myripristis woodsi 1,3,4 Myripristis murdjan 1,3.4,5 Myripristis violaceus 1,3,2 Anomalops katoptron 3,4 Hemihamphus far 1,3 Hyporhamphus dussumieri 1,3 Caranx lugubris 1,2,4 Anampses twistii 1 Bodianus axillaris 1 Bodianus loxozonus 1,4 Cheilinus diagrammus 1 Cheilinus undulatus 1,4 Cheilinus unifasciatus 1,4

275

NIUE ISLAND

NIUEAN NAME tagau tagau hi uta, meai tagau? tagau? tagau? tagau? tagau?, moheaho takua, atu talaao talakave, telekave (juv.), hafulu talakave, telekave (juv.), hafulu talakave, telekave (juv.), hafulu ulu hoe tavatava? telekihi (selekihi), telekihi foto telekihi (selekihi), telekihi foto telekihi (selekihi), telekihi foto telekihi (selekihi), telekihi foto telekihi (selekihi), telekihi foto telekihi (selekihi), telekihi foto telekihi (selekihi), telekihi foto telekihi (selekihi), telekihi foto tenifa, magō tētē tētē tētē tētē tētē tētē titi titi titi titi titi titi titi titi titi titi titi titi titi titi titi titi titi titi titi gutuloa titi gutuloa titi palā ku titi palāloa

276

COMMON NAME eightstripe wrasse barred thicklip wrasse twospot Maori wrasse oral Maori wrasse slingjaw wrasse fourline wrasse Celebes wrasse skipjack tuna black-tipped rockcod/grouper bicolor goatsh dash-dot goatsh doublebar goatsh type/stage of trevally blackn squirrelsh spotn squirrelsh threespot squirrelsh crown squirrelsh samarai squirrelsh smallmouth squirrelsh speckeled squirrelsh pink squirrelsh tiger shark?

Guineafowl puffersh blackspotted puffersh star puffersh Solander’s sharpnose puffersh Valentinni’s sharpnose puffersh spotted boxsh threadn butterysh Bennets’s butterysh speckeled butterysh saddled butterysh Klein’s butterysh lined butterysh racoon butterysh blackback butterysh Merten’s butterysh ornate butterysh fourspot butterysh reticulated butterysh chevroned butterysh redn butterysh double-saddled butterysh pinnate batsh emperor angelsh regal angelsh forcepssh longnose butterfysh masked bannersh longn bannersh

SCIENTIFIC NAME Pseudocheilinus octotaenia Hemigymnus fasciatus Cheilinus bimaculatus Cheilinus chlorourus Epibulus insidiator Pseudocheilinus tetrataenia Cheilinus celebecus Katsuwonus pelamis Epinephelus fasciatus Parupeneus barberinoides Parupeneus barberinus Parupeneus bifasciatus Caranx sp.

Neoniphon opercularis Neoniphon sammara Sargocentron cornutum Sargocentron diadema Sargocentron ittodai Sargocentron microstoma Sargocentron punctatissimum Sargocentron tiereoides Galeocerdo cuvier Arothron meleagris Arothron nigropunctatus Arothron stellatus Canthigaster solandrii Canthigaster valentini Ostracin meleagris Chaetodon auriga Chaetodon bennetti Chaetodon citrinellus Chaetodon ephippium Chaetodon kleinii Chaetodon lineolatus Chaetodon lunula Chaetodon melannotus Chaetodon mertensii Chaetodon ornatissimus Chaetodon quadrimaculatus Chaetodon reticulatus Chaetodon trifacialis Chaetodon trifaciatus Chaetodon ulietensis Platax pinnatus Pomacanthus imperator Pygoplites dicanthus Forcipiger avissimus Forcipiger longirostris Heniochus monoceros Heniochus acuminatus

SOURCE 1,2 1,4,5 5 1,5 4 1,3,4 1,4 1,2,4 1,2,4 1,3 1,2,4 1,4,5 1 1,3,4 1,3 1,3,4 1,3 1,3 1,3,4 1,3 1,3 1 1,3,4 1,3,4 1,3,4 1,3 1,3,4 1,3,4 1,3,4,5 1,3 1,3,4 1,3,4,5 1,3 1,3 1,3,4 1,3,4,5 1,3,5 1,3,5 1,3,4 1,3,5 1,3,5 1,3,5 1,3,5 1,3,4 1,2,4,5 1,3,4 1,5 1,4,5 1 1,4

NIUE’S BIODIVERSITY - APPENDIX

NIUEAN NAME titi palāloa titi, titi hi takua, titi palā loa titi, titi tua ila tikava tikava tikava toke toke toke toke (gen.) toke avaava? toke hulifuti toke kai kalahimu toke kula? toke laumamanu toke laumamanu toke pulepule toke tea toke tuna, tuna toke, toke ago toke, toke sisi, toke pulepule? tolitoli uli (M), tulituli uli (T) tonu (M), mokolā tahi (T) tonu (M), mokolā tahi (T) tonu (M), mokolā tahi (T) tonu (M), mokolā tahi (T) tonu (M), mokolā tahi (T) tonu (M), mokolā tahi (T), mokotaliga toutu toutu toutu tufu lanu, valivali tufu uluvela (term. phase), meai tea (prim. phase) tugale tugale, meai tonu? tugale? tukutea, peopata tuna tuna, toke tuna tute (tuse), tafā (adult)? tute (tuse), tafā (adult)? ulihega ulihega iva ulihega iva ulihega iva ulihega iva ulu hoi, monega? ulua, lupo (juv.) ulukupu, meai ulukupu ulumula, patu gū (T)

COMMON NAME singular bannersh Moorish idol teardrop butterysh forktail rabbitsh dusky rabbitsh spiny rabbitsh ringed moray eel viper moray eel undulated moray eel moray eels zebra moray eel darkspotted moray eel peppered moray eel yellowmargin moray eel Javanese moray eel, giant moray whitemouth moray eel starry moray eel greyface moray eel black-edged conger eel dwarf moray eel starry moray eel remora, slender suckersh, shark sucker red-nned triplen bigmouth triplen latticed sandperch spotted sandperch clearn lizardsh variegated lizardsh freckled porcupinesh porcupinesh black-blotched porcupinesh surge wrasse ladder wrasse knife razorsh pastel ringwrasse collared razorsh convict surgeonsh freshwater eel black-edged conger eel barred garsh Dussumier’s garsh long-bodied scad gold-banded fusilier gold-banded fusilier neon fusilier three-lined fusilier steephead parrotsh giant trevally clown coris eyeshadow cardinalsh

SCIENTIFIC NAME Heniochus singularis Zanclus cornutus Chaetodon unimaculatus Siganus argenteus Siganus fuscescens Siganus spinus Echidna polyzona Enchelynassa canina Gymnothorax undulatus Gymnothorax and other spp.

Gymnomuraena zebra Gymnothorax mbriatus Siderea picta Gymnothorax avimarginatus Gymnothorax javanicus Gymnothorax meleagris Echidna nebulosa Siderea prosopeion Conger cinereus Gymnothorax melatremus Echidna nebulosa Echeneis naucrates Helcogramma gymnauchen Helcogramma sp.

Parapercis clathrata?

Parapercis millepunctata Synodus dermatogenys Synodus variegatus Diodon holocanthus Diodon hystrix Diodon liturosus Thalassoma pupureum Thalassoma trilobatum Cymolutes praetextatus Hologymnosus doliatus Cymolutes torquatus Acanthurus triostegus Anguilla sp.

Conger cinereus Hemihamphus far Hyporhamphus dussumieri Decapterus macrosoma Caesio caerulaurea Caesio lunaris Pterocaesio tile Pterocaesio trilineata Scarus microrhinos Caranx ignobilis Coris aygula Apogon exostigma?

SOURCE 1,4 1,3,4,5 1,2,5 1 1 1,4 1 1 1 1,3 1 1 1,4 1 1,3,4 1,3,4 1 1,3,4 1,3,4 1 1 1,3,4 1 1 1 1,4 1 1,4 1,3 1,3,4 1,3,4 1,2,4,5 1,4 1 1 1 1,2,4,5 1,3 1,3,4 1,3 1,3 1,2,4 1,3,4,5 1,3,5 1,2,4 1,3,5 1,4,5 1,2,4 1,3,4,5 1

277

NIUE ISLAND

NIUEAN NAME ulumula, patu gū (T) ulumula, patu gū (T) ulumula, patu gū (T) ulumula, patu gū (T) ulumula, patu gū (T) ulumula, patu gū (T) ulumula, patu gū (T) ulumula, patu gū (T) ulutuki ulutuki (gen.) ulutuki ago, fakapē matapuga ulutuki ago, ulutuki manini (pale phase) ulutuki ila, ulutuki lega (T), ulu tuki uli (M) (dark phase) ulutuki maka ulutuki manini, ulutuki ago (pale phase) ulutuki manini?, ulutuki ago, fakapē matapuga ulutuki pono utu vahakula, tuna vahaleleva valivali, tufu lanu valu ? blue blanquillo

COMMON NAME spur-cheek cardinalsh gray cardinalsh iridescent cardinalsh blackstripe cardinalsh reef-at cardinalsh lined cardinalsh large-toothed cardinalsh ve-lined cardinalsh stocky hawksh hawksh blackside hawksh halfspotted hawksh

SCIENTIFIC NAME SOURCE Apogon fraenatus 1,3,4 Apogon fuscus 1 Apogon kallopterus 1,3,4 Apogon nigrofaciatus 1 Apogon taeniophorus/menesemus 1,3 Cheilodipterus artus/lineatus 1,3,4 Cheilodipterus macrodon 1,3,4 Cheilodipterus quinquelineatus 1 Cirrhitus pinnulatus 1,4 Paracirrhites and Cirrhitus spp.

1,3,4 Paracirrhites forsteri 1,2,4,5 Paracirrhites hemistictus 1,3,4,5

halfspotted hawksh unidened hawksh halfspotted hawksh arc-eye hawksh unidentied hawksh great barracuda yellown tuna albacore tuna surge wrasse dogtooth tuna

Paracirrhites hemistictus

1,4,5

Paracirrhites hemistictus Paracirrhites arcatus

1,3,4,5 1,4

Sphyraena barracuda Thunnus albacares Thunnus alalunga Thalassoma pupureum Gymnosarda unicolor Malacanthus latovittatus

1,2,4 1,2,4 1,2,4 1,4,5 1,2,4 1

Notes: 1) gen. = general term for a number of similar species; i = initial phase, j = juvenile, t = terminal phase of a given species that may have a number of distinct growth phases or changes of colour or appearance as it matures; 3) unidentied sh refers to sh names given by respondents and listed in the Niuean dictionary; 4) ? = unveried name; M and T indicate names used in the more ancient Motu dialect spoken in the northern part of the island and the more recent Tati dialect spoken on the southern part of the island; 5) under source, 1 = Niuean named given in questionnaire surveys and in-depth interviews with Niueans, 2 = Niuean name listed with the correct scientic name in the Niue Language Dictionary (Sperlich 1997), 3 = Niuean name listed in Niue Language Dictionary, either without the scientic name listed in the appendix or with a name which is possibly incorrect; 4 = species was recorded present, but not necessarily with a Niuean name, in a 1990 sheries and marine resources survey (Dalzel et al., 1993), 5 = species recorded present, with no Niuean names, in 1998 in a survey of sheries resources in the Namoui Marine Reserve in Makefu and Avatele (Labrosse et al. 1999)

Appendix IV. Frequency that species or groups of species (based on the Niuean names) of small reef or nearshore nsh were said to be caught based on the answers of 21 groups of men and women in community-based surveys of biodiversity in villages in Niue in 1999 NIUEAN NAME ulutuki meai gatala hapi ika tea fuafua kaloama meito mutumutu, kamuta tufu kolala, humu kolala

278

COMMON NAME hawkshes wrasses dwarf spotted rockcod white-spotted surgeonsh six-ngered threadn, beardsh young mullet yellowstripe goatsh surgeonshes banded sergeant wrasses orange-spine unicornsh/ Achilles tang

SCIENTIFIC NAME X/21 Cirrhitus and Paracirrhites spp.

18 Coris, Halichoeres, Labroides, Stethojulis, Thalassoma spp. 13 Epinephelus merra/tauvina/hexagonatus 12 Acanthurus guttatus 10 Polydactylus sexlis 8* Crenimugil and Valamugil spp.

7 Mulloides avolineatus 7 Acanthurus, Ctenochaetus and Zebrasoma spp 7 Abudefduf septemfasciatus 7 Thalassoma pupureum/T. trilobatum 7 Naso lituratus/Acanthurus achilles 6

NIUE’S BIODIVERSITY - APPENDIX

NIUEAN NAME ilaila mēmea hafulu ago, hafulu lau pao (yellow phase) kaene (T), kanene (M), matakikila kōkio meai tea, tufu tea

COMMON NAME veband agtail yellown goatsh goldsaddle goatsh bigeye copper or bronze sweeper wrasses

meai, meai tea paholo (prim. phase) papaao

tukutea aku fakapē matapuga

ladder wrasse (initial phase) parrotshes black-and-white seaperch, gregorys, damselshes, chromis juvenile goatsh squirrelshes butteryshes, angelshes, bannershes, batshes convict surgeonsh agtailed longtom hawkshes

koho (juv.) lakua

young or small barracuda blennies and rockskippers

lupolupo meai pakukape moheaho

small or juvenile trevellys vestripe wrasse parrotshes and razorshes

pue (M), loifou (T)

sixline soapsh or striped catsh

tā matapula tugale

soldiersh razorshes, pastel ringwrasse

ulutuki ago, ulutuki manini (pale phase) gutugutu humu paave ika hiki ika tā meai hehē meai ngutuloa mokolā tahi mokolā tahi (T), akau totonu (M) nikiniki, meai tafā, tute tikava toutu tugale

halfspotted hawksh ? wedge-tail triggersh ? sabre squirrelsh yellowtail coris bird wrasse sandperches or lizardshes variegated lizardsh blue-spotted wrasse barred garsh rabbitshes porcupineshes razorshes, pastel ringwrasse

ulumula, patu gu (T)

cardinalshes

talakave, telekave (juv.) telekihi titi

SCIENTIFIC NAME X/21 Kuhlia mugil 5 Mulloides vanicolensis 4 Parupeneus spp.

3 Heteropriacanthus creuntatus 3* Pempheris oualensis 3 Halichoeres margaritaceus, Thalassoma trilobatum 3 Thalassoma trilobatum 3 Scarus spp.

3 Macolor niger and Stegastes, Chromis, Chrysiptera spp.

3 Parapenues spp.

3 Neoniphon and sargocentron spp.

3 Chaetodon, Forcipiger, Heniochus, Platax, Pomacanthus, Zanclus 3 Acanthurus triostegus 3* Platybelone argalus platyura 2 Paracirrhites arcatus, Paracirrhites forsteri 2 Sphyraena spp.

2 Istiblennius, Cirripectes, Entomacrodus, Enchelyurus, Crossosalarias, Atrosal arias, Petroscirtes, Bathygobius etc.

2 Caranx, Gnathanondon, Carangoides 2 Thalassoma quinquevittatum 2 Calotomus carolinus and Scarus and Xyrichtys spp.

2 Grammistes sexlineatus/ Plotosus lineatus 2 Myripristis spp.

2 Cymolutes torquatus/ Hologymnosus doliatus 2 Paracirrhites hemistictus 2 ?

1 Rhinecanthus rectangulus 1 ?

1 Sargocentron spiniferum 1 Coris gaimard 1 Gomphosis varius 1 Parapercis and Synodus spp.

1 Synodus variegatus 1 Anampses caerulepunctatus 1 Hemiramphus far 1 Siganus spinus 1* Diodon spp.

1 Cymolutes torquatus/ Hologymnosus doliatus 2 Apogon and Cheilodipterus 1

(* = species said to be rare or in short supply)(See Appendix III for a breakdown of the individual species names and the sources of information).

279

NIUE ISLAND

Appendix V. Frequency that species or groups of species (based on the Niuean names) of large reef or nearshore nsh were said to be caught based on the answers of 20 groups of men and women in community-based surveys of biodiversity in villages in Niue in 1999 NIUEAN NAME malau, malau aitu nue tafauli, tavali ulua aheu mataele monega (term. phase) fagamea humu

COMMON NAME lyretail coral trout drummers or ruddershs black trevelly giant trevelly trevallys rockcods/groupers parrotshes red seabass unicornsh, leather jackets, triggersh

loi talaao hafulu ulukupu, meai ulukupu malau tea (large), aheu (med.) fotuo hafulu moke kiega, malau lai tagau fāloa gutu uli kanahe kauga malau pokoahu patapata patapata, tagau pelepele, petepete aku pa foigo hiku ila

peacock rockcod/grouper black-tipped rockcod/grouper goatshes clown coris bluen trevally big-eye emperor/bream cardinal goatsh coral trouts queensh and darts, silver pompano hogsh and Maori wrasses camouage rockcod/grouper golden trevally adult mullet strawberry rockcod/grouper coral cod sweetlips cheeklined Maori wrasse tomato rockcod/grouper crocodile longtom seaperches snappers/seaperches

SCIENTIFIC NAME X/20 Variola and Plectropomus spp.

12* Kyphosus cinerascens and K. bigibbus 10* Caranx lugubris 10* Caranx ignobilis 10 Caranx and Carangoides spp.

9 Cephalopholis urodeta and C. sonnerati .

9 Scarus, Cetoscarus and Bolbometopon muricatum 8 Lutjanus bohar 7 Naso, Aluterus, Balistoides, Cantherhinus, Rhine canthus, Sufamen, Melichthy and Odonus spp.

7 Cephalopholis argus 6 Epinephelus fasciatus 6 Parapeneus spp.

5 Coris aygula 5 Caranx melampygus 4 Monotaxis grandoculis 3 Parapeneus ciliatus 3 Cephalopholis miniata/Plectropomus leopardus 3* Scomberoides lysan and Trachinotus bailloni 3 Bodianus, Cheilinus and Pseudocheilinus spp.

3 Epinephelus polyphekadion 2 Gnathanodon speciosus and Carangoides spp.

2 Crenimugil and Valamugil spp.

2* Cephalopholis spiloparaea 2* Cephalopholis miniata 2 Plectorhinchus spp.

2* Cheilinus digrammus 2 Cephalopholis sonnerati 2 Tylosurus crocodilus 1 Lutjanus kasmira/ Lutjanus fulvus 1* Lutjanus ehrenbegi, L. .fulviamma, L. monostigma 1

(* = species said to be rare or in short supply)(See Appendix III for a breakdown of the individual species names and the sources of information).

Appendix VI. Frequency that species or groups of species (based on the Niuean names) of eels that were said to be caught based on the answers of 15 groups of men and women in community-based surveys of biodiversity in villages in Niue in 1999 NIUEAN NAME toke laumamanu toke kai kalahimu toke kula? toke tea toke tuna, tuna toke pulepule

COMMON NAME Javanese and whitemouth moray eels peppered moray eel yellowmargin moray eel greyface moray eel black-edged conger eel/freshwater eel starry moray eel

SCIENTIFIC NAME Gymnothorax javanicus/ Gymnothorax meleagris Siderea picta Gymnothorax avimarginatus?

Siderea prosopeion Conger cinereus/Anguilla sp.

Echidna nebulosa

X/15 15* 7 7 7 4* 3

* = species said to be rare or in short supply. See Appendix III for a breakdown of the individual species names and the sources of information.

280

NIUE’S BIODIVERSITY - APPENDIX

Appendix VII. Frequency that species or groups of species (based on the Niuean names) of sharks and rays were said to be caught based on the answers of 15 groups of men and women in community-based surveys of biodiversity in villages in Niue in 1999 NIUEAN NAME magō paala mātei magō kula/agō tea magō malu, malu peka tahi kumā tahi? magō, tenifa (?)

COMMON NAME mako shark, silvertip shark or white-tip reef shark hammerhead sharks grey reef shark unidentifed shark spotted eagle ray/manta ray Kuhl’s stingray tiger shark

SCIENTIFIC NAME Isurus oxyrhincus, Carcharhinus albimarginatus or Triaenodon obesus Sphyrna spp.

Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos Carcharhinus sp.?

Aetobatus narinari/ Manta birostrisi Dasytis kuhlii Galeocerdo cuvier

X/15 11 11* 9 3 2* 1* 1

* = species said to be rare or in short supply. See Appendix III for a breakdown of the individual species names and the sources of information.

Appendix VIII. Frequency that species or groups of species (based on the Niuean names) of deepsea or open ocean (pelagic) nsh were said to be caught based on the answers of 20 groups of men and women in community-based surveys of biodiversity in villages in Niue in 1999 NIUEAN NAME vahakula, tuna paala takua, atu ulua kuokuo, koho (juv.) paeko palu pusi

COMMON NAME yellown tuna wahoo skipjack tuna giant trevally barracuda longtail snapper broom rockcod and snakeskin rockcod/grouper haku, hakulā billsh (gen.) matimati (masimasi), kalapipi snake mackerel palu fagamea red snapper palu tikava (sikava) greater amberjack palu hehea ower snapper/banded snapper palu pusi broom rockcod/snakeskin rockcod vahaleleva albacore tuna pelelafa, ulupaka, toloni dolphin sh ulihega long-bodied scad utu great barracuda valu dogtooth tuna atule big-eye scad hahave largescale yingsh magō sharks palu tēhī (sēhī) oilsh, castor cod samani rainbow runner kulapu Kusakar’s snapper/emperors palu (gen.) snappers and jobsh palu gu red jobsh palu kulukulu rockcod/grouper hakua bigeye tuna palu hahave goldag jobsh palu monega green jobsh palu po, palu gutu maka? smooth-toothed jobsh

SCIENTIFIC NAME X/20 Thunnus albacares 13* Acanthocybium solandri 10* Katsuwonus pelamis 9* Caranx ignobilis 9 Sphyraena spp.

8 Etelis coruscans 7* Epinephelus cometae and Epinephelus morrhua 7 Makaira, Tetrapturus, Istophorus, Xiphius spp.

6* Promethichthys prometheus 6 Etelis carbunculus 6 Seriola rivoliana 6 Pristipomoides amoenus/ P. zonatus 5 Epinephelus cometae/ E. morrhua 5 Thunnus alalunga 5 Coryphaena hippuris 4 Decapterus macrosoma 4 Sphyraena barracuda 4 Gymnosarda unicolor 4 Selar crumenophthalmus 3* Cypselurus oligolepis 3 Carcharhinidae 3 Ruvettus pretiosus 3 Elagatis bipinnulatus 3 Paracaesio kusakarii/ Gnathonodentax and Gymnocranius spp. 2 Lutjanidae 2 Apharaeus rutilans 2 Cephalopholis igarashiensis 2 Thunnus obesus 1* Pristipomoides auricilla 1* Aprion virescens 1 Apharaeus furca 1

* = species said to be rare or in short supply. See Appendix III for a breakdown of the individual species names and the sources of information.

281

NIUE ISLAND

Appendix IX. Frequency that species or groups of species (based on the Niuean names) of crabs and other crustaceans were said to be caught based on the answers of 18 groups of men and women in community-based surveys of biodiversity in villages in Niue in 1999 NIUEAN NAMES LAND CRABS kalavi, kulanahau (fem.) uga mea kalahimu pulou tautea , tea, tukutea? uga, fuluami or leei (juv.) fala, uga fala MARINE CRABS titoko, titoko tahi (T) kamakama paka tagau tūtū lielie (T), tepukihi (M) tohitohi ugauga ngota keka lokuloku tagau, tagau kula tagau, tagau uli, tagau puga tagogo tiki (siki) (M) LOBSTERS uo (gen.), tivā (juv.) tapatapa

COMMON NAMES

SCIENTIFIC NAME

X/18

gecarcinid land crab hermit crab grapsid land crab hermit crab grapsid land crab coconut crab red hermit crab

Cardisoma longipes Coenobita brevimana Geograpsus grayii Coenobita rugosa?

Geograpsus crinipes Birgus latro Coenobita perlatus

15 14 13 13 13 13* 5*

ghost crab grapsid rock crab red-legged swimming crab xanthid reef crabs three-spot reef crab reef crab shore crab marine hermit crab shore crab sponge crab unidentied small marine crab xanthid reef crab xanthid reef crab unidentied crab box crab

Ocypode cerathophthalma Grapsus albolineatus Charybdis erythordactyla Etisus spp.

Carpilius maculatus Atergatis/Carpilius spp.?

Plagusia depressa Dardanus and Trizopagurus spp.

Plagusia dentipes Sphaerodromia sp.?

Pilumnus sp.?

Etisus dentatus/E. splendidus Etisis sp. ?

Calappa hepatica

11* 6 6 5* 4 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

lobster slipper lobster

Panulirus spp.

Parribacus caledonicus

11 8

* = species said to be rare or in short supply.

Appendix X. Frequency that species or groups of species (based on the Niuean names) of shellsh said to be caught based on the answers of 18 groups of men and women in community-based surveys of biodiversity in villages in Niue in 1999 NIUEAN NAME (S) gēgē alili, fua alili, patulagi (adult) fouli, fua fouli fua patupatu fua fufu, fufu nikoniko, fua nikoniko pule, fua pule (gen.) matapihu papahua hihi (gen.) ugakō hihi, hihi lulu, hihi alulu matatue, mamene mama tēmotuku

282

COMMON NAMES giant clams rough turban shell drupe shells vase shells triton shell/cone shells star shells/top shells cowries Pacic sugar limpet jewel box shell nerite snails/land snails wormshell polished nerite wormshell chiton/sea slug drupe shells/rock shells

SCIENTIFIC NAME Tridacna maxima/T. squamosa Turbo setosus and T. chrysostomus Drupa spp.

Vasum spp.

Charonia tritonis/Conus spp.

Astraea haematraga/ Trochus maculatus Cypraea spp.

Patelloida saccharina Chama iostoma?

Nerita spp.

Siphonium maximus Nerita polita Dendropoma maximus Acanthopleura sp.?

Morula, Thias and Drupella spp.

X/18 17* 15 11 10 10* 9* 8 7 6 5 5* 4 4 3 3

NIUE’S BIODIVERSITY - APPENDIX

NIUEAN NAME (S) makomako tegamē, fua tegamē fua matahī, fua patupatu? fua pū fua pū tahi hihi mui tea, hihi vao mui tea, hihi mui tea tofe

COMMON NAMES unidentied shellsh young turban shell, gold-mouthed turban shell frog shells spider conches horned helmut shell yellow melampus melampus, rasp tellin

SCIENTIFIC NAME X/18 Turridae or Fasciolariedae/Cantharus undosus? 2* Turbo setosus/Turbo chrysostomus 2 Bursa bufonia/ Bursa rubeta 1 Lambis spp.

1* Cassis cornuta 1* Melampus luteus 1 Melampus spp.

1 Tellina scobinata 1*

* = species said to be rare or in short supply.

Appendix XI. Frequency that species or groups of species (based on the Niuean names) of marine invertebrates, not including crustaceans and shellsh, were said to be caught based on the answers of 18 groups of men and women in community-based surveys of biodiversity in villages in Niue in 1999 NIUEAN NAMES CEPHALOPODS feke, pilipili (juv.) feke pō feke aho mūfeke feke vai feke tea (sea) BARNACLES fufuli uho maka?

BÊCHE-DE-MER loli maholi loli, loli uli tēpupulu, loli tēpupulu loli ti (si) gau fue tahi geti (gesi) loli kau loli kula? loli tafuā loli tea (sea) loli veliveli?

OTHER ECHINODERMS kina vana ekieki, fua ekieki, fakieki, fekieki tā tukumiti, fua tā tukumii vana tea vana, vana uli vana, vana kula OTHER ECHINODERMS feke pō lalamea, talamea, kina foufou fotofoto fetū

COMMON NAMES

SCIENTIFIC NAMES

octopus (gen.) “night” octopus? “day” octopus bign reef squid “water” octopus “white” octopus

Octopus cyanea/Octopus spp.?

Octopus sp.?

Octopus sp.?

Sepioteuthis lessioniana Octopus sp.?

Octopus sp.?

acorn barnacle gooseneck rock barnacle

Tetraclita sp.

Lepas anseriferea?

surf redsh lolly sh small black holothurian

black teatsh

Actinopyga mauritiana Holothuria (Halodeima) atra Holothuria sp.?/H. leucospilota?

Holothuria (Mertensiothuria) leucospilota Holothuria nobilis?

Synapta maculata Thelenota ananas/ Actinopyga lecanora?

Bohadschia argus Holothuria (Halodeima) edulis? ?

Stichopus horrens Holthuria (Microthele) nobilis?

15 13 13 6* 3* 1 1 1 1 1 1* 1

short-spined sea urchin long-spined sea urchins slate pencil sea urchin cake sea urchin white-spine sea urchin long-spined sea urchin red spiny sea urchin

Echinometra mathaei/Paraselinia gratiosa Diadema and Echinothrix spp.

Heterocentrotus mammillatus Tripneustes gratilla Pseudoboletia indiana?

Diadema setosum Echinothrix diadema

14 11 7* 4* 3 3 2*

brittle starsh crown-of-thorns starsh starsh (gen.)

Ophiuroidea Acanthaster planci Archaster, Linkia and Fromia spp.

14 4* 1*

unidentied sea cucumber synaptid prickly redsh, pineapple sh leopard sh, brown sandsh pink sh unknown holothurian

X/18 17* 13 9 6* 4 2 2 1

* = species said to be rare or in short supply. See Appendix IV for a breakdown of the individual species names and the sources of information.

283

NIUE ISLAND

Appendix XII. Cultivars of different staple food plants and other important plants in Niue, based on a survey of 20 groups of men and women in villages in Niue and listings in the Tohi Vagahau Niue: Niue Langauage Dictionary Niuean talo

English taro

Scientic Name Colocasia esculenta

u

yam, greater yam

Dioscorea alata

ulei

lesser yam, sweet yam

Dioscorea esculenta

kape

giant taro

Alocasia macrorrhiza

kāu, cassava, manioc maniota, kapia

Manihot esculenta

timala

sweet potato, kumara

Ipomoea batatas

pulaka

tannia, cocoyam

Xanthosoma spp.

futi

bananas and plantains

niu

coconut palm

Cocos nucifera

mei

breadfruit

Artocarpus altilis

tō hoi

sugarcane air yam

Saccharum ofcinarum Dioscorea bulbifera

284

CULTIVARS talo ago, talo faikai, talo fate (talo uli/talo Niue), talo fate avaava, talo fate fapogi*, talo fate kalahi*, talo fate kula, fate tea, talo fate uli, talo Fiti, talo ifo*, talo ifo kula, talo ifo tea, talo ifo uli, talo ilaila, talo lau megemege*, talo maga, talo maga kula, talo maga le, talo maga nonu, talo maga nonu tea, talo maga uli, talo maga tea, talomagatea taotokini*, talo maga kula, talo maha, talo malau, talo Manua, talo Manua fā avaava, talo Manua fā uli, talo paku, talo pala veka*, talo pula, talo pulekau*, talo Toga* u feteka, u Fiti, u fua*, u fūhoi*, u gū, u kakokako (u kaokao), u kakokako kula, u kavekave, u kilimaō, u kivi, u kokoea* , u lokaloka*, u maile, u mooli, u muipū, u mulamulapū (u muipū, u mulapū), u Niukini, u paka* (u paka tea), u palai*, u pia, u pito*, u poa, u puka, u tea, u Toga, u tua, u vai, u vākili, u voli (voli)* ulei (gen.)*, ulei fotofoto, ulei Futuna,, ulei gau, ulei lanu*, ulei lelei, ulei kano maō, ulei kula, ulei lepe, ulei Niukini, ulei Niukini tea, ulei pilita, ulei tea, ulei toutu, ulei uli kape (gen.)*, kape ago*, akpe avaava, kape kula*, kape lau maō, kape matamata*, kape Niukini*, kape tea*, kape Toga, kape tuofu kape uli, kāu (maniota) ago, maniota keka, maniota kula, kāu (maniota) pukofu, Kāu (maniota) tea, kāu (maniota) uli timala fapogi, timala fuahoi*, timala Hauai’i, timala ie, (simala) timala kano maō, timala kano uli, timala kula*, timala Nofoko*, timala papaeto*, timala talopaku, timala tea, timala Tuapa*, timala vai* pulaka (gen.)*, pulaka lau kilakila, pulaka lau memege*, pulaka Samoa* pulaka tea, pulaka uli futi fua lalahi, futi hai, futi hai maka, futi hai uli, futi haihai faga, futi hoe povi*, futi holi, futi hulahula*, futi hulahula maka, futi kula, futi mageo*, futi maholi, futi maholi kula, tu maholi tea, futi maka, futi mamē*, futi mitiluki (futi luki, futi matalima ne), futi manini*, futi melio, futi melio kula, futi moamoafua futi noopovi, futi omi, futi paka, futi paka efu, ti paka tea, futi palai, futi pāpā, futi pilikolo, futi poko laho, futi pulō, futi pūteliga*, futi toā*, futi Toga, futi Toga kū, futi Toga loa, futi toga kula, futi tolo, futi ume* niu ai fai loholoho, niu fole, niu fua, niu fua ikiiki, niu fua lalahi, niu fua loloa, niu fuefue, niu gau*, niu hiata, niu hoe monega, niu kula, niu mea, niu moa, niu Niukini (niu kini), niu pito hoe lule, niu pulu*, niu tea*, niu Toga, niu vai mei fotofoto*, mei Initia* (jakfruit, Artocarpus heterophyllus) nei fua lalahi, mei māfala, mei maopo, mei Samoa, mei tāfolo*, mei uluea*, mei ulumiti tō (gen.)*, tō gatatea, tō ivaiva, tō kaho, tō kula, tō maka, tō uli hoi tea, hoi tua, hoi uli, hoi vākili*

NIUE’S BIODIVERSITY - APPENDIX

Niuean pilita tī hana

English wild yam ti plant, cordyline corn, maize, Job’s tears

Scientic Name Dioscorea pentaphylla Cordyline fruticosa Zea mays

teto

tuberous ginger?

Curcuma/Maranta sp.?

pia loku

Polynesian arrowroot papaya, pawpaw

Tacca leontopetaloides Carica papaya

fā

pandanus

Pandanus spp.

CULTIVARS pilita (gen.)*, pilita u*, pilita gau*, pilita mākele*, pilita tea ti matalea, tī gau, ti kula hana aitu, hana kula, hana Palagi, hana tea (hana is usually the name given for corn or maize, but is also used for Job,s tears, Coix-lachryma-jobi in Tonga, and possibly in Niue, although the more common name is tagataga. It was traditionally a minor staple in parts of Polynesia. teto (one cultivar only; unidentied “tuberous ginger plant used as a food supplement during times of food scarcity. Could be one of a number of Curcuma spp., such as Curcuma angustifolia or C. zeodara which are both used in India and Southeat Asia to produce starch. It could also be the true arrowroot, Maranta arundinacea, the starchy roots of which look like a ginger). pia loku meleni, loku fua loloa, loku Hauai’i*, (loku moka* is really not a papaya, but rather Solanum repandum) fā ava tea, fā ai fai tala, fā feutu*, fā fī, fā iva, fā kalatia, fā Niua*, fā tea, fā toafa, fā vao, paogo

Notes: cultivars in bold letters indicate cultivars mentioned in BOTH the questionnaire surveys and in the Tohi Vagahau Niue; those in italics indicate cultivars mentioned only in the questionnaire survey; and those in normal letters indicate those names listed in the Tohi Vagahau Niue, but not mentioned in the questionnaire survey Notes: 1) some names may refer to the same variety or cultivar; 2) the names in brackets indicate other names reportedly used for the same variety; 3) * indicates those cultivars that are now considered to be rare or extinct in Niue.

Appendix XIII. Frequency that specied plants were said to be used for medicinal purposes in a survey of 19 groups of men and women in community-based surveys of biodiversity in villages in Niue in 1999 NIUEAN NAME nonu mago mamanu tava vi milo fekakai telie kahame kihikihi fue taina (saina) vihoa, hoa lautolu tono kamapuhi, kamapui kautoga i manono fā futi (fusi) niu poloi

COMMON NAME Indian mulberry mango scented fern Oceanic lychee Polynesian vi-apple Thespian’s tree Malay apple tropical almond wood sorrel mile-a minute soapbush beach bean Asiatic pennywort lemon grass guava Tahitian chestnut pandanus, screwpine bananas or plantains (gen.) coconut palm wild ginger

SCIENTIFIC NAME Morinda citrifolia Mangifera indica Phymatosorus grossus Pometia pinnata Spondias dulcis Thespesia populnea Syzygium malaccense Terminalia catappa Glochidion ramiorum Oxalis corniculata Mikania micrantha Colubrina asiatica Vigna marina Centella asiatica Cymbopogon citratus Psidium guajava Inocarpus fagifer Tarenna sambucina Pandanus tectorius Musa cultivars Cocos nucifera Zingiber zerumbet

X/19 15 12 12 12 11 10* 10 10 9 9 8* 8 7* 7 7 6 6 5* 4 4 4 4

285

NIUE ISLAND

NIUEAN NAME takapalu, takatakapalu tuitui vavae ago fetau gatē melege tī holofa toa keakea, ume koli vao mei mōtofu si motou televeti (selevesi) toi katule, katule tea uhi alo lo fou fou mamala, fu mamala fue, fue kula, fue vao fue tea (sea) kape kofetoga lala tahi, lala tea loku luku mati mohuku momili motooi mulamula ovava pikimaka piu polo magiho pua puka talamoa talapo taletale tete

COMMON NAME candlenut tree kapok turmeric Alexandrian laurel, tomano coral tree ti plant Polynesian cress casuarina, ironwood

breadfruit hibiscus burr sea trumpet coleus island musk aloe vera plantain beach hibiscus tree merremia moonower giant taro beggar’s tick beach vitex papaya, pawpaw bird’s-nest fern native g sword fern basil perfume tree, ylangylang candelabra bush native banyan artillary plant Pacic fan palm perennial chili pepper pua lantern tree beach nicker soursop -

* = species said to be rare or in short supply.

286

SCIENTIFIC NAME Micromelum minutum Aleurites moluccana Ceiba pentandra/Gossypium barbadense Curcuma domestica Calophyllum inophyllum Erythrina variegata Pipturus argenteus Cordyline fruticosa Rorippa sarmentosa Casuarina equisetifolia Zehneria samoensis Syzygium richii Artocarpus altilis Urena lobata Cordia subcordata Coleus blumei Alphitonia zizyphoides Boerhavia repens Euodia hortensis Aloe barbadensis Plantago lanceolata/Plantago major Hibiscus tiliaceus Omalanthus nutans Merremia peltata Ipomoea macrantha Alocasia macrorrhiza Bidens pilosa Vitex trifolia Carica papaya Asplenium nidus Ficus scabra Nephrolepis hirsutula Ocimum basilicum Cananga odorata Senna alata Ficus prolixa Pilea microphylla Pritchardia pacica Capsicum frutescens Fragraea berteroana Hernandia nymphaeifolia Caesalpinia major Annona muricata Apium leptophyllum Geniostoma rupestre

X/19 4 4 4* 3 3* 3 3 3 3* 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1* 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

NIUE’S BIODIVERSITY - APPENDIX

Appendix XIV. Frequency that specied plants were said to be important sources of rewood or fuel in a survey of 16 groups of men and women in community-based surveys of biodiversity in villages in Niue in 1999 NIUEAN NAME kaka tuali pomea toi fou koli vao tavahi manono lē moota nonu panopano telie kahame hooto, ooto koka niu oluolu puka tava kieto ata kanumea, kanomea malava, mamalava piliva tiale, tiale tafa tifa toto, tōto

COMMON NAME

red-bead tree beach hibiscus tree macaranga stinkwood Indian mulberry guettarda tropical almond -coconut palm lantern tree Oceanic lychee Samoan ebony native g Tahitian gardenia acacia -

SCIENTIFIC NAME Syzygium inophylloides Syzygium dealatum Adenanthera pavonina Alphitonia zizyphoides Hibiscus tiliaceus Syzygium richii/Syzygium samarangense Rhus taitensis Tarenna sambucina Macaranga harveyana/Macaranga seemannii Dysoxylum forsteri Morinda citrifolia Guettarda speciosa Terminalia catappa Glochidion ramiorum Linociera vitiense Baccaurea seemannii Cocos nucifera Planchonella garberi Hernandia nymphaeifolia Pometia pinnata Diospyros samoensis Ficus tinctoria Planchonella samoensis Elaeocarpus tonganus Celtis harperi Gardenia taitensis Acacia spirobis Chamaesyce atoto

X/16 16 11 9 8 7 7 7 6 4 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

* = species said to be rare or in short supply.

Appendix XV. Frequency that specied plants were said to planted as hedges or living fencing based on the answers of 11 groups of men and women in community-based surveys of biodiversity in villages in Niue in 1999 NIUEAN NAME kaute tanetane niu talotalo koka kula tī felila, pokenevila talapoti, tonatona tiale (siale) fou pine ago

COMMON NAME hisbiscus hedge panax coconut palm crinum lily acalypha, copper leaf ti plant, cordyline bougainvillea croton white plumeria, frangipani beach hibiscus tree crotalaria?

SCIENTIFIC NAME Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Polyscias scuttelaria/P. guilfoylei Cocos nucifera Crinum spp.

Acalypha wilkesiana Cordyline fruticosa Bougainvillea spp.

Codiaeum variegatum Plumeria obtusa/Plumeria rubra Hibiscus tiliaceus Crotalaria sp.

X/11 6 5 4 4 3 3 2 2 2 1 1

* = species said to be rare or in short supply.

287

NIUE ISLAND

Appendix XVI. Frequency that specied cultivated staple food plants were said to cultivated based on a survey of 19 groups of men and women in community-based surveys of biodiversity in villages in Niue in 1999 NIUEAN NAME futi (fusi) talo mei niu u timala (simala) kape kāu, maniota, kāpia pulaka ulei

COMMON NAME bananas or plantains (gen.) taro breadfruit coconut palm Yam, greater yam Sweet potato, kumara giant taro Cassava, manioc Tannia, cocoyam Sweet yam

SCIENTIFIC NAME Musa cultivars Colocasia esculenta Artocarpus altilis Cocos nucifera Dioscorea alata Ipomoea batatas Alocasia macrorrhiza Manihot esculenta Xanthosoma spp.

Dioscorea esculenta

X/19 19 19 17 17 17 16 7 7 7 7

* = species said to be rare or in short supply.

Appendix XVII. Frequency that specied wild staple food plants and tuber plants were said to be present based on a survey of 19 groups of men and women in community-based surveys of biodiversity in villages in Niue in 1999 NIUEAN NAME hoi pilita pia palai aka tī

COMMON NAME air yam wild yam Polynesian arrowroot wild yam kudzu vine ti plant, cordyline

SCIENTIFIC NAME Dioscorea bulbifera Dioscorea pentaphylla Tacca leontopetaloides Dioscorea nummularia Pueraria lobata Cordyline fruticosa

X/19 9* 6* 5 2* 2 2

* = species said to be rare or in short supply.

Appendix XVIII. Frequency that specied cultivated non-staple food plants were said to be cultivated based on a survey of 11 groups of men and women in community-based surveys of biodiversity in villages in Niue in 1999 NIUEAN NAMES pele pine, pine kai tinapi lētisi kāpisi puku kāpisi saina kukama meleni pepa pine fua loaloa, pine totolo fua loa polo magiho tō tomato hukifā, fua hukifā loku moka fāpogi, isalaelu teto * = species said to be rare or in short supply.

288

COMMON NAMES hibiscus spinach French bean, haricot bean mustard cabbage lettuce English cabbage Chinese cabbage cucumber watermelon sweet capsicum, bell pepper longbean perennial chili pepper sugarcane tomato pineapple eggplant, aubergine tuberous ginger?

SCIENTIFIC NAME Abelmoschus manihot Phaseolus vulgaris Brassica juncea Lactuca sativa Brassica oleracea var. capitata Brassica chinensis Cucumis sativus Citrullus lanatus Capsicum annuum var. grossum Vigna sesquipedalis Capsicum frutescens Saccharum ofcinarum Solanum lycopersicon Ananas comosus Solanum melongena Curcuma/Maranta arundinacea?

X/11 6 5 4 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2* 2 1* 1 1*

NIUE’S BIODIVERSITY - APPENDIX

Appendix XIX. Frequency that specied wild non-staple food plants were said to present based on responses from 11 groups of men and women in community-based surveys of biodiversity in villages in Niue in 1999 NIUEAN NAMES luku, luku laua, luku fua, luku akau polofua pupu lele, puha loku moka manini atiu (asiu) mati (masi) vine fua molū vine vao

COMMON NAMES bird’s-nest fern black nightshade sow thistle bladder berry wild cucumber native g passionfruit stinking passionower

SCIENTIFIC NAME Asplenium nidus Solanum americanun Sonchus oleraceus Solanum repandum/uporo Physalis angulata Cucumis anguria Ficus scabra/storkii Passiora laurifolia Passiora foetida

X/11 6 4 3 2 2 1 1 1 1

* = species said to be rare or in short supply.

Appendix XX. Frequency that specied cultivated and wild fruit trees were said to be important based on a survey of 19 groups of men and women in community-based surveys of biodiversity in villages in Niue in 1999 NIUEAN NAME futi (fusi) mei niu tipolo mago moli vi fekakai avoka ai koli vao i tālapo kautoga loku tava kaka moli kai talapo fotofoto tipolo Vavau moli manetalini pomea fā talapo fua molemole tipolo Tahiti makatemia moli pekepeke nonu -

COMMON NAME bananas or plantains (gen.) breadfruit coconut palm lime and lemon mango oranges (gen.)

Polynesian vi-apple Malay apple avocado canarium almond Tahitian chestnut soursop/sweetsop/custard apple guava papaya, pawpaw oceanic lychee sweet orange soursop citrus tree Mandarin orange red-bead tree, Samoan peanut pandanus custard apple citrus tree macadamia nut citrus indian mulberry star apple

SCIENTIFIC NAME Musa cultivars Artocarpus altilis Cocos nucifera Citrius aurantiifolia, Citrus limon x medica Mangifera indica Citrus spp.

Spondias dulcis Syzygium malaccense Persea americana Canarium harveyi Syzygium richii/Syzygium samarangense Inocarpus fagifer Annona sp.

Psidium guajava Carica papaya Pometia pinnata Syzygium inophylloides Citrus sinensis Annona muricata Citrus sp.

Citrus reticulata Adenanthera pavonina Pandanus sp.

Annona reticulata Citrus sp.

Macademia tetraphylla Citrus sp.

Morinda citrifolia Chrysophyllum cainito

X/19 19 17* 17 12* 11 11* 10 7* 7 6* 6* 6 6 5* 5 4 2* 2* 2* 2* 2 2 1 1* 1 1* 1 1 1

* = species said to be rare or in short supply.

289

NIUE ISLAND

Appendix XXI. Frequency that specied plants were said to be used for construction purposes in a survey of 15 groups of men and women in community-based surveys of biodiversity in villages in Niue in 1999 NIUEAN NAME kaka koli vao kanumea, kanomea fa toi tuali manono kieto koka lē tafaki tavahi fou moota niu nonu pao vā

COMMON NAME

pandanus, screwpine Samoan ebony macaranga beach hibiscus tree stinkwood coconut palm Indian mulberry agellaria

SCIENTIFIC NAME Syzygium inophylloides Syzygium richii/Syzygium samarangense Planchonella samoensis Pandanus tectorius Alphitonia zizyphoides Syzygium dealatum Tarenna sambucina Diospyros samoensis Baccaurea seemannii Macaranga harveyana/Macaranga seemannii Heritiera ornithocephala Rhus taitensis Hibiscus tiliaceus Dysoxylum forsteri Cocos nucifera Morinda citrifolia Neisosperma oppositifolium Flagellaria gigantea

X/15 15* 10* 6 4 4* 4 3 2* 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1

* = species said to be rare or in short supply.

Appendix XXII. Frequency that specied plants were said to be used for woodcarving and toolmakingin a survey of 15 groups of men and women in community-based surveys of biodiversity in villages in Niue in 1999 NIUEAN NAME moota kieto toi oluolu motou fetau telie kahame kanumea, kanomea gigie kaka lautaha lē tiale, tiale tafa toi fou moea ahi tava taputoki tavahi pua

COMMON NAME stinkwood Samoan ebony sea trumpet Alexandrian laurel, tomano tropical almond -pemphis macaranga Tahitian gardenia beach hibiscus tree native ixora sandalwood Oceanic lychee pua

* = species said to be rare or in short supply.

290

SCIENTIFIC NAME Dysoxylum forsteri Diospyros samoensis Alphitonia zizyphoides Planchonella garberi Cordia subcordata Calophyllum inophyllum Terminalia catappa Glochidion ramiorum Planchonella samoensis Pemphis acidula Syzygium inophylloides Elattostachys falcata Macaranga harveyana/Macaranga seemannii Gardenia taitensis Alphitonia zizyphoides Hibiscus tiliaceus Ixora triora Santalum yasi Pometia pinnata Cryptocarya turbinata Rhus taitensis Fragraea berteroana

X/15 11 9* 7* 4 4* 4* 3 3 3 3* 2 2 2 2* 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1*

NIUE’S BIODIVERSITY - APPENDIX

Appendix XXIII. Frequency that specied plants were said to be used for boatbuilding or canoe making in a survey of 14 groups of men and women in community-based surveys of biodiversity in villages in Niue in 1999 NIUEAN NAME moota fou lē tamanu telie kahame fetau kanumea, kanomea moea gigie koli vao toi

COMMON NAME stinkwood beach hibiscus tree macaranga tropical almond -Alexandrian laurel, tomano Native ixora pemphis -

SCIENTIFIC NAME Dysoxylum forsteri Hibiscus tiliaceus Macaranga harveyana/Macaranga seemannii Calophyllum neo-ebudicum Terminalia catappa Glochidion ramiorum Calophyllum inophyllum Planchonella samoensis Ixora triora Pemphis acidula Syzygium richii/Syzygium samarangense Alphitonia zizyphoides

X/14 12* 8 5 5* 4 3 3* 2 2 1 1 1

* = species said to be rare or in short supply.

Appendix XIV. Frequency that specied plants were said to be important in the production of shing equipment in a survey of 17 groups of men and women in community-based surveys of biodiversity in villages in Niue in 1999 NIUEAN NAME kaka kaho kanai, kani uli moea maile pua lē takapalu tea toi vā fou mulamula oluolu ovava pine, fua pine vihoa

COMMON NAME sword grass Native ixora Island myrtle pua macaranga agellaria beach hibiscus tree candelabra bush native banyan bauhinia, butterfy tree soapbush

SCIENTIFIC NAME Syzygium inophylloides Miscanthus oridulus Jasminum betchei/Rourea minor Ixora triora Alyxia stellata Fragraea berteroana Macaranga harveyana/Macaranga seemannii Micromelum minutum Alphitonia zizyphoides Flagellaria gigantea Hibiscus tiliaceus Senna alata Planchonella garberi Ficus prolixa Bauhinia monandra Colubrina asiatica

X/17 16 10 9 9 4 3 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1

* = species said to be rare or in short supply.

291

NIUE ISLAND

Appendix XXV. Frequency that specied plants were said to be important for weaving, production of handicrafts or as a source of bre in a survey of 17 groups of men and women in community-based surveys of biodiversity in villages in Niue in 1999 NIUEAN NAME fā, fā fī niu fou ovava pia vā ata fou igo kaho kaimukata toua kahame kanotuatā kieto maile panama piu tī vavae

COMMON NAME pandanus, screwpine coconut palm beach hibiscus tree native banyan Polynesian arrowroot agellaria native g sword grass ?

Mauritius hemp -Samoan ebony island myrtle Panama hat palm Pacic fan palm ti plant kapok

SCIENTIFIC NAME Pandanus tectorius Cocos nucifera Hibiscus tiliaceus Ficus prolixa Tacca leontopetaloides Flagellaria gigantea Ficus tinctoria Hibiscus diversifolius Miscanthus oridulus ?

Furcraea foetida Glochidion ramiorum Sterculia fanaiho Diospyros samoensis Alyxia stellata Carludovica palmata Pritchardia pacica Cordyline fruticosa Ceiba pentandra/Gossypium barbadense

X/17 17 13 7 5* 3 3* 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1* 1* 1 1*

* = species said to be rare or in short supply.

Appendix XXVI. Frequency that specied plants were said to be important as sources or string, rope or cordage in a survey of 17 groups of men and women in community-based surveys of biodiversity in villages in Niue in 1999 NIUEAN NAME ovava fou fue, fue kula, fue vao vā ata fā niu toua fue uli fusi kanotuatā

COMMON NAME native banyan beach hibiscus tree merremia agellaria native g pandanus, screwpine coconut palm Mauritius hemp ? bananas or plantains (gen.)

SCIENTIFIC NAME Ficus prolixa Hibiscus tiliaceus Merremia peltata Flagellaria gigantea Ficus tinctoria Pandanus tectorius Cocos nucifera Furcraea foetida ?

Musa cultivars Sterculia fanaiho

X/17 15* 12 10 9* 7 6 5 2 1 1 1

* = species said to be rare or in short supply.

Appendix XXVII. Frequency that specied plants were said to be used to produce dye based on the answers of 19 groups of men and women in community-based surveys of biodiversity in villages in Niue in 1999

NIUEAN NAME koka telie niu nonu kieto ago poloi

COMMON NAME tropical almond coconut palm Indian mulberry Samoan ebony turmeric wild ginger

* = species said to be rare or in short supply.

292

SCIENTIFIC NAME Baccaurea seemannii Terminalia catappa Cocos nucifera Morinda citrifolia Diospyros samoensis Curcuma domestica Zingiber zerumbet

X/19

12 12 9 9 2 1 1

NIUE’S BIODIVERSITY - APPENDIX

Appendix XXVIII. Frequency that specied plants were said to be important sources of beads or materials used in making necklaces or other handicrafts based on a survey of 18 groups of men and women in community-based surveys of biodiversity in villages in Niue in 1999 NIUEAN NAME puka feteka, feteka uli pomea mataila, matamoho kanumea, kanomea pomea kieto oluolu pine tuitui gigie pepe kaka kalaka maile niu nonu tiale, tiale tafa toi

COMMON NAME lantern tree rosary pea red-bead tree Samoan ebony ame tree, poinciana, amboyant candlenut tree pemphis leucaena island myrtle coconut palm Indian mulberry Tahitian gardenia -

SCIENTIFIC NAME Hernandia nymphaeifolia Mucuna gigantea Abrus precatorius Planchonella samoensis Adenanthera pavonina Diospyros samoensis Planchonella garberi Delonix regia Aleurites moluccana Pemphis acidula Leucaena leucocephala Syzygium inophylloides Planchonella grayana Alyxia stellata Cocos nucifera Morinda citrifolia Gardenia taitensis Alphitonia zizyphoides

X/18 14 7 7 6 6 4 4 3 3 2 2* 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

* = species said to be rare or in short supply.

Appendix XXIX. Frequency that specied plants were said to be use to make toys or play things based on a survey of 15 groups of men and women in community-based surveys of biodiversity in villages in Niue in 1999 NIUEAN NAME niu toi gigie kanumea, kanomea kieto nonu feteka, feteka uli fou kaka kaho malava, mamalava manonu moota toa tuitui kahame motou oluolu pine piu pomea mataila pua tī tiale, tiale tafa

COMMON NAME coconut palm pemphis Samoan ebony Indian mulberry beach hibiscus tree sword grass stinkwood casuarina, ironwood candlenut tree -sea trumpet ame tree, poinciana, amboyant Pacic fan palm rosary pea pua ti plant Tahitian gardenia

SCIENTIFIC NAME Cocos nucifera Alphitonia zizyphoides Pemphis acidula Planchonella samoensis Diospyros samoensis Morinda citrifolia Mucuna gigantea Hibiscus tiliaceus Syzygium inophylloides Miscanthus oridulus Elaeocarpus tonganus Tarenna sambucina Dysoxylum forsteri Casuarina equisetifolia Aleurites moluccana Glochidion ramiorum Cordia subcordata Planchonella garberi Delonix regia Pritchardia pacica Abrus precatorius Fragraea berteroana Cordyline fruticosa Gardenia taitensis

X/15 10 4 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1* 1 1 1 1

* = species said to be rare or in short supply.

293

NIUE ISLAND

Appendix XXX. Frequency that specied plants were said to used in making leis and garlands (kahoa) based on a survey of 16 groups of men and women in community-based surveys of biodiversity in villages in Niue in 1999 NIUEAN NAME tiale (siale) pua maile lagakali tiale tafa motooi momili kamapuhi, kamapui pipi talotalo tī fā fou huni huni huni ti kula kaute keuila, kamapui ti tea manini motooi Honolulu okiti piu poloi togo

COMMON NAME white plumeria, frangipani pua island myrtle Tahitian gardenia perfume tree, ylangylang basil lemon grass/white ginger crinum lily ti plant pandanus, screwpine beach hibiscus tree Rangoon creeper red ixora hibiscus white ginger bladderberry climbing ylangylang orchid (general) Pacic fan palm wild ginger Oriental mangrove (extinct)

SCIENTIFIC NAME Plumeria obtusa/ Plumeria rubra Fragraea berteroana Alyxia stellata Aglaia saltatorum Gardenia taitensis Cananga odorata Ocimum basilicum Cymbopogon citratus/Hedychium coronarium Hernandia moerenhoutiana Crinum asiaticum/xanthophyllum Cordyline fruticosa Pandanus tectorius Hibiscus tiliaceus Phaleria disperma Quisqualis indica Ixora coccinea Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Hedychium coronarium/H. avum Physalis angulata Artabotrys hexapetalus/uncinatus Orchidaceae Pritchardia pacic Zingiber zerumbet Bruguiera gymnorrhiza

X/16 13 11 10 9 7* 6 4 3* 2* 2 2 2 1 3 1 1 1 1* 1 1* 1 1 1 1

* = species said to be rare or in short supply.

Appendix XXXI. Frequency that specied plants were said to scent coconut oil or make perfume based on a survey of 17 groups of men and women in community-based surveys of biodiversity in villages in Niue in 1999 NIUEAN NAME maile lagakali motooi tiale (siale) ahi momili kamapuhi, kamapui vanila fā vao huni kaka palagi pua tipolo tiale tafa tipaisi ai moli lau ua, moli Saina niu pako tokitoki, taputoki

COMMON NAME island myrtle perfume tree, ylangylang white plumeria, frangipani sandalwood/vetiver grass basil lemon grass vanilla pandanus, screwpine Surinam cherry pua limon, lemon Tahitian gardenia allspice, “bay leaves” canarium almond citrus coconut palm beach nut sedge/nut sedge -

* = species said to be rare or in short supply.

294

SCIENTIFIC NAME Alyxia stellata Aglaia saltatorum Cananga odorata Plumeria obtusa/ Plumeria rubra Santalum yasi/Vetiveria zizanioides Ocimum basilicum Cymbopogon citratus Vanilla mexicana Pandanus tectorius Phaleria disperma Eugenia uniora Fragraea berteroana Citrius aurantiifolia, Citrus limon x medica Gardenia taitensis Pimenta dioica Canarium harveyi Citrus sp.

Cocos nucifera Cyperus stoloniferus?/Cyperus rotundus Cryptocarya turbinata

X/19 14 12* 12 9 8 6 5 4 3 2 2 2 2 2 2* 1 1 1 1 1

NIUE’S BIODIVERSITY - APPENDIX

Appendix XXXII. Frequency that specied plants were said to be used for parceling or wrapping food and other items based on a survey of 17 groups of men and women in community-based surveys of biodiversity in villages in Niue in 1999 NIUEAN NAME futi (fusi) lē luku tiale, tiale tafa piu niu mei tī loku fou fā lē, lē hau nonu

COMMON NAME bananas or plantains (gen.) macaranga bird’s-nest fern Tahitian gardenia Pacic fan palm coconut palm breadfruit ti plant papaya, pawpaw beach hibiscus tree pandanus macaranga Indian mulberry

SCIENTIFIC NAME Musa cultivars Macaranga harveyana/Macaranga seemannii Asplenium nidus Gardenia taitensis Pritchardia pacica Cocos nucifera Artocarpus altilis Cordyline fruticosa Carica papaya Hibiscus tiliaceus Pandanus tectorius Macaranga harveyana Morinda citrifolia

X/17 16* 15 14* 10 9* 8 7 7 3 2 1 1 1

* = species said to be rare or in short supply.

Appendix XXXIII. Frequency that specied plants were said to improve soil fertility or are a sign or fertile soil based on the answers of 13 groups of men and women in community-based surveys of biodiversity in villages in Niue in 1999 NIUEAN NAME fou salatolo pine, pine ti ago tavahi mohuku pepe tealu (sealu) fue Taina (Saina) telie

COMMON NAME beach hibiscus tree siratro crotalaria sword fern leucaena salvia mile-a minute tropical almond

SCIENTIFIC NAME Hibiscus tiliaceus Macroptilium atropurpureum Crotalaria spp.

Rhus taitensis Nephrolepis hirsutula Leucaena leucocephala Salvia occidentalis Mikania micrantha Terminalia catappa

X/13 6 6* 4* 4 3 3* 2 1 1

* = species said to be rare or in short supply.

Appendix XXXIV. Frequency that specied plants were said to be used as sh poison based on the answers of 19 groups of men and women in community-based surveys of biodiversity in villages in Niue in 1999 NIUEAN NAME Niukini, tuha kieto kohuhu futu limu maka ahi

COMMON NAME derris root Samoan ebony tephrosia shpoison tree, barringtonia coralline seaweed sandalwood

SCIENTIFIC NAME Derris malaccensis Diospyros samoensis Tephrosia purpurea Barringtonia asiatica Halimeda sp.

Santalum yasi

X/19 19 13 12* 4 3 1

* = species said to be rare or in short supply.

295

NIUE ISLAND

Appendix XXXV. Frequency that specied plants were said to be used as insecticides or animal poisons based on the answers of 14 groups of men and women in community-based surveys of biodiversity in villages in Niue in 1999 NIUEAN NAME niu polo magiho niukini, tuha talapo televete feseka kaka kieto lanitana melikolu moota

COMMON NAME coconut palm chilli pepper derris root soursop coleus beach pea Samoan ebony lantana merigold stinkwood

SCIENTIFIC NAME Cocos nucifera Capsicum frutescens Derris malaccensis Annona muricata Coleus blumei Vigna marina Syzygium inophylloides Diospyros samoensis Lantana camara Tagetes erecta Dysoxylum forsteri

X/14 6 4 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1

* = species said to be rare or in short supply.

Appendix XXXVI. Frequency that specied plants were said to be used for spiritual, magical or sorcery purposes in a survey of 11 groups of men and women in community-based surveys of biodiversity in villages in Niue in 1999 NIUEAN NAME televeti (selevesi) lautolu uhi aloalo kihikihi manini niu nonu titi tai (sisi tai) ahi kahame kāpia kava lala tea limu mamanu manono mei moota motie mōtofu takapalu, takatakapalu talapo telie tī vi vihoa, hoa

COMMON NAME coleus beach bean island musk premna wood sorrel bladderberry coconut palm Indian mulberry sandalwood or vetiver grass -cassava, manioc kava beach vitex unknown seaweed or moss scented fern breadfruit stinkwood unknown grass soursop/sweet sop tropical almond ti plant Polynesian vi-apple soapbush

* = species said to be rare or in short supply.

296

SCIENTIFIC NAME Coleus blumei Vigna marina Euodia hortensis Premna serratifolia Oxalis corniculata Physalis angulata Cocos nucifera Morinda citrifolia Triumfetta procumbens Santalum yasi/Vetiveria zizanioides Glochidion ramiorum Manihot esculenta Piper methysticum Vitex trifolia ?

Phymatosorus grossus Tarenna sambucina Artocarpus altilis Dysoxylum forsteri ?

Sida sp.

Micromelum minutum Annona sp.

Terminalia catappa Cordyline fruticosa Spondias dulcis Colubrina asiatica

X/11 5 4 4 3 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1* 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

NIUE’S BIODIVERSITY - APPENDIX

Appendix XXXVII. Plants reported to be rare, endangered or in short supply, and the reasons for their scarcity or threatened status, in a survey of 19 groups of men and women in community-based surveys of biodiversity in villages in Niue in 1999.

Niuean Name ai

Common Name Canarium almond

Scientific Name Canarium harveyi

niu futi

coconut palm cultivars bananas or plantains (gen.) citrus trees/ limes and lemons Alexandrian laurel, tomano wood sorrel

Cocos nucifera Musa cultivars

tipolo fetau kihikihi loku moka luku tuali atiu (asiu) kaka keakea, ume lautolu milo moli

bird’s-nest fern wild cucumber

beach bean

Citrus spp.

X/16 Reasons for Scarcity, Rareness or Threatened Status 8 overharvest, vulnerable to strong winds, cut down to get the fruits 7 not used much, lack of planting materials 6 used, failure to plant, ,pests and disease, lack of planting materials 5 tropical cyclones, sea spray damage

Calophyllum inophyllum Oxalis corniculata Solanum repandum Asplenium nidus Syzygium dealatum Cucumis anguria Syzygium inophylloides Zehneria samoensis Vigna marina

4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3

Thespesia populnea Citrus sinensis/ C. reticulata Leucaena leucocephala Dioscorea pentaphylla Xanthosoma spp.

Macroptilium atropurpureum Dioscorea esculenta Flagellaria gigantea Santalum yasi Pueraria lobata Ipomoea littoralis pandanus, screwpine Pandanus tectorius

3 3

fekakai feteka, feteka uli hoi holofa ikihepō kamapuhi, kamapui katule kieto kohuhu koli vao

Malay apple

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

mamanu manono mohuku

scented fern sword fern

pepe pilita pulaka salatolo ulei vā ahi aka atale, te fa

Thespian’s tree citurs/ oranges leucaena wild yam yautia, cocoyma siratro sweet yam, lesser yam agellaria sandalwood kudzu vine

4

air yam Polynesian cress lady of the night lemon grass Samoan ebony

Syzygium malaccense Mucuna gigantea Dioscorea bulbifera Rorippa sarmentosa Cestrum nocturnum Cymbopogon citratus Boerhavia repens Diospyros samoensis Tephrosia purpurea Syzygium richii/ S. samarangense Phymatosorus grossus Tarenna sambucina Nephrolepis hirsutula

3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2

2 2 2

naturally rare, overuse in the past, difcult to plant, difcult to plant long period of drought, weed killers failure to replant, no longer used, weed killers frequently harvested from some areas, overuse always in short supply, cyclones weed sprays overfelling, overuse, ploughing virgin forest weed sprays slashing bush, weed clearance along roadsides, use of weedkillers overharvest, use for woodcarving sea spray, cyclones, competition from weedy vines psillid insect attack eaten by wild pigs, clearance of bush failure to replant burning, use of weed killers destroyed by wild pigs, forest clearance land clearance programs for rootcrop planting over cutting, overharvest bush res kill the plants use of bulldozers ploughing, felled to get fruits, destroyed by cyclones susceptible to cyclones, attract fruit ies destroyed by forest clearance always rare, forest clearance destruction by weed killers, failure to replant not replanted does not grow during the dry period, not replanted overuse for medicine, weed killers naturally rare, overuse grown only on barren areas, naturally rae clearance of forest land, over use, cut for woodcarving land clearance, burning land clearance programmes land clearance

297

NIUE ISLAND

Niuean Name momili motooi honolulu motou piu polo fua tamanu tiale tafa tiplo vavau toi tokitoki, taputoki tono vine lo

Common Name basil climbing ylangylang sea trumpet Pacic fan palm black nightshade Tahitian gardenia citrus -

fue taina (saina) futu gigie i kaute kautoga kava keuila lagakali lose vao maile moea moota mōtie feutu? mōtofu ovava

mile-a minute sh-poison tree pemphis Tahitian chestnut common hibiscus guava kava white ginger bleeding heart island myrtle

piliva pine ti ago pine fua loloa pua panama talapo fotofoto talapo fua molemole tavahi kaku tipaisi (sipaisi) tō toa togo toto, tōto, toto sea vavae vine niue

298

stinkwood carpet grass hibiscus burr native banyan

Scientific X/16 Name Ocimum basilicum 2 Artobotrys hexapetalus 2 Cordia subcordata 2 Pritchardia pacica 2 Solanum americanum 2 Calophyllum neo-ebudicum 2 Gardenia taitensis 2 Citrus sp.

2 Alphitonia zizyphoides 2 Cryptocarya turbinata 2 Centella asiatica 2 Passiora sp.

2 Plantago lanceolata/ 1 Plantago major Mikania micrantha 1 Barringtonia asiatica 1 Pemphis acidula 1 Inocarpus fagifer 1 Hibiscus rosa-sinensis 1 Psidium guajava 1 Piper methysticum 1 Hedychium coronarium 1 Aglaia saltatorum 1 Clerodendrum thomsonae 1 Alyxia stellata 1 Ixora triora 1 Dysoxylum forsteri 1 Axonopus compressus 1 Urena lobata/Sida spp.

1 Ficus prolixa 1

crotalaria long bean, snake bean pua Panama hat palm

Celtis harperi Crotalaria spp.

Vigna sequidpedalis Fragraea berteroana Carludovica palmata

1 1 1 1 1

soursop custard apple allspice sugarcan casuarina, ironwood mangrove kapok wild passionfruit star apple

Annona muricata Annona reticulata Rhus taitensis Pimenta dioica Saccharum ofcinarum Casuarina equisetifolia Bruguiera gymnorrhiza Chamaesyce atoto Ceiba pentandra Passiora maliformis Chrysophyllum cainito

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Asiatic pennywort passionfruit plantain

Reasons for Scarcity, Rareness or Threatened Status use of herbicides around houses destroyed by cyclones, not replanted overuse, overharvest not planted use of paraquat/weed killer overharvest, canoe building no longer planted killed by virus/citrus cancre cyclones, difcult to regenerate always rare use of herbicides, taro planting with sprays fruits destroyed by animals before maturity destroyed by weed killers slash and burn agriculture difcult to plant slowth growth, overuse in past failure to plant affected by mealy bugs land clearance, burning failure to replant and care for it not planted slow growth hard to grow in niue overharvesting bush res overfelling, frequent hurricanes, forest clearance eaten by ground worms weed killers overuse of multipurpose plant, use for dancing costumes not looked after, cut too much hard to nd, might be one species bush res hard to grow, not planted disappeared, not replanted, not used anymore for weaving cyclones, not planting cyclones, not planting destroyed by bulldozer naturally uncommon failure to replant, lack of planting material not looked after, over harvested mentioned, but no reason given (not now present on niue) always rare, grows in special conditions not replanted overgrown by weeds destroyed by hurricanes and insects

NIUE’S BIODIVERSITY - APPENDIX

Appendix XXXVIII. Marine organisms reported to be rare, endangered or in short supply, and the reasons for their scarcity or threatened status, in a survey of 19 groups of men and women in community-based surveys of biodiversity in villages in Niue in 1999.

Niuean Name Finsh atule foigo haku, hakulā hakua ika tea kaene, kanene kanahe kauga kiega, malau kumā tahi? malau mātei nue paala paeko palu hahave patapata peka tahi tafauli, tavali takua, atu tikava toke laumamanu toke tuna, tuna

Common Name

Scientic Name

big-eye scad seaperches billsh (gen.)

Selar crumenophthalmus Lutjanus kasmira/Lutjanus fulvus Makaira, Tetrapturus, Istophorus, Xiphius spp. bigeye tuna Thunnus obesus six-ngered threadn, beardsh Polydactylus sexlis bigeye Heteropriacanthus creuntatus adult mullet Crenimugil and Valamugil spp. strawberry rockcod/grouper Cephalopholis spiloparaea coral trouts Cephalopholis miniata/ Plectropomus leopardus Kuhl’s stingray Dasytis kuhlii lyretail coral trout Variola and Plectropomus spp. hammerhead sharks Sphyrna spp. drummers or ruddershes Kyphosus cinerascens/K. bigibbus wahoo Acanthocybium solandri longtail snapper Etelis coruscans goldag jobsh Pristipomoides auricilla sweetlips Plectorhinchus spp. spotted eagle ray/manta ray Aetobatus narinari/ Manta birostrisi black trevelly Caranx lugubris

Reasons for Scarcity, Rareness or Threatened Status use of sh poisons, nets always been rare always been rare, asian shing eets always been rare use of nets and sh poisonsovershing overshing? netshing always been rare always been rare, overshing no suitable habitat, always been rare overshing, climate change always rare overshing overshing, asian shing vessels overshing by asian eets eaten by sharks, overshing always been rare always been rare, no suitable habitat overshing, use of spearguns, habitat disturbance, sharks overshing, asian shing vessels naturally rare use of poisons, spearing

Katsuwonus pelamis Siganus spinus Gymnothorax javanicus/ Gymnothorax meleagris Conger cinereus/Anguilla sp.

tukutea ulua vahakula, tuna

skipjack tuna rabbitshes Javanese and whitemouth moray eels black-edged conger eel/ freshwater eel convict surgeonsh giant trevelly yellown tuna

Acanthurus triostegus Caranx ignobilis Thunnus albacares

seasonal overshing oveshing, asian shing vessels

REPTILES Fonu

hawksbill turtle

Eretmochelys imbricata

fonu

green turtle

Chelonia mydas

katuali hiku lapalapa katuali paku

sea snake

Hydrophis melanocephalus?

overshing, always rare, no nesting beaches in niue overshing, always rare, no nesting beaches in niue naturally rare

yellow-bellied seasnake?

Pelamis pelamis

naturally rare

coconut crab

Birgus latro

red hermit crab ghost crab

Coenobita perlatus Ocypode cerathophthalma

overharvest, habitat destruction, eaten by dogs overharvest, used for bait always rare, limited beach habitat

CRABS uga, fuluami or leei (juv.) fala, uga fala titoko, titoko

overshing

299

NIUE ISLAND

Niuean Name Finsh tahi (T) tagau tiki LOBSTERS uo lanu tapatapa SHELLFISH gēgē fua fufu, fufu nikoniko, fua nikoniko Pule tea ugakō makomako

Common Name

Scientic Name

Reasons for Scarcity, Rareness or Threatened Status

xanthid reef crabs box crab

Etisus spp.

Calappa hepatica

overharvest always rare, lack of sandy habitat

painted rock lobster slipper lobster

Panulirus versicolor.

Parribacus caledonicus

overshed, always uncommon always rare

giant clams triton shell/cone shells star shells/top shells

overshed overshed, naturally rare overshed

fua pū fua pū tahi tofe

spider conches horned helmut shell rasp tellin

Tridacna maxima/T. squamosa Charonia tritonis/Conus spp.

Astraea haematraga/ Trochus maculatus Ovula ovum.

Siphonium maximus Turridae or Fasciolariedae/ Cantharus undosus?

Lambis spp.

Cassis cornuta Tellina scobinata

CEPHALOPODS feke, pilipili (juv.) mūfeke

octopus (gen.) bign reef squid

Octopus cyanea/Octopus spp.?

Sepioteuthis lessioniana

oveshed, habitat destruction naturally rare

BÊCHE-DE-MER loli ti (si) gau

unidentied sea cucumber

Holothuria leucospilota Holothuria nobilis?

overharvest drought, cyclone

Heterocentrotus mammillatus

naturally rare

Tripneustes gratilla

overharvest, naturally rae, wrong habitat Destroyed during cyclone Naturally rare, limited coral

egg cowrie wormshell unidentied shellsh

OTHER ECHINODERMS ekieki, fua ekieki, slate pencil sea urchin fakieki, fekieki tā tukumiti, cake sea urchin fua tā tukumii vana, vana kula red spiny sea urchin lalamea, talamea, crown-of-thorns starsh kina foufou fotofoto fetū starsh (gen.)

300

Echinothrix diadema Acanthaster planci Archaster,

naturally rare, overshed overharvest naturally rare, too little sandy habitat naturally rare, oveshed naturally rare naturally rare, limited sandy habitat

Naturally rare, wrong habitat Linkia and Fromia spp.

NIUE’S BIODIVERSITY - APPENDIX

301